a hstory_of muslim philosophy

8/22/2019 A Hstory_of Muslim Philosophy

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Presentedbyhttp://www.alhassanain.com & http://www.islamicblessings.com

AHistoryofMuslimPhilosophy

Author

:

M.M.

Sharif

CommitteeOfDirectors

Preface

Introduction

Chapter1:Pre

Islamic

Indian

Thought

Supplement

Chapter2:PreIslamicChineseThought

Chapter3:PreIslamicIranianThought

Chapter4:GreekThought

Supplement

Chapter5:AlexandrioSyriacThought

Chapter6:PreIslamicArabianThought

Chapter7:PhilosophicalTeachingsoftheQuran

Supplement

Chapter8:Ethical

Teachings

of

the

Quran

Supplement

Chapter9:EconomicandPoliticalTeachingsoftheQuran


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Chapter10:Mutazalism

Chapter11:Asharism

Chapter12:Tahawism

Chapter13:Maturidism

Chapter14:Zahirism

Chapter15:IkhwanalSafa

CommitteeOfDirectors

1.I.I.Kazi,ViceChancellor,UniversityofSind(Chairman)

2.TheEducationalAdviserandSecretarytotheGovernmentofPakistan

3.MumtazHasan,SecretaryFinance,GovernmentofPakistan

4.KhalifahAbdulHakim,Director,InstituteofIslamicCulture,Lahore

5.SerajulHaque,ProfessorandChairman,DepartmentofArabicandIslamicStudies,

UniversityofDacca

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6.M.AbdulHye,VicePrincipal,GovernmentCollege,Rajshahi

7.M.Ahmed,ViceChancellor,RajshahiUniversity

8.M.M.Sharif,President,PakistanPhilosophicalCongress(SecretaryandEditor)

Preface

AboutfouryearsagoIreceivedaletterfromMr.S.M.Sharif,EducationalAdvisertothe

GovernmentofPakistanandnowSecretaryintheMinistryofEducation,drawingmyattentionto

thefactthattherewasnodetailedHistoryofMuslimPhilosophyintheEnglishlanguageand

invitingmetodrawupaschemeforthepreparationofsuchaHistory.Theschemepreparedby

meenvisagedthecollaborationofeightyscholarsfromallovertheworld.Theblueprintsofthe

planwereplacedbyMr.S.M.SharifbeforetheGovernmentofPakistanforapprovaland

provisionoffunds.TheCabinetbyaspecialordinancedeputedmetoedittheHistory,and

appointedaCommitteeconsistingofthefollowingtosteertheschemethrough:

Mr.I.I.Kazi,ViceChancellor,UniversityofSind(Chairman)

TheEducationalAdvisertotheGovernmentofPakistan(Member)

Mr.MumtazHasan,thenSecretaryFinance,GovernmentofPakistan,andnowDeputyChairman,

PlanningCommission(Member)

Dr.Khalifah

Abdul

Hakim,

Director,

Institute

of

Islamic

Culture,

Lahore

(Member)

Dr.SerajulHaque,HeadoftheDepartmentofArabicandIslamicStudies.UniversityofDacca

(Member)


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ProfessorM.AbdulHye,VicePrincipal,GovernmentCollege,Rajshahi(Member)

Myself(MemberSecretary)

TheCommittee

was

later

enlarged

by

the

addition

of

Dr.

M.

Ahmed,

ViceChancellor,

Rajshahi

University.

ButfortheinitiativetakenbyMr.S.M.Sharifandtheconstanthelpandencouragementreceived

fromhim,aliberalgrantfromtheState,andmostwillingcooperationfromtheChairmanand

membersoftheCommittee,itwouldnothavebeenpossibleformetobringthisworkto

completion.

FromtheverybeginningIhavebeenawareofthesheerimpossibilityofdoingfulljusticetosucha

vastcanvasofmovements,thinkers,andthoughts.Iammostgratefultothelargenumberof

contributorswhohavemadeatleasttheoutlinesoftheentirepicturepossible.Asthisisthefirst

majorworkonthehistoryofMuslimphilosophyitisboundtohavemanydeficiencies,buta

beginninghadtobemadeandithasbeenmadewiththehopethatitwillpavethewayforfuture

improvements.

Inacollaborationworklikethiscompleteuniformityof.language,style,andpointsofview,and

evennessofqualityandlength,arehardtoachieve.However,effortshavebeenmadetokeep

disparityinthesemattersaswellasintransliteration,capitalizationandpunctuationasmuch

withinboundsaspossible.Creditforwhatevermeritsthesevolumeshavemustgotothosewho

havejoinedthisventure;responsibilityforwhateverfaultsitmayhaveismine.

IwishtoexpresstheCommitteeofDirectors'deepgratitudetoAsiaFoundationforitsgiftofthe

paperusedinthiswork,andmypersonalthankstoitsRepresentativeinPakistan,Mr.Curbs

Farrar,forthekeeninterestevincedbyhimthroughoutthecourseofitspreparation.Ihaveto

acknowledgemygreatobligationtoMr.R.K.V.GoldsteinofAitchisonCollege,Lahore,andMr.

HughGethinoftheUniversityofthePanjabfortheirhelpfulguidanceinthematteroflanguage.I

amequallyindebtedtoProfessorM.SaeedSheikhofGovernmentCollege,Lahore,whohasnot

onlygoneoverthewholetypescriptandreadproofsbuthasalsosuggestedmanyimprovements

inthoughtandexpression.ImustalsoexpressmythankstoMr.MumtazHasanforhisvaluable

suggestionstowardstheremovalofsomeapologeticpassagesfromtheoriginalmanuscript,and

tohimaswellastoProfessorM.AbdulHye,Mr.A.H.Kardar,andDr.SerajulHaqueforreading

severalchaptersanddrawingmyattentiontosomeomissions.MythanksarealsoduetoMr.

AshrafDarrforpreparingtheIndexandhelpingmeinproofreading,toMr.AshiqHusainfor

typingthewholemanuscript,Mr.AbdusSalamforputtinginthediacriticalmarks,andMr.Javid

Altaf,abrilliantyoungscholar,forcheckingcapitalization.


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IntheendIhavetonotewithgreatregretthattwoofthecontributorstothework,Dr.Khalifah

AbdulHakimofPakistanwhowasalsoamemberoftheCommitteeofDirectorsandDr.Mecdut

MansurogluofTurkey,havepassedaway.Maytheirsoulsrestinpeace!

Lahore:August1,1961

M.M.Sharif

Introduction

IntroductionbytheEditor,M.MSharif,M.A,Director,InstituteofIslamicCulture,Lahore

(Pakistan)

Historiesofphilosophyhavebeeninvariablywritteninthelightofthephilosophiesofhistory

presupposedbytheirauthors.Theresultofthishasbeenthaterrorsvitiatingtheirphilosophiesof

historyhavecreptintoandmarredtheirhistoriesofphilosophy.Inthepresentworkoureffort

hasbeentosteerclearoftheseerrors.

Insteadofreadinghistoryinthemirrorsofpresupposedphilosophieswhichmaygivedistorted

images,itisthestudyofhistoryitselfthroughwhichthedynamicsofhistorycanbeclearlyseen

anditslawsdiscovered.WehopethisstudyofMuslimphilosophyandtheempiricalsurveyofits

coursewillspotlightatleastsomeofthemisconceptionscurrentamongphilosophersand

historiansaboutthenatureofhistoryandthelawsgoverningit.

Itwillperhapsbegenerallyagreedthathumannatureisfundamentallythesametheworldover.

Allhumanbeingsandtheculturestheydevelophavethesamefundamentalneeds,customs,

impulses,and

desires

which,

organizer

as

personalities,

determine

their

march

towards

their

personalandsocialgoals.Thefundamentalnatureofmenbeingthesame,thebasiclawsof

culturaldevelopmentanddecayalwaysremainthesame.Butowingtodifferentenvironmental

conditions,culturalgroupsevolvedifferentlyindifferentpartsoftheworldandthousandsof

yearsofindigenousexperiencegivethosegroupstheirownsocialandpsychologicalcharacter;

andtheircharacterinresponsetoenvironmentalstimulicreatesallthedifferencesthatappearin


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theirrespectivelifehistories.Muslimsocietyformsasingleculturalgroup.Ithasbeensubjectto

thesamelawsofgrowthanddecayasanyotherculturalgroup,butithasalsodevelopedsome

peculiarfeaturesofitsown.

Philosophersofsocialhistoryindividuallydifferintheirviewsabouttheuniversallawsofhistory.

Thereisagroupoffourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistorywhobelievethatsocial

historyislikeawave,ithasariseandthenitfallsnevertoriseagain,andviewasocietyora

cultureasanorganismwhichhasonlyonecycleoflife.Likethelifeofanyindividualorganism,the

lifeofaculturehasitschildhood,maturity,oldage,anddeath,itsspring,summer,winter,and

autumn.Justasalivingorganismcannotberevivedafteritsdeath,evensoacultureorasociety

canseenorevivalonceitisdead.Biological,geographical,andracialcausescantoalimited

extentinfluenceitslifecoursebutcannotchangeitsinevitablecycle.Tothisgroupbelong

Danilevsky,Spengler,andToynbee.OurstudyofMuslimcultureandthoughtsupportstheirview

thatincertainrespectsthedynamismofsocietyislikethedynamismofawave;butarethetwo

otherdoctrinesexpoundedbythesephilosophersequallytrue?First,Isittruethatagivensociety

isalivingorganism?And,second,Isittruethatithasonlyoneunrepeatedlifecourse?Letusfirst

takethefirst.Isasocietyoracultureanorganism?LongagoPlatotookaStatetobeanindividual

writlarge.Notthesame,butasimilarmistakeisbeingmadenow.Allanalogiesaretrueonlyupto

apointandnotbeyondthatpoint.Toviewasocietyontheanalogyofanindividualorganismis

definitelywrong.AsSorokinhasbrilliantlyshown,nosocietyissocompletelyunifiedintoan

organicwholethatitshouldbeviewedasanorganism.Anindividualorganismisborn,itgrows

anddies,anditsspeciesisperpetuatedbyreproduction,butaculturecannotrepeatitselfin

speciesbyreproduction.Revivalofindividualorganismisimpossible,buttherevivalofacultureis

possible.Itisachievedbytheactivizationofitsdormantvitality,byresponsesarousedbyfresh

challenges,andbytheinfusionofnewelements.ThefirstrevivalofMuslimcultureitsrevival

aftertheMongolonslaughtswhichbeganwhenhardlyhalfacenturyhadpassedandreachedits

fullfruitionintwocenturiesandahalfwaspartlyduetoitsinherentvitalitywhichcouldnotbe

sappedcompletelyevenbytheseunprecedentedevents.Theyseemedtoaffecttotaldevastation

ofMuslimlands,butinfactcouldproduceonlyadepression.Soonrainbearingcloudsgathered

andtheselandswereagaingreenandteemingwithlife.Thoughthechallengeitselfwasthe

strongesttheworldhaseverseen,itwas,nevertheless,notstrongenoughtodestroyallresponse.

ThisrevivaloftheMuslimculturewaspartlyduetotheinfusionintoitearlierofthefreshbloodof

theTurkishslavesandmercenariesandlaterthatoftheMongolconquerors,fortheythemselves

cameintothefoldofIslambringingwiththemthevigourandvitalityoftheirnomadicancestors.

