A Letter to the AP Biology Student

Welcome to AP Biology! This booklet is a collection of important and helpful handouts that have

been produced by myself and other AP Biology teachers for your convenience. You should read all

the handouts thoroughly and then keep this booklet for continued reference.

Please be aware that taking an AP course is rigorous and demanding. We will need to meet several

times during non-school hours. Many labs will begin before school or continue in to the lunch

period. You will have assignments to do over every school break.

While preparing to take the AP exam in May, you should review the sections titled “The New AP

Biology Exam Design” and “Tips for Writing AP Biology Essays”. The importance of writing concise,

thorough, well-organized essays cannot be overemphasized. Most exams in class will contain at

least one essay question and will be graded according to the College Board rubric.

When you have read through this handbook thoroughly, please show it to a parent for a signature

below. You will be given points for your parent’s signature on this document.

Biology is an exciting and constantly changing field of study. Biology requires knowledge of

chemistry, math, and physics. Biology influences and is influenced by technology, politics, and

society. This is an exciting time to be studying biology, as so many issues we hear about in the news

are based in biology (genetic engineering, stem-cell research, habitat preservation, antibiotic

resistant diseases, etc). I know you will find the content relevant to your personal life.

I truly wish you the best this year, in this, and all your classes and endeavors.

Sincerely,

Anthony Gerads

Email: agerads@ceres.k12.ca.us

Phone: (209)556-1920 Ext. 6624

We have looked over this booklet and are prepared to support our student’s study of Advanced

Placement Biology.

Student’s name (print) _____________________

Student’s Signature: _____________________ Date: ____________________

Parent’s name (print) _____________________

Parent Signature: ____________________ Date: ____________________

Advanced Placement

BIOLOGY 2012-2013

CHS Student

Handbook

The AP Biology class is designed to be the equivalent of a 2-semester introductory college course in

biology. By taking AP Biology, you will be taking a similar course to college students taking their first

college level biology class.

• Be a junior or a senior

• Have passed biology and chemistry with a C or better in both classes

• Be willing to work at a college level

If students successfully pass the AP Biology exam, they may receive college credit for biology.

Students in this class will develop their critical thinking skills, writing skills, and investigative lab

skills. The major goals for students in this class are:

1. To develop an understanding of the major concepts of biology and how these concepts

connect to each other and unify all areas of biology.

2. To understand science as a process and to apply this process yourself through inquiry based

lab and research work.

3. To apply your understanding of the concepts in biology to real world environmental and

social issues (such as stem cell research, sustainability, habitat loss, genetic engineering,

proteonomics, and pesticide resistance).

This course is structured around the four big ideas, the enduring understandings within the big

ideas, and the essential knowledge within the enduring understanding.

The four big ideas are:

Big idea 1: The process of evolution drives the diversity and unity of life.

Big idea 2: Biological systems utilize free energy and molecular building blocks to grow, to

reproduce and to maintain dynamic homeostasis.

Big idea 3: Living systems store, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life

processes.

Big idea 4: Biological systems interact, and these systems and their interactions possess complex

properties.

The laboratory component of this course is based on student-directed inquiry based labs designed

to support student understanding of the course content and develop skills in proper laboratory

investigative techniques. These labs will occupy at least 25% of class time. There will be a minimum

of two labs of this type per big idea. Additional lab exercises will be conducted to deepen student

understanding. Each lab will draw upon several of the seven critical science practices listed below.

1. The student can use representations and models to communicate scientific phenomena and solve

scientific problems.

2. The student can use mathematics appropriately.

3. The student can engage in scientific questioning to extend thinking or to guide investigations

within the context of the AP course.

4. The student can plan and implement data collection strategies appropriate to a particular

scientific question.

5. The student can perform data analysis and evaluation of evidence.

6. The student can work with scientific explanations and theories.

7. The student is able to connect and relate knowledge across various scales, concepts and

representations in and across domains.

Text: Campbell, Neil and Reece, Jane, 2005. Biology, 7th edition, Benjamin/Cummings Pubs. Co.

