a guide to welding titanium â€¢a guide to welding titanium

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION OF WELDINGAND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING

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2007

December 2007

•A Guide to Welding Titanium

•Nonvacuum EB Welding

•Cross Wire Welding of Everyday Products

•A Guide to Welding Titanium

•Nonvacuum EB Welding

•Cross Wire Welding of Everyday Products

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3WELDING JOURNAL

CONTENTS26 Titanium Welding 101: Best GTA Practices

This introduction to titanium welding focuses on bestpractices and outlines common pitfallsJ. Luck and J. Fulcer

32 Fifty Years of Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding

Nonvacuum electron beam welding has proven itself as arugged, reliable production toolD. E. Powers

36 The Other Resistance Process: Cross Wire Welding

The reinforcing mesh used in buildings, roads, tunnels,and prefabricated components are just some of the applications for which cross wire welding is routinely usedN. Scotchmer

40 The Welding of Titanium and Its Alloys

Proper attention to cleanliness and other procedures willlead to high-quality titanium weldsR. Sutherlin

Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is publishedmonthly by the American Welding Society for$120.00 per year in the United States and posses-sions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50per single issue for domestic AWS members and$10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and$14.00 single issue for international. AmericanWelding Society is located at 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,Miami, FL 33126-5671; telephone (305) 443-9353.Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and addi-tional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd.,Miami, FL 33126-5671.

Readers of Welding Journal may make copies ofarticles for personal, archival, educational or re-search purposes, and which are not for sale or re-sale. Permission is granted to quote from articles,provided customary acknowledgment of authorsand sources is made. Starred (*) items excludedfrom copyright.

DepartmentsWashington Watchword ..........4

Press Time News ................6

Editorial ............................8

News of the Industry ............10

Aluminum Q&A ..................14

Letters to the Editor ............16

Brazing Q&A ......................20

New Products ....................22

Technology........................46

Welding Workbook ..............48

Navy Joining Center ............49

Coming Events....................50

Society News ....................53

Tech Topics ......................54

ASME Section IX ............54

B5.15 Amendment ..........55

D1.1 Interpretation ..........55

Guide to AWS Services..........71

New Literature....................74

Personnel ........................76

Welding Journal Index ..........80

Classifieds ........................93

Advertiser Index..................96

373-s A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing

Complex Metal Composites

A hybrid brazing process allows the joining of very small andcomplex componentsFr.-W. Bach et al.

379-s Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation Caused by

Dissimilar Filler Metals

Mechanisms are proposed to explain why severe macrosegrationcan occur when welding with filler metals dissimilar to the basemetalY. K. Yang and S. Kou

388-s Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using

the Enhanced Modified Faraday Cup

A diagnostic tool was proven useful in transferring beamparameters between different electron beam welding machinesT. A. Palmer et al.

Features

Welding Research Supplement

26

32

36

December 2007 • Volume 86 • Number 12 AWS Web site www.aws.org

Geoff Ekblaw adds filler metal to a gas tungsten arc titanium weld. (Photocourtesy of Miller Electric Mfg. Co.)

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OSHA Issues Guidance on Combustible Dust

The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) has issued a new safety and health instruction outliningOSHA policies and procedures for inspecting workplaces thathandle combustible dusts.

OSHA’s specific concern is fire and explosion hazards thatmay exist at facilities handling combustible dust. Almost 300 dustfires and explosions have occurred in U.S. industrial facilitiesover the past 25 years, resulting in 119 fatalities and more than700 injuries.

Combustible dusts can be generated in various parts of theproduction process, and explosions can occur within any processwhere a combustible dust accumulates, is produced or stored, oris airborne. A variety of energy sources can trigger a dust explo-sion, including welding and cutting.

The instruction is available at http://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/Di-rective_pdf/CPL_03-00-006.pdf.

Bill Seeks to Expand Trade Adjustment Assistance

The Trade and Globalization Assistance Act of 2007 is movingquickly through Congress, and it is seen as a possible adjunct toseveral pending free trade bills, particularly the Peru Trade Promo-tion Agreement.

The Trade and Globalization Assistance Act of 2007 is de-signed to extend trade adjustment assistance coverage to moreworkers, including service workers, and improve the program’straining opportunities and associated health care benefits. Thebill also would create 24 manufacturing redevelopment zones,which would be eligible for various redevelopment tax incentives.

Bureau of Labor Statistics Industry DataShow Decrease in Workplace Injuries

The U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statisticsannounced that the rate of workplace injuries and illnesses inprivate industry declined in 2006 for the fourth consecutive year.Nonfatal workplace injuries and illnesses reported by private in-dustry employers declined from 4.6 cases per 100 workers in 2005to 4.4 cases in 2006. Manufacturing illness rates especially fell,from 66.1 in 2005 to 57.7 per 10,000 workers in 2006.

Companies with 10 or fewer workers had the lowest rate forinjuries and illnesses combined (1.9 cases per 100 full-time work-ers), while midsize firms (50 to 249 workers) reported the high-est rate (5.5 cases per 100 full-time workers).

New Piracy Initiative Announced

The U.S. Trade Representative has announced that the UnitedStates and some of its key trading partners will seek to negotiatean Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA).

While there are already active ongoing international anti-counterfeiting efforts, the concept here is that negotiation of a“plurilateral agreement” among a small group of like-mindedtrading partners will proceed more quickly and productively thana global agreement. The envisioned ACTA will include commit-ments in the following three areas:

1. strengthening international cooperation,2. improving enforcement practices, and3. providing a strong legal framework for intellectual prop-

erty rights enforcement.There has been increasing recognition that counterfeiting and

piracy threaten U.S. jobs and economic growth, striking at the rep-utation of U.S. brands and stealing the products of U.S. creativityand innovation. Industry loss estimates run into hundreds of bil-lions of dollars. Developing countries are among the biggest vic-tims, as counterfeiters passing off shoddy and unsafe goods under-mine emerging local economies.

Emissions Bill Introduced

The major global warming legislation in the U.S. Senate isAmerica’s Climate Security Act, recently introduced by SenatorsJohn Warner (R-Va.) and Joseph Lieberman (I-Conn.). This leg-islation would impose an emissions cap on electrical utilities,manufacturing sources, and transportation, and it would intro-duce a market-oriented “cap-and-trade” system, in which emis-sion allowances could be bought and sold among firms.

Supporters are attempting to craft a balance between busi-ness and environmental concerns, both of which have expressedreservations about the bill, as has the White House.

College Cost-Reduction Act Signed into Law

The College Cost-Reduction and Access Act became law inSeptember. This new law will raise the maximum annual Pellgrant, the nation’s main aid program for low-income students,from $4300 to $5400 a year by 2012.

Student loan forgiveness is provided for early childhood edu-cators, school librarians, and public safety employees, and the actallows military personnel serving in Iraq and Afghanistan defer-ment on their student loan payments until they return home. ♦

WASHINGTONWATCHWORD

DECEMBER 20074

BY HUGH K. WEBSTERAWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE

Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail [email protected]; FAX (202) 835-0243.

The rate of workplace injuries andillnesses in private industry

declined in 2006 for the fourthconsecutive year, according to the

Bureau of Labor Statistics.Compared to 2005, nonfatal

workplace injuries and illnesses reported by private industry

employers declined, andmanufacturing illness rates

especially fell.

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PRESS TIMENEWS

Canada’s New Government Invests in Skills Training

Canada’s new government is providing $366,906 in funding to the College of NewCaledonia to purchase new mobile training equipment. This means residents in ruralcommunities whose jobs have been affected by the Mountain Pine Beetle infestationwill have access to new skills training through the college.

Dick Harris, member of Parliament for Cariboo-Prince George, recently made theannouncement on behalf of Minister Rona Ambrose, president of the Queen’s PrivyCouncil for Canada, minister of Intergovernmental Affairs, and minister of WesternEconomic Diversification.

Provided through the Community Economic Diversification Initiative, funding willensure the delivery of a full range of training programs, including welding. The first tohave access to the program will be residents in Mackenzie, Burns Lake, Quesnel, andFort St. James, with other communities identified through consultations by the college.

Chief Industries to Add 15 Welding Jobs

Chief Industries, Inc. Agri/Industrial Division, which markets steel buildings, grainbins, grain conditioning, bulk-handling, feedmill equipment, and accessories, recentlyannounced its intention to add 15 new jobs to its Kearney, Neb., plant. The jobs will befor experienced and/or trained welders. Also, the company is planning to add the posi-tions as soon as possible.

To establish a training program in Kearney, Chief has been working with CentralCommunity College, the Buffalo County Economic Development Council, the NebraskaWorkforce Development Kearney Career Center, the Nebraska Department of Eco-nomic Development, and other area metal fabrication employers. The six-week coursewill be offered at night so those currently employed, and wanting to improve themselvesby becoming skilled in the field of welding, can attend in the evening.

H. B. Fuller Co. Donates $50,000 to SMEEducation Foundation

To commemorate its 120th anniversary, H. B. Fuller Co., St. Paul, Minn., a manufac-turer and marketer of adhesives, sealants, paints, and other specialty chemical products,has donated $50,000 to the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) Education Foun-dation to support science, technology, engineering, and math education. This founda-tion will use the donation to open the first Science, Technology & Engineering PreviewSummer (STEPS) Academy programs in Minnesota next summer. In addition, the com-pany’s contribution will enable 120 Minnesota students to attend these STEPS Acade-mies.

Helix Receives Letter of Intent for Installing Subsea Infrastructure

Helix Energy Solutions, Houston, Tex., has recently received a letter of intent for theinstallation of the subsea infrastructure for the VIC/P44 Stage 2 Development projectin the Otway Basin offshore Australia.

The work consists of the preparation and welding of a 22-km, 12-in. gas pipeline at adesignated spoolbase; the installation of the pipeline together with the electrohydrauliccontrol umbilical, flowline jumpers, and control flying leads; and the precommissioningand commissioning of the system.

The expected duration of the work is four and a half months, including mobilizationand demobilization to the Otway Basin from and to India.

Welding Employment and Education Site to Help Address Skilled Welder Shortage

A new Web site, HireWelders.com, has been officially launched. Worldwide informa-tion about welding jobs and welding education is offered here in an effort to develop astronger link between the two. It aims to offer those seeking welders, welding jobs, weld-ing education, or welding students a single place to find what they need.

DECEMBER 20076

MEMBER

Publisher Andrew Cullison

Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber

EditorialEditor/Editorial Director Andrew Cullison

Senior Editor Mary Ruth JohnsenAssociate Editor Howard M. Woodward

Assistant Editor Kristin CampbellPeer Review Coordinator Erin Adams

Graphics and Production Managing Editor Zaida Chavez

Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores

AdvertisingNational Sales Director Rob Saltzstein

Advertising Sales Representative Lea Garrigan BadwyAdvertising Production Manager Frank Wilson

[email protected]

American Welding Society550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126

(305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353

Publications, Expositions, Marketing CommitteeD. L. Doench, ChairHobart Brothers Co.

T. A. Barry, Vice ChairMiller Electric Mfg. Co.J. D. Weber, Secretary

American Welding SocietyR. L. Arn, WELDtech International

S. Bartholomew, ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod.J. Deckrow, HyperthermJ. Dillhoff, OKI Bering

J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.J. Horvath, Thermadyne Industries

D. Levin, AirgasJ. Mueller, Thermadyne Industries

R. G. Pali, J. P. Nissen Co.J. F. Saenger Jr., ConsultantS. Smith, Weld-Aid ProductsD. Wilson, Wilson Industries

H. Castner, Ex Off., Edison Welding InstituteD. C. Klingman, Ex Off., The Lincoln Electric Co.

L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship SystemsE. C. Lipphardt, Ex Off., Consultant

S. Liu, Ex Off., Colorado School of MinesV. Y. Matthews, Ex Off., The Lincoln Electric Co.R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding SocietyG. D. Uttrachi, Ex Off., WA Technology, LLC

Copyright © 2007 by American Welding Society in both printed and elec-tronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made oropinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authorsof specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not in-tended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on thepart of potential users.

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EDITORIAL

The high average age of today’s welders and the large numbers of Baby Boomersstarting to retire are causing a significant welder shortage in the United States.Unfortunately, there are far fewer welding students coming in to replace them. A skilledwelder shortage is projected to get significantly worse.

While representing AWS as this year’s president, I presented keynote speeches onwelder shortage issues at conferences in Peru, Denmark, and South Korea, and discussedthe subject while in China, Croatia, and the UK. The folks in those countries indicatedthey have similar problems. At one of the conferences, a person from Germany men-tioned the welder shortage there was severe and requested copies of my slides that dis-cuss approaches to improve the situation.

According to a survey conducted by a manpower research group this year, skilledmanual trades workers are at the top of employers’ wish lists in Germany, UnitedKingdom, Canada, Australia, Spain, Italy, Belgium, Austria, Sweden, France, andSwitzerland.

Even during the discussions I had in China, it was stated that young people there arecoming from the country to the larger cities to work in office jobs, not in skilled trades.Most countries had similar stories, the exception being South Korea where an entrepre-neurial statement was made independently by several folks. When it was mentionedthere is no problem obtaining skilled welders at Hyundai Shipyard, one of the largest inthe world, I asked why. Officials there simply said, “We pay a lot.” Representatives fromthe Korean steelmaker, Posco, said the same thing.

The entrepreneurial attitude found throughout South Korea was reinforced at Posco.The steel mill was started as a greenfield plant in 1968 and is now one of the largest, mostprosperous steel mills in the world despite requiring all iron ore and coal to be import-ed. The excellent environment and clean operation at the mill were most impressive. Wealso visited a large Hyundai automotive assembly plant where they solve their welderneeds with extensive automation. There was almost no manual welding. Robots madegas metal arc, laser, and resistance welds, and performed most of the assembly tasks aswell. Skilled welding technicians are on staff.

Areas of the United States also showed some promise for solving the shortage prob-lem. I visited a number of welding schools and was pleasantly surprised with the largenumbers of enthusiastic students. The principal of York County School of Technologysaid when he first came to the school, he would not have sent his child to the weldingprogram at the facility. With the help of local industry and volunteers, they upgraded thequality of their facility, which resulted in significantly increased enrollment. Currently,the program includes approximately 100 very enthusiastic welding students.

A scholarship donation to the AWS Foundation by ESAB earmarked for theSoutheastern Institute of Manufacturing Technology in South Carolina is helping to getquality high school students interested in welding. Scholarship funds are for studentswho attend the welding degree program at the Institute. Ross Gandy, the school’s weld-ing business manager, convinced state regulators and the college to give one semester’sworth of credit to high school students graduating from qualified welding programs. TheESAB scholarship funds will help motivate high-potential incoming high school fresh-men to consider welding as a career.

In summary, the shortage of skilled welders is a worldwide problem. We can learnfrom the entrepreneurial approach in Korea where “highpay” provides one solution. In addition, the fabricatingindustry needs to support scholarships for quality high schoolstudents to consider acquiring a technology degree inwelding.

DECEMBER 20078

Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science,Technology and Application of Welding

Welder Shortages:A Worldwide Problem

Gerald D. UttrachiAWS President

OfficersPresident Gerald D. Uttrachi

WA Technology, LLC

Vice President Gene E. LawsonESAB Welding & Cutting Products

Vice President Victor Y. MatthewsThe Lincoln Electric Co.

Vice President John C. BruskotterBruskotter Consulting Services

Treasurer Earl C. LipphardtConsultant

Executive Director Ray W. ShookAmerican Welding Society

DirectorsB. P. Albrecht (At Large), Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

O. Al-Erhayem (At Large), JOM

A. J. Badeaux Sr. (Dist. 3), Charles Cty. Career & Tech. Center

H. R. Castner (At Large), Edison Welding Institute

N. A. Chapman (Dist. 6), Entergy Nuclear Northeast

N. C. Cole (At Large), NCC Engineering

J. D. Compton (Dist. 21), College of the Canyons

L. P. Connor (Dist. 5), Consultant

G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Gonzalez Industrial X-Ray

D. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc.

J. E. Greer (Past President), Moraine Valley C. C.

M. V. Harris (Dist. 15), Reynolds Welding Supply

R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Consultant

W. E. Honey (Dist. 8), Anchor Research Corp.

D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp.

W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech LLC

D. J. Kotecki (Past President), Consultant

D. Landon (Dist. 16), Vermeer Mfg. Co.

R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C.

J. L. Mendoza (Dist. 18), CPS Energy

S. P. Moran (Dist. 12), Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

R. L. Norris (Dist. 1), Merriam Graves Corp.

T. C. Parker (Dist. 14), Miller Electric Mfg. Co.

W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College

O. P. Reich (Dist. 17), Texas State Technical College at Waco

W. A. Rice (At Large), OKI Bering, Inc.

E. Siradakis (Dist. 11), Airgas Great Lakes

N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland

K. R. Stockton (Dist. 2), PSE&G, Maplewood Testing Serv.

D. R. Wilson (At Large), Wilson Industries

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DECEMBER 200710

NEWS OF THEINDUSTRY

Miller to Give Away a Weld Shop Lincoln Electric Breaks Ground forConsumables Plant Expansion

IIW Celebrates 60 Years of ServiceThe International Institute of Welding (IIW) commenced a year of activities to celebrate

the 60th anniversary of its operation as a worldwide innovation and technology platform forwelding and joining at its 2007 Annual Assembly in Croatia in July.

A nonprofit organization, the IIW was originally proposed by a group of scientists and re-searchers to promote innovation and best joining practices. Their idea was to provide a globalplatform for the exchange and diffusion of evolving welding technologies and applications.

Founded in 1948 by the welding institutes or societies in 13 countries, this organization has52 member countries today. It is driven by the combined synergy of thousands of experts whoconduct and participate in technical IIW Commission meetings, international congresses, as-semblies, and themed conferences.

The mission of IIW is to “act as the worldwide facilitating network for knowledge exchangeof joining technology to improve the global quality of life.”

The General Assembly decides the organization’s policies, at which all the national membersocieties are represented, and also elects its president and the members of the board of directors.

The president of IIW from 2005 to 2008 is Chris Smallbone, executive director of the Welding Technology Institute of Aus-tralia. The day-to-day work is ensured by a permanent secretariat currently under the responsibility of Daniel Beaufils, the chiefexecutive. On Beaufils’s retirement in January 2008, this role will be taken up by André Charbonnier. The secretariat role is cur-rently provided by the French Institut de Soudure.

The technical document database of the organization currently references more than 12,700 IIW documents. The motivators ofthis output are the IIW Commissions. Additionally, the voluntary chairs of the Commissions manage the activities of the commis-sion and subgroups.

In 1986, it was selected as one of the world’s three official International Standardizing Bodies in the areas of welding and joining. Taken up in 2005 was the IIW Project “To Improve the Global Quality of Life Through the Optimum Use of Welding Technology.”

The organization has established a system of requirements for the proper education, training, qualification, and certification ofwelding professionals. The IIW Manufacturer Certification Scheme for the Management of Quality, Environment, and Healthand Safety in Welded Fabrication has been established as well.

IIW, its member societies, and individuals, are currently collaborating to prepare a White Paper or common vision documentthat can be used to promote a positive image of welding.

Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis., is giving away a weld shopvalued at more than $17,000. The giveaway includes a welding ma-chine/generator, welding and plasma cutting power sources, auto-darkening helmet, safety gear, welding accessories, and personal-ized expert training. It runs October 1 through December 31, 2007,and offers participants the opportunity to win more than 1300 In-stant Win prizes. Go to www.MillerWelds.com/ultimate/ for offi-cial rules and registration.

Lincoln Electric recently held groundbreaking ceremonies for a120,000-sq-ft expansion of its Mentor, Ohio, consumables plant.Shown from left is John Stropki, Lincoln Electric chairman andCEO; the Honorable Ray Kirchner, mayor of Mentor, Ohio; GeorgeBlankenship, Lincoln Electric SVP of global engineering and U.S.operations; and Tony Panzica, president of Panzica ConstructionCo. The plant, built in 1977, is being expanded to handle increasedwire-drawing capacity at the company’s consumables manufactur-ing operations. The project is expected to be completed during thefirst quarter of 2008.

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11WELDING JOURNAL

Instructor Earns Workforce DevelopmentAward for South Dakota State University

South Dakota State University (SDSU), Brookings, S.Dak.,has received the “Outstanding Adult Program for 2007” fromthe South Dakota Workforce Development Council through theSouth Dakota Department of Labor Workforce Investment Act.

An introductory welding training course taught by HarveySvec, instructor in the College of Engineering’s Engineering Tech-nology and Management Department, and hosted by SDSU dur-ing this past summer, was the impetus for the award. Svec servedas the college’s representative at the South Dakota WorkforceDevelopment Council’s awards banquet as well.

The Brookings Area Career Learning Center and the SouthDakota Career Center in Brookings coordinated the 80-h weld-ing class for Twin City Fan and Blower Co., who needed experi-enced production welders to fill open positions. As a result, sevennew $30,000-a-year jobs were created.

Svec covered wire feed welding methods, shop safety, and re-lated industrial topics during the two-week class.

Report Finds Industry Is Concerned about Overall Confidence

The Small Business Research Board recently reported fewerowners and managers of small manufacturing companies duringthe third quarter expressed confidence in their business prospectsfor the next 12 months.

According to the poll cosponsored by International Profit As-sociates, Northfield, Ill., the Manufacturing Industry Small Busi-ness Confidence Index (SBCI) declined to 38.33 from the 40.3that was reported during the second quarter of 2007.

In addition, the current index is lower than the SBCI of 43 re-ported for all U.S. small businesses.

The lower index resulted largely from the change in revenuepredictions. During the next 12 months, the poll tabulationsshowed that 45% are expecting revenues to increase.