EachindividualorganismisacompletelyintegratedwholeoracompleteGestalt,butthoughsuch

anintegrationisanidealofeachcultureithasneverbeenfullyachievedbyanyculture.Each

cultureisasupersystemconsistingofsomelargesystemssuchasreligion,language,law,philo

sophy,science,finearts,ethics,economics,technology,politics,territorialsway,associations,


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customs,andmores.Eachoftheseconsistsofsmallersystemsasscienceincludesphysics,

chemistry,biology,zoology,etc.,andeachofthesesmallersystemsiscomprisedofyetsmaller

systemsasmathematicsiscomprisedofgeometry,algebra,arithmetic,andsoon.Besidesthese

systemstherearepartlyconnectedorwhollyisolatedheapswithinthesesystemsandsuper

systems.Thus,"atotalcultureofanyorganizedgroupconsistsnotofoneculturalsystembutofa

multitudeof

vast

and

small

cultural

systems

that

are

partly

in

harmony,

partly

out

of

harmony,

withoneanother,andinadditionmanycongeriesofvariouskinds."Nopastempirewassowell

knitastheUmayyadCaliphateofDamascusandyetgroupsliketheKharijitesandtheShiitesfell

apartfromitstotalstructure.AfterthefalloftheUmayyadsinthereligiousfieldthereappeared

someisolatedgroupsliketheQarmatiansandtheIsma'ilites,andinthepoliticalsphereMuslim

Spainbecamenotonlyindependentofbutalsohostiletothe`AbbasidCaliphateofBaghdad

underwhichMuslimcultureandthoughtmaybesaidtohavereachedtheirgoldenprime.

SomuchabouttheorganismicsideofthetheoryofDanilevsky,Spengler,andToynbeewhen

examinedinthelightofthehistoryofMuslimcultureandthought.Whataboutitscyclicalside?Is

thelifeofapeoplelikeameteor,beginning,rising,falling,andthendisappearingforever?Does

thehistoryofasocietyoracultureseeonlyonespring,onesummer,andoneautumnandthen,

initswinter,completelyclose?Thephilosophersofhistorymentionedabove,exceptSpengler,

concedethatthelengthofeachperiodmaybedifferentwithdifferentpeoplesandcultures,but,

accordingtothem,thecycleisjustonemovingcurveoronewavethatrisesandfallsonlyonce.

Thispositionalsoseemstobewrong.AstheresearchesofKroeberandSorokinhaveconclusively

shown,"manygreatculturalorsocialsystemsorcivilizationshavemanycycles,manysocial,

intellectual,andpoliticalupsanddownsintheirvirtuallyindefinitelylongspanoflife,insteadof

justonelifecycle,oneperiodofblossoming,andoneofdecline."Inthedynamicsofintellectual

andaestheticcreativity,EgyptiancivilizationroseandfellatleastfourtimesandGraecoRoman

Byzantineculture,severaltimes.Similarly,ChinaandIndiahadtwobigcreativeimpulsesandthe

thirdhasnowsurelybegun.TheMuslimcivilizationrosefromthefirst/seventhtothe

fifth/eleventhcentury.Thenitgraduallydeclinedtillitreceivedadeadlyblowintheformofthe

Mongolonslaughts.Itschiefmonumentsofpoliticalandculturalgreatnesswerealmost

completelydestroyed.Andyetitdidnotdie.Itroseagainandsawitssecondrisefromthelast

decadeoftheseventh/thirteenthcenturytotheendoftheeleventh/seventeenthcenturyduring

whichperioditsdomaincoveredthreeofthebiggestempiresoftheworldTurkish,Persian,and

Indianonlytofallagainfromthebeginningofthetwelfth/eighteenthtothemiddleofthe

thirteenth/nineteenthcentury;andasthisstudywillclearlyindicatetherearenowsignsofathird

riseinalmostallMuslimlands(BookEight).


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Thisshowsthatthereis"nouniversallawdecreeingthateveryculturehavingoncefloweredmust

witherwithoutanychanceoffloweringagain."Aculturemayriseinonefieldatonetime,in

anotherfieldatanother,and,thus,asawholeseemanyrisesandfalls.Inbothperiodsofitsrise

Muslimculturewasmarkedbyitsreligiopoliticalandarchitecturalascendancy;butwhileinthe

firstperioditsglorylayalsoinitscommercial,industrial,scientific,andphilosophicalfields,inthe

secondit

distinguished

itself

chiefly

in

the

fields

of

poetry,

painting,

secular

history,

travels,

mysticism,andminorarts.Ifbythebirthofacivilizationthesewritersmeanasuddenappearance

ofatotalunitlikethatofanorganism,andbydeathatotaldisintegration,thenatotalcultureis

neverbornnordoesiteverdie.Atitssocalledbirtheachculturetakesoverlivingsystemsor

partsofaprecedingcultureandintegratesthemwithnewlybornitems.Asthereaderofthis

workwillfind,Muslimcultureintegratedwithinitselfwhatitregardedastheintrinsicallyor

pragmaticallyvaluablepartsofArabPaganism,Hellenism,Judaism,Christianity,Hindu

mathematicsandmedicine,andChinesemysticismandalchemywithitsowncontributionsto

humanlifeandthought.Again,totalkaboutthedeathordisappearanceofacultureorcivilization

ismeaningless.Apartofatotalculture,itsartoritsreligion,maydisappear,butaconsiderable

partofitisalwaystakenoverbyothergroupsbywhomitisoftendevelopedfurtherand

expanded.TheMuslimsdidnotonlyannexcertainareasofotherculturesbuttheyexpandedtheir

horizonsmuchfurtherbeforeannexingthemasintegralpartsoftheirownculture.Hereitis

importanttoremoveamisconception.Ifsomethoughtofearlierspeculationrunsthroughthe

fabricofMuslimthoughtevenasagoldenthread,itdoesnotmeanthat,likemanyWestern

Orientalists,weshouldtakethethreadforthefabric.Noculture,asnoindividualthinker,makes

anabsolutelynewstart.Newstructuresareraisedwiththematerialalreadyproduced.Thepast

alwaysrollsintothepresentofeverycultureandsuppliessomeelementsforitsemergentedifice.

Statesarebornandtheydie,butcultureslikethemingledwatersofdifferentwavesarenever

bornasorganismsnordieasorganisms.AncientGreeceasaStatedied,butafteritsdeathagreat

dealofGreekculturespreadfarandwideandisstilllivingasanimportantelementinthecultures

ofEurope.JewishStatesceasedtoexist,butmuchofJewishculturewastakenoverbyChristianity

andIslam.Noculturediesintoto,thoughalldieinparts.Inrespectofthosepartsofculturewhich

live,eachcultureisimmortal.Eachcultureorcivilizationemergesgraduallyfrompreexisting

cultures.Asawholeitmayhaveseveralpeaks,mayseemanyupsanddownsandthusflourishfor

millennia,declineintoalatentexistence,reemergeandagainbecomedominantforacertain

periodandthendeclineoncemoretoappearagain.Evenwhendominatedbyotherculturesa

considerablepartofitmayliveasanelementfullyorpartlyintegratedinthosecultures.

Again,thecycleofbirth,maturity,decline,anddeathcanbedeterminedonlybytheprior


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determinationofthelifespanofacivilization,butthereisnoagreementamongthesewriterson

thispoint.WhataccordingtoDanilevskyisonecivilization,say,theancientSemiticcivilization,is

treatedbyToynbeeasthreecivilizations,theBabylonian,HittiteandSumeric,andbySpengleras

two,theMagianandBabylonian.Inthelifehistoryofapeopleonesnoticesonebirthanddeath

sequence,theothertwo,andthethirdthree.Thebirthsanddeathsofculturesobservedbyone

writerare

not

noticed

at

all

by

the

others.

When

the

beginning

and

end

of

aculture

cannot

be

determined,itisextravaganttotalkaboutitsbirthanddeathanditsunrepeatablecycle.A

civilizationcanseemanyupsanddownsandthereisnothingagainstthepossibilityofits

regeneration.Noculturediescompletely.Someelementsofeachdieoutandothersmergeas

livingfactorsintoothercultures.

Thereisagroupoffourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistorywhoconfinethemselves

tothestudyofartphenomenaanddrawconclusionsaboutthedynamicsofcultureingeneral.

PeterPaulLigeti,FrankChambers,andCharlesLalobelongtothisgroup.Wemaynotquarrelwith

themaboutsomeoftheirconclusions;butshouldliketomakeanobservationaboutoneoftheir

hypothesesahypothesisonwhichthestudyofMuslimthoughtthrowsconsiderablelight.

Accordingtomostofthem,itisalwaysthesameartandthesametypeorstyleofartwhichrises

atonestageinthelifehistoryofeachculture:oneartorartformatitsdawn,anotheratits

maturity,andyetanotheratitsdecline,andthengraduallybothartandthecorresponding

culturedie.Wedonotacceptthisconclusion.ThelifehistoryofGreekartisnotidenticalwith

thatofEuropeanartorHinduorMuslimart.Insomecultures,liketheEgyptian,Chinese,Hindu,

andMuslim,literature;insomeotherssuchastheFrench,German,andEnglish.architecture;and

inthecultureoftheGreeks,musicblossomedbeforeanyotherart.TheartofthePaleolithic

peoplereachedthematurityandartisticperfectionwhichdidnotcorrespondtotheirstageof

culture.Insomecultures,astheEgyptian,artshowsseveralwaves,severalupsanddowns,rather

thanonecycleofbirth,maturity,anddecline.Unlikemostothercultures,Muslimculturehas

givennoplacetosculptureanditsmusichasrisensimultaneouslywithitsarchitecture.Its

paintingisnotanartthatdevelopedbeforeallotherarts.Itwasinfactthelastofallitsartistic

developments.Thus,itisnottruethatthesequenceoftheriseofdifferentartsisthesameinall

cultures.Norisittruethatthesamesequenceappearsinthestyleofeachartineveryculture.

Factsdonotsupportthisthesis,fortheearlieststyleofartinsomeculturesissymbolic,inothers

naturalistic,formal,impressionistic,orexpressionistic.

Anothergroupofthefourteenth/twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistoryavoidthesepitfalls

andgiveanintegralinterpretationofhistory.TothisgroupbelongNorthrop,Kroeber,Shubart,

Berdyaev,Schweitzer,andSorokin.Northrop,however,weakenshispositionbybasingcultural


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systemsonphilosophiesandphilosophiesonscience.Heignoresthefactthatmanycultural

beliefsarebasedonrevelationsorintuitiveapprehensions.Jewish,Muslim,andHinducultures

havephilosophiesbasedonrevelationasmuchasonreason.Thesourceofsomesocialbeliefs

mayevenbeirrationalandnonrational,oftencontradictingscientifictheories.Kroeber's

weaknessconsistsinmakingthenumberofgeniusesratherthanthenumberofachievementsthe

criterionof

cultural

maturity.

Schweitzer

rightly

contends

that

each

flourishing

civilization

has

a

minimumofethicalvaluesvigorouslyfunctioning,andthatthedecayofethicalvaluesisthedecay

ofcivilizations.NeitherthecollapseoftheCaliphateofBaghdadwascausedentirelybythe

MongolinvasionsnorwastheruinoftheUmayyadCaliphateofSpaineffectedbytheattacksof

Christianmonarchsofthenorth;norindeedwastheseconddeclineoftheMuslimworlddue

merelytotheimperialisticdesignsofWesternpowers.Thesewereonlycontributoryfactorsto

thesedownfalls.Thebasicconditionsoftheriseandfallofnationsinvariablyarisefromwithin.In

eachcasetherealcausewastheloweringofmoralstandardsbroughtaboutbycenturiesof

luxuryandoverindulgenceinworldlypleasures,resultingindisunity,socialinjustice,jealousies,

rivalries,intrigues,indolence,andslothalltheprogenyoffabulouswealthandinthecaseofthe

seconddeclinefromabout1111/1700to1266/1850,allroundmoraldegenerationcombinedwith

conformismoftheworsttypedeadeningalloriginalthought.Withoutthismoraldownfallthere

wouldhavebeennoculturaldeclineinIslam.