Inc. San Francisco, CA.

Lab Manual: The College Board, 2012. AP Biology Investigative Labs: an Inquiry Based Approach.

Website: www.campbellbiology.com

Study Guide: Campbell, Reece, 2005. Preparing for the Biology AP Exam with Biology, 7th edition,

Benjamin/Cummings Pubs. Co. Inc. San Francisco, CA.

1. Try not to engage in side discussion when others, including the teacher, are addressing the

class. Questions and comments are welcome, but please raise your hand and wait to be called

upon. In other words, be COURTEOUS to me and others.

2. Respect school property and the property of others.

3. Be in your seat and ready to work with the bell rings.

4. Be prepared for class by having all of your required materials with you when

class begins.

5. Class is dismissed by the teacher. Particularly on lab days, wait until the

teacher checks the room to see that it is clean and you are officially dismissed.

6. Do your best work all the time. I will also try hard to do my best for you all the

time.

7. All school rules outlined in the student handbook apply to this class.

8. Do not touch anything on the teacher counter or desk unless asked to do so.

You will need the following materials for this class:

• Colored pencils

• Lined paper or notebook for lecture

• Quad ruled notebook for lab

• Textbook

• Lab manual

• Scientific calculator

Each student’s semester grade will be based on the total number of points earned relative to the

total number of points possible. Grades are weighted as follows:

o You will be required to turn in some kind of product for every lab.

o Many labs will have a formal lab report to go with it. Please see the section “Writing

Laboratory Reports” for more information.

o Homework assignments will vary in type throughout the school year. Not all

assignments will be collected and graded. However, you should do all assignments

because the real value in them is to help you better understand the material.

o I strive to create engaging, interactive lectures to allow you to more thoroughly process

the information presented. It is imperative that you participate fully in these lectures.

o Most of your grade is based on exams and quizzes. If you do not complete the

homework assignments and/or participate in the class activities/discussions – your

ability to score well on exams & quizzes will be diminished!

o There will be quizzes given periodically to check for understanding. Some quizzes will

be announced, and some will not. Quizzes will be short and most will be graded in

class. Students are not allowed to “re-do” quizzes.

o Big chapter exams contain two portions: a multiple choice portion, typically 50

questions in length, and an essay question. Exams have a huge impact on your grade.

You do not get to “re-do” an exam if you fail it. If you are absent for an exam, an

alternate exam will be given to you. Test corrections are allowed on exams.

o There will be a first semester final exam. It will cover the first 15 chapters of the book,

with an emphasis on the last 3 chapters.

o There will not be a second semester final exam for students that take the AP Exam. All

students are expected to take the AP exam. If a student chooses not to take the exam,

they will need to take a second semester final exam that covers all 55 chapters of the

text. This exam will count for 15% of their second semester grade.

The AP Exam scores are not received until July. If a student passes the exam with a 3, they may

receive a one-letter grade bump up to a B. If a student passes the exam with a 4 or 5, they may

receive a two-letter grade bump up to an A. A grade change form will be filled out by the instructor

and the new grade will be reflected on the student’s transcript.

The New AP Biology Exam Design

Example of a Multiple Choice Question 1. Two flasks with identical medium containing nutrients and glucose are inoculated with yeast cells that are capable of both anaerobic and aerobic respiration. Culture 1 is then sealed to prevent fresh air from reaching the culture; culture 2 is loosely capped to permit air to reach the culture. Both flasks are periodically shaken. Which of the following best predicts which culture will contain more yeast cells after one week, and most accurately justifies that prediction? A.Culture 1, because fresh air is toxic to yeast cells and will inhibit their growth B.Culture 1, because fermentation is a more efficient metabolic process than cellular respiration C.Culture 2, because fresh air provides essential nitrogen nutrients to the culture D.Culture 2, because oxidative cellular respiration is a more efficient metabolic process than fermentation Examples of Short Free Response Questions 2. Currently, all living organisms are classified into one of three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. In a sentence or two, provide two pieces of evidence that justify a common origin for the three domains 3. The activity rate of an enzyme was measured at various temperatures based on the amount of substrate, in micromoles, produced per square meter of reaction surface per second. The table below shows the data collected. In two or three sentences, indicate the nature of the relationship between enzyme structure/function and environment temperature that explains the data shown in the table. Examples of a Grid-In Question Requiring Calculator Use 4. The data below demonstrate the frequency of tasters and non-tasters in an isolated population at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The allele for non-tasters is recessive How many of the tasters in the population are heterozygous for tasting?