At the South Dakota Workforce Development Council’s awardsbanquet in September, Harvey Svec (center) served as South DakotaState University’s representative for the “Outstanding Adult Pro-gram for 2007.” The impetus for the award was an introductorywelding training course he taught. Also pictured (at left) are JeffKjenstad of Brookings Career Center and (at right) Viola Richards,Brookings Area Learning Center.

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index


DECEMBER 200712

SmartTCP Chosen by NPK Manufacturing to Automate Welding Operations

SmartTCP, Farmington Hills, Mich., recently announced itsSmartTCP automatic welding equipment has been installed and isrunning in NPK Construction Equipment, Inc.’s, new manufactur-ing facility to increase the company’s production volumes of largeweldments. Designed for complex fabrications in small batch pro-duction, the robotic welding equipment combines hardware andsoftware into a welding cell that automates the robot programmingand weld production of NPK’s high-mix, low-volume parts.

Wenzel Dedicates New NorthAmerican Manufacturing Facility

Wenzel GmbH of Germany, a manufacturer of coordinate meas-uring machines (CMMs), officially opened a new 24,000-sq-ft NorthAmerican headquarters and manufacturing facility in Wixom,Mich., at dedication ceremonies held in October. Frank Wenzel(seen above), managing director of Wenzel GmbH, cuts the grandopening ribbon. The two-story building houses all of the company’sNorth American administrative and engineering offices, the pro-duction operation for the X-Orbit and Xtreme LH series of bridge-style CMMs, and a dedicated customer training and demonstra-tion facility.



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DECEMBER 200714

ALUMINUMQ&A BY TONY ANDERSON

Q: I am a welder who has worked withgas metal arc welding (GMAW) of steeland GMAW of aluminum. I have seen re-sistance spot welding (RSW) of steel butdo not fully understand the process. Howdoes this process work, and can it be usedfor welding aluminum?

A: Resistance spot welding is one of agroup of welding processes that rely onthe resistance of metals to the flow of elec-trical current to produce the heat requiredfor coalescence. The RSW process pro-duces a localized weld spot between themetals being welded. This is achieved byclamping two, or sometimes more, piecesof material together between two copperelectrodes, and then passing a current be-tween the electrodes for a short period oftime while the material is subjected to lo-calized pressure — Fig. 1. The heat thatis generated during this welding processis a result of the electrical resistance ofthe metals through which the electricityis passed. It is a fusion welding process be-cause melting must occur at the interfacebetween the joint members to cause coa-lescence, form a cast nugget, and join themembers together.

Sectioned and polished resistance spotwelds are shown in Figs. 2 and 3. Figure 2shows an aerospace industry weld of veryhigh quality made in a high-strength 2xxxseries alloy, and Fig. 3 shows a commercial-quality spot weld in aluminum sheet that hassome characteristic discontinuities.

We can now examine some of the ad-vantages and disadvantages of the RSWprocess.

Advantages of RSW

• It is an automatic process that requireslittle operator training.

• It is commonly used for robotic applications.

• The potential for distortion is minimal.• Welds are typically completed in a very

short cycle time (less than 1 s).• Welds can be conducted through lubri-

cants, sealers, and structural adhesives.• Weld location and spacing can be easily

adjusted to provide the required jointstrength.

• Almost all aluminum alloys are weldable.• Weld appearance is generally consistent.• No filler metal is required.

Disadvantages of RSW

• It is limited to lap joints.• It requires access to both sides of the

joint.• The maximum size of a welded assem-

bly is not unlimited.• The process is not easily made portable.

Differences between RSWAluminum and Steel

Aluminum can be welded very success-fully with the RSW process; however, be-cause of the differences in some of thephysical properties of aluminum and steel,the procedures used to weld aluminumare somewhat different than those usedfor steel. The primary differences are dis-cussed below.

Surface Oxide

When exposed to the atmosphere, alu-minum oxidizes rapidly to form its char-acteristic oxide covering. With prolongedexposure to the atmosphere, the alu-minum oxide increases in thickness pro-gressively until the oxidation rate slows-down substantially after about ten days.

Fig. 1 — An illustration of the resistance spot welding process.

Fig. 2 — An aerospace-quality weld in 0.9 to 1.0 mm Alclad2024 alloy. (Reproduced by permission, TWI Ltd.)

Fig. 3 — Commercial-quality spot weld in 2 mm 6082 to 1.2 mm6016. (Reproduced by permission, TWI Ltd.) The shrinkagecracking within the center of this weld is not uncommon in com-mercial-quality aluminum spot welds, particularly in the morecrack sensitive 6xxx series materials. These types of discontinu-ities in the center of the weld nugget do not dramatically reducethe weld’s strength as the majority of the applied load to this typeof joint is at the edges of the nugget. On testing, such a weld wouldnormally fail by tearing out from the thin sheet, leaving a buttonthe same diameter as the weld nugget on the other sheet.

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15WELDING JOURNAL

Controlling the oxide surface on the alu-minum is probably the most important sin-gle factor in producing consistently goodresistance spot welds in aluminum. If thealuminum oxide is relatively thin, has auniform electrical resistance at all points,and is consistent from part to part, thenwelding procedures can be developed tomake consistently high-quality welds.

The condition of the aluminum oxideon the material to be welded may varygreatly due to the length and method ofstorage and/or the effects of prior fabrica-tion procedures. For best results, the alu-minum oxide should be removed from allsurfaces prior to welding and the weld per-formed as soon as possible after oxide re-moval. This is particularly important for air-craft-quality welds. About one day is a prac-tical limit for lapsed time between cleaningand welding to obtain high-quality welds.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansionof aluminum is approximately twice thatof steel. Consequently, aluminum alloysundergo greater expansion and contrac-tion when going from a solid to a liquidand back to a solid state. These increaseddimensional changes are greatest in theweld zone and can result in cracking ofthe nugget if the time interval is very short,or if the welding machine being used isnot equipped to accommodate all of thephysical characteristics of aluminum.Weld cracking and the stresses built up bymetal shrinkage are eliminated or sub-stantially reduced by features found in re-sistance welding machines designed forjoining aluminum.

One of these is a welding head of lowinertia and low friction, which permits thehead to be moved quickly and with a highdegree of control. It has been found thata quick, closely controlled increase in forg-ing pressure, applied when the aluminumin the weld zone is cooling across its plas-tic range, helps to avert cracks or voids inthe weld. Another pertinent feature is theuse of current decay, which retards thecooling rate and thus lengthens the timeover which the nugget freezes. Currentdecay makes the controlled application offorging pressure more effective and alsorelieves the rapid buildup of shrinkagestresses in the weld.

Thermal Conductivity

The thermal conductivity of aluminumand its alloys is approximately three timesthat of steel. Therefore, the rate of heatloss from the weld area is much greater inaluminum than steel. Since the amount ofheat loss is also a function of time, it is es-pecially advantageous that welding timebe kept short in aluminum welding.Higher welding current and shorter weld-

ing time must be used to resistance weldaluminum when compared to steel.

Electrical Conductivity

Aluminum and its alloys have a muchhigher electrical conductivity than steel.Consequently, welding current is typicallyrequired to be three times that used foran equivalent gauge in steel. High electri-cal conductivity can also increase the po-tential for shunting, which is welding cur-rent by-passing or shunting through a pre-vious weld instead of going through thesurface contacts where the weld is beingmade. Care should be taken to compen-sate for shunting with increased currentwhere necessary.

Electrode Wear

The copper that is used for the elec-trodes in spot welding can become alloyedwith the aluminum surface leading torapid electrode wear and deterioration ofweld quality. Consequently, electrode lifeis generally shorter than when weldingsteel. Careful control of electrode condi-tion and good water cooling are essential.The best results are obtained with veryfrequent light cleaning of the electrodetips to prevent significant build-up of analloy layer.

Conclusion

The unique properties of aluminumtypically require welding procedures andequipment that may have some specialfeatures. The equipment will deliverhigher currents at lower weld times thanfor steel. However, once the physical dif-ferences of the material and the need forspecific equipment are understood, excel-lent welds can be made by this process.◆

References

1. Welding Aluminum Theory and Prac-tice. The Aluminum Association, Arling-ton, Va.

2. Welding Kaiser Aluminum. Oakland,Calif.

TONY ANDERSON is corporate technicaltraining manager for ESAB North America andcoordinates specialized training in aluminumwelding technology for AlcoTec Wire Corpora-tion. He is a Senior Member of TWI and a Reg-istered Chartered Engineer. He is chairman ofthe Aluminum Association Technical AdvisoryCommittee for Welding and holds numerous po-sitions including chairman, vice chairman, andmember of various AWS technical committees.Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Weld-ing Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL33126, or via e-mail at [email protected].


Aluminum Q and A December 2007:Layout 1 11/6/07 3:02 PM Page 15

LETTERS TO THEEDITOR

Reader Corrects Error inAluminum Q&A Column

This letter is in reference to the AluminumQ&A column that appeared in the October2007 issue. Tony Anderson’s response fol-lows.

I was reading your article regardinglaser beam welding of aluminum in theWelding Journal when I discovered a cou-ple of inaccuracies. You incorrectly statedthe wavelengths of the carbon dioxidelaser as 10.6 mm and the YAG laser as1.06 mm. The actual wavelengths are car-bon dioxide 10,600 nm (0.0106 mm) andYAG 1064 nm (0.001064 mm).

Steven A. Kocheny Applications Engineer

LEISTER Technologies, LLC Itasca, Ill.

Thank you for identifying this technicalerror. The wavelengths should have beenshown as 10.6 μm (microns) and not 10.6mm (millimeters) for CO2 laser and 1.06μm and not 1.06 mm for YAG laser. This,of course, is the same as 10,600 nm(nanometers) and 1064 nm for CO2 andYAG laser, respectively.

Tony Anderson

Reader Examines History ofFiller Metals Article

This letter relates to The American Welder

article, A Brief History of Filler Metals, inthe October 2007 Welding Journal. The au-thor’s response follows.

I couldn’t wait to read the article. I lovethe “history of welding” stuff you publishnow and then.

But what a disappointment — I foundsome errors.

For example, Sir Humphry Davy didnot discover arcs in 1800. That was the yearbatteries were discovered. It wasn’t until1809–1810 that the “Great Battery” of theRoyal Institution was in full use. Davy’s“electric arch” (hence the term “arc”) be-tween horizontal carbon electrodes wasdiscovered when he broke a circuit whiledoing chemical experiments. At the time,the arc was referred to as a “voltaic flame.”Only later was it called an arc.

Also, the inventor’s name is “Benar-dos” not “Bernardo.” I checked the origi-nal patent for the spelling.

Gas metal arc welding was not “per-fected until 1948 at the Battelle Memo-rial Institute” as stated in the article. Itwas perfected at the laboratories of Airco,in Murray Hill, N.J., where the inventorswere located. Some work was contractedto Battelle by Airco. (For more informa-tion see The Dawn of Gas Metal ArcWelding, Welding Journal, January 1990,all about Glenn Gibson, one of the inven-tors of GMAW.)

Airco also was the first developer ofshort circuit metal transfer with GMAW,now known as GMAW-S. They called it “diptransfer.” Linde, a division of Union Car-

bide Corp., whose labs were close by inNewark, N.J., also worked with the process.Linde called it “short arc.” When Hobartdeveloped its equipment much later, theyintroduced the name “microwire.”

Most of the early work of Airco andLinde was with argon-based mixtures withoxygen and carbon dioxide. The carbondioxide version was developed in Europebecause at the time, there wasn’t muchargon (remember, this was shortly afterWW II). Now, everybody uses all the gases.

August F. ManzAWS Fellow

Honorary Historian

Thank you for providing these additionaldetails. As mentioned in the article’s open-ing, history as a whole can indeed be vagueand some records inexact. The history ofwelding and filler metals seems even moreso.

Through the dedication of historians likeyourself and accurate record keeping oneveryone’s part, we hope this century’s weld-ing advancements will be carefully preservedfor future generations.

Many thanks for your comments.

Tim HensleyHobart Brothers Co.

DECEMBER 200716

CAN WE TALK?The Welding Journal staff encourages an exchange of ideas with you, our readers. If you’d like to ask a question, share an idea or

voice an opinion, you can call, write, e-mail or fax. Staff e-mail addresses are listed below, along with a guide to help you interact withthe right person.

Publisher/EditorAndrew Cullison [email protected], Extension 249Article Submissions

Senior EditorMary Ruth [email protected], Extension 238Feature Articles

Associate Editor Howard [email protected], Extension 244Society News, Personnel

Assistant Editor Kristin [email protected], Extension 257New Products, News of the Industry

Managing Editor Zaida [email protected], Extension 265Design and Production

Advertising Sales Director Rob Saltzstein [email protected], Extension 243Advertising Sales

Advertising Sales & Promotion Coordinator

Lea Garrigan [email protected], Extension 220Production and Promotion

Advertising Production Manager Frank [email protected], Extension 465Advertising Production

Peer Review Coordinator Erin [email protected], Extension 275Peer Review of Research Papers

Welding Journal Dept. 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd. Miami, FL 33126 (800) 443-9353FAX (305) 443-7404

Letters to the Editor December 2007:Layout 1 11/6/07 9:02 AM Page 16

AWS FELLOWSHIPS

To: Professors Engaged in Joining Research

Subject: Request for Proposals for AWS Fellowships for the 2008-09 Academic Year

The American Welding Society (AWS) seeks to foster university research in joining and to recognize outstanding faculty and student talent. We are again requesting your proposals for consideration by AWS. It is expected that the winning researchers will take advantage of the opportunity to work with industry committees interested in the research topics and report work in progress. Please note, there are important changes in the schedule which you must follow in order to enable the awards to be made in a timely fashion. Proposals must be received at American Welding Society by February 15, 2008. New AWS Fellowships will be announced at the AWS Annual Meeting, October 6-8, 2008.

THE AWARDS

The Fellowships or Grants are to be in amounts of up to $25,000 per year. A maximum of six students are funded for a period of up to three years of research at any one time. However, progress reports and requests for renewal must be submitted for the second and third years. Renewal by AWS will be contingent on demonstration of reasonable progress in the research or in graduate studies. The AWS Fellowship is awarded to the student for graduate research toward a Masters or Ph.D. Degree under a sponsoring professor at a North American University. The qualifications of the Graduate Student are key elements to be considered in the award. The academic credentials, plans and research history (if any) of the student should be provided. The student must prepare the proposal for the AWS Fellowship. However, the proposal must be under the auspices of a professor and accompanied by one or more letters of recommendation from the sponsoring professor or others acquainted with the student's technical capabilities. Topics for the AWS Fellowship may span the full range of the joining industry. Should the student selected by AWS be unable to accept the Fellowship or continue with the research at any time during the period of the award, the award will be forfeited and no (further) funding provided by AWS. The bulk of AWS funding should be for student support. AWS reserves the right not to make awards in the event that its Committee finds all candidates unsatisfactory.

DETAILS

The Proposal should include:

1. Executive Summary 2. Annualized Breakdown of Funding Required and Purpose of Funds (Student Salary, Tuition, etc.) 3. Matching Funding or Other Support for Intended Research 4. Duration of Project 5. Statement of Problem and Objectives 6. Current Status of Relevant Research 7. Technical Plan of Action 8. Qualifications of Researchers 9. Pertinent Literature References and Related Publications 10. Special Equipment Required and Availability 11. Statement of Critical Issues Which Will Influence Success or Failure of Research

In addition, the proposal must include:

1. Student's Academic History, Resume and Transcript 2. Recommendation(s) Indicating Qualifications for Research 3. Brief Section or Commentary on Importance of Research to the Welding Community and to AWS, Including Technical Merit, National Need, Long Term Benefits, etc. 4. Statement Regarding Probability of Success

The technical portion of the Proposal should be about ten typewritten pages; maximum pages for the Proposal should be twenty-five typewritten pages. Maximum file size should be 2 megabytes. It is recommended that the Proposal be typed in a minimum of 12-point font in Times, Times New Roman, or equivalent. Proposal should be sent electronically by February 15, 2008 to: Vicki Pinsky ([email protected]) Manager, AWS Foundation American Welding Society 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126

Yours sincerely,

Ray W. Shook Executive Director American Welding Society

Page 17:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 8:21 AM Page 17

Working under ANSI procedures, the contributors and reviewers of AWS D1 codes havebuilt upon the work of hundreds of prior experts who, since the first D1 code in 1928,have continuously labored to represent proven practices. The result is a resource thatprovides a consensus of the finest minds in the industry on the most reliableapproaches to achieving a successful final outcome. That’s why D1 code books havebeen mandated by local, state, and overseas codes, approved by ANSI, adopted by theDefense Department, preferred by NASA, and required by contracts for countlessindustrial and construction applications.

Pre-order your 2008 edition of AWS D1.1 at www.aws.org/d1, or call 888-WELDING for information on all of AWS’s structural welding codes. ®

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Page 18 & 19:FP_TEMP 11/8/07 9:53 AM Page 18

2008 EDITION AVAILABLE SOON! AWS D1.1/D1.1M:2008 Structural Welding Code—

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Aluminum is the single most important reference

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2008 EDITION AVAILABLE SOON! AWS

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Reinforcing Steel covers the requirements for

welding reinforcing steel in most reinforced

concrete applications.


Seismic Supplement complements AISC Seismic

Provisions to help ensure that welded joints

designed to undergo significant repetitive inelastic

strains as a result of earthquakes have adequate

strength, notch toughness, and integrity

to perform as intended.

2008 EDITION AVAILABLE SOON! AWS D1.5/D1.5M:2008 Bridge Welding Code covers

welding requirements of the American Association of

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for welded highway bridges.

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Structural Welding Code—Stainless

Steel covers requirements for welding

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components (excluding pressure

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Savings on availablefor a limited time onselected preorders andbundles. AWS memberscan save even more!For full details, call 888-WELDING (935-3464).Outside North America,call 305-824-1177. Or order online atwww.awspubs.comNEW PUBLICATION! AWS D1.9/D1.9M:2007

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Page 18 & 19:FP_TEMP 11/8/07 9:53 AM Page 19

BRAZINGQ&A BY R. L. PEASLEE

Q: We are brazing 304L, in vacuum, withBNi-9 brazing filler metal. How do wedetermine the proper clearance (gap) fora brazed joint?

A: The first place to look is the BrazingHandbook, chapter 2, Brazement Design.It includes most of the brazed joint designrequirements, including a table of recom-mended joint clearances (gaps) (Table2.1). There are many variables to consid-er when designing a brazed joint.

I normally recommend a minimum of a0.001 to 0.002 in. (0.025 to 0.051 mm)clearance. When getting smaller, the lengthof the joint enters the picture, as well as thebrazing atmosphere quality, mutual solu-bility between filler metal and base metal,and many other variables. Some of thesecritical variables are as follows:

Brazing Clearance vs. JointLength. When brazing a base metal thatis mutually soluble with the brazing fillermetal, some of the base metal will be dis-solved by the filler metal as it travelsthrough the joint, and this will change thefiller metal chemistry and melting tem-perature. When the joint is too long, the

filler metal picks up enough base metal tosolidify the filler metal and stop its pro-gression in the joint. From my experiencewith a zero joint clearance, some testspecimens braze fully, but many fall apartduring machining, or only have a partialjoint — not good uniformity.

Brazing Clearance vs. BrazingAtmosphere. In all vacuum furnaces,the temperature range of 1000° to 1700°F(550° to 925°C) is oxidizing to the chromi-um, boron, silicon, and phosphorus thatare found in most of the nickel brazingfiller metals. While the vacuum gauge is agood starting point, it does not tell theentire story. To obtain more information,use the “T” Specimen. There is anEngineering Data Sheet on the “T”Specimen, which can be downloadedfrom the Wall Colmonoy Web site,www.wallcolmonoy.com. This sheet has alisting of some of the nickel-based braz-ing filler metals and their varying degreesof sensitivity to the brazing atmosphere.

I have seen vacuum atmospheres of10–6 torr that were not suitable for somenickel-based brazing filler metals, while avacuum of 10–3 torr was very good for thesame atmosphere-sensitive filler metal.As the vacuum atmosphere degrades, ittakes longer for the oxides of chromiumto dissociate, and the base metal and fillermetal to clean up and be receptive to theflow of the brazing filler metal — Fig. 4.3from the soon to be released Brazing

Handbook, 5th edition.When boron oxidizes in the vacuum

furnace, it vaporizes and is removed fromthe brazing filler metal, and this changesthe melting and flow temperatures.Therefore, the condition of the vacuumbrazing furnace atmosphere has a pro-found effect on the brazing quality. This isparticularly true when brazing close to, orin, the solidus-liquidus range that occursin brazing diamonds to dressing wheels.

Brazing Clearance vs. Metallic-GritBlasting. When clearances are small, theabove two items have a profound effecton the brazing. One way we have found toensure good flow below 0.001 in. (0.025mm) clearance and down to 0.000 clear-ance, when larger clearances are recom-mended, is to blast with a special Ni-Cr-B-Fe grit that puts a compressive stress inthe surface of the metal. This compres-sive stress pulls the brazing filler metalthrough a 0.000 clearance and ensures acompletely brazed joint. Caution must beused when blasting thin base metal as thebase metal will distort from the inducedsurface stress.

Not too long ago, a very thorough pro-gram was used to test many of the blast-ing materials, and it was found that thespecial Ni-Cr-B-Fe grit was the best atimproving the wetting and flow of thebrazing filler metal. Primarily, this testprogram looked at using the Ni-Cr-B-Feto eliminate the nickel plating required to

DECEMBER 200720

Table 2.1 — Recommended Joint Clearance at Brazing Temperature

Filler Metal AWS Classification Joint Clearance*, in.