Asithasbeensaidbeforeaculturemayriseinonefieldatonetime,inanotherfieldatanother,

butwhileitmayberisinginonefielditmayyetbedecliningonthewhale.Thepoliticosocialrise

orfallofaculturenecessarilygoeswithitsmoralriseorfall.Butthecaseseemstobedifferent

withintellectualdevelopment.Apeoplemaydeclineinthepoliticosocialsphereandyetits

declinemayitselfundersuitablecircumstancesbecomeastimulusforitsintellectualadvance.The

politicalandmoraldeclineofthe`AbbasidCaliphateofBaghdadbeganinaboutthemiddleofthe

third/ninthcentury,andthecollapseoftheUmayyadCaliphateofSpainanddecadenceofthe

FatimidCaliphateofEgyptinthebeginningofthefifth/eleventhcentury.Yetthedeeprooted

traditionofthepatronageoflearningintheMuslimworldkeptitsintellectualachievementsrising

frompeaktopeakrightuptothetimeoftheMongoldevastation.Thus,despiteitsdownfallin

otherfields,inthefieldoflearningMuslimculturesawitsascendancyrightuptothemiddleof

theseventh/thirteenthcentury.Infactthisperiodofpoliticalandmoralfalltheperiodduring

whichMuslimseverywherelosttheirsolidarityandthethreeCaliphatesbrokeintopettyStatesor

sundrydynastieswasexactlytheperiodwhentheMuslimintellectreacheditsfullflowering.It

wasduringthisperiodofpoliticalandmoraldeclinethatflourishedsuchillustriousphilosophers

asalFarabi,ibnSina,Miskawaih,ibnHazm,alGhazali,ibnBajjah,ibnTufail,ibnRushd,andFakhr

alDinRazi;thefamousmysticShihabalDinSuhrawardi;greatpoliticalphilosopherslikeal

MawardiandNizamalMulkTusi;renownedscientistsandmathematicianslikealMajriti,ibn

Yunus,ibnHaitham,ibnalNafis,alBiruni,alBakri,alZarqah,`UmarKhayyam,ibnZuhr,andal


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Idrisi;andsuchcelebratedliteraryfiguresasalTabari,alMasudi,alMutanabbi,Firdausi,

Baqillani,Sana'i,alMa'arri,NasirKhusrau,alZamakhshari,Kashani,Niyami,`Attar,andibnal

Athir.Thoughthreecelebrities,Rumi,Sa'di,andNasiralDinTusi,diedlongafterthesackof

Baghdad,theywereactuallytheproductsofthisveryperiodandmuchoftheirworkshadbeen

producedwithinit.[1]Whenmoraldegenerationsetsin,aculture'sintellectualachievements

maystray

but

cannot

avert

the

evil

day.

Inthisexamplethereisalessonforthosewhoareusingtheirhighintellectualattainmentsforthe

conquestevenofthemoon,Venus,andMars,fortheymayyetbeculturallyonthedecline,if

superabundanceofwealthleadsthemtoluxury,licence,andmoraldegradationonthewhole.

C

IntheIntroductiontotheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,itiscomplainedthat

historieswrittensincethebeginningofthethirteenth/nineteenthcenturysufferfromthedefect

thattheyignorealldevelopmentsinphilosophybeforethetimeoftheGreeks.Thiscomplaint,or

ratherindictment,isperfectlyjustified,notonlyinthecaseofthehistoriansofthethir

teenth/nineteenthcenturybutalsoofthoseofthetwelfth/eighteenthcentury.Everythinkerof

thesetwocenturiesunderstoodhistoryasifitwereidenticalwithWesternhistory.Theyviewed

historyasonestraightlineofeventsmovingacrosstheWesternworld;dividedthislineintothree

periods,ancient,medieval,andmodern;andlumpedtogethertheEgyptian,Indian,Chinese,and

Babyloniancivilizations,eachofwhichhadpassedthroughseveralstagesofdevelopment,inthe

briefestpossibleprelude(insomecasescoveringnotevenapage)totheGraecoRomanperiod

designatedas"ancient."Historiesofothercivilizationsandpeopledidnotcount,exceptforthose

eventswhichcouldbeeasilylinkedwiththechainofeventsinthehistoryoftheWest.Toynbee

justlydescribesthisconceptionofhistoryasanegocentricillusion,andhisviewissharedbyall

recentphilosophersofhistory.Whatevertheirdifferencesinothermatters,inonethingthe

twentiethcenturyphilosophersofhistoryareunanimous,andthatistheirdenunciationofthe

linearconceptionofprogress.Weassociateourselveswiththeminthis.Justasinbiologyprogress

hasbeenexplainedbyatrendfromlowertohigher,orfromlessperfecttomoreperfect,orfrom

lessdifferentiatedandintegratedtomoredifferentiatedandintegrated,similarlyHerder,Fichte,

Rant,andHegelandalmostallthephilosophersofthetwelfth/eighteenthand

thirteenth/nineteenthcenturiesexplainedtheevolutionofhumansocietybyoneprinciple,one

socialtrend,andtheirtheorieswerethusstampedwiththelinearlawofprogress.Thepresent


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daywriterscriticismofthemisperfectlyjustifiedinrespectoftheirviewofprogressasaline,

ascendingstraightorspirally,whetheritisFichte'slineadvancingasasequenceofcertainvalues,

orHerder'sandKant'sfromviolenceandwartoJusticeandpeace,orHegel'stoeverincreasing

freedomoftheIdea,orSpencer'stogreaterandgreaterdifferentiationandintegration,or

TonniesadvancingfromGemeinschafttoGesellschaft,orDurkheim'sfromastateofsociety

basedon

mechanical

solidarity

to

organic

solidarity,

or

Buckle's

from

diminishing

influence

of

physicallawstoanincreasinginfluenceofmentallaws,orNavicow'sfromphysiological

determinationtopurelyintellectualcompetition,oranyotherlineofasingleprincipleexplaining

theevolutionofhumansocietyasawhole.

Everycivilizationhasahistoryofitsownandeachhasitsownancient,medieval,andmodern

periods.Inmostcasestheseperiodsarenotidenticalwiththeancient,medieval,andmodern

periodsofWesternculturestartingfromtheGreek.SeveralculturesprecededtheWestern

cultureandsomestartingearlierarestillcontemporaneouswithit.Theycannotbethrowninto

oblivionbecausetheycannotbeplacedinthethreeperiodsoftheculturesoftheWest,ancient,

medieval,andmodern.Westerncultureisnotthemeasureofallhumanityanditsachievements.

Youcannotmeasureotherculturesandcivilizationsorthewholeofhumanhistorybythethree

knottedyardstickofprogressintheWest.Mankindconsistsofanumberofgreatandsmall

countrieseachhavingitsowndrama,itsownlanguage,itsownideas,itsownpassions,itsown

customsandhabits,itsownpossibilities,itsowngoals,anditsownlifecourse.Ifitmustbe

representedlineally,itwouldnotbebyonelinebutseverallinesorratherbandsofvariegated

andconstantlychangingcolours,reflectingoneanotherandmergingintooneanother.

WhilethelearnededitorsoftheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,haveendeavoured

toremoveoneflawinthetreatmentofancienthistory,theyhavefailedtoremovesimilarflawsin

thetreatmentofwhattheWesternwritersdesignateasthe"medieval"periodofhistory.Avery

largepartofthisperiodiscoveredbythephenomenalriseanddevelopmentofMuslimthought

whichcarriedhumanachievementintheintellectualfield,asinmanyotherfields,tooneofits

highestpeaks.Forthisthemostgloriouspartofmedievalhistorynotmorethanfouroutofforty

eightchaptershavebeenassignedinthehistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern.Nor,indeed,

hasevenawordbeensaidaboutthewellrecognizedroleofMuslimphilosophyintransmitting

GreekthoughttotheWest,inadvancinghumanknowledge,insupplyingamouldfortheshaping

ofWesternscholasticism,indevelopingempiricalsciences,inbringingabouttheItalian

Renaissance,andinprovidingstimulustothespeculationofWesternthinkersfromDescartesto

Kant.


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Moreover,intheaccountgivenofthe"modern"periodofhistory,thephilosophical

achievementsoftheEast,exceptthoseinIndia,havebeencompletelyomitted.Thereaderofthis

historicalworkgetstheimpressionthatfromthetimeofDescartestothatofSartre,i.e.,the

presentday,

the

East,

outside

India,

intellectually

ceased

to

exist.

ItistruethattheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,isnotalonecharacterizedbythese

omissions.Thesamegaps,evenmoreyawning,arefoundinthehistoriesofphilosophywrittenby

Westernscholars;butwhileintheworksoftheWesternerstheyareunderstandable,inthoseof

theeasternscholarstheyareunpardonable.Nevertheless,inthisparticularcasetheybecame

unavoidablefortheableeditorsdidintendtohavesomemorechaptersonMuslimphilosophy,

butthewritertowhomthesechapterswereassignedwasalsoaministeroftheStateholdingan

importantportfolioandhisheavyofficialdutieslefthimnotimetowritethem.

D

ThehistoryofMuslimthoughtthrowsafloodoflightonthelogicofhistory.Acontroversyhas

goneonforalongtimeaboutthelawsthatgovernhistoricalsequences.Vicointhe

twelfth/eighteenthcenturycontended,underthedeepimpressionofthelawfulnessprevailingin

naturalsciences,thathistoricaleventsalsofollowoneanotheraccordingtotheunswervinglaws

ofnature.Thelawofmechanicalcausalityisuniversalinitssway.Thesameviewwasheldby

SaintSimon,HerbertSpencer,KarlMarxandinrecenttimesbyMandelbaumandWiener.Onthe

otherhand,idealistslikeMaxWeber,Windelband,andRickertareoftheviewthattheobjectsof

historyarenotunitswithuniversalqualities;theyareunique,unrepeatableeventsinaparticular

spaceandaspecifictime.Therefore,nophysicallawscanbeformedaboutthem.Historical

eventsareundoubtedlyexposedtoinfluencesfrombiological,geological,geographical,andracial

forces;yettheyarealwayscarriedbyhumanbeingswhouseandsurmounttheseforces.

Mechanicallawsrelatetofactsbuthistoricaleventsrelatetovalues.Thereforethehistorical

orderoflawsisdifferentfromthephysicallawsofmechanicalcausation.Tousitseemsthatboth

thegroupsgotoextremes.Theempiriciststakenoaccountofthefreedomofthewillandthe

resolves,choices,andgoalsofhumanbeings,andtheidealistsforgetthatevenhumanbeingsare

notminds,butbodyminds;andthoughtheyinitiateeventsfromtheirowninnerresources,they

placetheminthechainofmechanicalcausality.Itistruethathistoricaleventsandthelivesof


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civilizationsandculturesfollowoneanotheraccordingtotheinnerlawsoftheirownnature,yet

historyconsistsinthemoral,intellectual,andaestheticachievementsofindividualsandgroups

basedonresolvesandchoices,usingcausationadivinegiftasatool,nowobeying,nowrevolting

againstdivinewillworkingwithinthemaidintheworldaroundthem,nowcooperatingandnow

fightingwithoneanother,nowfalling,nowrising,andthuscarvingtheirowndestinies.