Tasters

Non-tasters

8235

4328

Tips For Writing AP Exam Essays1

DO’s

1. The first thing that you should do is to carefully read the question. The second thing you should do is read the

question, and the third thing you should do is read the question. Be sure that you answer the question that is asked and only that question, and that you answer all parts of it. If you are given a choice of parts to answer, choose carefully. Don’t answer all parts in that case.

2. Briefly outline the answer to avoid confusion and disorganization. Pay close attention to the verbs used in the

directions (such as “describe”, “explain”, compare", “give evidence for”, “graph”, “calculate”, etc.) and be sure to follow those directions. Thinking ahead helps to avoid scratchouts, asterisks, skipping around, and rambling.

3. Write an essay. Outlines and diagrams, no matter how elaborate and accurate, are not essays and will not get you

much, if any, credit by themselves. Exceptions: If you are asked as a part of an essay on a lab to calculate a number, this part does not require an essay, but be sure to show how you got your answer (show the formulas you are using and the values you have inserted into those formulas); or, if you are asked to draw a diagram in the question, do so, but be sure to annotate it carefully and thoroughly.

4. Define and/or explain the terms you use. Say something about each of the important terms that you use. The AP Exam

will not ask for a list of buzzwords. Use high-level vocabulary but use it in context. 5. Answer the question parts in the order called for and label them “a”, “b”, etc., as they are labeled in the question. It is

best not to skip around within the question. The four essay questions do not have to be answered in any particular order. The readers will find your answer. Put the number in the box at the top of the page to make it easy to find your answer.

6. Write clearly & neatly. It is foolhardy to antagonize or confuse the reader with lousy penmanship. 7. Go into detail that is on the subject and to the point. Be sure to include the obvious (for example, “light is necessary

for photosynthesis). Answer the question thoroughly. 8. If you cannot remember a word exactly, take a shot at it--get as close as you can. Even if you don’t remember the

name for a concept, describe the concept. 9. Use a ball point pen with dark black ink. If it “bleeds” through to the other side of the paper, don’t write on the back

of that page. That will make it make it easier for the reader. 10. Remember that no detail is too small to be included as long as it is to the point. Be sure to include the obvious--most

points are given for the basics anyway. 11. If you use a diagram, carefully label it (it will get no points otherwise) and place it in the text at the appropriate place-

-not detached at the end. Be sure to refer to the diagram in your essay. 12. Widen your margins a little. This will make the essay easier for most folks to read. 13. Bring a watch to the exam so that you can pace yourself. You have four essays with about 22 minutes for each

answer. The proctor will not give you time cues. 14. Understand that the exam is written to be hard. The national average for the essay section will be under 50% correct,

that is less than 5 points out of a possible 10 on each essay. It is very likely that you will not know everything. This is expected, but you will know something about each essay, so relax and do the best you can. Write thorough answers.