BAlSi group 0.000–0.002 for furnace brazing in a vacuum atmosphere and clad brazing sheet in salt bath0.002–0.008 for length of lap less than 0.25 in.0.008–0.010 for length of lap greater than 0.25 in.

BCuP group 0.001–0.005 no flux and for flux brazing for joint lengthunder 1 in.0.007–0.015 no flux and for flux brazing for joint length greater than 1 in.

BAg group 0.002–0.005 flux brazing0.000–0.002 **atmosphere brazing

BAu group 0.002–0.005 flux brazing0.000–0.002 **atmosphere brazing

BCu group 0.000–0.002 **atmosphere brazingBCuZn group 0.002–0.005 flux brazingBMg 0.004–0.010 flux brazingBNi group 0.002–0.005 general applications (flux/atmosphere)

0.000–0.002 free-flowing types, atmosphere brazing

*Clearance is measured on the radius when rings, plugs, or tubular members are involved. Onsome applications it may be necessary to use the recommended clearance on the diameter toassure not having excessive clearance when all the clearance is on one side. An excessive clear-ance will produce voids. This is particularly true when brazing is accomplished in a high qualityatmosphere.**For maximum strength a press fit of 0.001 in. per in. of diameter should be used.


Brazing Q+A Dec.:Layout 1 11/6/07 2:49 PM Page 20

braze Alloy 718 that contains low levels ofaluminum and titanium. The paper, TheHigh-Temperature Wetting Balance andthe Influence of Grit Blasting on Brazingof IN718, was published in the October2003 Welding Journal, pp. 278-s to 287-s.

The flow with zero clearance has manyvariables to control. As mentioned above,Ni-Cr-B-Fe grit blasting will improve theodds of having good flow through thejoint. This assumes that there are nodrawing compounds or other surface con-taminants, and that the base metal wasnot processed in a nitrogen-rich atmos-phere, which would nitride the boron inthe filler metal during brazing, thus stop-ping all flow. Many of these things havehappened over the years that have causedvariations in the brazing process.

I suggest using the 0.001 to 0.002 in.(0.025 to 0.051 mm) clearance, as it hidesa multitude of problems that may showup at smaller clearances with BNi-9 andothers. With the smaller clearances, manymore variables will have to be identifiedand controlled.♦

21WELDING JOURNAL

R. L. PEASLEE is vice president emeritus,Wall Colmonoy Corp., Madison Heights, Mich.Readers may send questions to Mr. Peaslee c/o Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 or via e-mail [email protected].


Brazing Q+A Dec.:Layout 1 11/6/07 2:49 PM Page 21

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Tough materials can be ground withKim-Kut ultra grinding wheels. Contain-ing less than 0.035% iron for optimalsafety, the wheels can be used on titanium,stainless steel, aluminum, Inconel®, andother tough alloys without causing heatdiscoloration or warping. In addition, thezirconia/ceramic grain is suited for weld

removal and finishing applications, as theabrasive blend promotes cool and quietcutting on all materials.

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Shields Keep Welds Clean

It is possible to keep welds free of ox-ides when welding titanium, stainlesssteels, and nickel alloys. By adding a light-weight component called a trailing shieldto a GTAW or PAW torch, the weld staysunder a protective argon gas shroud whilecooling, so that the welded joint and thematerial to the side of the joint do not ox-idize. Available for flat sheet or platewelding, shields are also available for ra-

DECEMBER 200722

Hybrid Welding System Delivers Deeper Weld Penetration, Welds TitaniumThe Super-MIG™ system combines two stan-

dard welding processes, plasma arc and GMA,into one hybrid process. This system deliversgreater welding speeds under variable rootopening conditions, deeper weld penetration,reduced spatter, and a narrower heat-affectedzone. It is capable of welding most standardGMA, plasma, and laser applications. The in-terface and torch, patented by Plasma-LaserTechnologies, is designed to be integrated withany of the most commonly used GMAW sys-tems. The system includes an interface that iscompatible with most robot controllers and iscapable of storing multiple welding programs,a Super-MIG™ torch, and the Super-MIG™torch cleaning station that is designed to workautomatically within a robotic welding cell. Thesystem can be used to weld standard, industrial-grade steels, stainless steel, high-strengthcoated metals, and titanium.

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NP December 2007:Layout 1 11/7/07 3:16 PM Page 22

23WELDING JOURNAL

dius requirements to suit any diameter ofpipe, vessel, or tank.

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The SRF-K Series of mobile weldingfume extraction units have been introduced.The K-10 mobile unit is for a single opera-tor featuring intermittent and continuous-duty operation, welding of all types of met-als, as well as soldering fume extraction.The filter can be cleaned manually or au-tomatically using compressed air. The unitfeatures a patented tilt-back mechanismmaking the dust disposal, which is collectedin a bag, simple. The K-15 with double theamount of airflow, 1200 ft3/min, can be usedmobile and stationary whereby two opera-tors can work simultaneously.

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Treatment Improves Metal-to-Metal Friction and Grip

A treatment for metals has been de-veloped that raises the coefficient of fric-tion, strengthening grip within shaft cou-plings, clamps, chucks, and collets. TheTrib-Grip™ treatment reverses the nor-mal behavior of friction between metals,raising the dynamic level of grip above thestatic level to progressively arrest slipwithout reducing load. It is a stable met-allurgical process that uses a chemical toinstantly enhance asperity cold pressurewelds; it does not employ interlockingabrasives or curing adhesives.

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Welding Sleeves Designedfor Harsh ConditionApplications

X-Treme welding sleeves, featuring athree-layer design that encapsulatesarmor material to provide protection, aresuited for harsh applications such as car-bon arc, sub arc, spray arc, and heavy arcwelding, as well as pipe and heavy GTAWand GMAW. They are made of fire-retar-dant fabric that contains oxidized poly-

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DECEMBER 200724

acrylonitrile fiber with Aramid strength-ening agent and does not char or shrinkwhen exposed to heat. The sleeve, de-signed to fit everyone, can be worn over ashirt or jacket.

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Torches Designed for Usewith Alternative Fuel Gases

Four additions have been added to theBulldog™ torch series. Three of these areextra length torches — 36, 48, and 72 in.— with 180-deg head angle. The fourth isa 36-in. torch with a 75-deg head angle. Ithouses a Harris seat design that will ac-cept the Harris-style tips. All of the fourtorches are designed for use with alterna-tive fuel gases.

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Conduit’s ProtectiveCoating Prevents Damage

Conduit Armor™ weld wire conduit iscoated to prevent melting in high-temper-ature and high-spatter areas in or near theweld cell. It has the same features as thecompany’s standard conduit with a lowdrag coefficient, high durability, and it re-duces the pull on the feed motor by asmuch as 4 lb. The spatter-resistant prod-uct is available as an option on the com-pany’s blue polymer conduit and is stan-dard on extra-flexible conduit in bulk orprecut lengths.

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Self-Shielded Flux CoredGuns Feature NonmetallicTriggers

Dura-Flux™ guns feature nonmetallictriggers that absorb less heat than metaltriggers. This trigger is made with a sealedmicroswitch. Welders will notice thesmaller trigger guard, too. The product israted to 350 A at 100% duty cycle and canhandle higher current loads at reducedduty cycles. It accepts flux cored wire upto 3⁄32 in. and is equipped with a monocoilpower cable and the company’s Center-fire™ contact tips. The gun also features

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Portable Lifting PlatformAdjusts Easily

The Lift-Tool™ facilitates a wide vari-ety of lifting and positioning jobs. A workercan adjust the platform within a verticalrange of 14¼ in. Fully raised, the product’s22- × 23-in. platform is 17¾ in. high. Witha load capacity of 300 lb, it holds nearly 10times its own weight, which is 32 lb, and is3½ in. high when lowered. Additionally,

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25WELDING JOURNAL

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

— continued on page 73


Titanium Welding 101:Best GTA Practices

Titanium Welding 101:Best GTA Practices

Fig. 1 — When welding titanium, set theGTA power source to DCEN.

Luck/Fulcer Feature Dec 2007:Layout 1 11/8/07 9:06 AM Page 26

27WELDING JOURNAL

PPretty colors are fine for titaniumjewelry. However, the colors blue,violet, green, gray, and white indi-

cate atmospheric contamination in a gastungsten arc (GTA) welded titanium com-ponent. In critical applications, welds ex-hibiting such colors may suffer reducedstrength and loss of ductility and could (ormust) be rejected.

Responsible fabricators owe it to theircustomers and themselves to producewelds that meet standards such as thoseoutlined in AWS D1.9, Structural WeldingCode — Titanium, as well as their ownhigh standards. This article provides anintroduction to titanium and the GTAWprocess, focuses on best practices, andoutlines common pitfalls. It is especiallywritten with smaller companies in mind,as they perform the bulk of GTA welding.

About Titanium

Titanium and its alloys offer excellentcorrosion resistance to acids, chlorides,and salt; a wide continuous service tem-perature range, from –322°F (liquid nitro-gen) to 1100°F; and the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.

For example, the most widely usedgrade of titanium alloy, ASTM Grade 5(Ti-6Al-4V), has a yield strength of120,000 lb/in.2 and a density of 282 lb/ft3.In comparison, ASTM A36 steel has ayield strength of 36,000 lb/in.2 and a den-sity of 487 lb/ft3, while 6061-T6 aluminumhas a yield strength of 39,900 lb/in.2 anddensity of 169 lb/ft3.

In short, titanium is about 45% lighterthan steel, 60% heavier than aluminum,and more than three times stronger thaneither of them. While expensive initially,titanium lowers life cycle costs because ofits long service life and reduced (or non-existent) maintenance and repair costs.For example, the Navy replaced copper-nickel with titanium for seawater pipingsystems on its LDP-17 San Antonio Classof ships because it expects titanium to lastthe entire 40 to 50 year life of the ship.

In addition to military applications,other common uses for this light, strong,and corrosion-resistant metal includethose for aerospace, marine, chemicalplants, process plants, power generation,oil and gas extraction, medical, and sports.

Shielding Gas Is Critical

Titanium falls into a family of metalscalled reactive metals, which means thatthey have a strong affinity for oxygen. Atroom temperature, titanium reacts withoxygen to form titanium dioxide. This pas-sive, impervious coating resists further in-teraction with the surrounding atmos-phere, and gives titanium its famous cor-rosion resistance. The oxide layer must beremoved prior to welding because it meltsat a much higher temperature than thebase metal and because the oxide couldenter the molten weld pool, create discon-tinuities, and reduce weld integrity.

When heated, titanium becomes highlyreactive and readily combines with oxy-gen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon toform oxides (titanium’s famous colors ac-tually come from varying thicknesses ofthe oxide layer). Interstitial absorption ofthese oxides embrittles the weldment andmay render the part useless. For these rea-sons, all parts of the heat-affected zone(HAZ) must be shielded from the atmos-phere until the temperature drops below800°F (note: experts disagree on the exacttemperature, with recommendationsranging from 500° to 1000°F. Use 800°F asa reasonable median unless procedures,standards, or codes indicate otherwise).

One of the most common mistakeswhen welding titanium is not verifying themany variables that contribute to goodshielding gas coverage prior to striking thefirst arc. Make it a practice to always weldon a test piece before beginning each“real” welding session. To ensure that gaspurity meets your requirements, AWS rec-ommends using analytical equipment tomeasure shielding gas purity prior to weld-ing. Gas purity varies by application. Typ-ical specifications require that the shield-ing gas (typically argon) be not less than99.995% pure with not more than 5 to 20ppm free oxygen and have a dew point bet-ter than –50° to –76°F.

Clean, Clean, Clean

Contamination from oil on your fin-gers, lubricants, cutting fluid, paint, dirt,and many other substances also causesembrittlement, and is a leading cause ofweld failure. When working with titanium,

follow the three Cs of welding: clean,clean, clean. Keep a clean work area, onefree from dust, debris, and excess airmovement that could interfere with theshielding gas. Clean the base metal andbag parts not immediately welded, cleanthe filler rod, and wear nitrile gloves whenhandling the filler rod and parts.

Welding Advice

ASTM International recognizes 31grades of titanium. Different grades ad-dress the need for various combinationsof mechanical properties, corrosion re-sistance, formability, ease of fabrication,and weldability. While the various prop-erties of these grades can be somewhatoverwhelming (see the boxed item for abrief explanation), the welding of titaniumis relatively similar to other alloy metals.

The following images and advicedemonstrate the basic best practices forwelding titanium, expanding on the infor-mation given previously.

A standard GTA power source withhigh-frequency arc starting, remote am-

Use the following tips to help you produce the highest quality gas tungsten arc welds on titanium

BY JOHN LUCK AND JACK FULCER

JOHN LUCK is product manager, Miller Electric Mfg. Co., Appleton, Wis. (www.millerwelds.com). JACK FULCER is product and mar-keting manager, Weldcraft, Appleton, Wis. (www.weldcraft.com).

Fig. 2 — GTA torch and home-fabricatedholder.

Luck/Fulcer Feature Dec 2007:Layout 1 11/5/07 1:53 PM Page 27

DECEMBER 200728

perage control capabilities, a postflowshielding gas timer, and an output of atleast 250 A will work well for welding ti-tanium — Fig. 1. Set polarity to DCEN(straight polarity).

Gas tungsten arc torches can be air orwater cooled, depending on equipmentpreference, as most welds will be short andat lower output levels. Water-cooledtorches are smaller, more maneuverable,and permit welding at higher amperagesfor extended periods, while air-cooledtorches cost less. Notice the home-fabri-cated torch holder, which keeps the torchfrom falling on the floor — Fig. 2.

For welding titanium, use a 2%-ceri-ated tungsten electrode sized to carry therequired welding current: 1⁄16 in. or smallerfor welding at <125 A; 1⁄16 to 3⁄32 in. for 125to 200 A; and 3⁄32 or 1⁄8 in. for welding >200A. Use a gas lens (Fig. 3) to evenly dis-tribute the gas and create a smooth gasflow, and use a cup with a diameter of atleast 3⁄4 to 1 in. A larger cup will enable youto make a longer weld.

A trailing shield such as the one shownin Fig. 4 extends the length of the weld-ment compared to a lesser length whenwelding with a cup alone. It is constructedsimilarly to the purge blocks (commercialshields are also available). Notice that theelectrode is extended longer than thenorm, which is only advisable when usingtrailing shields or oversized cups, as theyprovide extended gas coverage. Normally,the electrode should extend just far

enough to permit visibility and access tothe joint, or about 11⁄2 times the diameterof the electrode.

To provide shielding gas coverage onthe back and bottom sides of a joint, mostfacilities custom fabricate their own purgeblocks from porous copper sheet andstainless steel — Fig. 5. The porous cop-per acts like a gas lens, evenly distribut-ing the gas. To further smooth gas flow,the blocks are filled with stainless steelwool. Set the gas flow at 10 ft3/h for thepurge blocks and trailing shield. Use 20ft3/h for the torch.

When awkward joints preclude the useof standard purge blocks, welders fabri-cate shielding gas dams or chambers usingstainless steel foil and fiberglass tape —Fig. 6. To ensure purity, a rule of thumbis that the gas must flow long enough toexchange the gas inside the chamber tentimes prior to welding.

For demanding applications and wherecomplex parts need to be welded, considera vacuum-assisted welding chamber. Themodel shown in Fig. 7 utilizes a steel riserwith glove ports and features a hemi-spherical, Plexiglas® dome for viewing.After loading parts, a vacuum pumpquickly removes the air, and the chamberis then filled with inert gas for welding.

This gas manifold system (Fig. 8) dis-tributes shielding gas to the torch and allpurge blocks using separate gas lines; no-tice the use of surgical grade tubing forquality purposes. Because moisture con-tent rises as cylinder pressure drops, con-sider switching cylinders when the pres-sure reaches about 25 bar.

First, select the appropriate filler rodto match the material grade (Table 1).Then, use a lint-free cloth and acetone ormethyl ethyl ketone (MEK) to clean thefiller rod just prior to welding — Fig. 9.(After cleaning, store the acetone in a safeplace prior to welding. Also, read the man-ufacturer’s safety precautions.) To preventthe body’s natural oils from contaminat-ing the filler rod or base metal, always wearnitrile gloves when handling titanium.

Fig. 3 — GTA torch consumables.

Fig. 4 — Trailing shield.

Fig. 5 — Purge blocks.

Fig. 6 — Home-built dams.

Fig. 7 — Welding chamber.

Fig. 8 — Gas manifold.


29WELDING JOURNAL

To prevent contaminants from enter-ing the weld pool via the filler rod (noticethe discoloration on the end of the rod),clip off the end of the filler rod beforeevery use — Fig. 10. Store the filler rodsin an airtight container when not in use.

To break down the oxide layer prior towelding, use a die grinder with a carbidedeburring tool to prep the edges of the

joint — Fig. 11. Do not use the tool foranything else except titanium. Follow me-chanical cleaning by cleaning with a lint-free cloth and acetone or MEK.

A carbide file — dedicated to titanium— may also be used to prepare the joint— Fig. 12. Note the nitrile gloves, whichare worn to prevent contamination. Sim-ply wear welding gloves over the nitrilegloves to prevent accidentally handlingclean titanium with bare hands.

To hold the purge blocks in place whilewelding, consider a fixture/clamp arrange-ment like the one shown in Fig. 13. Theholes in the welding table allow weldmentsand purge blocks to be clamped in a widevariety of positions.

Notice the variety of stainless steelblocks and shims used to position and bal-ance the purge blocks. The holes in thewelding table make it much easier to po-sition the purge blocks, as it permits ac-cess for the gas lines from the bottom side— Fig. 14.

Table 1 — Recommended Titanium Filler Metal Alloys

Base Filler AWS A5.16 AWS A5.16 AWS A5.16 AWS A5.16 AWS A5.16 AWS A5.16ERTi-2 ERTi-2 ERTi-3 ERTi-5 ERTi-9 ERTi-23

and ERTi-9ELIGrade 1 (CP-1, X

or commercially pure)Grade 2 (CP-2) X XGrade 3 (CP-3) X XGrade 9 (Ti-3Al-2.5V)Grade 5 (Ti-6Al-4V) X XGrade 23 (Ti-6Al-4V) X

ELI (extra low interstitial)

Fig. 9 — Clean the filler rod.

Fig. 10 — Clip rod end.

Fig. 11 — Deburring tool.

Fig. 12 — Carbide file.

Fig. 13 — Fixtures.

Fig. 14 — Weldment positioning.


Use a stainless steel brush — dedicatedfor this one purpose — to remove any im-purities (e.g., light oxide coating) that maydevelop before continuing to weld — Fig.15. If welds require visual inspection forQA/QC purposes, omit this step. Notethat the bead length is just about 1 in.Short beads minimize heat input and en-sure that the bead won’t “outrun” itsshielding gas coverage.

After turning off the arc, hold the torchin position so that the postflow shieldinggas continues to cool the weldment untilits temperature drops below 800°F — Fig.16. Postflow duration will vary by the massof the weldment, size of the weld, and totalheat input (postflow was set at 20 s for theweld shown here).

To keep interpass temperatures belowthe critical 800°F threshold, use an in-frared temperature gauge — Fig. 17. Also,

weld at the lowest amperage level that stillproduces complete fusion. Finally, do nottravel too quickly, as that is a leading causeof porosity and weld failure.

The front and bottom of the weld,which were properly shielded, show no ev-idence of contamination — Fig. 18. Todemonstrate the importance of shieldingall sides of a weldment, the purge blockwas intentionally removed from the back-side of this fillet weld and two welds ap-proximately 3⁄4 to 1 in. long were made.

The back of the weld shown in Fig. 19indicates a completely unacceptable weld.Note the progressive degree of contami-nation, with the “chalky dust” showing ex-treme contamination. The weld crackedinternally with an audible “tink” aftercooling for about 90 s. Welds with suchcontamination may not be repaired: scrapthe entire part or cut out and completelyremove the contaminated section.

DECEMBER 200730

Fig. 15 — Cleaning.

Fig. 16 — Postflow.

Fig. 17 — Temperature gauge.

Fig. 18 — No contamination is visible inthis weld because it was properly shielded.A — The front of the weld; B — bottom ofthe weld.

A

B

Fig. 19 — A weld showing contamination.

Common Grades of TitaniumTitanium is divided into four classes: commercially pure (CP or unalloyed),

alpha, alpha-beta, and beta. Note that many companies and experts treat CPand alpha alloys as one group. The “alpha” and “beta” refer to phases of themetal’s crystalline structure at various temperatures. Adding oxygen, iron, alu-minum, vanadium, and other elements to the alloy can precisely control thecrystal structure, and hence the alloy’s properties.

The most common CP grades are ASTM Grades 1, 2, 3, and 4. They differby the varying degrees of oxygen and iron content; greater amounts of theseelements increase tensile strength and lower ductility. Grade 2 is the mostwidely used, notably in corrosion-resistant applications. CP grades have goodductility, good elevated-temperature strengths to 572°F, and excellent weld-ability. They cost less than alloyed grades, but have a relatively low tensilestrength, such as 70,000 to 90,000 lb/in.2 for Grade 2.

Grade 5 (Ti-6Al-4V), an alpha-beta, is the most widely used of any grade oftitanium (50 to 70% of all uses, according to various sources). The addition ofaluminum and vanadium increases tensile strength to 120,000 lb/in.2 and serv-ice temperature up to 752°F, but it also makes Grade 5 less formable and slightlyharder to weld than Grade 2. It is used for a range of applications in the aero-space, marine, power generation, and offshore industries.