E

ThethoughtofHegelandofMarxishavingagreatinfluenceonthedevelopmentofthe

philosophyofhistory.Asiswellknown,Hegelisadialecticalidealist.Thewholeworldforhimis

thedevelopmentoftheIdea,arationalentity,whichadvancesbyposingitselfasathesis;

developsfromitselfitsownopposite,antithesis;andthetwoideas,insteadofconstantly

remainingatwar,getunitedinanideawhichisthesynthesisofboth;andthissynthesisbecomes

thethesisforanothertriadandthustriadaftertriadtakestheworldtohigherandyethigher

reachesofprogress.Thus,thehistoricalprocessisaProcessofantagonismsandtheir

reconciliations.TheIdeadividesitselfintothe"Ideainitself"(theworldofhistory)andthe"Idea

initsotherness"(theworldasnature).Hegel'sdivisionoftheworldintotwowatertight

compartmentshasvitiatedthethoughtofseveralofhissuccessors,Rickert,Windleband,and

Spengler,andevenofBergson.Ifelectrons,amoebas,fleas,fishes,andapesweretospeak,they

couldreasonablyaskwhy,bornofthesamecosmicenergy,determinedbythesamelaws,having

thesamelimitedfreedom,theyshouldbesupposedtobemerenaturehavingnohistory.To

dividetheworldstuffintonatureandhistoryisunwarranted.Historyconsistsofsequencesof

groupsofevents,andwehavelearntsinceEinsteinthatobjectsinnaturearealsogroupsof

events.Thereisnoessentialdifferencebetweenthetwo.Theonlydifferenceisthatuptoa

certainstagethereisnolearningbyexperience;beyondthatthereis.AccordingtoHegel,the

linearprogressoftheIdeaorIntelligence,inwinningrationalfreedom,culminatesintheState,

thebestexampleofwhichistheGermanState.Suchalineofthoughtjustifiesinternaltyranny,

externalaggression,andwarsbetweenStates.Itfindsnoplaceinthehistoricalprocessforworld

organizationsliketheUnitedNationsortheWorldBankandisfalsifiedbythefactualexistenceof

suchinstitutionsinthepresentstageofworldhistory.Intelligenceisreallyonlyoneaspectofthe

humanmind,andthereseemstobenogroundforregardingthisoneaspect,theknowingaspect,

ofonlyonekindoftheworldstuff,i.e.,mankindastheessenceoftheworldstuff.

ThemindofonewhorejectsHegel'sidealismatonceturnstoMarx.Marxiandialecticisexactly


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thesameasHegel's.But,accordingtoMarx,theworldstuffisnottheIdea,butmatter.Heuses

thisword,matter,inthesenseinwhichitwasusedbythethirteenth/nineteenthcenturyFrench

materialists.Buttheideaofmatterasinertmasshasbeendiscardedevenbypresentdayphysics.

Worldstuffisnowregardedasenergywhichcantaketheformofmass.Dialecticalmaterialism,

however,isnotdisprovedbythischangeofmeaningoftheword"matter."Itcanstillbeheldin

termsof

arealistic

dialectic

the

terms

in

which

the

present

day

Marxists

hold

it.

With

the

new

terminology,then,theMarxistdialectictakesthisform:Somethingreal(athesis)createsfrom

withinitselfitsopposite,anotherreal(antithesis),whichboth,insteadofwarringperpetuallywith

eachother,getunitedintoasynthesis(athirdreal)whichbecomesthethesisofanothertriad,

andthusfromtriadtotriadtill,inthesocialsphere,thisdialecticofrealsleadstotheactualization

ofaclasslesssociety.OurobjectiontoHegel'spositionthathedoesnotfindanyplacefor

internationalorganizationsinthehistoricalprocessdoesnotapplytoMarx,buttheobjectionthat

Hegelconsiderswaranecessarypartofthehistoricalprocessappliesequallytohim.Hegel's

systemencourageswarsbetweennations;Marx'sbetweenclasses.Besides,Marxismisself

contradictory,forwhileitrecognizestheinevitabilityornecessityofthecausallaw,italso

recognizesinitiativeandfreecreativityofclassesinchangingtheworld.BothMarxandHegel

makehistorycompletelydetermined,andcompletelyignorethemostuniversallawofhuman

nature,thelawthatpeople,becomingdissatisfiedwiththeirsituationatallmomentsoftheirlives

exceptwhentheyareinsoundsleep,areinthepursuitofidealsandvalues(whichbeforetheir

realizationaremereideas);andthusifefficientcausespushthemon(whichbothHegelandMarx

recognize),finalcausesareconstantlyexercisingtheirpull(whichbothofthemignore).

Ourrecognitionoffinalcausesasdeterminantsofthecourseofhistoryleadsustothe

formulationofanewhypothesis.Accordingtothishypothesis,humanbeingsandtheiridealsare

logicalcontrariesordiscreprantsinsofarastheformerarerealandthelatterideal,andrealand

idealcannotbeattributedtothesamesubjectinthesamecontext.Norcanapersonandhisideal

bethoughtofintherelationofsubjectandpredicate.For,anidealofapersoniswhattheperson

isnot.Thereisnoessentialoppositionbetweentwoidealsorbetweentworeals,butthereisa

genuineincompatibilitybetweenarealandanideal.Whatisrealisnotidealandwhateverisideal

isnotreal.Bothareopposedintheiressence.HegelianideasandMarxistrealsarenotofopposite

nature.Theyareinconflictintheirfunction.Theyaremutuallywarringideasorwarringrealsand

areseparatedbyhostilityandhatred.Theincompatiblesofourhypothesisaresointheirnature,

butnotintheirfunction,andareboundbyloveandaffectionand,thoughrationaldiscrepants,

arevolitionallyandemotionallyinharmony.Inthemovementofhistoryrealselvesareattracted

byideals,andthen,inrealizingthem,aresynthesizedwiththem.Thismovementisdialectical,but

itistotallydifferentfromtheHegelianorMarxistdialectic.Theirthesisandantithesisare

strugglingagainsteachother.Here,oneisstrugglingnot"against"but"for"theother.The

formulaofthedynamicofhistory,accordingtothisconception,willbe:Areal(thesis)creates


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fromwithinitselfanideal(antithesis)whichbothbymutualharmonygetunitedintoanotherreal

(synthesis)thatbecomesthethesisofanothertriadandthusfromtriadtotriad.thedialecticof

humansociety,accordingtothisformula,isnotastruggleofwarringclassesorwarringnations,

butastruggleagainstlimitationstorealizegoalsandideals,whichgoalsandidealsarewilledand

lovedratherthanfoughtagainst.Thisisadialecticofloveratherthanofhatred.Itleads

individuals,masses,

classes,

nations,

and

civilizations

from

lower

to

higher

and

from

higher

to

yet

higherreachesofachievement.Itisadialecticwhichrecognizesanoverallnecessityofa

transcendentallydeterminedprocess(adivineorder),takesnoticeofthepartialfreedomofsocial

entitiesandoftheplaceofmechanicaldeterminationasatoolindivineandhumanhands.

Thishypothesisisnotlinearbecauseitenvisagessocietyasavastnumberofinteracting

individualsandintermingling,interactingclasses,societies,cultures,andhumanityasawhole,

movingtowardsinfiniteideals,nowrising,nowfalling,butonthewholedevelopingbytheir

realization,likethecloudsconstantlyrisingfromthefoothillsofamountainrange,nowmingling,

nowseparating,nowflyingoverthepeaks,nowsinkingintothevalleys,andyetascendingfrom

hilltohillinsearchofthehighestpeak.

ThishypothesisavoidstheSpencerianideaofsteadyprogress,becauseitrecognizesupsand

downsinhumanaffairsandrisesandfallsofdifferentcivilizationsandtheirthoughtatdifferent

stagesofworldhistory.Itavoidsmeasuringthedynamicsofhistorybythethreeknottedrodof

Westerncultureanddoesnotshelvethequestionofchangeinhumansocietyasawhole.It

leavesthedooroffutureachievementopentoallanddoesnotcondemncertainlivingculturesto

death.

Brieflystated,thehypothesistowhichthestudyofMuslimthought,asthestudyofMuslim

cultureasawhole,lendssupporthasanegativeaswellasapositiveaspect.Negatively,itisnon

organismic,noncyclic,andnonlinear;and,positively,itinvolvesbeliefinsocialdynamics,in

progressinhumansocietythroughtheagesbyrisesandfalls,intheimportanceoftheroleof

ethicalvaluesinsocialadvance,inthepossibilityofculturalregeneration,intheenvironmental

obstaclesasstimulitohumanaction,infreedomandpurposeastheultimatesourcesofchange,

andinmechanicaldeterminismasaninstrumentindivineandhumanhands.


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F

ThechiefaimofthisworkistogiveanaccountnotofMuslimcultureasawhole,norofMuslim

thoughtin

general,

but

only

of

one

aspect

of

Muslim

thought,

i.e.,

Muslim

philosophy.

But

since

thisphilosophyhaditsbeginninginareligionbasedonphilosophicalfundamentalsandit

developedincloseassociationwithotherspheresofthought,sciences,humanities,andarts,we

havethoughtitdesirabletogivebriefaccountsoftheseotherdisciplinesaswell(BookFive).Book

Fivehasbecomenecessarybecauseinmanycasesthesamethinkerswereatoncephilosophers,

scientists,andwritersontheHumanitiesandFineArts.BesideswritingonphilosophyalKindi

wrote,tonumberonlythemainsubjects,alsoonastrology,chemistry,optics,andmusic;alFarabi

onmusic,psychology,politics,economics,andmathematics;ibnSinaonmedicine,chemistry,

geometry,astronomy,theology,poetry,andmusic;ZakriyaalRazionmedicineandalchemy;al

Ghazaliontheology,law,physics,andmusic;andtheIkhwanalSafaonmathematics,astronomy,

geography,music,andethics.Likewiseibn.Haithamleftworksnotonlyonphilosophybutalsoon

optics,music,mathematics,astronomy,andmedicine,andNasiralDinTusionmathematics,

astronomy,physics,medicine,mineralogy,music,history,andethics.InMuslimSpain,ibnBajjah

wroteonphilosophy,medicine,music,andastronomy;ibnTufailonphilosophyandmedicine;and

ibnRushdonphilosophy,theology,medicine,andastronomy.Andwhatistrueofthesethinkersis

trueofahostofothers.

IntheIntroductiontotheHistoryofPhilosophy,EasternandWestern,towhichreferencehas

alreadybeenmadeithasbeenrightlyobservedthatthehistoriesofphilosophywrittenbeforethe

nineteenthcenturymightbeaptlydescribedasthehistoriesofphilosophersratherthanthe

historiesofphilosophy.Butitseemstousthatwhenahistoryaimsatgivinganaccountof

theoriesandmovements,itcannotdowithoutdealingwithphilosophers,fortherelation

betweenthemandthemovementstheystartorthetheoriestheypropoundistoointimateto

allowtheircompleteseverance.Therefore,inourendeavourtogiveahistoricalaccountofthe

movements,systems,anddisciplinesinMuslimthoughtwehavemadenoefforttoeliminatethe

treatmentofindividualphilosopherswhereithasbeencalledfor.Inthisprocedurewehavefol

lowedtheexcellentexampleofT.J.deBoerwhocanbejustlyregardedasapioneerinthismost

neglectedfield.

WehavebegunourtreatmentofthesubjectbygivinginBookOneabriefaccountofthewhole

fieldofphilosophyinthepreIslamicworldingeneralandArabiainparticular.Wehavedevoted


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BookTwotophilosophicalteachingsoftheQur'an.Thiswehavedonewiththeexpresshopethat

thesetwobookstogetherwillgivethereaderacorrectideaoftherealsourceofMuslimphilo

sophyandenablehimtoviewthisphilosophyinitstrueperspective.

MuslimphilosophylikeMuslimhistoryingeneralhaspassedthroughfivedifferentstages.The

firststagecoverstheperiodfromthefirstfirst/seventhcenturytothefallofBaghdad.Wehave

dealtwiththisperiodundertheheading"EarlyCenturies."Thisisfollowedbyashockabsorbing

periodofabouthalfacentury.Itsthirdstageisthatofitssecondfloweringtreatedunderthe

heading"LaterCenturies."Itcoverstheperiodfromthebeginningoftheeighth/fourteenthtothe

beginningofthetwelfth/eighteenthcentury.Thefourthstageisthatofthemostdeplorable

declinecoveringacenturyandahalf.ThisisinthetruestsensetheDarkAgeofIslam.Withthe

middleofthethirteenth/nineteenthcenturybeginsitsfifthstagecoveringtheperiodofthe

modernrenaissance.Thus,inthecurveofitshistory,Muslimphilosophyhashadtworisesand

twofallsandisnowshowingclearsignsofathirdrise.