15. If you are asked to design or describe an experiment, include these things: a. hypothesis and/or predictions b. identify independent variable(s)--what treatments will you apply c. identify dependent variable(s)--what will measure to see if the independent variable had an effect d. describe how you will measure the independent variable, AND why it will work in this case e. identify several variables to be controlled (VERY IMPORTANT)

f. describe the organism/materials/apparatus to be used g. describe what you will actually do (how will you apply the treatment) h. describe how the data will be graphed and analyzed i. state how you will draw a conclusion (compare your results to hypotheses & predictions) k. Your experimental design needs to be at least theoretically possible and it is very important that your

conclusions/predictions be consistent with 1) the principles involved and 2) with the way you set up the experiment. Make sure the experiment is internally consistent

16. If you are asked to draw a graph, include these things: a. set up the graph with the independent variable (manipulated variable) along the x-axis and dependent variable

(responding variable) along the y-axis. b. mark off axes in equal (proportional) increments and label with proper units c. plot points and attempt to sketch in the curve (line). d. if more than one curve is plotted, write a label on each curve (this is better than a legend) e. label each axis with the variable name and include the units in which it is measured (Co. mm, etc f. give your graph an appropriate title (What is it showing? Try: “Y” as a function of “X”).

DON’TS

1. Don’t waste time on background information or a long introduction unless the question calls for historical development or historical significance. Answer the question.

2. Don’t ramble--get to the point, and don’t shoot the bull--say what you know and go on to the next question. You can

always come back if you remember something. 3. Don’t use a pencil, and don’t use a pen with an ink color other than black. Don’t use a felt-tip pen because the ink

seeps through the page and makes both sides of the paper hard to read. Don’t scratch out excessively. One or two lines through the unwanted word(s) should be sufficient, and don’t write more than a very few words in the margin. Finally don’t write sloppily. It is easy for a grader to miss an important word when he/she cannot read your handwriting.

4. Don’t panic or get angry because you are unfamiliar with the question. You probably have read or heard something

about the subject--be calm and think. 5. Don’t worry about spelling every word perfectly or using exact grammar. These are not a part of the standards the

graders use. It is important for you to know, however, that very poor spelling and grammar will hurt your chances. 6. There is no need to say the same thing twice. While introductory paragraphs may be important in English class, on

the AP Exam they are a waste of valuable time. This also goes for restating the question. Don’t restate it, just answer it.

7. If given a choice of two or more topics to write about, understand that only the first one(s) you write about will

count. You must make a choice and stick with it. If you decide that your first choice was a bad one, then cross out that part of the answer so the reader knows clearly which part you wish to be considered for credit.

8. Don’t leave questions blank. Remember that each point you earn on an essay question is the equivalent of two

correct multiple choice questions, and there is no penalty for a wrong guess, baad spelig; or bad grammar. Make an effort on ever question! Don’t Quit!

Answering an essay question requires sophisticated skills. Your answer will include a great deal

of information and most of it should be specific, not general, information. You will need to be

precise and make sure that everything you say is relevant to the question. For this you need two

main abilities: to be able to detect the key words in the question and to know how to organize your

ideas.

Here are some key direction words used in essay exams. An understanding of these words

will permit you to control what you say.

1. Compare Show the similarities between two events, periods, ideas, theories, or

the like. Some AP questions use compare to mean showing the

differences as well as the similarities.

2. Contrast Show the differences between two or more events, periods, ideas,

theories, or the like.

3. Define State the meaning of a word or phrase. Example: define science.

4. Describe Give the characteristics of something. Example: Describe the

functions of the ATP/ADP system.

5. Discuss Give the pros and cons on an issue, event, process, theory, or

technique. Example: Discuss how DNA replicates itself.

6. Enumerate List a number of reasons or attributes of something. Example:

enumerate the stages of mitosis.

7. Evaluate Make a judgment or give an option or supply reasons why something

is as it is. Example: evaluate the effects of Jenner’s experiments with

cowpox.

8. Explain Support or qualify a given generalization with specific facts and

ideas. Example: explain what is meant by the scientific method.

9. Interpret Analyze critically or explain something that is not clear.

10. Prove or show Demonstrate the truth of a statement, explain the reasons for events

turning out as they did, or speculate on what might be the effects of

certain causes. Example: show with diagrams how the eye is like a

camera.

11. Design an experiment Hypothesize or predict; identify independent and dependent

variables; describe the materials used, the procedures followed, how

the data was collected, recorded, graphed, analyzed, and how

conclusions were drawn.