Grade 23 is similar to Grade 5, but features reduced oxygen content thatimproves ductility and fracture toughness with just a slight loss of strength.Grade 9 strengths fall between Grades 4 and 5, so it is sometimes referred toas a “half 6-4.” Grade 9 can be used at higher temperatures than Grade 4, of-fers 20 to 50% higher strength than commercially pure grades, and is moreformable and weldable than Grade 5.


When adding filler rod, be sure the rodend stays within the shielding gas enve-lope — Fig. 20. Use a dab technique tolower overall heat input (as opposed toleaving the rod end in the weld pool, whichincreases the mass of metal and total heatnecessary to melt it).

The color of a titanium weld indicatesvarying degrees of oxide thickness, or thedegree to which the shielding gas failedto protect the weld from contaminantsduring the welding process — Fig. 21.Note that color is just one means of judg-ing weld quality; dye penetrant inspection,hardness testing, X-ray, ultrasonic test-

ing, and destructive tests may also be nec-essary to confirm acceptable quality. Table5.3 in AWS D1.9 (which appears here inmodified form as Table 2) provides direc-tion for judging weld quality.♦

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledgethe significant contributions to this arti-cle made by two people. Geoff Ekblaw hasmore than 40 years of experience (and thepatience to pose for the photos in this ar-ticle). He is the senior welder at WoodsHole Oceanographic Institution, a pri-vate, independent organization in Fal-mouth, Mass., dedicated to marine re-search, engineering, and higher educa-tion. Jody Collier is an AWS Senior Cer-tified Welding Inspector andinstructor/developer, Welding Training/Certification with Delta Air Lines Tech-nical Operations Center in Atlanta, Ga.

Works Consulted

1. AWS D1.9, Structural Welding Code— Titanium. Miami, Fla.: American Weld-ing Society. www.awspubs.com.

2. Titanium Design and FabricationHandbook for Industrial Applications,1997. Titanium Metals Corp.,www.timet.com/pdfs/ti-handbook.pdf.

3. Welding Titanium, A Designers andUsers Handbook. 1999. TWI (The WorldCentre for Materials Joining Technology)and The Titanium Information Group,www.twi.co.uk/j32k/protected/pdfs/bp-weldti.pdf [Visitors must register to down-load this file].

4. Donachie Jr., M. 2000. Titanium, ATechnical Guide. ASM International,http://asmcommunity.asminternational.org/portal/site/asm/.

5. Kobelco, www.kobelco.co.jp/english/titan/files/details.pdf.

31WELDING JOURNAL

Fig. 20 — Adding filler.

Table 2 — Color Acceptance Criteria

Weld Color Quality Indication

Bright Silver Acceptable(a)

Silver Acceptable(a)

Light Straw Acceptable(a)

Dark Straw Acceptable(a)

Bronze Acceptable(a)

Brown Acceptable(a)

Violet Unacceptable(b, c)

Dark Blue Unacceptable(b, c)

Light Blue Unacceptable(b, c)

Green Unacceptable(b, c)

Gray UnacceptableWhite Unacceptable

(a) Discoloration must be removed prior toadditional welding.(b) On the weld and in the HAZ up to 0.03 in.beyond the weld.(c) Violet, blue, and green discolorations arerejectable if additional welding is to be per-formed. Blue and green discolorations are ac-ceptable on finished welds but must be re-moved prior to subsequent processing.

Note: Discoloration comes in various shades,hues, and tones.

Fig. 21 — The color of a titanium weld indicates quality.


The nonvacuum electron beam weldingprocess has been used to do commercialjoining applications for upward of fivedecades now, and over this more than 50-year time span has repeatedly shown itselfto be a rugged and reliable production tool.The present primary concept of utilizing adifferentially pumped, multistage vacuumscheme as the method for both generatingthe beam under high-vacuum conditionsand transmitting it out into the atmospherewas initially proposed in 1953 (Ref. 1), andsubsequently demonstrated in 1954 in Ger-many. Since that time, the experiencegained from an ever-increasing use of theprocess has allowed today’s manufacturersof nonvacuum EBW units to supply equip-ment with both functional capability andoperating flexibility.

In nonvacuum electron beam welding(NVEBW), which was initially called both“atmospheric electron beam” (AEB) weld-ing and “workpiece out of vacuum”(WPOV) electron beam welding, a high-energy stream of electrons produced undervacuum is employed to bombard a targetlocated under atmospheric conditions. Thisability to apply an electron beam directlyin atmosphere, rather than placing its tar-get component in a vacuum environmentas required with vacuum EB processing(Fig. 1), not only enhances the EB process’scapacity for satisfying applications de-manding high-volume production rates,

but also its capability to address the weld-ing of both large and 3-D-shaped parts.

Early Uses of the Process

Initial efforts at utilizing the NVEBWprocess for high-volume applications weredirected at continuously welded tubing atvery high speeds. Thus, by the mid-1960s,a number of NVEBW units were beingsupplied to tube mills. These units pro-duced the closure weld on tubing that wasbeing continuously formed out of flat stripat speeds approaching 100 ft/min whendoing comparatively thin-wall type tub-ing. These speeds were much faster thanthose achievable with more conventionaljoining methods being employed at thattime. Toward the late 1960s, the processwas adopted for welding discrete tube sec-tions for the automotive industry, specifi-cally the outer tube portion of SaginawSteering Gear’s collapsible steering col-umn assembly. For this application, acarousel or a “merry-go-round” type ofpart transfer device was used to pass thetubular segments under the beam. Thissetup provided the capacity to produce600 to 800 welded tubes per hour off eachunit. Thus the three NVEBW systems ini-tially supplied for doing this particularjoining task were able to provide a totalhourly part-production capability of 1800

to 2400 parts/h. In the late 1960s, theprocess began to be widely accepted bythe automotive industry for welding abroad range of sizes, shapes, and materialcomposition components for use in bothpassenger and heavy-duty (trucks andbuses) style vehicles (Refs. 2–4).

Process Description

A differentially pumped nonvacuumEBW gun/column assembly consists of ahigh-vacuum beam generation section(where a triode-style gun is used to gen-erate the electron beam), and a series ofseparately pumped vacuum stages thatprovide the beam a graded vacuum-to-atmospheric pressure path to travel in.Thus, when the beam is generated, it trav-els down through a series of increasingpressure stages, connected in tandem bya set of concentrically aligned orifices, andout into the surrounding atmosphere.Electromagnetic focusing and deflectioncoils, positioned along the beam’s travelpath, help ensure the beam passes cleanlythrough this series of orifices it encoun-ters while making its journey from highvacuum to atmospheric pressure.

Although some random collisions willoccur between electrons in the beam andthe residual gas molecules in the columnas the beam travels down through the col-

Fifty Years ofNonvacuum Electron

Beam Welding

DONALD E. POWERS ([email protected]) is with PTR-Precision Technologies, Inc., Enfield, Conn. Paper presented at the 2006 IIWCommission IV Power Beam Processes meeting, Quebec, Canada, and the 2006 FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show, Atlanta, Ga.

The nonvacuum EB process is capable of satisfying a variety of applications, including complex-shaped parts

BY DONALD E. POWERS

DECEMBER 200732

Powers 12 07:Layout 1 11/5/07 4:02 PM Page 32

33WELDING JOURNAL

umn, they don’t result in the beam elec-trons suffering much, if any, energy loss ordeviation in travel path direction duringtheir passage down through the columnstructure. Greater than 90% of the beampower being generated by the electron gunis delivered out into the atmosphere; con-sequently, the overall (total “wallplug-to-workpiece”) energy conversion efficiencycapability of a nonvacuum EBW systemgenerally exceeds 60% — a value equal toor greater than most conventional weld-ing, and much greater than various otherpower beam joining methods.

Once the beam exits the last columnorifice, however, and enters the ambientatmosphere region, the frequency of col-lisions between beam electrons and am-bient gas molecules increases apprecia-bly. Although these collisions don’t greatlyimpact the energy of the beam electronsthemselves, they do cause the beam’s corediameter to increase, and thus its powerdensity to decrease, with distance traveledout into the ambient atmosphere. Addi-tionally, it produces a much greater over-all “beam glow” envelope, as illustratedin Fig. 2. In order to help reduce the im-pact of this type of normal beam scatter-ing occurrence, a helium-blowdown styleexit orifice may be utilized. This style ofexit orifice provides a helium effluent,which exits the orifice coaxial with thebeam. As such, it provides a lower (thanambient) density gas channel for the beamto temporarily travel in, thereby allowinga greater than normal “standoff distance”(the distance measured from the bottomof exit orifice to the top of workpiece) tobe achieved.

The differentially pumped NVEBWgun/column assembly is approximately 18in. in cross section, roughly 40 in. in lengthand weighs on the order of 1000 lb (whencomplete with any radiation shielding thatmight be required). This present-day as-sembly is designed to be able to operatemounted in any attitude ranging from fullyvertical to fully horizontal and to be ca-pable of travel motion during operation.It is additionally designed to perform re-liably under adverse operating conditions.It should be noted that over the years, avariety of methods have been investigatedfor transferring an electron beam fromvacuum into atmosphere; however, inmost all cases, these schemes have gener-ally proven to be far too sophisticated forcommercial application usage under thestandard operating conditions normallyencountered in the majority of high-volume part throughput operations.

Applications for NVEBW

The steering column jacket units pre-viously described were followed by two

high-volume production automotive ap-plications: the A. O. Smith “blank” weld-ing units and the GM Powertrain Div.torque converter; the latter application

resulted in 20 NVEBW systems being putinto production from 1970 to 1995. Anumber of these units are still being uti-lized in production today (Ref. 5).

Fig. 1 — Various modes of operation in electron beam welding.

Fig. 2 — Beam glow profiles produced by an in-vacuum and out-of-vacuum electron beam.


DECEMBER 200734

Tailored Blanks

During the mid 1960s, A. O. Smithused EBW for one of the earliest tailoredblank applications noted. Tailor blankwelding joins contoured segments of low-carbon steel into a single finished blank,which can then be deep-drawn into a com-plex, three-dimensional-shaped configu-ration used in sections of car frames (Ref.2). A more cost-effective utilization ofraw material was gained from stampingout shorter contoured segments, and thenjoining these together to form the full-length blank section, thereby reducing thecost associated with producing the fin-ished blanks. Welded components rangedfrom roughly 1⁄8 to 3⁄16 in. in thickness, andcould be joined using weld speeds on theorder of 200 in./min. Parts were passedunder the NVEBW column (located in-side of a safety enclosure) utilizing a conveyor-style of tooling arrangementthat continuously transported partsthrough the weld zone. Up to 800 parts/hwere achieved off each of the twoNVEBW systems being employed. Be-cause of the slight broadening effect thebeam incurs when traversing the distancebetween exit orifice and workpiece, theprocess proved to be able to weld the “as-sheared” butting edges on the part seg-ments, thus saving on the cost of a post-shear preparation of these edges prior towelding.

Torque Converter Assembly

Not too long after the A. O. Smith ap-plication, GM Powertrain’s Hydra-MaticDiv. employed the NVEBW process(Refs. 3, 4) for doing the final fillet weldrequired on torque converter assemblies,utilizing a beam angled at 45 deg (Fig. 3)to produce the hermetic weld desired (Fig.4). The initial system designed for this ap-plication involved using an inline, manu-ally fed part transfer scheme for gettingparts in/out of area where welding wasperformed. Later systems employed amultistation dial index form of part trans-

port with auto load/unload features fortransferring parts through the weld area.This allowed total floor-to-floor cycletimes of 13 to 15 s (depending on whethera 9.75 in. or 11.5 in. converter was beingwelded) to be achieved. Production ratesin the range of 235 to 275 parts/h were at-tained. When the NVEBW process wasinitially employed for doing this task, theconverter assembly’s cover and body seg-ments were quality stamping-type partsproduced out of aluminum killed steel,and thus were very conducive to being di-rectly hermetically welded. With time,

however, material and part tolerancequality decreased due to cost-reductionefforts. Consequently, it became neces-sary to equip each system with wire feedercapability in order to provide a combinedfiller metal and deoxidizer capacity to helpensure a hermetic weld could be accom-plished on every part welded, regardlessof part material and/or fit-up conditions.

With the advent of CNC motion con-trol capability in the 1970s, the processbegan to be adapted for joining compo-nents having relatively complex, 3-D-shaped weld paths such as die cast alu-

Fig. 3 — View of a NVEBW beam produc-ing a 45-deg angled fillet weld.

Fig. 4 — Nonvacuum EB welded torque converter.

Fig. 5 — Nonvacuum EB-welded aluminum dashboard beam component.


35WELDING JOURNAL

minum intake manifold assemblies (Refs.3, 4). This application was a prime exam-ple of using the process not only to ac-complish welding of a part having a com-plex weld joint geometry and joint path,but also one that contained componentsmade out of a material that was difficultto weld. The NVEBW process successfullywelded these manifold assemblies atspeeds of 200 to 400 in./min.

Catalytic Converters

Another example of a difficult-to-weldcomponent is the catalytic converter as-semblies produced with nonvacuum EBW.Four layers of 0.050-in.-thick steel werehermetically welded at speeds around 300in./min. This involved utilizing a toolingconfiguration that employed a press framecapable of providing the 1000-lb forceneeded for maintaining the edges on allfour layers of material tightly togetheruntil the roughly 50 in. of edge weldneeded on each part could be fully com-pleted. The 17 nonvacuum EBW systemsput into operation to do this joining taskin the late 1970s and early 1980s suppliedthe capacity needed for producing the7,000,000 catalytic converters required an-nually at that time.

Conclusion

Since its introduction to industry some50 years ago, the nonvacuum EBWprocess has been employed for welding avariety of high-volume production com-ponents for the automotive industry. Ini-tially the process was used for fairly sim-ple linear welds, but the process evolvedto the point where it could be used forcomplex two- and three-dimensionalwelds. Figure 5 shows a 40-in.-long auto-mobile dashboard component presentlybeing produced with the NVEBW processin both Europe and Japan. A CNC con-trolled simultaneous motion of both part(X/Y-axes) and gun/column assembly (Z-axis) is used to accomplish joining of thesetwo aluminum segments at welding speedsin the range of 300 to 500 in./min (Ref. 6).Thus the process has over the past fivedecades demonstrated its inherent capac-ity for adapting to a broad range of work-piece conditions and operating environ-ments generally associated with automo-tive applications. In recent years, theprocess has also shown itself to be capa-ble of successfully accomplishing applica-tions requiring tight afterweld dimen-sional tolerances (Ref. 7).♦

References

1. Schumacher, B. W. 1953. Dynamicpressure stages for firing intense monoki-netic corpuscular beams into gas of highpressure. OPTIK 10: 116.

2. Hinrichs, J. F., et al. 1974. Produc-tion EB welding of automotive frames.Welding Journal 53(8): 488.

3. Powers, D. E., et al. 1980. Progressof nonvacuum electron beam welding.Proceedings of International Beam Tech-nology Conference (Essen), DVS Berichte,63, p. 70.

4. Gadjusek, E. 1980. Advances in non-vacuum electron beam technology. Weld-ing Journal 59(7): 17.

5. A silver anniversary for EBW. 1995.Welding Journal 74(10): 22.

6. Powers, D. E. 1997. Nonvacuumelectron beam welding enhances automo-tive manufacturing. Welding Journal76(11): 59.

7. Schubert, G. E. et al. 2006. Weldingof aluminum, magnesium and steel com-ponents with the electron beam. Proceed-ings of International Automotive BodyCongress (IABC–2006) Conference andExposition, Novi, Mich.


DECEMBER 200736

Cross wire welding is used in manyeveryday applications. It is perhapsthe most common nonautomotive

application for resistance welding. Thereare many everyday uses for products madewith cross wire welding, including shop-ping carts, toaster guides, wire meshes forreinforcing concrete, fences, and jail bars.In fact, our world would be unrecogniz-able without the reinforcing mesh used inbuildings, roads, tunnels, and prefabri-cated components. It is used around theworld in all types of products, even in thenanoscale cross wire welding of microjoints in electronic applications.

Features of Cross Wire Welding

Most people are familiar with spotwelding, which is heavily used in joiningautomotive sheet body parts together, butfewer people are familiar with the ubiqui-tous presence and properties of cross wirewelding. Cross wire welding is actually atype of projection welding. Projectionwelding is a unique form of resistancewelding that uses the resistance heating ofa small cubic area prior to, and during, itscollapse under pressure to weld frequentlydifferent thicknesses of metal together. Inthis process, the size and shape of the pro-jection is very important, as is the speedof the movement of the cylinder applyingthe pressure. If the metal of the projectioncollapses too quickly, before the resistancemelting occurs, then there may be no fu-sion weld, or nugget, formed as the heatgenerated may be diffused over too largean area. If there is too much heat gener-ated on the projection before its collapse,or if the cylinder is moving too slowly tofollow the collapse, then there may onlybe expulsion and also no weld. Thus, it isimperative that the electrode force is

maintained at the appropriate level dur-ing the collapse of the projection. It is alsoworth noting that it is an inexpensive andquick process, taking only a fraction of asecond, and does not require shieldinggases or filler metals.

These similar characteristics occur incross wire welding. Generally, there aretwo wires or rods welded together, andtheir combined radii present a challengeand act like the projections in projectionwelding. The heating is rapid, and defor-mation occurs almost instantaneously.

One of the ways to improve quality hasbeen the increasing use of automation.The last thirty years have seen an increasein the quantity of mesh welding machines,which attempt to mass produce and keepconsistent the quality of production crosswire welding. At the same time, there hasbeen an increase in the number of thetypes of reinforcing steels used, and it hasbecome a challenge to effectively fabri-cate these new reinforcing meshes by re-

sistance welding. Mesh welding machinesare available in various sizes for the pro-duction of reinforcing mesh. These ma-chines are computer controlled and canbe automated with an assortment of load-ing, feeding, straightening, cutting-to-length, and pay-off features in order toform an automatic production line. Rodsand wires can be welded one on top of theanother in practically any arrangement.Exact, reproducible control of the current,time, and welding force is assured by thewelding process control system. Figure 1shows a typical setup for a single and dou-ble knot cross wire weld.

Cross wire welding is performed by di-rect welding (Fig. 4) or indirect welding(Fig. 2). The definition of direct weldingis that only one weld per current flow isproduced. Indirect welding uses the cur-rent flow through the actual workpiece tofacilitate other welds or for heat manage-ment, weld appearance, or material prop-erty reasons.

The Other Resistance Process:Cross Wire Welding

NIGEL SCOTCHMER ([email protected]) is the president of Huys Industries, Weston, Ont., Canada.

Cross wire welding — perhaps the most common nonautomotive application for resistancewelding — can be used for many everyday products ranging from toaster guides to fences

Fig. 1 — ‘Single’ and ‘double knot’ cross wire welds.

BY NIGEL SCOTCHMER

Scotchmer Feature December 2007:Layout 1 11/5/07 3:43 PM Page 36

37WELDING JOURNAL

Looking at Series Welding(One-Sided Welding)

A common type of indirect cross wiremesh machine employs series welding orone-sided welding. They are often usedfor making storage meshes as they are lim-ited in how longitudinal bars are divided.In this case, both electric poles are on thesame side of the mesh. Usually, two weldsper current flow are made. This methodtends to melt material at the electrodecontact area of the longitudinal rod. Thiseffect is generally agreed to be caused bythe systematic bypass of the welding cur-rent along the transverse bar of the lastweld — see the arrows in Fig. 2. Naturally,the amount and rate of the bypass currentdepends on the rod diameter and the po-

sition of the next transverse rod. This by-pass current has to be compensated for bya higher total current (Table 1).

Thus, the power supply for the weld-ing machine, and of the power of the trans-former, becomes very important and alimiting variable. A series welding ma-chine has a simple construction with anopen mesh plane that allows the feedingof the cross rod or wire in or toward theproduction direction. Figure 3 shows ahigh-speed series welding machine withthe transfer rods inserted over the longi-tudinal rods just prior to welding.

Details of Direct WeldingThe most impressive direct welding ma-

chines are made up of any number of float-ing, independent welding assemblies — Fig.

5. Each welding assembly is a self-sufficientsystem consisting of transformer, weldingpress, and power supply. A floating systemallows for different diameters of longitudi-nal rods to be welded quickly and accu-

Fig. 2 — Series welding.

Fig. 4 — Direct welding. Fig. 5 — A direct welding machine.

Fig. 3 — A series welding machine.

Table 1 — Bypass Factors for Series Welding

Diameter of Division Bypass FactorsWire (mm) Itot/Ix(mm)

4 + 4 25/25 1, 255 + 5 25/25 1, 45 + 5 40/40 1, 335 + 5 50/50 1, 36 + 6 50/50 1, 428 + 8 50/50 1, 6510 + 10 100/100 1, 34

Scotchmer Feature December 2007:Layout 1 11/8/07 9:04 AM Page 37

DECEMBER 200738

rately, even with very small and varying dis-tances between cross wires or rods.

Generally, such machines are more ex-pensive and are capable of producing awider range of manufactured parts. Theyare designed to allow for variable adjust-ment in longitudinal bar division. Thiswould mean that the mesh could be ad-justed during production to create a meshwith different material properties withmore frequent, or less frequent, crosswelds. Except where ‘double knots’ (twolongitudinal wires are welded between anelectrode pair, as in Fig. 1) are used, onlydirect welding is used.

The Need for Standards toImprove Quality

The aim is always to improve quality.The easier a material is to weld, the bet-ter is its ‘weldability.’ The better its weld-ability, the less effort is expended to getconsistently good welds. In spot welding,a sheet steel’s weldability is usually meas-ured by its welding current range (lobe),electrode life in use, and the tendency ofthe material to harden. The weldability ofreinforcement bars in cross wire weldingis given by its chemical components, sur-

face condition, and rib formation. In cur-rent national and international standards,the focus is limited to the chemical com-ponents of the material, and there is nodifferentiation of the weldability betweenthe welding processes of arc welding andresistance welding.