Wehavesaidverylittleabouttheperiodsofdecline,forthesehavelittletodowithphilosophical

developments.DuringthefirstperiodofitsgreatnessMuslimphilosophyshowsfourdistinctlines

ofthought.Thefirstisthetheologicophilosophicalline,thesecondismystical,thethird

philosophicalandscientific,andthefourthisthattakenbythosewhomwehavecalledthe

middleroaders.ThesehavebeentreatedrespectivelyinBookThree,Parts1,2,3,and4.In

BookFourwehavetracedthesamelinesofthoughtrunningthroughthesecondriseofIslamin

ordertobringitinclearcontrastwiththefirst.

DuringbothoftheseperiodsofIslamicrise,considerableactivityisnoticeableinotherdisciplines.

WehavedealtwithalltheseinBookFive.

TheperiodofmodernrenaissanceinIslam,abriefaccountofwhichisgiveninBookEight,is

markedbypoliticalstruggleforemancipationfromforeigndominationandfreedomfrom

conformisminbothlifeandthought.Thephilosophersofthisperiodarenotmerephilosophers.

Theyaremorepoliticalleaders,socialreformers,andmenofaction.Therefore,althoughchapters

LXXII,LXXIII,LXXIV,LXXVII,LXXX,andLXXXIIIcontributelittletoacademicphilosophy,yetthey

throwafloodoflightonthephilosophiesoflifeandhistory,andforthatreasonhavebeen


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consideredindispensableforourwork.

Somuchaboutthepast.Butwhataboutthepresentandhowaboutthefuture?Thepositionof

philosophyamongst

the

Muslim

peoples

today

is

no

worse

than

it

is

in

the

rest

of

the

world.

What

typeofphilosophicalthoughtthefuturehasinstoreforthemweshalltrytoforecastinour

concludingremarks,

Notes:

[1]AsRumi'smostimportantwork,theMathnawi,waswrittenbetween659/1261and670/1272,

wehaveincludedhimamongwritersofthecenturiesfollowingthesackofBaghdad.

Chapter1:PreIslamicIndianThought

PreIslamicIndianThoughtbyC.AQadir,M.A,ProfessorofPhilosophy,GovernmentCollege,

Lahore(Pakistan)

MauriceBloomfieldsaysparadoxicallyinTheReligionoftheRigVedathat"Indianreligionbegins

beforeitsarrivalinIndia."[1]BythishemeanstoimplythatIndianreligionisacontinuationof

theprimitivefaithoftheIndoEuropeanracetowhichtheAryansthatcametoIndiabelonged.

"TheSanskritworddeva(toshine)forGodissimilartotheLatinworddeus;yajaSanskritword

forworshipiscommontomorethanoneIndoEuropeanlanguage;whiletheVedicgodMitrahas

hiscounterpartintheIraniangodMithra."Fromacomparativestudyofthebeliefsandpractices

oftheTeutonic,Hellenic,Celtic,Slavonic,Italian,Armenian,andPersianpeopleswhichallsprang

fromthe

Indo

European

race,

it

has

been

established

beyond

the

slightest

doubt

that

the

basis

of

theirreligionwasananimisticbeliefinaverylargenumberofpettygods,eachofwhichhada

specialfunction.Theywereworshippedwithsacrifice,accompaniedwithpotentformulasand

prayers.Magicwashighlyregardedandmuchused.


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Itisgreatlyregrettedthatthereisneitheranyformalhistorynoranyarchaeologicalremainto

throwlightontheearlyhomeofthisancientraceoronthetimewhenthegreathistoricalpeople

hivedofffromit.Ourprincipalsourceforthehistory,religion,andphilosophyoftheIndianbranch

istheVedasbesidestheEpicsandthePuranas.

TheVedas AmongtheVedas,theoldestisRgVedawhichconsistsofmorethanathousand

hymnscomposedbysuccessivegenerationsofpoetsduringaperiodofmanycenturies.The

hymnsareconnectedinvariouswayswiththesacrifices,thedomesticceremonies,andthe

religiousspeculationofthetime,andareconcernedchieflywiththeworshipofgods,who

representpersonificationofnaturalforces,andthepropitiationofdemoniacbeings.

IntheIndoIranianperiodtherefreshingdrinkpreparedfromthesomaplantwasofferedtogods

inaspecialritualandthesingingofahymnwasanecessarypartoftheritual.TheAryansbrought

thiscustomwiththemandcontinuedtocomposeversesforthesamaritualandfortheoccasions

ofannualsacrificesintheirnewhomeland.Asthehymnsweretobesung,aclassofpriestsarose

whosedutyitwastorecitepoemsofpraiseinhonourofgods.Thepriestswhocouldsingbetter

hymnsandwereinpossessionofasecretlore,whichenabledthembyconductingsacrificesinthe

rightwaytowinthefavourofgodsfortheirpatrons,wereingreatdemand.Consequently,a

numberofpriestlyfamiliesviedwithoneanotherincomposinghymnsinthebestlanguageand

metrethenavailable.TheRgVedagivesevidenceofsevensuchfamilieseachbearingthenameof

apatriarchtowhomthehymnsareascribed.Atfirstthehymncollectionsofsixfamilieswere

broughttogetherandthenofnine.Atamuchlaterstagesomescholarscollectedonehundred

andninetyonepoemswhichweretaughtasthelastsectionoftheoralcurriculumofhymns.

Thus,therebecametenbooksoftheRgVeda.

ThemantrasoftheAtharvaVedaconsistlargelyofspellsformagicalpurposesandadvocatepure

andunalloyedpolytheism.TheotherVedasareentirelysacrificialinpurpose.TheSamaVeda

consistsofversesborrowedfromtheRgVedatobeappliedtosomasacrifice.TheYajurVeda

consistsofritualformulasofthemagicaltype.

ForalongtimethenumberoftheVedaswaslimitedtothree,theAtharvaVedabeingtotally


22/427


excludedfromthegroupoftheVedas.Insupportofthiscontentionthefollowingversefrom

Manucanbecited:"FromAgni,Vayu,andRavi,Hedrewforthfortheaccomplishmentofsacrifice

theeternaltripleVeda,distinguishedasRik,YajushandSaman."[2]Similarly,inSatapatha

Brahnmanasitissaid,"TheRikYajushSamanversesarethethreefoldscience."[3]

AprobablereasonfortheexclusionoftheAtharvaVedafromtheVedasisthat"itconsistsmostly

ofmagicspell,sorcery,andincantationswhichwereusedbythenonAryansandthelowerclasses

toachieveworldlygoodssuchaswealth,riches,children.health,freedomfromdisease....The

AtharvaVedawasrecognizedlateronwhenhymnsrelatingtosacrificesseemtohavebeenadded

toittogainrecognitionfromtheorthodoxy."[4]

VedicConceptionofGod ThereligionoftheVedasispolytheism.Ithasnotthecharmandgrace

ofthepantheonoftheHomericpoems;butitcertainlystandsnearertheoriginofthegods.All

godswhethergreatorsmallaredeifiednaturalphenomena.Theinterestingthingaboutthemis

thattheyareidentifiedwiththegloriousthingswhosedeificationstheyareandarealso

distinguishedfromthem.Theyarestillthoughtofasbeingsun,moon,rain,wind,etc.,yeteach

godisconceivedasagloriousbeingwhohashishomeinheavenandwhocomessailinginhisfar

shiningcartothesacrificeandsitsdownonthegrasstohearhisownpraiserecitedandsungand

toreceivetheofferings.[5]Thehymnssungbythepriestsweremainlyinvocationsofthegods

meanttoaccompanytheoblationofsomajuiceandthefiresacrificeofthemeltedbutter.

TheVedasarenotconsistentintheiraccountofthegods.Inonemyththesunisamale,in

anotherafemale.Thesunandthemoonarementionedinoneplaceasrivals,elsewhereas

husbandandwife.Thedogisextolledinoneplaceasadeityandinanothermentionedasavile

creature.Againthesun,thesky,andtheeartharelookeduponsometimesasnaturalobjects

governedbyparticulargodsandsometimesasthemselvesgodswhogenerateandcontrolother

beings.

IntheRgVeda,heavenandearthareordinarilyregardedastheparentsofgods,pitra[6]or

matra.[7]Inotherpassagesheaven(dyaus)isseparatelystyledasfatherandtheearth(prithivi)

asmother.[8]Atotherplaces,however,theyarespokenofashavingbeencreated.Thusitissaid,

[9]thathewhoproducedheavenandearthmusthavebeenthemostskilfulartisanofallthe


23/427


gods.Again,Indraisdescribedashavingformedthem,tofollowhimaschariotwheelsdoahorse.

AtotherplacesthecreationoftheearthandtheheavenisascribedtoSomaandPushan.

Thus,while

the

gods

are

regarded

in

some

passages

of

the

Rg

Veda

as

the

offsprings

of

heaven

andearth,theyareatotherplacesconsideredindependentofthesedeitiesandeventheir

creators.

InvarioustextsoftheRgVedathegodsarespokenofasbeingthirtythreeinnumber.Thusitis

saidintheRgVeda:"ComehitherNasatyas,Asvins,togetherwiththethriceelevengods,todrink

ournectar."[10]Again,"Agni,thewisegodslendaneartotheirworshippers.Godwiththeruddy

steeds,wholovestpraise,bringhitherthosethreeandthirty."[11]IntheSatapathaBrahmanas

thisnumberofthirtythreegodsisexplainedasmadeupofeightvasus,elevenrudras,andtwelve

adityas,togetherwithheavenandearth,or,accordingtoanotherpassage,togetherwithIndra

andPrajapatiinsteadofheavenandearth.

TheenumerationofgodsasthirtythreeisnotadheredtothroughouttheVedas.IntheRgVeda,

thegodsarementionedasbeingmuchmorenumerous:"Threethousand,threehundred,thirty

andninegodshaveworshippedAgni."[12]Thusversewhichisoneofthemanyshowsthatthe

VedicIndianbelievedintheexistenceofamuchlargernumberofsupernaturalbeingsthanthirty

three.

Thegodswerebelievedtohavehadabeginning;theywerestatedtobemortal,butcapableof

overcomingdeathbythepracticeofausterity.TheRgVedasaysthatthegodsacquired

immortalitybydrinkingsoma.Stillthegodsarenotselfexistentorunbeginningbeings.Ithas

beenseenthattheyaredescribedinvariouspassagesoftheRgVedaasoffspringsofheavenand

earth.InvarioustextsoftheRgVedathebirthofIndraismentioned,andhisfatherandmother

arealsoalludedto.[13]

TheVedicgodscanbeclassifiedasdeitiesofheaven,air,andearth:


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1.CelestialGods TheoldestgodisDyaus,generallycoupledwithPrithiviwhenthetwoare

regardedasuniversalparents.AnotherisVaruna,thegreatestoftheVedicgodsbesidesIndra.It

ishewhosustainsandupholdsphysicalandmoralorder.InthelaterVedas,whenPrajapati

becamecreator

and

supreme

god,

the

importance

of

Varuna

waned,

and

in

the

post

Vedicperiod

Varunaretainedonlythedominionofwatersasgodofthesky.Variousaspectsofthesolar

activityarerepresentedbyfivegods,namely,Mitra,apersonificationofthesun'sbeneficent

power;Surya,thepropernameofthesun,regardedasthehusbandofdawn;Savitri,thelife

givingactivityofthesun;Pusan,apastoraldeitypersonifyingthebountifulpowerofthesun;and

Visnuoccupyingthecentralplaceinthispantheon.