By Pat Mode Pace Academy

A CONTROLLED EXPERIMENT

WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS?

• HYPOTHESIS – IF, THEN STATEMENT; MUST BE TESTABLE

• MANIPULATION OF ONE VARIABLE

• MEASUREMENT – QUANTITATIVE

• VERIFICATION – REPETITION, LARGE SAMPLE SIZE

• CONTROL – CONSTANTS AND ONE GROUP THAT DOES NOT GET THE VARIABLE

• STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA

• RESULTS AS RELATED TO THE HYPOTHESIS

• NEW QUESTIONS/HYPOTHESES/FUTURE EXPERIMENTATION

IMPORTANT TERMS IN SCIENTIFIC EXPERIMENTATION

:

• THE NORMAL CASE TO WHICH EMPIRICAL DATA IS COMPARED

• AN EXPERIMENT THAT PARALLELS THE MAIN EXPERIMENT EXCEPT FOR THE ABSENCE OF THE

TESTED VARIABLE

• USED AS A STANDARD COMPARISON OF THE OUTCOME OF THE EXPERIMENT

• THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE AT SOME NORMAL OR STANDARD VALUE

• THE PART OF THE EXPERIMENT NOT SUBJECTED TO THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

• STANDARD OF COMPARISON FOR TESTING A HYPOTHESIS

• LOCATED ON THE X-AXIS

• NORMALLY A UNIT OF TIME

• AFFECTS THE OUTCOME OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE

• SOMETHING FREE FROM INFLUENCE OR CONTROL BY OTHER VARIABLES

• THE EXPERIMENTAL FACTOR THAT IS MANIPULATED

• NOT DEPENDENT ON OTHER VARIABLES

• VARIABLE IMPOSED BY THE EXPERIMENT

• A CONTROLLED VARIABLE (LIKE TIME OR DISTANCE)

• LOCATED ON THE Y-AXIS

• GIVES YOU THE ANSWER TO THE QUESTION YOU ARE ASKING

• TESTS THE HYPOTHESIS

• THE VARIABLE THAT IS NOT CONTROLLED BUT IS DIRECTLY AFFECTED BY THE INDEPENDENT

VARIABLE

• THE FACTOR THAT IS BEING MEASURED

• DATA COLLECTED THAT MEASURES THE EVENT

The AP Biology lab activities are designed to provide students with a wide variety of experiences.

They will fall into two general categories: observational or “skill” labs and experimental labs.

Observational labs will mainly involve “watching” natural phenomena occur or performing some

scientific techniques. Most of our labs will be experimental and will involve science process skills

such as hypothesis formation, manipulation of variables, gathering and tabulating data, graphically

displaying data, and interpretation of results.

:

I. Title: What is the name of the lab and/or the lab number. Also include the date of the lab

and your lab partners names.

II. Purpose: This is a brief description to indicate what the lab was about. It should describe the

nature of the investigation. What was the question being investigated? Specifically what

was being observed?

III. Hypothesis: State the hypotheses that are being investigated in each part of the lab. Be

careful: most labs have multiple parts.

IV. Materials: List the equipment and materials needed to perform the lab.

V. Procedure: If the experiment is of your own design, then write a flow chart or list of steps

needed to complete the experiment. This should be completed before you

perform the lab. You may also use labeled diagrams to show the “set up” of the

lab. Include quantities of solutions and chemicals.

If the experiment is from a lab manual, you may simply reference the

manual. Be sure to note any deviations from the directions in the

manual.

VI. Results/Data/Observations: This part of the report will display in graphic form or data table form

the data you collected. It should be neatly and clearly presented. If the lab is

“observational” in nature, you should include diagrams and descriptions of structures,

chemical reactions, animal behaviors, etc. NEVER ALTER YOUR DATA! Put only the data

you, your lab group, or the class collected, not what you think you should have seen.

Use graph paper to graphically display data whenever appropriate. You should display

both your group data and the collective class data. This is the only part of the lab write

up that will be shared with your partners.