With the recent wave of new steelscoming on the market, many believe thatthere is an increasing need to create astandardized procedure to determine theweldability of reinforcing steel for resist-ance wire welding (as is already the casefor spot welding). Such a tool for evaluat-ing the weldability of materials for pro-

Fig. 6 — Cross-section hardness of a weld of different carbon equiv-alent (CE) steels.

Fig. 8 — Reinforcing steel, cold rolled, carbon equivalent CE = 0.24. Fig. 9 — Reinforcing steel, hot rolled, carbon equivalent CE = 0.48.

Fig. 7 — Reinforcing steel, cold drawn, carbon equivalent CE = 0.21.


39WELDING JOURNAL

jection welding would improve the over-all quality of cross wire welding. Figure 6further illustrates this by showing differ-ences in the typical weld nugget hardnessbetween three common steels.

Marc Mueller of H. A. Schlatter AG, amaker of a wide range of cross wire weld-ing machines from Switzerland, has pro-vided some interesting graphs that illustratesome critically important values for projec-tion welding that illustrate the need of astandardized procedure for determiningthe weldability for reinforcing steels.Today’s standards define reinforcing steelwith CE up to 0.50 as ‘weldable’ (Fig. 6)without any restrictions, even if there is ahigh tendency to harden. Figures 7–9 illus-trate the challenge of achieving the sheartest requirements of DIN 488-5 using theparameters of Table 2. These figures illus-trate that a high current level is required toachieve the deep penetration required, es-pecially in hot-rolled reinforcement mesh,and are the result of years of experiencefrom Mueller and his customers.

The thinner lines in the diagrams showthe 95% area (using duplex standard de-

viation) of shear test force results. For acomparison, the mean of cold- and hot-drawn material is also given in Figs. 8 and9. These graphs show the necessity of con-trolling the welding parameters to achievethe required strength. Established inter-national standards would improve qualityby mandating acceptable strength. To de-crease the amount of expulsion duringwelding, an upslope is necessary to reducethe current concentration at the start ofthe current flow when welding hot rolledreinforcing steel of types shown in Fig. 9.

Another way of improving the qualityof resistance cross wire welding is theemerging use of simulation software,which attempts to predict the perform-ance of cross wire welding based upon thefinite element modeling of input parame-ters of the material, time, current, andforce. An example of the output of thisprocess is given in Fig. 10. Peak tempera-ture achieved in the simulation is crossreferenced to the bar at the right.

Michael Kuntz of the University of Wa-terloo has taken this a step further withthe small-scale microwelding simulation

of cross wire welding of fine stainless steelwires for biocompatible material applica-tions such as medical implants. Figure 11shows how he has used a simulation soft-ware program to predict the outcome ofDC welding under differing scenarios tosee the peak temperature distribution,which would assist him in evaluating thesize of the heat-affected zone, and under-standing how the mechanical propertiesmight be affected. Three weld currents of100, 120, and 150 A are illustrated, re-spectively. The simulations are pairedwith a microphotograph of the actual re-sultant weld for comparison.

Final ThoughtsThis article has looked at some appli-

cations of cross wire welding, has high-lighted the need for the industry to createtensile shear strength standards for pro-jection welding with the increasing use ofadvanced high-strength steels and ultra-high-strength steels, and the emergingtrend toward the adoption of simulationresistance welding to reduce weld verifi-cation testing and preproduction scrapand labor. In projection welding, it is notpossible to weld without expulsion. Theproblem is controlling the amount of ex-pulsion and obtaining the requiredstrength. Standardized procedures areneeded for determining the weldability ofmaterials for cross wire welding.♦

Fig. 10 — A simulation output of a cross wire weld, showing expulsion as a red flame.

Fig. 11 — Metallographic results of microweldwith superimposed simulation.

Table 2 — Welding Parameters for Reinforcing Steel (60 Hz AC)

Cold Drawn Cold Ripped Hot Rolledd FE tx_up tx I2x I2x I2x(mm) (kN) (cycle) (cycle) (kA) (kA) (kA)

5 1.5 1 4 4.5 5.0 6.36 2 2 6 5.4 6.0 7.47 2.5 2 7 6.6 7.3 9.18 3 2 9 7.6 8.4 10.59 3.5 3 11 8.6 9.6 11.910 4 3 13 9.7 10.8 13.412 5 5 18 11.2 13.1 16.314 6 6 25 13.7 15.2 18.916 7 8 32 15.8 17.5 21.7


Titanium and its alloys are used pri-marily in two areas of applicationswhere the unique characteristics of

these metals justify their selection. Cor-rosion-resistant applications typically uti-lize the lower strength, commercially puregrades. However, as technical require-ments in corrosive applications have be-come more severe, the use of higher-strength alloys with enhanced corrosionresistance is increasing. Most titanium al-loys can be fusion welded and all alloyscan be welded by solid-state processes.Properly made welds in the as-welded con-dition are ductile, and, in most environ-ments, nearly as corrosion resistant as thebase metal. However, improperly madewelds can be severely embrittled or exhibitreduced corrosion resistance.

The equipment and techniques used inwelding titanium are similar to those re-quired for other high-performance mate-rials, such as stainless steels and nickel-based alloys. However, titanium demandsgreater attention to cleanliness and to theuse of auxiliary inert gas shielding. To pre-vent contamination from air, completeinert gas shielding of the face and root ofthe weld is required. Hence, the parts tobe welded must be meticulously cleanedof mill scale, oil, and grease from machin-ing operations, dust, dirt, moisture, andother potential contaminants.

Arc Welding Processes

Titanium can be joined using commonprocesses such as gas tungsten arc, gas metalarc, plasma arc welding, electron beam, andother methods. This article describes thepractices used with the gas tungsten arcwelding process (GTAW), since this is themost widely used process for titanium. Thisinert gas-shielded process is well suited forjoining titanium and titanium alloys, pro-

vided that the gas shielding arrangementadequately protects the weld area from theatmosphere. The GTAW process can beperformed using manual, semiautomatic, orautomatic equipment in a chamber or anopen-air environment with auxiliary inertgas shielding.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding(GTAW)

In the GTAW process, an arc betweenthe tungsten electrode and base metalgenerates the heat for welding. Inert

gas from the torch maintains the arc andprotects the tungsten electrode and weldpool from atmospheric contamination.Welds can be made autogenously (i.e.,without filler metal) or with the additionof wire. GTAW can be performed in allpositions and is the only process routinelyused for orbital pipe welding of titanium.

Equipment

Power Source

Titanium and its alloys can be weldedwith most conventional power sources.

For GTAW and PAW, best results areachieved with direct current, electrodenegative (DCEN) polarity. Superim-posed, high-frequency power or othernoncontact method is used to initiate thearc to prevent tungsten contamination atthe weld start that occurs with a touch orscratch starting technique.

The power source must also be capa-ble of breaking the arc on completion ofthe weld without stopping the inert gasflow, or weld contamination will occur atthe weld stop position. This is bestachieved with a remote-controlled con-tactor or foot pedal that controls both thewelding current and the contactor. Pre-flow and postflow timers for torch, trail-ing, and backup shielding are necessaryto ensure adequate protection from at-mospheric contamination.

Welding Torch

Welding torches are of two types,manual and automatic, and arerated in accordance with the

maximum current that can be used at100% duty cycle without overheating.Torches with oversized gas cups and a gas

The Welding of Titanium and Its Alloys

The Welding of Titanium and Its Alloys

RICHARD SUTHERLIN, PE, is with ATI Wah Chang, an Allegheny Technologies Company, and chairman, AWS G2D Subcommittee onReactive Alloys. This article is a summary of AWS G2.4/G2.4M:2007, Guide for the Fusion Welding of Titanium and Titanium Alloys,developed by the G2D Subcommittee.

ELECTRODEDIAMETER

TUNGSTENELECTRODE

INCLUDEDANGLE

DIAMETER OF TIP

Fig. 1 — Tungsten electrode tip shape.

Be aware of proper procedures and the result will be quality welds in titanium

BY RICHARD SUTHERLIN

DECEMBER 200740

Sutherlin 12 07:Layout 1 11/7/07 11:48 AM Page 40

41WELDING JOURNAL

lens are mandatory for welding titaniumcompared to those used for welding othermaterials. The large cup and lens are nec-essary to provide sufficient gas coveragearound the weld pool and are among themost important aspects of quality weldingof titanium. This type of cup and associ-ated gas lens also allows the tungsten elec-trode to be extended beyond the cup forvisibility or welding in areas of limited accessibility.

Tungsten Electrodes

For titanium welding, the 2% thori-ated tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) elec-trode, color-coded red, is generally

preferred. Tungsten tip shape varies withwelder preference, but a simple cone witha 30–40-deg included angle and bluntedtip (equal to 1⁄3 D max) will give satisfac-tory results for most applications — Fig. 1. Grinding parallel to the axis of thetungsten is recommended for optimumperformance.

Materials

Base Metals

Titanium base metals for common in-dustrial applications are covered by theASTM International product specifica-tions. These specifications cover thegrade, chemistry, dimensions and toler-ance, manufacturing method, finish, iden-tification, marking, and packaging re-quirements for all commonly used prod-uct forms. The grade designations devel-oped by ASTM provide a convenient andwidely used system for specific identifi-cation of the various grades of unalloyedor commercially pure titanium andtitanium alloys.

Filler Metals

American Welding Society (AWS)specification A5.16/A5.16M-2004covers the grades of filler metals

suitable for welding most of the titaniumbase metals covered by the ASTM speci-fications. Each wire composition is specif-ically matched to the corresponding basemetal and identified by a numbering sys-tem. For example, in the case of ERTi-XX, the XX is the base metal grade des-ignation used in the ASTM specification.

The recommended filler metals areshown in Table 1 (from A5.16/5.16M-2004). Generally, matching filler metalsshould be used for each base metal grade.

Procedure Qualification

The American Society of MechanicalEngineers (ASME) provides a widely ac-cepted international standard for proce-

dure qualification suitable for titanium.For pressure vessel construction, theASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,Section IX, details procedure and per-formance tests for ASTM Grades 1, 2, 3,7, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 26, 27, and 38 (undera code case). The acceptance criteria arebased on the result of tensile and bendtests from welds made under the sameconditions as intended for production.Once good procedures, including clean-ing and shielding practices, are estab-lished for a welding process/joint design,they must be strictly followed in subse-quent production welding.

Workshop Practice

Workshop Layout

Although in-chamber welding is stillpracticed by some fabricators forsmaller components, most tita-

nium welding is performed in an open fab-rication shop and, less commonly, in thefield. Regardless of where the welding isperformed, a clean and protected envi-ronment is necessary to produce a high-quality weld. A separate welding areashould be set aside for titanium fabrica-tion. This area should be kept clean and

protected from dirt, dust, smoke, andother airborne contaminants from weld-ing, cutting, and grinding operations.Likewise, the working area should be pro-tected from winds and drafts that can in-terfere with inert gas shielding. An en-closed area, protected by floor-to-ceilingpartitions and equipped with a positive-pressure air system, is preferred. For or-ganizations engaged in titanium weldingon an infrequent basis, temporary enclo-sures, such as curtains or plastic tentsaround the weld site, are also acceptable.

Material Identification and Storage

All titanium materials should be storedin a clean, dry area and protected fromcontact with non-titanium materials, par-ticularly steel that can lead to surface ironcontamination. For example, storageracks can be lined with wood or plastic,and wood blocks should always be placedunder titanium before it is set on a con-crete surface. It is also recommended thatfork protectors be used or wood can beplaced between forks and titanium.

It is good practice to segregate all tita-nium materials. Retain marking of thegrade and heat number (at a minimum),

3⁄4 in [19 mm] CUP

1-1⁄2 in[38 mm]

3 in[76 mm]

1/8 in [~3 mm] POROUS BRONZE

GAS INLET TUBE

GAS LENS

SOLDER AT CORNERS1-1⁄8 in X 2 in [28 mm X 51 mm]BAFFLES

CUP RETAINERSCREW

PACK TIGHTLYWITH BRONZE ORSTAINLES-STEELWOOL

Fig. 2 — Typical trailing shield design. (Courtesy of MC Consulting.)


DECEMBER 200742

as it is essentially impossible to distinguishbetween titanium grades by appearance.Extra caution is appropriate on jobs in-volving several grades of titanium.

Each filler metal wire container orsheath should carry an identification label.Where identification tags are not pro-vided on each wire length, fabricatorsoften color code the material on each end.All filler metals should be stored in closedand sealed containers until issued for useand then kept in a clean container orsheath until they are selected for welding.

Inert Gas Protection

The weld pool, solidified weld, andheat-affected zones on the face androot sides of the weld must be pro-

tected until the metal cools to below 800°F

(427°C). Only argon or helium (or mix-tures) are used as shielding gases. Othergases, including argon-oxygen mixtures,nitrogen or CO2, should never be used.The low tolerance of titanium to atmos-pheric contamination also extends to gasimpurities and moisture in the shieldinggas. The purity of the shielding gasesshould be at least 99.995%, but it is rec-ommended that higher-purity gas be used.The dewpoint of the gases should be –60°F(–50°C) or lower.

Inert Gas Distribution

Shielding gases are supplied in pres-surized cylinders or as a liquid in bothportable dewers and large stationary

insulated tanks. For central liquid systems,the liquid is vaporized and the gas is piped

to points within the fabrication facilitythrough a distribution system. Gas distri-bution lines should be stainless steel withwelded or silver soldered joints or brazedcopper tubing, except where flexibility orelectrical insulation is required. All mani-folds, valves, regulators, flowmeters, fit-tings, tubing, hoses, torches, and other as-sociated equipment should be clean, leak-free, and free of moisture.

Inert gas for the torch, trailing, andbackup shielding should be suppliedthrough separate flowmeters. Interlockedsolenoid valves or manual on-off valves areused to control preflow and postflow ofgas. A suggested arrangement is a timer-controlled preflow and postflow for torchshielding and solenoid valves with manualswitches interlocked with the welding cur-rent for trailing and backup shielding.

Table 1 — Chemical Composition Requirements of Titanium Filler Metals (wt-%)(a)

ASTM AWS UNS C O H N Al V Fe OtherGrade Grade Numbers

1 ERTi-1 R50100 0.03 0.03–0.10 0.005 0.012 0.08 —2 ERTi-2 R50120 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.123 ERTi-3 R50125 0.03 0.13–0.20 0.008 0.02 0.164 ERTi-4 R50130 0.03 0.18–0.32 0.008 0.025 0.255 ERTi-5 R56402 0.05 0.12–0.20 0.015 0.03 5.5–6.7 3.5–4.5 0.227 ERTi-7 R52401 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.12–0.25 Pd9 ERTi-9 R56328 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.02 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.2511 ERTi-11 R52251 0.03 0.03–0.10 0.005 0.012 0.08 0.12–0.25 Pd12 ERTi-12 R53401 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.15 0.6–0.9 Ni

0.2–0.4 Mo13 ERTi-13 R53423 0.03 0.03–0.10 0.005 0.012 0.08 0.04–0.06 Ru

0.4–0.6 Ni14 ERTi-14 R53424 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.04–0.06 Ru

0.4–0.6 Ni15 ERTi-15A R53416 0.03 0.13–0.20 0.008 0.02 0.16 0.04–0.06 Ru

(15A) 0.4–0.6 Ni16 ERTi-16 R52403 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.04–0.08 Pd17 ERTi-17 R52253 0.03 0.03–0.10 0.005 0.012 0.08 0.04–0.08 Pd18 ERTi-18 R56326 0.03 0.06–0.12 0.005 0.012 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.2 0.04–0.08 Pd23 ERTi-23 R56408 0.03 0.06–0.11 0.005 0.012 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 0.224 ERTi-24 R56415 0.05 0.12–0.20 0.015 0.03 5.5–6.7 3.5–4.5 0.22 0.04–0.08 Pd25 ERTi-25 R56413 0.05 0.12–0.20 0.015 0.03 5.5–6.7 3.5–4.5 0.22 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.3–0.8 Ni26 ERTi-26 R52405 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.08–0.14 Ru27 ERTi-27 R52255 0.03 0.03–0.10 0.005 0.012 0.08 0.08–0.14 Ru28 ERTi-28 R56324 0.03 0.06–0.12 0.005 0.012 2.5–3.5 2.0–3.0 0.2 0.08–0.14 Ru29 ERTi-29 R56414 0.03 0.06–0.11 0.008 0.02 5.5–6.5 3.5–4.5 0.2 0.08–0.14 Ru30 ERTi-30 R53531 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.20–0.80 Co31 ERTi-31 R53533 0.03 0.13–0.20 0.008 0.02 0.16 0.04–0.08 Pd

0.20–0.80 Co32 ERTi-32 R55112 0.03 0.05–0.10 0.008 0.012 4.5–5.5 0.6–1.4 0.2 0.6–1.2 Mo

0.6–1.4 Zr0.6–1.4 Sn0.06–0.14 Si

33 ERTi-33 R53443 0.03 0.08–0.16 0.008 0.015 0.12 0.01–0.02 Pd0.02–0.04 Ru0.35–0.55 Ni0.1–0.2 Cr

34 ERTi-34 R53444 0.03 0.13–0.20 0.008 0.02 0.16 0.01–0.02 Pd0.02–0.04 Ru0.35–0.55 Ni0.1–0.2 Cr

(a) Single values are maximum.


43WELDING JOURNAL

Gas hoses should be nonporous, flexi-ble, and made only of polytetrafluoroeth-ylene (PTFE), polypropylene (PP), or high-density polyethylene (HDPE). FEP-linedTygon® has superior resistance to mois-ture absorption and is recommended. Rub-ber hoses absorb moisture and shouldnever be used in any titanium welding operation.

In-Chamber Welding

Welding chambers are typically re-stricted to the fabrication of smaller com-ponents. Although the use of a chambercan be quite cumbersome and requiressignificant operator skill, complete inertgas protection of the weld can be providedregardless of the joint geometry or com-ponent complexity.

Open Air Welding

The requirement for additional gasshielding to protect the face androot of the weld and the cooling

base metal during open air welding is themost significant factor that differentiatestitanium from most stainless steel fabrications.

Trailing Shields

The function of the trailing shield is toblanket the solidified weld and adjacentheat-affected zone with inert gas until thesurface temperature has dropped to below800°F (427°C) or such that no visible oxidecolor forms on the surfaces. The trailingshield can be attached directly to the gasnozzle on either manual or automatictorches. See Fig. 2 for a typical trailingshield configuration.

The width and length of the trailingshield is a function of the welding heatinput and must be determined for eachparticular joint design during welding pro-cedure development. If the trailing shieldis too short, excessive oxidation on the sur-face of the solidified weld will occur (in-dicated by visible surface color). A shield

about 4 in. in length and 1½–2 in. in widthis suitable for most manual work.

Backup Shields

Inert gas shielding of the root side ofwelds is required unless the backside re-mains below 800°F (427°C) or until suffi-cient weld thickness (typically ¼ in. or 6mm) is deposited so that no color formson the root during welding. Backupshields can be made following the samedesign principles used for trailing shieldsand then manually held, clamped, ortaped in place.

For smaller pipe sizes or in structureswhere root access is limited, pure argonpurging is satisfactory for backup shield-ing. The ends of the pipe or open areas ofa structure can be sealed with clear plas-tic, metal sheet, or thin plastic film andsealed with masking tape (cardboard orpaper would allow air to diffuse andshould not be used). In general, gas is fedcontinuously from one end of the pipe orlow point in the structure and is vented ata higher point with secondary escapethrough the weld preparation (partiallysealed with masking tape while the rootpass is completed).

Argon is usually the best choice forpurging because of its lower cost com-pared to helium.

Shielding Gases

Gas selection is driven by the physi-cal properties of the shieldinggases, which have a major effect

on arc characteristics, heat input, and over-all process performance. Welding-gradeargon is generally employed for torchshielding because its arc stability is betterthan with helium. Argon is also heavierthan helium, and after leaving the torch,forms a blanket over the weld pool,whereas helium tends to rise in a some-what turbulent fashion. Excessive flowscan entrain air into the torch shielding gasresulting in contamination of the weld de-posit. While the manufacturer’s recom-

mended gas flow rates to the torch shouldbe used, argon flow rates in the vicinity of15–40 ft3/h (7.1–19 L/min) have provensatisfactory in practice. Individual flowme-ters should always be used for each device.

Joint Preparation

The need for care and planning at thematerials preparation stage cannot beoveremphasized. Selection of the prepa-ration method and provision for protec-tion of the weld surfaces are both impor-tant. A smoothly machined surface is gen-erally best, where practical. Thermally cutsurfaces must have contaminated materi-als completely removed. Ground or abra-sive cut surfaces require rotary or drawfiling to remove local burned areas andabrasive particles.

Joint Design

Weld joint designs for titaniumhave the same function as thosefor other metals, which is to pro-

vide access to the root for the welding arc.However, the joint design for titaniummust provide accessibility for inert gasshielding devices as well as postweld in-spection of both sides of the weld as muchas possible. This enables visual inspectionto determine if shielding has been effec-tive. For GTA welds, a square groove canbe used for all butt joint and corner weldsin thin-gauge sheet and other productforms where the thickness does not ex-ceed 1⁄8 in. (3.2 mm). Thicker material upto about ¾ in. (19 mm) is usually preparedwith a single- or double-V groove with anincluded angle in the range of 45 to 75 degand a root opening of 1⁄32 (0.8 mm) to 1⁄8 in.(3.2 mm). For greater plate thicknesses, aU groove (with an included angle as smallas possible, consistent with achieving goodsidewall fusion) may be used to reducetotal weld metal required. As a guide, thetotal included angle should not be >30deg or <15 deg. A double-V or U grooveis a better alternative when there is accessto both sides of the weld for economy andminimum distortion.