2.AtmosphericGods ThemostimportantofthesegodsisIndra,afavouritenationaldeityofthe

AryanIndians.Heisnotanuncreatedbeing.Itissaidofhim,"Thyfatherwastheparentofamost

heroicson;themakerofIndra,healsoproducedthecelestialandunconquerablethunder...was

amostskilfulworkman."[14]Again,"Avigorous(god)begothim,avigorous(son),forthebattle;

aheroicfemale(nari)broughthimforth,aheroicsoul."[15]Hiswholeappearanceisgolden;his

armsaregolden;hecarriesagoldenwhipinhishands;andheisborneonashininggoldencar

withathousandsupports.Hiscarisdrawnbytwogoldensteedswithflowinggoldenmanes.Heis

famousforslayingVrtaafteraterrificbattle,asaresultofwhichwaterisreleasedformanand

lightisrestoredtohim.Certainimmoralactsarealsoattributedtohim.Heoccasionallyindulges

inactsofviolencesuchasslayinghisfatherordestroyingthecarofDawn.Lessimportantgodsof

thisgroupareTrita,ApamnapatandMatarisvan.ThesonsofRudra,themalignantdeitiesofthe

Vedas,aretheMaruts(thestormgods)whohelpIndrainhisconflicts.ThegodofwindisVayu

whilethatofwaterisApah.

3.TerrestrialGods Riversaredeified.ThusSindu(Indus),Vipas(Bias),andSutudri(Sutlej)are

invokedintheRgVeda.ThemostimportantgodisSarasvati,oftenregardedasthewifeof

Brahma.AnotherveryimportantgodisAgni,thegodoffire.Thenumberofhymnsaddressedto

himfarexceedthoseaddressedtoanyother,divinitywiththeexceptionofIndra.IntheRgVeda

heisfrequentlyspokenofasagoblinslayer.AnothergodisSoma,thedivinedrinkwhichmakes

thosewhodrinkitimmortal.ApriestsaysintheRgVeda:"WehavedrunkSoma,wehavebecome

immortal,wehaveenteredintolight,wehaveknowngods."


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Inadditiontothese,thereisahostofabstractdeitiesandalsodeitiesoflessimportancewhich

cannotbedescribedhereforwantofspace.Sufficeittosaythatanattemptwasmadebythe

sages(rsis)tointroduceorderinthebewilderingmultiplicityofgods.Asseveralgodshadsimilar

functions,theywereinsomecasesbracketedtogether,sothatitmightbesaidthatwhenIndra

andAgniperformedidenticalfunctions,AgniwasIndraorIndrawasAgni.Hencearosemanydual

gods.A

farther

effort

in

the

direction

of

systematization

was

made

through

what

Max

Miller

has

calledhenotheismatendencytoaddressanyofthegods,say,Agni,Indra,Varuna,oranyother

deity,"asforthetimebeingtheonlygodinexistencewithanentireforgetfulnessofallother

gods."Macdonellhasadifferenttheorytoexplainthesocalledhenotheismbyascribingtoit

exaggeration,thusretainingthechargeofpolytheismagainsttheVeda.SomemodernHindus

undertheinfluenceofSwamiDayanandarepudiateboththesetheoriesasinconsistentwiththe

truespiritoftheVedas"[16]HeisOne,sagescallHimbydifferentnames,e.g.,Agni,Yama,

Maarishvan."[17]Nodoubt,afewversesofthisnaturecanbefoundintheVedas;butthe

consensusofscholarsisthatmonotheisticversesareaproductofthelaterVedicperiodandthat

theydontexpressthedominantstrainoftheVedicthought.ShriKrishnaSaksenainhischapter

"IndianPhilosophy"inAHistoryofPhilosophicalSystemseditedbyV.Fermsaysthattheearly

mantrascontainareligionofnatureworshipinwhichpowersofnaturelikefire(agni)andwind

(vayu)arepersonified.InlaterhymnsandtheBrahmanas,monotheistictendenciesbegantocrop

upalittle.SwamiDayanandawasaproductofHinduMuslimcultureandhisinsistenceon

monotheismshowstheextenttowhichMuslimthoughthasinfluencedIndianreligiousbeliefs.

VedicEschatology TheRgVedamakesnodistinctreferencetoafuturelifeexceptinitsninthand

tenthbooks.Yama,thegodofdeath,wasthefirstofthemortalstodie.Hediscoversthewayto

theotherworld;guidesothermenthere,assemblestheminahome,whichissecuredforthem

forever.Hegrantsluminousabodestothepiousandisanobjectofterrorforthewicked.Yamais

saidtohavetwoinsatiabledogswithfoureyesandwidenostrilswhoactashismessengersand

conveythespiritsofmentotheabodeoftheirforefathers.Afteraperson'sdeadbodyhasbeen

burnt,hisspiritsoarstotherealmofeternallightinacaroronwingsandentersuponamore

perfectlifewhichfulfilsallofhisdesiresandgrantshimunendinghappiness.SincetheVedicgods

didnothavepurelyspiritualpleasuresbutwereoftensubjecttosensualappetites,itcanbesaid

thatthepleasurespromisedtothepiousintheworldtocomewerenotaltogetherspiritual.Yama

isdescribedascarousingwiththegods,[18]Gandharvas,aclassofgodswhoaredescribedas

hairylikedogsandmonkeys,oftenassumehandsomeappearancetoseducetheearthlyfemales.

[19]Indraissaidtohavehadahappymarriedlife.

Brahmanas EachofthefourVedashasthreesubdivisions:theSamhitas(sacredtexts),the


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Brahmanas(commentaries),andtheAranyakas(forestbooks):TheBrahmanasare,therefore,an

integralpartoftheVedas.Sayana,agreatscholaroftheVedas,says,"Vedaisthedenomination

oftheMantrasandtheBrahmanas."[20](SwamiDayanandadiffersonthispoint.)BytheMantras

aremeanthymnsandprayers;andtheBrahmanasareintendedtoelucidateobjectswhichare

onlygenerallyadvertedtointhehymns.TheBrahmanascomprisepreceptswhichinculcate

religiousduties,

maxims

which

explain

those

precepts,

and

arguments

which

relate

to

theology.

ConsideringthefactthattheBrahmanasoftenquotefromtheVedasanddevotethemselvesto

theclarificationoftheritualisticandthephilosophicalportionsoftheVedas,itmaybeconcluded

thattheSamhitasmusthaveexistedintheirpresentformbeforethecompilationofthe

Brahmanaswasundertaken.InfactintheBrahmanass,wefindfullydevelopedthewhole

Brahmanicalsystem,ofwhichwehavebutfaintindicationsintheVedas.Wehavethewholebody

ofreligiousandsocialinstitutionsfarmorecomplicatedthanthesimpleritualoftheSamhitas;

fourcasteswiththeBrahminsatthetopandtheSudrasatthebottomhavebeenrecognizedboth

intheoryandinpracticeallthisshowsthattheBrahmanasmusthavebeencomposedalongtime

aftertheVedas.Itis,however,obviousthattheBrahmanaswereakindofascripturalauthority

fortheBrahmanicalformofworshipandsocialinstitutions.

Upanisads ThethirdintegralpartoftheVedas,namely,theAranayakas,intendedforthestudy

oftheanchoritesintheforestsinthethirdstageoftheirlife,ledultimatelytotheUpanisadsor

VedantasastheconcludingportionoftheVedas.Theseweremeantfortheasceticsinthefourth

stageoftheirlivescalledtheSannyasaAsrama.Literally,thewordUpanisadmeans"asitting

besides."i.e.,alessontaughtbytheteachertothepupilssittingbyhisside.Thesediscourses

expoundedinenigmaticformulaeaseriesofesotericdoctrinestotheselectedfewstudents,

mainlyBrahmins,whoweredeemedfittoreceivesuchacourseofinstruction.

ConsideringtheagewhichgavebirthtotheUpanisadsforunderstandingsomeofthemajor

problemsoflife,onemarvelsatthedepthandinsightoftheearlyHinduseers.Theirattitude

towardstheVedaswasnotoneofveneration;itwasonthecontraryanattitudeofdoubtand

disrespect.WhiletheyconsideredVedastobeofdivineorigin,theyfeltatthesametimethatthe

Vedicknowledgewasinferiortothetruedivineinsightandcouldnotliberatethem.[21]They

werenotconcernedwiththeworldofphenomenaanddenouncedwithalltheforceattheir

disposaltherichandelaborateritualismthenprevalent.Sacrifice,anintegralpartoftheVedic

faith,hadnosignificanceforthen.Theirinterestlaynotintheouterworldbutintheinnerand,


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withinthat,inthemysteryoftheself.TheintrovertedBrahminswereaccordinglycarriedfar

beyondtherealmoftheanthropomorphicdeitiesoftheearlyVedicperiodanddevotedattention

tothatalltranscendingprinciplefromwhichallnaturalforcesandeventsweresupposedto

proceed.TheUpanisads,however,fallshortofofferingacoherentpresentationoftheBrahmanic

doctrineoftheUniversalSoulinallthings."Thisisonlyfoundintheminfragments,somesmall,

somelarge.

And

in

addition

these

fragments

are

the

work

of

various

schools

and

various

ages.

ThosewhohavedescribedtheUpanisadsaschaoticarenotaltogetherwrong.[22]Itwouldbe

hardtosaywhatphilosophicalopinionsmightnotbesupportedontheirauthority,forthemost

partcontradictorystatementsfindaplaceinthem,yetthetendencyisonthewholetowards

pantheism.TheUpanisadsteachtheidentityofthesoulofallbeingsbothanimateandinanimate

withtheUniversalSoul.SincetheUniversalSouldwellsinall,onefindsone'sownselfinallthings,

bothlivingandnonliving.Inthislightalonecanthemeaningofthefamoustattvamasi(Thatart

thou)oftheUpanisadsbeunderstood.ThehumanselfisnotapartoftheDivineSelf,butisthe

BrahmanAtmanwholeandundivided.TheSelfisconsequentlyasingleprinciple,which,

philosophicallyspeaking,canofferanexplanationfortheentirespectacleofnature.

ItisoftensaidthatthepillarsonwhichtheedificeofIndianphilosophyrestsareAtmanand

Brahman.ThesetermshavenofixedconnotationintheUpanisads.Generallyspeaking,Atmanis

usedtodesignateselforsoul,whileBrahmanisusedtodenotetheprimarycauseofthings.What

isremarkableaboutthesetermsisthatthoughtheirsignificanceisdifferent,onedenotingan

innerworldofsubjectivityandtheotheranobjectiveprincipleofexplanation,yetincourseof

timethetwocametobeusedinterchangeablybothsignifyinganeternalprincipleoftheuniverse.

ThenotionoftheselfwasarrivedatthroughintrospectionanditwasthoughtbytheUpanisads

thinkersthattheouterrealityshouldcorrespondexactlywiththepsychicalrealitywithin.Inthis

waywhatwassimplyapsychicalprinciplecametoberecognizedasaworldprinciple.Thisstrain

ofthoughtwassupportedbyanotherwhichobjectivelytracedthevisibleuniversetoasingle

source,namely,Brahman,andBrahmanwasidentifiedwiththeAtman.Thus,twoindependent

currentsofthoughtmettogetherandpavedthewaytomonismofanidealistictypewhichhas

remainedtillnowthehallmarkofIndianphilosophy.Bycombiningsubjectiveandobjective

principlesintoone,theultimateprinciplepartookofthecharacteristicsofbothitbecameinfinite

aswellasspiritual.AllthisisverywellexpressedinChandogyaUpanisadinadialoguebetweena

fatherandason.Thesumandsubstanceofthestoryisthattheprimalspiritualprincipleisall

comprehensiveandthattheprincipleisnootherthantheselfofthepersonthenengagedinthe

discussion.WithregardtothenatureofBrahman(theAbsolute)thereisagreatdivergenceof

opinion.AtsomeplacesHeisconceivedascosmic,i.e.,allcomprehensive,atothersacosmic,i.e.,

allexclusive.Further,atsomeplacesBrahmanisimaginedastheimpersonalAbsolutewithout

attributes;atotherplacesheisrecognizedasthehighestspiritualBeingthatunitesallformsof

perfectioninHimself.HenceitwouldbenoexaggerationtosaythatthoughtheUpanisads


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containflashesofinsight,yettheyarenotaselfcontainedhomogeneoussystemandthatthey

alsolackcompleteness.ItisforthisreasonthatSamkarabelievesthattherearetwotypesof

doctrinesintheUpanisads:esoteric,understandingGodastheimpersonal,unknowableAbsolute

withoutattributes,andtheotherexoteric,regardingGodasaPersonwhomanifestsHimselfin

thevariousdivinities.