VII. Discussion/Conclusion: Here you present a summary of the data collected in the lab. Put

into your own words what the numbers or observations tell you. How do you interpret

that data or observations, and how does this relate to your own hypothesis and

expectations? Do not make the mistake of looking for the “right answer.” In this section

you are discussing your results. If you come up with results that do not seem to make

sense, or are not in line with your hypotheses or the class data, then you should

examine your methods and materials for sources of experimental error and describe

these in the next section.

VIII Critique: Discuss the experimental errors that occurred. Biological experiments are notoriously

difficult to control due to the inherent variation in all living things. This alone is one

source of unavoidable experimental error. If your findings are in line with the expected

and class data, then state this and explain why this is important (it validates the

results).

X Signature By signing your lab report, you are stating that it is original work and was done entirely

by you.

Adapted from Sonja Raynes, Turlock High School

EXAMPLES OF DATA TABLES

Once the data are collected, they must be organized and summarized so that the scientist can determine if the hypothesis has been supported or negated. Tables and graphs (also called 'figures') have two primary functions. They are used to (1) help you analyze and interpret your results and (2) enhance the clarity with which you present the work to a reader or viewer. They are also useful to display several dependent variables at the same time. For example, average pulse rate before and after exercise, average respiratory rate before and after exercise, and recovery time could all be presented in one table. In lab, you will collect data from your experiments in the form of a list of numbers that may appear at first glance to have little meaning. Look at your data. How could you organize the data set to make it easier to interpret? Computer-generated data tables can be created easily. Notice that the table below has a caption or title placed above it that describes its contents. Each title should also include the date and location where the data was collected. The title should give enough information to allow the table to be understandable apart from the text. each table's columns need headings above them (labels). Any units needed (inches, seconds, grams, etc.) should appear in the headings, not within the table. Rows may also need labels, to identify each variable. High school reports working with specific animals or plants should include the scientific as well as the common name. Always remember to underline or put into italics all scientific names. Several data tables may be included on one page, as long as the format is clear and easy to read. Tables are numbered consecutively throughout a lab report or scientific paper.

Table 1. Number of students at Long Beach Polytechnic High since 1950.

YEAR (A.D.)

NUMBER OF STUDENTS (in thousands)

1950

3.1

1960

3.2

1970

3.3

1980

3.6

1990

4.1

20M

3.3

Table 2. The number of brine shrimp found in sections of tubing after the shrimp were exposed to changes in light, pH, or temperature, on October 2, 1995 at Poly High. VARIABLES I

SECTION 1

SECTION 2

SECTION 3

SECTION 4

CONTROL

24

30

18

25

LIGHT

1 0 (light)

13

40

26 (dark)

pH

8 (acid++)

3 (acid-)

52 (base+)

3 (base ++)

TEMP

13 (hot)

24 (warm)

38 (cool)

21 (cold)

Poly High Lakewood

Time (years)

1950 1960 1970 1980 1900 2000

0

1

2

3

4

5

EXAMPLES OF GRAPHS Graphs are a perfect way to visually present your data. A data table will show your results in numbers but is often uninteresting or difficult to interpret. A graph can take the same data, make eye-catching and easily show large differences in your results. Graphs are great to show comparisons between 2 or more groups or relationships among the independent and dependent variable(s). The independent variable is usually graphed on the X (horizontal) axis and the dependent variable is graphed on the Y (vertical) axis. By looking at a graph, then, you can visualize the effect that the independent variable has on the dependent variable. A graph cannot stand alone - it MUST be preceded by a data table! The data table contains the exact details from an experiment that a graph often cannot show. They complement each other: one gives the details, one displays the trends. The intervals labeled on each axis should be appropriate for the range of data so that most of the area of the graph can be used. For example, if the highest data point is 147, the highest value labeled on the axis might be 150. Generally, begin both axes of the graph at zero (the extreme left corner). To avoid generating graphs with wasted space, you may signify unused graph space by two vertical tic marks between the zero and your lowest number on one or both axes. The intervals labeled on the graph should be evenly spaced. For example, if the values range from 0 to 50, you might label the axis at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 Label each axis with the name of the variable and specify the units used to measure it (grams, cm, ml, etc). A key is needed if you use different colors or designs to visually separate data. A key is generally placed between the labels and the title, on the x axis (see example). The title for a graph goes at the BOTTOM of the graph and like a data table, includes a brief description of the kind of data the table contains, the date and location and any scientific names needed.