Table 2 — Surface Color in Titanium Welds

Color Interpretation Action

Silver Correct shielding NoneLight straw to dark straw Excessive surface oxide, acceptable Remove surface oxide

by brushing, correctshielding

Purple to light blue Moderate surface contamination, Remove ~1⁄32 in. of theunacceptable surface by rotary filing,

correct shieldingDark blue Heavy contamination, unacceptable Remove weld beadYellow to gray to white Very heavy contamination, Remove weld bead and

unacceptable 1⁄32–1⁄16 in. of thematerial beneath

Table 3 — Bend Test Requirements for Titanium Alloys

Titanium Bend RadiusGrades (from AWS D1.9)1, 11, 17, 27 4T2, 7, 16, 26 4T3 5T12 6T9, 18, 28 8T5, 24 8T23, 29 8T


DECEMBER 200744

Cutting

Titanium can be cut with conventionaloxyfuel, plasma arc, waterjet, or laser cut-ting equipment. A significant amount oftitanium dioxide smoke is produced byoxyfuel and plasma arc cutting operations,and local exhaust ventilation should beused. An allowance for removal of con-taminated metal that includes allowancefor cutting tolerances, cut width, and anysurface roughness plus 1⁄8 in. (3.14 mm) foroxyfuel or 1⁄16 in. (1.58 mm) per surface forplasma arc is usually considered sufficient.

Waterjet cutting is an excellent processfor cutting titanium, but can trap abrasiveparticles in the cut surface. It is recom-mended that the waterjet joint cut edges(as a minimum) be followed by draw fil-ing to remove the embedded abrasive particles.

Preliminary Preparation

Techniques for preparation includemachining, sawing, abrasive cutting,grinding, and filing are suitable for thepreliminary preparation of titaniumjoints. It is important to note that the finaljoint surfaces should be smooth and con-tain no crevices, roughness, or overlapsthat can trap dirt or cleaning fluids.

Machined joints provide a uniformsmooth surface and the most accurate fit-up and are recommended for titanium.Water-soluble lubricants are recom-mended. Chlorinated cutting fluids shouldnever be used on titanium.

Abrasive cut or ground edges shouldbe rotary or draw filed to remove burrsand abrasive particles. Friction (abrasive)sawing produces similar shallow surfacecontamination that must be removed insubsequent grinding, filing, or machiningoperations. Any visible metal oxide(burns) should be removed.

Tungsten carbide burrs (rotary files)and/or metal draw files are recommendedfor all final surface preparation and conditions.

Final Cleaning

Best results are obtained if the en-tire component is thoroughlycleaned prior to final surface

preparation of the weld joint and cleanli-ness is maintained throughout welding op-erations.

The cleanliness of the actual weld jointsurfaces and adjacent metal is critical tothe quality of the weld and requires care-ful local cleaning prior to final fit-up andwelding.

A common method to clean the jointand adjacent base material on both theface and root for a minimum of 1 in. (25.4mm) on either side of the joint is by brush-

ing with a stainless steel wire wheel fol-lowed by a thorough cleaning with lint-free cloths or tissues dampened in a suit-able solvent. Acetone (100% purity andnot reconstituted) is recommended.Other solvents in order of decreasing ef-fectiveness include isopropyl alcohol anddenatured alcohol (100% purity not re-constituted).

All tools that come in contact with thefinal joint surface, including burrs, files,and stainless steel brushes, should beclean and used only on titanium.

After final cleaning, the prepared sur-faces should not be touched or, if neces-sary, only with clean, dry cotton gloves.

Fit-up and Tack Welding

Accurate fit-up is more critical fortitanium than other materials.Uniform fit-up minimizes irregu-

lar root fusion, helps control underbeadcontour, and reduces distortion. Poor fit-up increases the possibility of contamina-tion from air trapped at the joint inter-face. When possible, joints should beclamped rather than tack welded. Allclamps and fixtures should be clean andgrease free. When tack welds are used, thesame cleaning and shielding requirementsas used for all titanium welds should beemployed, including the use of trailing andbackup shielding.

Welding Technique

Welding Parameters

Gas tungsten arc, plasma arc, and gasmetal arc welds can be made using a vari-ety of current/speed combinations.

Preheating

Preheat may be required if the pres-ence of moisture is suspected due to coldmaterial, low temperature, high humid-ity, or a wet work area (in repair situa-tions). In such cases, preheating of tita-nium using lamps, resistance heaters, orinduction heating equipment is preferred.Where gas torches are used, the torchshould be set to a slightly oxidizing flameand the flame moved continuously duringheating. No visible color should form dur-ing heating.

Filler Metal Practice

Wire and rod are typically supplied fromthe manufacturer in a clean condition.However, filler materials have a large sur-face-to-volume ratio, and if the material isslightly contaminated from die lubricants,the resulting weld will be severely contami-nated. Manually fed wire or rod should behandled with clean, lint-free cotton gloves.

Starting and Stopping the Arc

Before starting an arc, the torch, trail-ing shield, and backup shielding must beprepurged for several seconds to ensureclean argon flow.

The torch and shield should be posi-tioned over the part and held for 5 to 10seconds before the arc is initiated to es-tablish an initial inert gas blanket over thepart. The arc should then be initiated withhigh frequency and the welding currentincreased to the required range.

Wire Feeding

For manual welding, cut lengths ofwelding wire should be kept in a cleansheath until selected for use by the welder.Welding wire should be fed into the weldpool at the junction of the arc and jointsurface in a smooth and continuous man-ner. At the completion of each weld stop,approximately ½ in. of the wire or rodshould be removed before reuse, unlessthe wire is kept under the gas protectionduring cooling.

Interpass Cleaning

In addition to inspections for surfaceimperfections, each weld pass shouldbe visually inspected for surface color

in the as-deposited condition. Interpasscleaning is not required if the weld depositis bright and silvery. For other colors,welding should be stopped, the shieldingproblem corrected, and the unacceptablearea repaired (Table 2) and inspected inaccordance with the recommendationsprovided in the section on “Visual Inspection.”

Interpass Temperatures

A maximum interpass temperature of250°F (120°C) is recommended to avoidheat buildup that may require additionalshielding for subsequent weld passes.

Weld Quality Tests

Visual Inspection

Most elements of visual inspection oftitanium welds are the same as for othermetals, including weld contour, undercut,penetration, and reinforcement. Visualinspection for surface color can also beused to assess the effectiveness of inertgas shielding, and indirectly, weld quality.A properly shielded weld will exhibit abright and lustrous silver color. Atmos-pheric contamination will change the sur-face color of the welds from silver to straw,yellow, purple, light blue, dark blue, dullgrey, and powder white as the degree ofcontamination increases.


45WELDING JOURNAL

Visual inspection must be performedin the as-deposited condition, prior to anytype of cleaning, brushing, or grinding op-erations. Welding over a contaminatedweld to remove color will only make theweld worse even though it looks bright andshiny. The contamination from the sur-face is now absorbed in the weld and mustbe fully removed. Qualified personnelshould inspect each weld pass and adja-cent material, including the root side oftwo-sided welds. A bright silver color in-dicates correct shielding, and no correc-tive action is necessary. A straw to lightblue color on the final weld surface indi-cates heavier oxide that should be re-moved by wire brushing, but generallydoes not require removal of the weldmetal. Colors beyond straw to light bluegenerally indicate sufficient contamina-tion to warrant complete removal of theweld and adjacent material.

It should be noted that surface color isan indication of the effectiveness of thetrailing shield only and does not guaran-tee that the torch shielding was adequate.This is due to the fact that entrainment ofair into the torch shield gas can contami-nate the weld but still result in a silvercolor if the trailing shield provides ade-quate protection.

Bend Testing

Bend testing is a very effectivemethod for assessing contamina-tion in welding qualification tests.

Standard face, root bends, or side bendsare typically used. Welds with satisfactoryductility will bend over the radii shown inTable 3 without cracking.

Hardness Testing

Hardness tests provide direct evidenceof atmospheric contamination, since con-taminated welds exhibit greater hardness.More importantly, hardness testing willdetect contamination that occurs from in-adequate torch gas shielding for welds ex-hibiting acceptable surface color. It shouldbe noted that the hardness delta is so smallwith the high-strength alloys that it mayor may not be a reliable measure of contamination.

NondestructiveExamination

Radiography

Radiography is a very useful inspec-tion technique for titanium, andits application does not differ sub-

stantially from the radiography of othermetals.

Liquid Penetrant Testing

Surface cracks and other discontinu-ities open to the surface can be detectedby liquid dye penetrant inspection. Visi-ble dyes are commonly used in industrialapplications, but fluorescent penetrantmay provide greater sensitivity in some instances.

Repair of Defects

Repairs Following ServiceFailures

Field repairs represent the most dif-ficult situation under which to pro-duce welds of satisfactory quality.

The titanium equipment is usually dirtyand may have corrosion products on thesurface. Repairs must often be done underless than ideal conditions, including highwinds, high humidity, or extremes in tem-perature. Significantly more time will berequired in preparation than actual weld-ing. The equipment must be cleaned toeliminate any source of water or dirt.

After removal of the defective mate-rial by cutting or grinding, the entire workarea should be cleaned and then enclosedto eliminate drafts, dirt, water, etc. Thiscan be accomplished by plastic sheetsdraped over the work area or attached totemporary supports. Preweld cleaning fol-lows the procedures outlined earlier.

Repairs that must be made to partialpenetration welds or in areas where thereare crevices present a special problem.This is due to the difficulty of removingthe contaminants in crevices or the fayingsurfaces of partial penetration welds. Pre-heating to dry the restricted area and pos-sibly volatize potential contaminants mayminimize this problem during a repair.Welding over poorly cleaned areas will re-sult in contamination, a poor weld, andpossibly premature failure, and a repeatof the costly repair.

Conclusion

Titanium and titanium alloys can bewelded successfully using equip-ment and procedures used for other

materials, but with additional considera-tions. The most important considerationsare joint preparations/cleanliness andcompletely shielding the weld using inertgas. If proper procedures are followed, a high-quality titanium weld can beachieved.◆



The laser beam cutting process is used mainly in the trans-portation equipment manufacturing industry, the constructionindustry, and other sectors of the metal fabricating industry. Dur-ing the process, a laser beam is focused on the base metal, whilean assist gas is used to eject the molten metal along the kerf. Thelaser beam is physically produced by an electrical discharge thatis induced in a cavity filled with a gaseous medium composedmainly of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and helium, which producesa consistent monochromatic light. This process is used primarilyfor cutting metal sheets when extreme precision is required andwhere a large number of pieces must be cut at high speed.

While laser cutting technology requires maintaining controlover many parameters and major investments in machinery, thecutting speed and quality that are its hallmarks make laser beamcutting a preferred process. A new laser technology has increasedlaser cutting speeds even more.

According to observations made since it was first marketed,this technology, which is sold under the name Bifocal, increasescutting speed for metals that use nitrogen as an assist gas (e.g.,stainless steel and aluminium alloys) by 20 to 40%. The Bifocaleffect is created using a mirror or a replaceable lens.

The technology focuses the laser beam at the base of the work-piece, which prevents the formation of burrs. The second focuspoint for the new optics is located on the same axis as the first,but is directly on the surface of the workpiece. It is this secondfocus point that speeds up cutting. It concentrates sufficient en-

ergy at the surface to initiate penetration of the beam.Productivity Statistics. In general, increases in cutting speed

of 20 to 40% have been observed, depending on the type of lasersource, the type of alloy, and the thickness of the metal sheet. Inaddition, by focusing the energy and the beam on two points, thetechnology can cut metal sheets that are 10 to 20% thicker.

In the case of carbon steel, the fact that the laser beam usedwith this technology is narrower at the base of the material (firstfocus point) than that used by traditional technologies also re-duces surface oxidation.

With traditional cutting technologies, slag is a by-product thatresults from a more diffuse beam. Because it is applied uniformlyto a larger surface of the material, the beam used with a stan-dard focus acts more slowly, which causes impurities that are con-tained in the molten metal, or dross, to rise to the surface. Theabsence of slag and burrs results in a much cleaner cut, which fa-cilitates the subsequent processing of cut workpieces. For exam-ple, paint adheres better to a workpiece that is free of slag andburrs. As a result, the new technology contributes to increasedproductivity during subsequent steps of the fabrication process.The faster cutting speed also generates savings in terms of en-ergy and the volume of assist gas, such as nitrogen or oxygen.

How to Adopt the Technology. Implementing the technologyin a plant is easy. In fact, the optics (lens or mirror) can replacethe standard optics that are installed on most CO2 laser cuttingmachines that use nitrogen or oxygen as an assist gas. However,the geometry of each optics (lens or mirror) must be optimizedfor the specific anticipated use of the machine.

Tests and adjustments must be carried out by a laser special-ist, who starts by determining which type of optics for the newtechnology is best suited to the anticipated type of production.The optics are then installed on the cutting machine for testingpurposes. Finally, the parameters of the laser cutting machinethat is equipped with the new technology are optimized. Thisstep is carried out on site, with the collaboration of the cuttingmachine operators.

Significant Impact. Anyone who works in the field of manu-facturing production can appreciate the importance of new tech-nological progress. Steel cutting is one of the more common op-erations in the manufacturing industry. Any productivity increasesat this stage have a significant impact on manufacturing produc-tivity as a whole.

Over the past decade, the productivity gains the Canadianeconomy has recorded are mainly the result of technological ad-vances, as revealed by a recent Statistics Canada study. This newlaser beam cutting technology fits into this category. In additionto increasing cutting speed and the capacity of cutting machines,it also significantly improves the quality of cuts, which results ina substantial increase in productivity in a number of areas.♦

TECHNOLOGY

Technology Delivers Laser Cutting Productivity Gains

BY LAURENT RIMANO

LAURENT RIMANO is product manager, Welding Equipment andAdvanced Fabrication Technologies, Air Liquide Canada, Mon-treal, Canada.

The new technology from Air Liquide utilizes a second focus pointthat concentrates sufficient energy at the surface to initiate penetra-tion of the beam to speed up laser beam cutting.

DECEMBER 200746

Technology Dec 2007:Layout 1 11/6/07 1:44 PM Page 46

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Serious networkingopportunities (and fun in the sun)

Take Time to Recharge

Join Welding Equipment ManufacturersCommittee (WEMCO) as we focus onthe “Present and Future Trends inSupply Chain Management.” WEMCOwill have its highly anticipated 12thAnnual Meeting on January 24-26, atthe popular Resort at Longboat Keylocated on Florida’s Gulf Coast. The2008 Annual Meeting will be even morerewarding than the previous meeting inPalm Springs. And as an added bonus,it is guaranteed that Florida’s weatherwill be warmer than last year’s.

First-Time Guests Are Welcome!The Annual Meeting is an excellentopportunity to network with some of thestrongest leaders in the weldingmanufacturing industry from around thecountry. In addition, you will not want tomiss presentations from WEMCO’sdynamic list of speakers, including:• Mike Weller of Miller Electric • George Ristevski of Praxair

Distribution• Joe Stachowicz of Grainger Global

Sourcing

Participate in Our IndustryLeader Panel DiscussionBe a part of the solution for toughbusiness issues regarding thechallenges faced by the manufacturerand distributor in today’s national andglobal arenas. Leading our paneldiscussion will be:• Bob Ames of Commonwealth Supply

and GAWDA 2007 President• Dan Taylor, Norco• Dave Nangle, Harris Products Group • Jeff Deckrow, Hypertherm

Alan Beaulieu…Back by Popular DemandThe highly respected Alan Beaulieu of Institute for Trends Research will present his vibrant economicforecasting report. Alan is a vital part of the WEMCO Annual Meetings,and we are glad to have him back with us.

Take Time to RechargeAlso, what better way for you to unwindthan an afternoon game of golf at theresort’s Islandside golf course, or a

relaxing spa treatment at the resort’sIsland House Spa? You will appreciate the personal service, suiteaccommodations, and the fourrestaurants and lounges. Maybe youwould prefer a candlelit dinner at theenchanted St. Armand’s Circle, or asunset stroll on the white sand beach.Any choice you make will only leave youfeeling refreshed and rejuvenated!

12th Annual WEMCO MeetingJanuary 24 – 26, 2008Longboat Key Club and ResortLongboat Key, Florida

Meeting Fee $720Spouse Fee $225Spouse Tour $75

WEMCO has established special grouprates for various room types.

Register for the Annual Meeting andtoday by contacting Natalie James-Tapley, WEMCO Program Manager, at 1-800-443-9353, ext. 444, or e-mail [email protected]

So don’t delay, and register for themeeting today! We’ll be waiting...

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WELDINGWORKBOOK

joint penetration — The distance the weld metal extends fromthe weld face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement.root penetration — The distance the weld metal extends into thejoint root.

incomplete joint penetration (IJP) — A joint root condition in agroove weld in which weld metal does not extend through thejoint thickness.

48

Datasheet 291

Excerpted from AWS, A3.0:2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions.

Weld Joint Terminology

DECEMBER 2007

WWB 12 07:Layout 1 11/7/07 10:50 AM Page 48

The Navy Joining Center (NJC), op-erated by Edison Welding Institute,has been awarded four new proj-

ects from the U.S. Navy’s ManTech Of-fice to address materials-joining issues fornew weapons platform systems. The proj-ects, in support of the next-generation de-stroyer (DDX) and Virginia Class Sub-marines (VCS) (Fig. 1) are Weld Devel-opment of Large Structures for Hull In-tegration, Improved Hull Fabrication andAssembly Welding, Structure FabricationWeld Improvement, and Improved Af-fordability of Sheet Metal Products.

Weld Development of Large Struc-tures for Hull Integration. The currentdesign concept for the multirole surfacecombatant includes a number of largestructures fabricated from thick-section,high-strength steel for each ship. Theheavy structures are to be manufacturedin modular form then brought shipsidefor erection with the hull. Without signif-icant improvements in welding and man-ufacturing technology, the cost to inte-grate the large modules into the ship hullwill be excessively high and productioncycle times will be lengthy. The goal ofthis project is to develop mobile, high-productivity welding technology for inte-gration of the heavy, thick-section mod-ules to the DDG 1000 hull. The develop-ment will investigate several processes tofacilitate out-of-position erection weld-ing. Robust welding procedures will bedeveloped with the preferred processes,and the integration of weld mechaniza-tion to reduce welding labor hours andmaximize first-time quality.

Improved Hull Fabrication and As-sembly. The objective of this project isto reduce construction costs for VCS bydeveloping and applying technology to re-duce welding costs for hull fabrication andassembly. The shipyards are focusing onreducing construction costs from $2.4 to$2 billion per hull. The specific goal is toachieve a 20% reduction in welding costsby focusing on operations that have beenidentified to have the greatest potentialfor savings. One objective is to reduceconstruction time from 84 to 60 monthsby 2009. Another part of the program ad-dresses reduction of ship constructionlabor costs, including welding operations.Development opportunities have beenidentified by the U.S. Navy and its sub-contractors to apply new manufacturing

processes and technologies to reduce thecosts of welding hull cylinders and sub-assemblies. Initial reviews of hull weldingoperations have identified a number ofopportunities to improve weldingprocesses and equipment to reduce shipconstruction labor costs. As a result ofthese reviews, this project will addresshorizontal butt joint welds, i.e., ships-po-sition C-seams, high-heat-input welding,welding hull inserts and penetrations, andadaptive mechanized welding of buttjoints.

Structure Fabrication Weld Im-provement. In follow-on activity to sup-port the need for continuous improve-ment for VCS, operations involved withthe production of structural fabricationshave been identified as major contribu-tors to construction costs. Specific fabri-cated structural elements include tank in-ternals, midspan bulkhead structures,main propulsion foundations, manholeliners, and penetrations. Preliminary as-sessments have identified areas to im-prove the accuracy of weld preparations,component assembly and fit-up, preheat-ing, welding processes and equipment, aswell as increased use of fixtures, position-

ing, automation, and mechanization. Thisproject will be performed in two phasesaddressing mechanized welding of struc-tures, reducing the cost of preheatingweldments, and developing an improvedwelding method for fill and vent holes.Phase 1 activity will determine the re-quirements and supporting business casesfor implementation of new technology.Phase 2 will develop mechanized equip-ment and procedures to increase weldproductivity. The developed systems willbe demonstrated at the NJC then movedto the shipyards for performance evalua-tions.

Improved Affordability of SheetMetal Products. Significant fabricationof sheet metal products, such as electri-cal enclosures, racks, lockers, HVACducting, etc., is utilized in submarine con-struction. Because of the distinctive de-sign of submarines and the necessity tomaximize space, these products representmany common features, but comprise awide variety of sizes and shapes. In manyinstances, they are custom built for a par-ticular boat. The variations in design andsize of these components have necessi-tated significant hand fitting and fabrica-tion, which is costly. Of particular inter-est is the manual joining techniques thatare used for this construction, manual gastungsten arc welding and upsetting rivets.Both processes involve significant laborand, applied to the current product forms,are not easily adapted to more efficientmanufacturing techniques. The primaryobjective of the project will be to identifyalternate joining techniques to enablegreater efficiency and affordability insheet metal construction. The Navy Join-ing Center will investigate adhesive bond-ing, gas metal arc welding, ultrasonic spotwelding, laser welding, and resistance spotwelding.

For more information, contact LarryBrown, [email protected]; (614) 688-5080.