ThesecondinterpretationoftheAbsoluteasaPersonledtothedevelopmentofatheology

largelytheisticinspirityetpolytheisticinpractice,sinceitsanctionedsymbolworshipwhich

expresseditselfinvariousformsofidolworship.TheUpanisadsarenot,however,responsiblefor

theexcessesoflatertheology.Inthembreathesaspiritofmonism.Theypreachacultofmystical

unionwiththeAbsolute,andsuggestpracticalmethodsforitsrealization.Inthemainthestressis

laiduponcompletedetachmentfromallthatismundaneandbelongstotheworldof

phenomena.Accordingly,onefindsintheUpanisadsawholeseriesofsayingsinwhichcomplete

renunciationisrecommended."Whenalldesireswhichareinhisheartdisappear,thenmanbe

comesimmortal.HerehehasalreadyreachedBrahman.Astheoldsloughofasnakeliesonan

anthill,sonowdoesthebodyliethere."[23]AccordingtotheUpanisads,thehighestmeritcalled

Preryas,whichconsistsintherealizationofone'strueself,canbereachedthroughknowledge

alone.Thepurposeofethics,ontheotherhand,isquitedistinct,namely,mundanegoodcalled

Preyaswhichisreachedbymoralactions.Thetwoendsareconsequentlypolesapart,one

concernedwiththetimelessgoodandtheotherwiththetemporalandevanescentgood.Itissaid

inKathaUpanisad[24]thattheethicalandthespiritualgoalsareopposedtoeachotheraslight

anddarknessandcannotcoexist.Amanhastorenounceallactivityforworldlygoodsifhewants

toachievespiritualunitywiththeSupremeBeing.Onecannot,therefore,selectbothknowledge

andactionastwoendsoflife,sincethehighestendmustbeoneandnotmany.

TheidealofdetachmentwasemphasizedbytheIndianthinkersnotonlyforthereasonthatitwas

necessitatedbytheirtheoryofhumandeliverance,butalsobecausetheyregardedthewhole

phenomenalworldofnames,forms,andpluralityasmayaoramereunreality,anillusionhaving

onlyatemporaryrealitywhichistranscendedultimatelyinthebeingoftheSupremeSelf.The

UpanisadsdemandthevotariesofBrahmatoponderovertheillusorinessandunrealityofthe

worldofsensesandtoextricatethemselvesfromitstemptationsandenchantmentsby

contemplationofatranscendentalrealitywithinthesoulofeachperson.Thuscanapersongetto

spiritualheightsandachievemuktiorsalvation.Hencealongwiththerenunciationofthe

phenomenalworldanotherthingrequiredistheconcentrationofthespiritonthesupersensible

reality.TheUpanisadscontaindetailedinstructionsonthissubject.


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Theaimistoreachastageofecstasyinwhichapersonhasthepsychicalexperienceoffeeling

onewiththeUltimateReality.

Theethicsnegatingtendencies,however,couldnotbemaintainedconsistentlyinfaceofthe

demandsandconcreterealitiesoflife.TheidealofhumansalvationasoutlinedbytheUpanisads

cannotbeachievedeasilyandsomanyaredestinedtofail.ThisisrealizedbytheIndiansages.

"Whatishardformanyeventohear,whatmanyfailtounderstandeventhoughtheyhear:a

marvelistheonethatcanteachitandluckyisitsobtainer;amarvelishethatknowsitwhen

taughtbythewise.[25]Themajorityarebornagainafterdeathandcanwinreleasefromthe

cycleofbirthsanddeathsthroughtheperformanceofgooddeeds.Thusethicsrejectedby

BrahmanicmysticismentersthroughthedoctrineoftheTransmigrationofSoulsadoctrineun

knowntotheVedas.

Thedoctrinereferredtoaboveappearsinconnectionwithamyth."Allwhodepartfromthis

worldgotothemoon.Thewaxinghalffillsitselfwiththeirlives;inthewaninghalfitiseffecting

theirrebirth.Themoonisthegateoftheheaven.Hewhoknowshowtoreplytoit,himitallows

topassby.Hewhocannotreply,itsendshimasraindowntotheearth;heisrebornhereand

thereaccordingtohisdeedsandknowledgeasworm,moth,fish,bird,lion,wildbear,jackal,tiger,

man,orwhateveritmaybe.Forwhenamancomestothemoon,themoonasks:`Whoartthou?

'Thenheoughttoanswer:Iamthou....'Ifhespeaksthus,thenthemoonletshimgetaway,out

aboveitself."[26]OnefindsnoreferencetothemythintheVedas.Fromthisitisconcludedthatit

isnotAryaninoriginbutbelongedtothereligiousworldof

theaboriginalinhabitantsofIndia.

Thelawwhichgovernsthekindofbirthasoulisdestinedtohaveaftereachdeathisthelawof

karma,whichsignifiesthatnothingcanhappeninthemoralworldwithoutacause.Butthe

recognitionofthefactthatmoraleventsarecausedbyantecedentfactorscannotexplainthe

palpablyindemonstrableandpoeticwayinwhichthemoralcausesarebelievedtooperate.That

moralcausescanworkinsmsara,thatistosay,inaseriesofbirthsanddeaths,allofwhichdonot

necessarilypertaintohumanbeings,isahypothesisofaverydoubtfulnatureandutility.Thatthe

doctrineofreincarnationisinconsistentwiththeBrahmanicmysticismoftheidentityofthe


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individualwiththeUniversalSoulgoeswithoutsaying.Insteadofthedoctrinethatevery

individualsoulreturnstotheUniversalSoulafterinhabitingthebodyonce,wearerequiredto

believeinatheorywhichstartsfromnewpremisesaltogether.Thistheoryisbasedonthe

suppositionthatsoulsareprisonersintheworldofsenseandcanreturntotheirPrimalSource

notatonceaftertheirfirstdeath,asrequiredbythetheoryofmysticalabsorptionofthe

Brahmins,but

after

undergoing

along

process

of

reincarnation

necessitating

aseries

of

births

in

theanimateandinanimaterealms.Schweitzerthinks[27]thattheacceptanceofthisdoctrine

createdinsuperabledifficultiesforHinduthought.Ontheolderhypothesisofmysticalreunion

withtheDivineSourceitwaseasytoexplainworldredemptionontheassumptionthatallsouls

returnedtotheirSourceaftertheirdeath.Butifthetheoryofreincarnationisaccepted,world

redemptionbecomespossibleonlyifallsoulsreachthelevelofhumanexistenceandbecome

capableofacquiringthatknowledgeandconductwhichisrequiredforliberationandofwhich

humanbeingsalonearecapable.

TheEpicPeriod Twogreateventsbelongtothisperiod.ThefirstistheexpeditionofRamafrom

OudhtoCeylontorecoverhiswifeSitawhohadbeencarriedoffbyRavana,thekingofthat

island,andthesecondisthestruggleforsupremacybetweentworivalKsatriyagroups,the

PandavasandtheKauravas,inwhichLordKrsnaplayedasignificantpart.

Ramaisanavatar,i.e.,adivineincarnationofVisnu,whobeingthepreserveroftheuniversehad

toleavehiscelestialabodeveryoftenandtoassumedifferentformsinordertodestroyeviland

establishtruth.ThepurposeofthisavatarwastokillthetenheadedRavana,whohadpleasedthe

mightygodsthroughhisausteritiesandasaresulthadreceivedaboonfromthemwhichwasthat

hecouldnotbekilledbyanygod.Feelingsecure,hestartedacampaignofterroragainstboth

godsandmen.ThegodsapproachedBrahmawhohadgrantedimmunitytoRavana.Heremarked

thatRavanacouldbekilledbyagodassumingtheformofamansinceRavanahadnotbeen

grantedimmunityfrommankind.Visnuundertooktobebornasamantoridtheworldofevil.He

wasaccordinglyborninthehouseofaking,Dasarathabyname,whoruledoverAyodhyaand

borethenameofRama.AshecameofagehemarriedSita,who"wasanincarnationofLaksmi,

Visnu'swife,andwasbornofnowomanbutofmotherearthherself,andwaspickedupbyJanaka

fromapaddyfield."[28]

Ramabecamethevictimofcourtintrigues,andforfourteenyearshadtosufferexileinjungles

fromwhereSitawascarriedoffbyRavana.TorescueSitafromtheclutchesofRavana,Rama


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contractedmilitaryalliancewithganuman,thekingofmonkeys,withwhoseactivesupporthe

reachedCeylonandlearntthesecretsofRavana'spowerfromabrotherofRavana.Thenensueda

fiercebattleinwhichthearmiessufferedlosses.AtlastRavanacameoutandmetRamaina

singlecombat."Eachlikeaflaminglionfoughttheother;headafterheadofthetenneckedone

didRamacutawaywithhisdeadlyarrows,butnewheadseverroseinplaceofthosecutoff,and

Ravana'sdeath

seemed

no

wise

nearer

than

before.

The

arrows

that

had

slain

Maricha

and

Khara

andBalicouldnottakethekingofLanka'slifeaway.ThenRamatookuptheBrahmaweapon

giventohimbyAgastya,theWindlayinits(weapon's)wings,theSunandFireinitshead,inits

masstheweightofMeruandMandara.BlessingthatshaftwithVedicMantras,Ramasetitwith

hismightybowandlooseditanditspedtoitsappointedplaceandcleftthebreastofRavanaand,

bathedinblood,returnedandenteredRama'squiver."[29]

ThemostpopularavatarofVisnuisLordKrsna,whosemainobjectwastokillKansa,ademon

bornofawoman,andwhowaswellknownforhischildishtricksandmanypracticaljokesonmilk

maids.Hewas,however,agreatwarriorandastrategist.Hekilledmanydemonsandkings.

BhagavadGita ItwasLordKrsnawhosangtheBhagavadGita(thesongcelestial)toArjuna,

givingthemostwidelyacceptedviewoflifeamongtheHindus.SaysMahatmaGandhi,"Ifinda

solaceintheBhagavadGitathatImissevenintheSermonontheMount.Whendisappointment

staresmeinthefaceandallaloneIseenotarayoflight,IgobacktotheBhagavadGita.Ifeela

versehereandthereandIimmediatelybegintosmileinthemidstofoverwhelmingtragedies,

andiftheyhaveleftnoscaronmeIoweitalltotheteachingsoftheBhagavadGita."

Supplement

AccordingtoSankaracharya,agreatscholiast,themainfunctionoftheGitaistoepitomizethe

essentialsof

the

whole

Vedic

teachings.

A

knowledge

of

its

teachings

leads

to

the

realization

of

all

aspirations.Therealpurposeofthisgreatsong,asZimmerthinks,[30]istoharmonizethenon

BrahmanicalpreAryanthoughtofaboriginalIndiawiththeVedicideasoftheAryaninvaders.The

Gita,therefore,"displaysakaleidoscopicinterworkingofthetwotraditionsthatforsometen

centurieshadbeencontendingforthecontrolandmasteryoftheIndianmind.Itsteachingsare

foundedupontheUpanisadicprincipleofanallunifying,transcendentalreality,buttheyalso


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accommodatenotonlythegodsoftheearlierVedicpantheonbutalsothephilosophicand

devotionalformulaeofthenonAryanandaboriginaltradition.Itwasnotaneasytask.TheGita

hadtopickupscatteredandheterogeneousmaterialtoreconciletheirreconcilabletendenciesof

thatageandtopresentaunifiedviewoflife.Littlewonderthattheattempthasappearedtothe

Westernscholarsasnobetterthanan`illassortedcabinetofprimitivephilosophicalopinions.'