Choose the type of graph that best presents your data. Line graphs and bar graphs are most frequently used. The choice of graph type depends on the nature of the variable being graphed. Like data tables, graphs must be properly labeled and titled. Line graphs show changes in the quantity of the chosen variable and emphasize the rise and fall of the values over their range. For example, changes in the dependent variable pulse rate, measured over time, would be depicted best in a line graph. Use a line graph to present continuous data. Plot data as separate points. Generally, do not connect the points dot to dot, but draw smooth curves or straight lines to fit the values plotted for any one data set. If more than one set of data is presented on a graph, provide a key to indicate which set is which.

1950 1960 1970

1980 1990 20M

0

1

2

3

4

5

CONTROL LIGHT

pH TEMP

24

1

813

18

40

5238

Figure 1. Number of students attending Poly High and Lakewood High since 1950.

Bar graphs are constructed like line graphs, except that a series of vertical bars are drawn down to the horizontal axis. Bar graphs are often used for data that represent separate or discrete groups or categories, thus empha-sizing the discrete differences between the groups. For example, a bar graph might be used to depict differences in pulse rate for smokers and nonsmokers.

Figure 2. Number of students attending Long Beach Polytechnic High since 1950.

Pie graphs are constructed in a circular manner, with lines crossing through the center to create segments. Each segment

ten used for data that represent discrete groups of data falling into percents. For example, a pie graph might be used to depict differences in eye color in a group of fruit flies.

Writing a strong lab conclusion is one of the hurdles that many AP students face over the course of

their studies. Here are a few general guidelines that you should refer to and follow every time you

write a conclusion.

To help you get started, it’s necessary to keep in mind:

The Purpose of a Formal Lab Conclusion:

It should explain whether the results of the experiment support the hypotheses that were

tested. (see # 4 below)

It should explain specifically what the results show. Answer the question: What are the trends

in the data and what do they mean? Remember that each of these labs is designed to

demonstrate a set of concepts that we are learning about in class, so talk about the science

behind the results! Use key vocabulary where appropriate to explain the biological processes

that took place in the experiment. (see # 1 & 2 below)

It should also explain how we were able to determine whether a process was (or was not)

taking place. (see # 3 below)

*For example, you’ll be doing labs where you measure enzyme activity, photosynthesis,

cellular respiration, etc. These are all things that we can’t “see” happening, and yet our

experimental design will allow you to measure these activities. In your conclusion you should

explain how you were able to do that.

It’s also important to keep in mind what a lab conclusion is NOT intended to be:

It is NOT a summary or rephrasing of the procedure. In fact, a good rule of thumb would be

to leave out any information that contains measurements that you used to set up the

experiment. There is a whole separate section of your lab report devoted to these details i.e.

the procedure.

It is NOT an opinion piece about how well you enjoyed the lab.

Although it should not be written as a standard five-paragraph essay, you should not limit

your conclusion to one paragraph. In order to maintain a clear & coherent discussion of your

results, it will often be necessary to devote one paragraph to each lab objective/hypothesis.

When you set out to write your lab conclusion, try to address these four

questions, in this basic order:

1. What happened? (Remember, do not go over the measurements; talk about the trends in the data)

2. Why did that happen? (This is where you demonstrate your science

knowledge, bringing in the key vocabulary)

3. How do you know that happened? (This is where you explain the

techniques used to determine the results)

4. Does the data support my hypothesis? (An “accept” or “reject” – rather than a “right” or “wrong”)