NAVY JOININGCENTER A MANTECH CENTER OF EXCELLENCE OPERATED BY EWI

NJC Initiates New Joining DevelopmentProjects to Support Navy Platforms

Operated by

The Navy Joining Center1250 Arthur E. Adams Dr.Columbus, OH 43221Phone: (614) 688-5010FAX: (614) 688-5001e-mail: [email protected]: http://www.ewi.orgContact: Larry Brown

Fig. 1 — Shown are (top) the next-gener-ation destroyer DDX, and (bottom) theVirginia Class Submarine (VCS).

49WELDING JOURNAL

NJC Dec 07corr:Layout 1 11/7/07 10:56 AM Page 49

COMINGEVENTS

PACE 2008, The Power of Paint + Coatings. Jan. 27–30, Los An-geles Convention Center, Los Angeles, Calif. Visitwww.PACE2008.com.

Advanced Mfg. Expo. March 26, 27, Int’l Centre, Mississauga,Canada. Society of Mfg. Engineers. Call (313) 425-3187, or visitwww.smecanada.ca/assembly.

WESTEC 2008 Expo and Conf. March 31–April 3, Los AngelesConvention Center, Los Angeles, Calif. Call (313) 425-3187, orvisit www.sme.org/westec.

METALFORM. April 1–3, Birmingham-Jefferson ConventionComplex, Birmingham, Ala. Contact: Precision MetalformingAssn., (216) 901-8800; www.pma.org; www.metalform.com.

Metef-Foundeq Conf. and Show. April 9–12, Garda ExhibitionCentre, Montichiari, Brescia, Italy. Featuring international alu-minum exhibition, high-tech diecasting, foundry, extrusion, andfinishing. Visit www.metef.com/ENG/home.asp.

TechEd 2008: 13th Annual Technology in Education Int’l Conf.& Tech Expo. April 13–16, Ontario Convention Center, Ontario,Calif. Visit www.TechEdEvents.org.

Composites Manufacturing 2008. April 14–16, Hilton Salt LakeCity Center, Salt Lake City, Utah. Society of Mfg. Engineers.Call (313) 425-3187, or visit www.sme.org/composites.

PICALO 2008. April 16–18, Capital Hotel, Beijing, China. ThirdPacific Int’l Conf. on Applications of Lasers and Optics. Visitwww.laserinstitute.org/conferences.

IWOTE ’08. April 22, 23, Hotel Munte, Bremen, Germany. Con-ference language is English. Second Int’l Workshop on ThermalForming and Welding Distortion. Visit www.bias.de/Events/IWOTE08/index_html.

MicroManufacturing and NanoManufacturing Confs. & Ex-hibits. April 22, 23, Sheraton Framingham Hotel, Framingham,Mass. Society of Mfg. Engineers. Call (313) 425-3187, or visitwww.sme.org/micro; www.sme.org/nano.

INTERTECH 2008. May 5–7, Contemporary Resort, Walt Dis-ney World, Orlando, Fla. Abstracts of papers accepted until Jan.1. It will explore practical applications for superabrasives for ma-chining, grinding, drilling, polishing, wear parts, wire dies, etc.Visit www.intertechconference.com.

Montreal Mfg. Technology Show. May 12–14, Place Bonaventure,Montreal, Canada. Society of Mfg. Engineers. Call (313) 425-3187, or visit www.smecanada.ca/montreal.

XXXIX Steelmaking Seminar — Int’l. May 12–16, Estação Em-bratel Convention Center, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil. Visit:www.abmbrasil.com.br/seminarios/aciaria/2008/default-i.asp.

NOTE: A DIAMOND (♦) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.

DECEMBER 200750

For info go to www.aws.org/ad-indexFor info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

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51WELDING JOURNAL

Automotive Laser Application Workshop, ALAW 2008. May13–15, Plymouth, Mich. Contact: The Laser Institute of Amer-ica, www.alawlaser.org; (407) 380-1553.

IIW Int’l Regional Congress, 2nd Latin America Welding Con-gress. May 18–21. Club Transatlantico, São Paulo, Brazil. Visitabs-soldagemlorg.br.

EASTEC 2008 Expo. May 20–22. Eastern States ExpositionGrounds, West Springfield, Mass. Society of Mfg. Engineers. Call(313) 425-3187, or visit www.sme.org/eastec.

Rapid 2008 Conf. and Expo. May 20–22. Disney’s CoronadoSprings Resort & Convention Center, Lake Buena Vista, Fla. So-ciety of Mfg. Engineers. Call (313) 425-3187, or visitwww.sme.org/rapid.

15th Int’l Conf. on Textures of Materials. June 1–5. CarnegieMellon University Center, Pittsburgh, Pa. Contact: AmericanCeramic Society, www.ereleases.com.

♦Trends in Welding Research™, 8th Int’l Conf. June 2–6. Call-away Gardens Resort, Pine Mountain, Ga. Sponsored by ASM In-ternational, www.asminternational.org/trends; cosponsored by theAmerican Welding Society, www.aws.org.

Canadian Manufacturing Week — Metal Finishing Expo. Sept.23–25. International Centre, Toronto, Canada. Society of Mfg.Engineers. Call (313) 425-3187, or visit www.sme.canada.ca/cmw.

♦FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show. Oct. 6–8. LasVegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev. This show is the largestevent in North America dedicated to showcasing the full spectrumof metal forming, fabricating, tube and pipe, and welding equip-ment and technology. Contact: American Welding Society,(800/305) 443-9353, ext. 462; www.aws.org.

Educational OpportunitiesASME Section IX Seminars. Dec. 3–5, Atlanta, Ga.; April 8–10,2008, Las Vegas, Nev. Contact: ASME Continuing EducationInstitute. Call (800) 843-2763, or visit www.asme.org/education.

Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades andEngineers. Orion, Mich. A 5-day course covers operations, trou-bleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures forautomotive lines and integrated cells. Contact: Applied Mfg.Technologies. Call (248) 409-2000, or visit www.appliedmfg.com.

Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses andSeminars. Columbus, Ohio. Call (614) 888-8320, or visit www.na-tionalboard.org.

Continuing Education for Welding Inspectors and CWIs. Dec.11–14. Chicago, Ill. Atema, Inc. Call (312) 861-3000, or visitatemasolutions.com.

CWI/CWE Course and Exam. This is a ten-day program.Contact: Hobart Institute of Welding Technology. Call (800) 332-9448, or visit www.welding.org.

CWI Preparation. Courses on ultrasonic, eddy current, radiogra-phy, dye penetrant, magnetic particle, and visual at Levels 1–3.Meet SNT-TC-1A and NAS-410 requirements. Contact: T.E.S.T.NDT, Inc. Call (714) 255-1500, or visit www.testndt.com.

CWI Preparatory and Visual Weld Inspection Courses. Classespresented in Pascagoula, Miss., Houston, Tex., and Houma andSulphur, La. Contact: Real Educational Services, Inc. Call (800)489-2890, or e-mail [email protected].

Environmental Health and Safety-Related Web Seminars. These30-min-long Web seminars on various topics are online, real-timeevents conducted by industry experts. Most seminars are free.Visit www.augustmack.com/Web%20Seminars.htm.

EPRI NDE Training Seminars. EPRI offers NDE technical skillstraining in visual examination, ultrasonic examination, ASMESection XI, and UT operator training. Contact: SherrylStognerat. Call (704) 547-6174, or e-mail [email protected].

Essentials of Safety Seminars. Two- and four-day courses areheld at numerous locations nationwide to address federal andCalifornia OSHA safety regulations. Contact: American SafetyTraining, Inc. Call (800) 896-8867, or visit www.trainosha.com.

Fabricators and Manufacturers Assn. and Tube and Pipe Assn.Courses. Call (815) 399-8775, or visit www.fmametalfab.org.

Firefighter Hazard Awareness Online Course. A self-paced, ten-module certificate course taught online by fire service profes-sionals teaches how to detect commonly encountered gas haz-ards. Fee is $195. Contact: Industrial Scientific Corp. Call (800)338-3287, or visit www.indsci.com/serv_train_ffha_online.asp.

Flux Cored Arc Welding/Semiautomatic. A one-week course of-fered Dec. 17–21, Cleveland, Ohio. Contact: Lincoln Electric Co.Welding School. Call (216) 383-8325, or visit www.lincolnelec-tric.com to request Bulletin ED.122.


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Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATE EXAM DATE

Reno, NV Dec. 16-21 Dec. 22Houston, TX Dec. 16-21 Dec. 22Beaumont, TX Jan. 6-11, 2008 Jan. 12, 2008Fresno, CA Jan. 6-11 Jan. 12Miami, FL Jan. 13-18 Jan. 19Albuquerque, NM Jan. 13-18 Jan. 19Knoxville, TN EXAM ONLY Jan. 19Pittsburgh, PA Jan. 27-Feb. 1 Feb. 2Denver, CO Jan. 27-Feb. 1 Feb. 2Seattle, WA Feb. 3-8 Feb. 9Milwaukee, WI Feb. 3-8 Feb. 9Indianapolis, IN Feb. 10-15 Feb. 16Atlanta, GA Feb. 10-15 Feb. 16Miami, FL EXAM ONLY Feb. 21Houston, TX Feb. 24-29 Mar. 1San Diego, CA Feb. 24-29 Mar. 1Norfolk, VA Feb. 24-29 Mar. 1Corpus Christi, TX EXAM ONLY Mar. 1Boston, MA Mar. 2-7 Mar. 8Phoenix, AZ Mar. 2-7 Mar. 8Portland, OR Mar. 2-7 Mar. 8Perrysburg, OH EXAM ONLY Mar. 8Anchorage, AK Mar. 9-14 Mar. 15Miami, FL Mar. 9-14 Mar. 15Mobile, AL EXAM ONLY Mar. 15Rochester, NY EXAM ONLY Mar. 29York, PA EXAM ONLY Mar. 29Dallas, TX Mar. 30-Apr. 4 Apr. 5Chicago, IL Mar. 30-Apr. 4 Apr. 5Springfield, MO Apr. 6-11 Apr. 12Baton Rouge, LA Apr. 6-11 Apr. 12San Francisco, CA Apr. 6-11 Apr. 12Miami, FL EXAM ONLY Apr. 17Portland, ME Apr. 13-18 Apr. 19St. Louis, MO EXAM ONLY Apr. 26Nashville, TN Apr. 20-25 Apr. 26Jacksonville, FL Apr. 20-25 Apr. 26Baltimore, MD Apr. 27-May 2 May 3Detroit, MI Apr. 27-May 2 May 3Waco, TX EXAM ONLY May 3Miami, FL May 4-9 May 10Albuquerque, NM May 4-9 May 10Spokane, WA May 4-9 May 10Corpus Christi, TX EXAM ONLY May 10Oklahoma City, OK May 18-23 May 24Birmingham, AL May 18-23 May 24Long Beach, CA EXAM ONLY May 31Hartford, CT Jun. 1-6 Jun. 7Pittsburgh, PA Jun. 1-6 Jun. 7Fargo, ND Jun. 1-6 Jun. 7New Orleans, LA Jun. 1-6 Jun. 7Sacramento, CA Jun. 8-13 Jun. 14Kansas City, MO Jun. 8-13 Jun. 14Miami, FL EXAM ONLY Jun. 19Phoenix, AZ Jun. 22-27 Jun. 28Orlando, FL Jun. 22-27 Jun. 28

9-Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWILOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

New Orleans, LA Jan. 14-19, 2008 NO EXAMDenver, CO Feb. 11-16 NO EXAMDallas, TX Mar. 10-15 NO EXAMSacramento, CA Apr. 14-19 NO EXAMPittsburgh, PA May 19-24 NO EXAMSan Diego, CA Jun. 9-14 NO EXAMOrlando, FL Sept. 8-13 NO EXAMDallas, TX Oct. 20-25 NO EXAMMiami, FL Dec. 1-6 NO EXAMFor current CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. If needed, recertification exam can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector.

Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

Atlanta, GA Jan. 21-25 Jan. 26Houston, TX Jan. 28-Feb. 1 Feb. 2Baton Rouge, LA Mar. 31-Apr. 4 Apr. 5Atlanta, GA Apr. 28-May 2 May 3Columbus, OH May 19-23 May 24Minneapolis, MN Jun. 23-27 Jun. 28Atlanta, GA Jul. 14-18 Jul. 19Philadelphia, PA Aug. 18-22 Aug. 23Atlanta, GA Sept. 15-19 Sept. 20CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.

Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE

Long Beach, CA Jan. 14-18 Jan. 19Indianapolis, IN Feb. 11-15 Feb. 16Houston, TX Mar. 10-14 Mar. 15Philadelphia, PA Apr. 14-18 Apr. 19Nashville, TN May 19-23 May 24Manchester, NH Jun. 9-13 Jun. 14Manchester, MA Jul. 14-18 Jul. 19St. Louis, MO Aug. 18-22 Aug. 23Radiographic Interpreter certification can be a stand-alone credential or can exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.

Certified Welding Educator (CWE)Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under CertifiedWelding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code Clinic portion of the seminar (usually first two days).

Senior Certified Welding Inspector (SCWI)Exam can be taken at any site listed under Certified WeldingInspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.

Certified Welding FabricatorThis program is designed to certify companies to specificrequirements in the ANSI standard AWS B5.17, Specification forthe Qualification of Welding Fabricators. There is no seminar orexam for this program. Call ext. 448 for more information.

Code Clinics & Individual Prep CoursesThe following workshops are offered at all sites where the CWIseminar is offered (code books not included with individual prepcourses): Welding Inspection Technology (general knowledge andprep course for CWI Exam-Part A); Visual Inspection Workshop(prep course for CWI Exam-Part B); and D1.1 and API-1104 Code Clinics (prep courses for CWI Exam-Part C).

On-site Training and ExaminationOn-site training is available for larger groups or for programscustomized to meet specific needs of a company. Call ext. 219 formore information.

For information on any of our seminars and certification programs,visit our website at www.aws.org/certification or contact AWS at (800/305)443-9353, Ext. 273 for Certification and Ext. 455 for Seminars. Pleaseapply early to save Fast Track fees. This schedule is subject to changewithout notice. Please verify the dates with the Certification Dept. andconfirm your course status before making final travel plans.

AWS Certification ScheduleCertification Seminars, Code Clinics and Examinations

Application deadlines are six weeks before the scheduled seminar or exam. Late applications will be assessed a $250 Fast Track fee.

© AWS 2007 CER1324-12

®

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SOCIETYNEWSSOCIETYNEWSBY HOWARD M. WOODWARDBY HOWARD M. WOODWARD

53WELDING JOURNAL

The D15 Committee and the D15ASubcommittee recently met in St.Louis, Mo., to put the finishing

touches on their document D15.1, Rail-road Welding Specification — Cars andLocomotives, soon to be published.Michael Untermeyer, D15 Committeechair, works for Union Tank Car Co. inHouston, Tex., and Chris Boulden, D15Asubcommittee chair, represents TrinityRail Group in Dallas.

If you are interested in helping to de-velop railroad welding standards, contactReino Starks, AWS staff committee sec-retary, (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 304, tolearn more about committee work.

In the photo, Starks is shown in frontof the committee members. Othersshown are (from left) Norman Brown,Dennis Allbritten, Steve Coughlin, ChrisBoulden, Jared Haacke, Michael Unter-meyer (rear), Marcel Desjardins, AlanWillaredt, Michael Oddie, and JohnPearson.♦

The American Welding Society andthe Welding Equipment Manufac-turers Committee (WEMCO) hon-

ored the seven winners of 2007 Image ofWelding Awards Nov. 12 during theFABTECH Int’l & AWS Welding Showin Chicago, Ill. The following persons andorganizations were cited:

Individual Category: Carl Occhialini,Detroit, Mich.

AWS Section Category: HoustonLarge Business Category: Bucyrus In-

ternational, Inc., South Milwaukee, Wis.Small Business Category: Greiner In-

dustries, Inc., Mount Joy, Pa.Welding Distributor Category: Sutton-

Garten Co., Indianapolis, Ind.Welding Educator Category: Robert

Sandelier, Camden County TechnicalSchool, Pennsauken, N.J., and Cumber-land Vocational School, Vineland, N.J.

Educational Faculty Category: SheetMetal Workers Local #33 Cleveland Dis-trict, Joint Apprenticeship & TrainingProgram in Ohio.

The stories of these winners speak oftheir dedication to the future of the weld-ing industry as well as their resourceful-ness when faced with tough decisions.

One example is the AWS Houston Sec-tion coming to the aid of the devastatedSabine Section (Beaumont, Tex.) in theaftermath of Hurricane Rita.

Reacting positively to the worseningwelder recruiting environment resultingfrom the growing shortage of skilledwelders, Bucyrus International, Inc.,partnered with local educational institu-tions to find solutions, recruit students,and build careers.

Robert Sandelier did not let reachingretirement age interfere with his passion

for teaching welding; he redirected histalents to teaching nighttime weldingclasses and continued working with stu-dents to raise their awareness about thediverse and lucrative careers welding hasto offer.

Greiner Industries owner FrankGreiner personally leads about ten planttours annually for local students. Hestresses the value of careers in weldingand manufacturing. CWI Joseph Kane,who nominated Greiner for the award,said, “Students see the emphasis on qual-ity and safety when touring Greiner. It’sone of the best quality-minded shops Ihave ever been in.”

The qualities that these individualsand companies have demonstratedthrough their continued efforts have beeninstrumental in enhancing the image ofwelding and strengthening the industry.♦

Image of Welding Winners Announced atFABTECH Int’l & AWS Welding Show

Railroad Welding Committees Meet in St. Louis

Society News Dec.:Layout 1 11/6/07 3:33 PM Page 53

DECEMBER 200754

The following is a summary of thechanges that appear in the 2007 edi-tion of ASME Section IX. Readers

are advised that the opinions expressed inthis article are those of the author and notthe official opinion of Subcommittee IX.The changes become mandatory Jan. 1,2008.

Section IX Gets a New Name

Section IX has a new name: Qualifica-tion Standard for Welding and Brazing Pro-cedures, Welders, Brazers, and Welding andBrazing Operators. The old title, Weldingand Brazing Qualifications, was just as de-scriptive, but the new one conforms withthe ISO style where the nature of the stan-dard, in this case, “Qualification,” is thefirst word, similar to ISO 9606-1, Qualifi-cation test of welders — Fusion welding —Steels. In its effort to reinforce recogni-tion as an international standard, ASMEseems to be headed in the direction of re-formatting its standards after ISO stan-dards. While not a bad idea, ISO stan-dards tend to be highly specialized indi-vidual standards rather than completestand-alone documents (e.g., in order todetermine the visual acceptance standardsfor a welder test coupon, one must referto another standard, ISO 17637). In thewriter’s opinion, standards that are mostlystand-alone, such as Section IX and otherASME Code Sections, are more user-friendly.

Welding Procedure (QW-200) Changes

Table QW-451.1 has been revised to in-corporate the provisions previously foundin QW-403.7. That paragraph dealt withhow to qualify for welding of materialsthat were more than 8 in. (200 mm) inthickness, and it has been deleted. Thereis a new line in QW-451.1 that says that,for test pieces that are 6 in. (150 mm)thick, the minimum thickness qualified is3/16 in. and the maximum thickness qual-ified is 1.33 times the test coupon basemetal and weld deposit thickness.

During this revision, there was consid-erable discussion attempting to identifythe purpose of this variable. This variable

has been around for decades, and someof the old-timers on the committee wereconsulted to illuminate its origins. It seemsthat 50 years ago, the art of steel makingwas such that a plate more than 8 in. thickdid not have very uniform propertiesthroughout its thickness, and to ensurethat fabricators could weld such thickplates successfully, Subcommittee IXmembers imposed a requirement to qual-ify on material that was more than 8 in.thick if one was going to weld on materi-als more than 8 in. in thickness. While sig-nificant variations in properties may notbe a technical concern when weldingheavy sections today, no data were avail-able to show that it was not, so the tech-nical requirement to qualify heavy sec-tions was sustained, although in a moreuser-friendly format.

Those doing resistance welding of ti-tanium and zirconium can rest easy. Therequirements of qualification of the weld-ing machine (essentially an endurance testof the power supply and related equip-ment) did not address how to show thatthe equipment was adequate when weld-ing titanium and zirconium and now QW-284 specifically addresses those materials.This was simply an oversight when QW-284 was revised in 2005.

Welder Qualification (QW-300) Changes

The only change in the rules for welderqualification were in QW-322. A userasked if it was necessary, when extendinga welder’s qualifications for a process, forthat welder to be doing welding under thesupervision and control of the organiza-tion that qualified him or her, or couldthat organization accept the word of an-other manufacturer or contractor that thewelder had used the process. The replywas that the former was required, andQW-322.1(a)(1) and (2) were revised tospecify that, in order for a welder’s orwelding operator’s qualifications to be ex-tended for an additional six months, thewelder or welding operator must weldunder the supervision and control of themanufacturer or contractor who qualifiedhim or her. The exception is when testingwas done under QW-300.3, which allows

for mass simultaneous qualificationsuch as is done under the “CommonArc” program.

Section IX requires that the manufac-turer or contractor observe and documentthat the welders have welded with eachprocess for which they are qualified inorder for those welders to continue to bequalified. The purpose of this require-ment is not only to document that thosewelders have “struck an arc” with theprocess, but that the manufacturer or con-tractor is satisfied with the quality of workthat that welder has produced with thatprocess. This does not happen if someoneother than the manufacturer or contrac-tor that qualified the welder observes theworker welding.