[31]There

were

the

Vedas

with

their

belief

in

multiple

divinities;

there

were

the

Upanisads

with

theirrevoltagainsttheritualismoftheVedasandtheiranthropomorphicconceptionofgods;

therewasthedoctrineofrenunciation;andfinallythereweretheSanikhyaandtheYoga

principles.Andifweaddtothemthehereticaltendencies,particularlythoserepresentedby

Buddhism,werealizehowconfusingthesituationwasandwhatanuphilltaskLordKrsnahad

beforehim.

ItwouldbefutiletolookforaconsistentandneatmetaphysicalsystemintheGita,fortheGitais

notprimarilyabookofreconditeandabstrusethinking,writtenwiththeobjectofpresentinga

worldview.Ithasamuchloftierpurpose,whichistorelatethebroadprinciplesofmetaphysical

realitytothefundamentalaspirationsofmankind.Thisisnotaccomplishedthroughabstract

reasoningwhichonlyafewcanunderstandbutbyselectingaspecificsituationinvolvingamoral

dilemmaandpointingouthowitisovercome.

TheoccasionwasabattlebetweentheKauravasandthePandavas.ThelatterwereledbyArjuna

whosespiritswereunmannedandwhofeltreluctanttostartthebattleseeingonbothsideshis

friends,relations,andteacherswhowerelikelytobekilledintheeventofawar.Atthisjuncture

hischarioteerwhowasnoneotherthanLordKrsnahimselfaddressedtohimtheSongCelestial,

propoundingtohimaswellastothewholeofmankindtheYogaofselflessaction(karmayoga).

Thesignificanceofthisteachingwillbecomeobviousifwerefertothetwoidealswhichwere

prevalentthen:one,thenegativeoneofrenunciationandtheother,thepositiveone,ofactive

life.Thefirstrecommendedcompletewithdrawalfromtheworkadayworldandthesecond

encouragedlivinginsocietyundertakingalltheobligationsimpliedthereby.TheobjectoftheGita

istodiscoveragoldenmean,toreconcileasitweretheclaimsofrenunciationandactive

participationintheaffairsofsociety.Thisisdonethroughthedoctrineofkarmayogawhich

meansdoingone'sdutywithoutthethoughtofconsequences.


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"Givinguporcarryingonone'swork,bothleadtosalvation;butofthetwo,carryingonone's

workisthemoreexcellent,"saysLordKrsnaintheBhagavadGita.Healsosays,"Neitherdoes

manattainto(thestateof)beingwithoutworkbyundertakingnowork,nordoeshereach

perfectionbysimplyshunningtheworld."Whatisrequiredisaspiritofdetachmentwherethe

heartof

aperson

is

free

from

the

outward

motives

to

action.

"Thy

interest

shall

only

be

directed

tothedeed,nevertothefruitsthereof,"saysLordKrsna.

Anaturalconsequenceofthistheoryisthatevenwhatisjudgedasevilfromhumanstandardscan

beapprovedof,iftheagentfeelsthatthetaskselectedbyhimisonewhichmustbefulfilled.

"Evenifathoroughscoundrellovesmeandnothingelse,hemustbedeemedgood;forhehas

wellresolved."[32]"Evenifthouwertthemostsinfulofallsinners,yetthouwouldstpassoverall

guiltwiththeboatofknowledgealone."[33]WiththesewordsArjunaisurgedtofightagainsthis

relations,forhiskillingwouldnotbeanevil:itwouldbeanecessaryconsequenceofthedutyhe

hastodischarge.

TheethicsofdetachmentaspreachedbytheGitaislaudablenodoubt,but,asSchweitzersays,"It

grantsrecognitiontoactivity,onlyafteractivityhasrenouncednaturalmotivesanditsnatural

meaning."[34]Anactionlosesitssignificancewhenitceasestobepurposive.TheGitaraisesa

voiceofprotestagainstthesoulkillingandlifenegatingcultofrenunciation,butithasnotgone

farenough.Renunciationremainswhentheendofanactivityisnoconcernofaperson."The

BhagavadGitahasasphinxlikecharacter.Itcontainssuchmarvellousphrasesaboutinner

detachmentfromtheworld,abouttheattitudeofthemindwhichknowsnohatredandiskind,

andaboutlovingselfdevotiontoGod,thatwearewonttooverlookitsnonethicalcontents."

[35]

TheHeterodoxSystems AmongthesystemswhichdefiedtheauthorityoftheVedasmaybe

mentionedtheCarvaka,Jainism,andBuddhism:

1.TheCarvaka Thissystemseemstobefairlyold.ItismentionedintheRgVeda,theEpics,and

theBhagavadGita.Themainworkonthesystem,theBrhaspatiSutra(600B.C.),islostandits

teachingshavetobereconstructedfromcriticismofitinotherworks.


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TheCarvakaisanonVedic,materialistic,andantisupernaturalisticdoctrinewhichholdsthatonly

thisworldexistsandthereisnothingbeyond.Thereisnofuturelife.MadhavaAcharyasaysin

Sarvadarsanasangrgha,"The

efforts

of

Carvaka

are

indeed

hard

to

be

eradicated,

for

the

majority

oflivingbeingsholdbytherefrain:

Whilelifeisyours,livejoyously;

NonecanescapeDeath'ssearchingeye:

Whenoncethisframeofourstheyburn,

Howshallite'eragainreturn?"[36]

"Themassofmen,inaccordancewiththeSastrasofpolicyandenjoymentarefoundtofollow

onlythedoctrineofCarvaka.HenceanothernameforthatschoolisLokayata anamewell

accordantwiththethingsignified."[37]

Thefourelementsalonearetheultimateprinciplesandtheseareearth,water,fire,andair.Only

theperceivedexists;theunperceivabledoesnotexist,simplyforthereasonofitsneverhaving

beenperceived.Theonlysourceofknowledgeandthecriterionofvalidityisperception.Every

othersourceincludingthatofinferenceisrejected.Inferentialknowledgeinvolvesinductive

relationsandcanneverbedemonstrablycertain.Empiricalgeneralizationsmaypossessahigh

degreeofprobability,buttheiroperationinunknowncasescanneverbeguaranteed.Toavoid

thisdifficulty,ifitismaintainedthattheempiricallawsconnectthecommonfeaturesofthe

particularinstancesobservedbyaperson,theCarvakaobjectstoitbysayingthatsuchacourse

wouldleavetheparticularsunrelatedandthatitistheparticularsalonewhichmatter.

AsagainsttheUpanisadswhichpostulatedfiveelements,theCarvakaadmitsofonlyfour

discardingthefifthone,viz.,space.Thewholeuniverseincludingsoulsisinterpretedstrictlyin


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termsoftheseelements.Theselfisnothingbutthephysicalbodyascharacterizedbysentience.

"Thesoulisbutthebodycharacterizedbytheattributessignifiedintheexpressions,Iamstout,I

amyouthful,Iamgrownup,Iamold,etc.Itisnotsomethingotherthanthatbody)."[38]

TheCarvakarejectsoutrightalltypesofspiritualvaluesandhasfaithinthepresentworldonly.

"Thereisnoworldotherthanthis;thereisnoheavenandnohell;therealmofSivaandlike

regionsareinventedbystupidimpostorsofotherschoolsofthought....Thewiseshouldenjoythe

pleasuresofthisworldthroughthepropervisiblemeansofagriculture,keepingcattle,trade,

politicaladministration,etc."[39]TheauthorityoftheVedasisrepudiatednotonlyontheground

thattheirteachingsareirrational,butalsobecauseoftheinconsistencieswhichrenderit

impossibletoknowwhattheyreallyteach.

TheCarvakaisaprotestagainsttheexcessivespiritualityoftheearlyBrahmanicthought.It

recognizesneithergodnorconscience.Itcaresnotforabeliefinthelifetocome.Hencethe

ethicalidealispleasureinthislifeandthattoooftheindividual.

SincethemaintrendofHinduthought:hasbeenidealistic,theCarvakasystemhascontributed

verylittletothesumofIndianthought,[40]andthisisratherunfortunate.Inviewofthefactthat

theVedas,theUpanisads,andtheGitarejecttheevidenceofthesensesasillusory,theCarvaka

contentionmighthaveservedasacorrective.

2.Jainism Jainism,accordingtoTomlin,[41]isthemostperplexingofallreligions,foritisnot

onlyincrediblebutalsoimpracticable.Itdenieslifetotheextentofrecommendingsuicideasthe

mostsacredactofwhichmaniscapable,andyetithassurvivedfortwothousandyears.

ThefounderofJainism,Mahavira,wasborninaKsatriyafamily.Hisfatherwasawealthyperson

belongingtoareligioussectwhichwasopposedtotheVedas.Thisschoolofthoughthad

materialistictendenciesandscepticalattitudeverymuchakintothatofCarvaka.Butitwasnota

thoroughgoingmaterialism.Itsharedwiththemassesthehorrorofrebirthandadvocatedslow

suicidethroughstarvationasaremedyagainsttransmigration.Mahavira'sfathergothiswife


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convertedtohisviewpointandinduecoursesharedwithherthemartyrdomtheydesired.

Beforefollowingtheexampleofhisparents,Mahaviraembarkeduponaquestofwisdomand

adoptedan

ascetic

life.

After

two

years

of

abstinence

and

self

denial

he

withdrew

himself

from

civilizedlifeanddispensedwithalltheamenitiesoflifeincludingthoseofclothing.Duringthefirst

sixyearsofhisperegrination,heobservedfrequentfastsofseveralmonthsduration.He

voluntarilyexposedhimselftobemaltreatedbytheMlechchatribesofVajrabhumiandLatwho

abusedandbeathim,andshotarrowsathim,andbaitedhimwithdogs,toallofwhichheoffered

noresistance.Attheendoftheninthyear,Mahavirarelinquishedhissilence,butcontinuedthe

practiceofselfmortification.Thewholeofthetimespentbyhiminthesepreparatoryexercises

wastwelveyearsacidsixmonths,andofthishefastednearlyelevenyears.

TheJainshaveatraditionthatsavioursaresenttotheworldwhenevermankindisplungedin

corruptionandsin.Mahavirawastwentyfourthintheline.

MahaviradeniedthedivineoriginandinfallibleauthorityoftheVedas.Hisreligionis,therefore,

reckonedasaheterodoxreligion.ItscosmologyandanthropologyisnonAryan.While

BrahmanismistherepresentativeofVedicAryanthoughtandbeliefs,Buddhism;Jainism,anda

hostofotherdoctrinesrelatethemselvestothenativegeniusandexposethepessimisticdualism

whichunderliessomuchofIndianphilosophy.Jainismisaphilosophyoftheprofoundest

pessimism.Itvisualizestheworldasaroundofendlessrebirths,fullofsufferingsandentirely

useless.Oneshallhavetopassthroughperiodsofinconsequentialpleasuresandunbearable

painsunlessoneobtainsareleasethroughausteritiesandselfabnegation.IntheJainaSutras,

suicideiscalled"theincomparablereligiousdeath,"requiringinsomecasesawholelifetimeto

cultivateaproperframeofmindforitsperformance.Itisessentialthatalltypesoflongings

includingthoseofdeathbecompletelyeradicatedfromone'sconsciousness.Henceonehasto

bringaboutone'sextinctioninamoodbeyondbothdesireandaversion.

AsregardsthephilosophyofJainism,itmaybesaidthataneternalandpresidingFirstCause

formsnopartofthissystem,nordotheJainsadmitofsoulorspiritasdistinctfromtheliving

principle.Theydobelieveintheindependentandeternalexistenceofspiritandmatter,butby

spirittheydonotmeanuniversalspiritastheyhavenofaithintheSupremeSoul.


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