This revision should present no prob-lem where welders and operators work ina shop, but in the construction environ-ment, ASME B31 piping code sectionspermit welders and welding operators tobe interchanged among contractors with-out requalification. This means that,under the new QW-322.1 rules, once awelder is no longer working for the con-tractor who qualified him, his qualifica-tions will quickly expire, even though hemay be working and producing satisfac-tory welds for a new employer. However,the B31 Subcommittees has reviewed thematter and philosophically agreed that,since the B31 Sections allow interchangeof welders among contractors (taking ex-ception to Section IX in this matter), itwould be inconsistent not to allow a con-tractor other than the qualifying contrac-tor to extend a welder or welding opera-tor’s qualification.

Most of the B31 Code Sections willhave made appropriate changes to allowthe contractor for whom the welder isworking to extend his continuity by thetime the revision to QW-322.1 is manda-tory, or they have determined that nochanges are necessary due to the way aspecific B31 Code Section is written.

Base Metals and Filler Metals

Various grades of materials were addedand others deleted from QW/QB-422.Those changes are most easily identified

Changes to ASME Section IX, 2007 EditionBY WALTER J. SPERKO

Tech Topics

WALTER J. SPERKO is president, Sperko Engineering Services, Inc., Greensboro, N.C. ([email protected]; www.sperkoengineering.com);(336) 674-0600.


55WELDING JOURNAL

in the Summary of Changes that beginson page xxv of Section IX.

SFA 5.4 and 5.9 have been updated toadd several new duplex and austeniticfiller metals and to eliminate several fer-ritic filler metals E/ER502, E/ER-505, andE7Cr. The ferritic alloys have alreadybeen moved to SFA 5.5 except for theE7Cr, which is no longer manufactured.

Brazing (QB) Changes

There were no significant changes tothe rules on Brazing, but all of the formshave been revised and are an improve-ment over the previous forms.

Inquiries

One inquiry is of particular interest tothose who use SI (metric) units in their

welding documents. The first questionwas, when working in U.S. CustomaryUnits, was it acceptable to leave welderqualification records in metric units pro-vided the welder did not exceed the welddeposit thickness for which he or she wasqualified. The reply was “yes,” providedthere were convenient tools, such as a con-version table, so that the limits were notexceeded.

The second question asked whetherthe same practice was permitted forWPSs, and the reply was positive.

Coming Attractions

Pending exciting changes in Section IXinclude revision of the welding forms, ad-dressing qualification of “G” classifica-tion electrode and filler metal, provisionsto use a macro-etch specimen for mate-

rials with less than 3% ductility in lieu ofa bend test, and possibly the eliminationof S-numbers by turning them all into P-numbers. Finally, due to significant con-cerns over abuse of Grade 91 and similarcreep strength enhanced ferritic steelssuch as Grades 92, 911, 23, etc., duringpostweld heat treatment and other localheating operations, all these new materi-als will be assigned P-15A through P-15Gto distinguish them from the older P-5Athrough P-5C materials.

Special rules will be prepared for deal-ing with these materials similar to thosethat I reported on in my 2006 Addendaupdate, published in the April 2007 Weld-ing Journal, for Grade 91.

Readers are advised that ASME CodeCommittee meetings are open to the pub-lic. The schedule is available on thewriter’s Web site and at www.asme.org.♦

Technical Interpretation

D1.1Structural Welding Code —

Steel:2004

Subject: Qualification ResponsibilityCode Edition: D1.1:2004Code Provision: Sections 1.4.1,

4.1.1.1, and 4.1.2.1AWS Log: D1.1-04-I05

Inquiry:(1) Can a subcontractor use the

manufacturer’s qualified WPS to per-form welder qualification testing?

(2) Can the manufacturer’s Engi-neer, documenting a specific quali-fied WPS, accept subcontractor’swelder qualification test based on thesame manufacturer’s specific quali-fied WPS including performancequalification to other standards?

Response:(1) Yes, for the purposes of welder

qualification.

(2) Yes, per Section 4.21, and onlyif 1.3.1 is satisfied.

national standards body.ISO/DIS 15609-4, 2560, Welding con-

sumables — Covered electrodes for man-ual metal arc welding of non-alloy and finegrain steels – Classification.

Technical Committee MeetingsAll AWS technical committee meet-

ings are open to the public. Persons wish-ing to attend a meeting should call(800/305) 443-9353 and extension of thestaff engineer listed with the meeting.

Dec. 5, 6, SHC Safety and HealthCommittee. Miami, Fla. Contact SteveHedrick, ext. 305.

Dec. 5, SH1 Subcommittee on Fumesand Gases, Miami, Fla. Contact SteveHedrick, ext. 305.♦

Standards for Public ReviewAWS is an ANSI-accredited stan-

dards-preparing organization. AWSrules, as approved by ANSI, require thatall standards be open to public review forcomment during the approval process.Draft copies of these standards may beobtained from Rosalinda O’Neill,[email protected]; (305) 443-9353, ext. 451.The review expiration date is shown.

A5.10/A5.10M:1999 (R200X), Speci-fication for Bare Aluminum and Alu-minum-Alloy Welding Electrodes andRods. Reaffirmed — $25. Review expired.

B2.1/B2.1M:200X, Specification forWelding Procedure and Performance Qual-ification. Revised — $156. 12/17/07.

B2.3:200X, Specification for SolderingProcedure and Performance Qualification.New — $31. 12/3/07.

Standards Approved by ANSIC3.6M/C3.6:2008, Specification for

Furnace Brazing. Approved: 9/12/07.C4.4/C4.4M:2007, Recommended

Practices for Heat Shaping and Straight-ening with Oxyfuel Gas Heating Torches.Approved: 9/11/07.

B5.15:2003-AMD1, Specification forthe Qualification of Radiographic Inter-preters. Approved: 10/12/07.

ISO Drafts for Public ReviewCopies of the following Draft Inter-

national Standards are available for re-view and comment through your nationalstandards body, which in the UnitedStates is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Floor,New York, NY, 10036; (212) 642-4900.

In the United States, if you wish toparticipate in the development of Inter-national Standards for welding, contactAndrew Davis, (305) 443-9353, ext. 466;[email protected]. Otherwise contact your

Amendment B5.15

AWS B5.15:2003-AMD1Specification for the Qualification

of Radiographic Interpreters

The following Amendment hasbeen made to this document and hasbeen incorporated into the currentreprints.

Page 3, 8.1 Near Vision Acuity, amendtext to read:

8.1 Near Vision Acuity. Radiographicinterpreters shall have the ability toread a minimum of Jaeger Number 2letters at a minimum of 12 in. (305mm) or better in at least one eye. ineach eye.


DECEMBER 200756

Member-Get-A-Member Campaign

Shown are members participating inthe Member-Get-A-Member Cam-paign for the period 6/01/07–

5/31/08. See page 65 of this Welding Jour-nal for campaign rules and prizes. Call theMembership Dept., (800) 443-9353, ext.480, for more information.

Winner’s CircleMembers who have sponsored 20 or

more new Individual Members, per year,since June 1, 1999. The superscript indi-cates the number of times the memberhas achieved Winner’s Circle status.J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7

E. Ezell, Mobile5

J. Merzthal, Peru2

G. Taylor, Pascagoula2

B. Mikeska, Houston1

R. Peaslee, Detroit1

W. Shreve, Fox Valley1

M. Karagoulis, Detroit1

S. McGill, NE Tennessee1

L. Taylor, Pascagoula1

T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona1

G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona1

R. Wray, Nebraska1

M. Haggard, Inland Empire1

President’s GuildMembers sponsoring 20 or more new

Individual Members. L. Taylor, Pascagoula — 67

President’s ClubAWS Members sponsoring 3–8 new

Individual Members.S. Christensen, Nebraska — 7R. Ellenbecker, Fox Valley — 7E. Ezell, Mobile — 7A. Castro, South Florida — 6K. Kotter, Utah — 4L. Garner, Mobile — 3C. Gilbert, East Texas — 3P. Hanley, Peoria — 3T. Nielsen, Pittsburgh — 3

President’s Honor RollAWS Members sponsoring 1 or 2 new

Individual Members. Only those sponsor-ing two AWS Individual Members arelisted.J. Compton, San Fernando ValleyR. Gaffney, TulsaW. Galvery Jr., Long Beach/Or. Cty.H. Jackson, L.A./Inland EmpireC. Johnson, Northeast PlainsJ. Johnson, Northern PlainsD. Landon, IowaF. Schmidt, Niagara FrontierD. Wright, Kansas CityR. Wright, San AntonioP. Zammit, Spokane

Student Member SponsorsMembers sponsoring 3 or more new

AWS Student Members.

G. Euliano, Northwestern Pa. — 34R. Evans, Siouxland — 34G. Seese, Johnstown-Altoona — 19C. Kipp, Lehigh Valley — 18T. Zablocki, Pittsburgh — 15C. Overfelt, SW Virginia — 14A. Stute, Madison-Beloit — 14R. Munns, Utah — 12R. Tully, San Francisco — 10P. Bedel, Indiana — 9D. Williams, N. Texas — 9R. Hutchinson, Long Bch./Or. Cty. — 8W. Komlos, Utah — 8C. Schiner, Wyoming Section — 8A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. — 7J. Boyer, Lancaster — 7R. Hutchison, Long Bch./Or. Cty. — 7W. Troutman, Cleveland — 7J. Boyer, Lancaster — 6E. Norman, Ozark — 6B. Wenzel, San Francisco — 6B. Hardin, San Francisco — 5D. Vranich, N. Florida — 5J. Angelo, El Paso — 4N. Carlson, Idaho/Montana — 3W. Galvery Jr., Long Bch./Or. Cty. — 3R. Olesky, Pittsburgh — 3S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley — 3C. Rossi, Washington, D.C. — 3L. Taylor, Pascagoula — 3D. Zabel, SE Nebraska — 3♦

Be a Tech Volunteer

Reinforcing Steel CodeVolunteers are sought to serve on the D1I Subcommittee on Reinforcing Bars to help revise D1.4, Structural Welding Code — Rein-

forcing Steel, specifically in areas of carbon or low-alloy structural steel, their application, inspection, qualification, and regulations.This is an active subcommittee that meets during spring and fall of each year. Members are expected to attend meetings, participatein discussions, and respond to correspondence. Qualified parties are encouraged to submit an online application at www.aws.org/w/s/tech-nical/. For more about this committee’s work, contact S. Morales, (800) 443-9353, ext. 313; [email protected].

Resistance WeldingPros interested in the design, construction, calibration, safe operation, and maintenance of resistance welding equipment are

sought by the J1 Committee on Resistance Welding Equipment to help prepare standards related to RW consumables, components,and machinery. Contact A. Alonso, (800) 443-9353, ext. 299; [email protected]. To apply for membership online, visit www.aws.org/171T.

On-Premise Sign Structures Volunteers are sought to help draft a new AWS standard for welding of on-premise sign structures. Experts involved in the manu-

facture and installation of signs and related structures as well as users of on-premise sign structures are urged to join. Int’l Sign Assn.members initiated the project and will participate. Contact J. Gayler, (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 472; [email protected].

Cast Iron WeldingVolunteers are sought to help update Welding Handbook, Vol. 4 — Materials and Applications. Assistance is particularly needed

for the chapters on cast irons and maintenance and repair welding. Other chapters concern carbon and low-alloy, high-alloy, coated,tool and die, and heat-resistant steels. Contact A. O’Brien, (800) 443-9353, ext. 303; [email protected].


SECTIONNEWSSECTIONNEWS

57

DISTRICT 1Director: Russ NorrisPhone: (603) 433-0855

DISTRICT 2Director: Kenneth R. StocktonPhone: (732) 787-0805

WELDING JOURNAL

Boston Section Chair Tom Ferri (left) presents an appreciation award to James Harris (cen-ter) and Doug Wood during the Section’s tour of Airgas in October.

John Puffer (center) accepts the CWI of theYear Award from Tom Ferri (left), BostonSection chairman, and Russ Norris, District1 director.

Shown at the Maine Section executive meeting are (from left) Scott Lee, Jeff Fields, District1 Director Russ Norris, Mark Legal, and Mike Gendron.

Richard Jones (center) receives the DistrictMeritorious Award from Boston SectionChair Tom Ferri (left) and Russ Norris, Dis-trict 1 director.

BOSTONOCTOBER 1Activity: The Section members toured theAirgas Fill Plant in Salem, N.H., to ob-serve its testing, blending, and filling op-erations for the welding, general indus-trial, medical, and beverage industries.The presenters included James Harris,production supervisor, and Doug Wood,testing supervisor. Long-time executiveboard member Richard Jones receivedthe District Meritorious Award for hismany decades of service. John Puffer re-ceived the District Dalton E. HamiltonCWI of the Year Award. District 1 Direc-tor Russ Norris attended the program.

MAINESEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section held an executivecommittee meeting at Village Cafe inPortland, Maine. Jeff Fields presented areport on the upcoming SkillsUSA weld-ing competition. Secretary Mike Gendronbrought up additional topics. CWI MarkLegal discussed the upcoming vendors’night program he will host at the localcommunity college. District 1 DirectorRuss Norris presented the District andnational news.

Seacoast School of Technology Student ChapterSEPTEMBER 24Activity: Chapter Advisor Jonathan The-berge, a welding instructor at the school,conducted a craft committee meeting withmembers of the welding community to dis-cuss class curriculum, welding equipmentneeds, and changes to the classroom andwelding stations. In attendance were GregBushey of Merriam-Graves, Dan Chabotfrom Pinkerton Academy, Adam Fallonwith The Lincoln Electric Co., TonyHanna with New Hampshire CommunityTechnical College, Tom March withThompson School, and Russ Norris, Dis-trict 1 director.


DECEMBER 200758

DISTRICT 4Director: Roy C. LanierPhone: (252) 321-4285

New Jersey Section Treasurer Al Fleury(left) presents a speaker gift to SeannBradley, Section secretary.

Reading Section members posed during their program held at Aquajet Services.

Shown at the Philadelphia Section programare (from left) Past Chair Jim Korchowsky,speaker Pramathesh Desai, and ChairmanJohn DiSantis.

Ruben Nolt (left) is shown with ReadingSection Chair Joe Young.

Eric Shaffer receives the Supporting Com-pany in Industry certificate from ReadingSecretary Merilyn McLaughlin.

Ted Wills Jr. accepts the Supporting Com-pany in Industry award from Reading Sec-tion Secretary Merilyn McLaughlin.

DISTRICT 3Director: Alan J. Badeaux Sr.Phone: (301) 753-1759

NEW JERSEYSEPTEMBER 18Speaker: Seann T. Bradley, sales engineerAffiliation: The Lincoln Electric Co.Topic: What to think about when consid-ering welding automationActivity: The meeting was held at L’Af-faire Restaurant in Mountainside, N.J.

PHILADELPHIAOCTOBER 10Speaker: Pramathesh Desai, global salesmanagerAffiliation: Tempil, Inc.Topic: The methods and applications forpreheating, and importance of tempera-ture-indicating markersActivity: Following the talk, Desai offeredsamples of the company’s new Tempil-stick Pro to the attendees. The meetingwas held at Ramada Inn in Essington, Pa.

READINGSEPTEMBER 20Speaker: Matt DoyleAffiliation: Fox Machinery Assn., Inc.Topic: Waterjet cutting and programmingActivity: The Section members watcheddemonstrations of waterjet cutting per-formed by Ruben Nolt, owner, and em-ployees of Aquajet Services, LLC. Sec-tion Secretary Merilyn McLaughlin pre-sented the Supporting Company in In-dustry award to Eric Shaffer of G.T.S., asupplier of welding and gas supplies inthe Reading area, and to Ted Wills Jr.,representing Anchor Fire Protection. Theprogram was held at the Aquajet Servicesfacilities in Kutztown, Pa.

DISTRICT 5Director: Leonard P. ConnorPhone: (954) 981-3977


59WELDING JOURNAL

The Atlanta Section members are shown during their tour of the Praxair facilities in Nor-cross, Ga.

Shown during the South Carolina Section meeting held at Soil Consultants Inc. are (fromleft) Gale Mole, Section chairman; Chris Eure, Richard Grumbine, and Kenny Johnson.

Shown are the South Florida Section members and guests at AWS headquarters in Miami.

Shown at the Florida West Coast Sectionprogram are speaker Steve Womble (left)and Al Sedory, Section chairman.

ATLANTASEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section members toured thePraxair facility in Norcross, Ga., to see itsdistribution and retail sales center and tostudy its high-pressure cylinder filling op-erations. Scott Neal, regional director,conducted the program.

FLORIDA WEST COASTOCTOBER 10Speaker: Steve WombleAffiliation: State of Florida DOTTopic: The design, construction, mainte-nance, and inspection of the SunshineSkyway Bridge in St. Petersburg, Fla.Activity: The program was held at Fron-tier Steak House in Tampa, Fla.

SOUTH CAROLINASEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section members visitedSoil Consultants Inc. in Charleston, S.C.The company offers many services, in-cluding nondestructive testing and in-spection using a variety of testing meth-ods. Presenters included Chris Eure, sen-ior inspector; Kenny Johnson, vice presi-dent; and Richard Grumbine, an inspec-tor for Metal Trades, Inc. The topics dis-cussed were nondestructive inspection,development of WPSs, and the impor-tance of grinding skills to inspection andrepair.

SOUTH FLORIDAOCTOBER 18Speaker: Nola Garcia, CEOAffiliation: BattleBotsIQ, Miami, Fla.Topic: How students benefit from partic-ipating on robot-building teams Activity: Garcia emphasized how robot-building projects help students gain abroad interest in practical math, science,


DECEMBER 200760

electronics, welding, engineering materi-als, and manufacturing processes. Fol-lowing a seven-minute-long video of the2007 National BattleBots competitionshowing combat robots in action, the at-tendees watched a demonstration of a 15-lb “attack” robot controlled by Bill Gar-cia. Also present were five 16-year-oldgirls, members of a robot-building teamfrom Carrollton School of the SacredHeart, an all-girls school in Miami. ThisSouth Florida Section meeting was heldat AWS headquarters in Miami for 37 at-tendees.

Pittsburgh Section Vice Chair DaveDaugherty (right) presents a speaker gift toJohn Menhart.

Shown (from left) are robotics educatorsBill Garcia and speaker Nola Garcia withMary Ruth Johnsen, South Florida Sectionsecretary and senior editor of the WeldingJournal.

Columbus Section members met with the Buckeye Iron Mongers for a hands-on metalwork-ing demonstration in October.

The Pittsburgh Section members toured the Holtec International facility in September.

COLUMBUSOCTOBER 11Activity: Larry Heckendorn and theBuckeye Iron Mongers presented ahands-on demonstration of forging andmetalworking for the Section members.Each attendee fabricated ornamentalgate hooks from square steel bar stock.The program was held at The Ohio StateUniversity Agricultural Engineeringbuilding in Columbus, Ohio.

PITTSBURGHSEPTEMBER 11Activity: The members toured Holtec In-ternational to study its manufacture ofcontainers for spent nuclear fuel rods forwet and dry storage and transportation.

DISTRICT 7Director: Don HowardPhone: (814) 269-2895

DISTRICT 6Director: Neal A. ChapmanPhone: (315) 349-6960

DISTRICT 8Director: Wallace E. HoneyPhone: (256) 332-3366

CHATTANOOGASEPTEMBER 11Speaker: Samuel D. Kiser, director oftechnologyAffiliation: Special Metals, Newton, N.C.Topic: Dissimilar metal welds — a prac-tical approachActivity: Paul Huffman received theAWS Silver Membership Award for 25years of service to the Society. The dis-cussion concerned the importance of di-lution, metals compatibility, and how toselect the proper welding consumablewhen working with dissimilar metalwelds. The meeting was held at KomatsuAmerica Corp. in Chattanooga, Tenn.The Section officers for the new seasonare William C. Brooks, chair; Eric Zum-brun and Dusti L. Jones, vice chairs; Ger-ald Hargis, secretary and Buzz Box edi-tor; Don Russell, treasurer; Eric Zum-brun, program chair; Greg Wilmoth,membership committee chair; DelbertButler, technical representative; DavidHamilton, student affairs, scholarships,education, and certification chair; DustiL. Jones, publicity chair; and RonnieSmith, awards chair.

WESTERN CAROLINAOCTOBER 2Activity: Chairman Jamie Whims, ViceChair Duke Moses, and Treasurer BobFellers presented $1500 Section scholar-ships to Kyle Morris from SpartanburgT. C. and Phillip Warda, a student in thewelding program at Greenville T. C.Warda intends to pursue a career in nu-clear pipe welding. In addition to fundsreceived from AWS, the Section financesits scholarship program through an an-nual golf tournament, a calendar fund-raising event, and a career night for localvocational center students.

DISTRICT 9Director: George D. FairbanksPhone: (225) 673-6600


61WELDING JOURNAL

Speaker Sam Kiser (left) is shown withWilliam Brooks, Chattanooga Sectionchairman.

Southeastern Louisiana University Student Chapter members participated in the BatonRouge program.

Baton Rouge Section Chair Barry Carpen-ter (right) presents a speaker appreciationplaque to Andy Afflick.

Shown at the Baton Rouge Section pro-gram are (from left) District 9 DirectorGeorge Fairbanks, Chairman Barry Car-penter, and speaker Roy Bonnette.

New Orleans Section Chair Travis Moore(center) presents a sponsor plaque to CraigCollins (left) and Robbie LaChute.

The top three prize-winning students at theNew Orleans Section program are (fromleft) Johnny Tapp, Donny McMahon, andBrandon Kennedy.

Paul Huffman (right) accepts the AWS Sil-ver Membership Certificate Award fromWilliam Brooks, Chattanooga Sectionchairman.

Shown at the Western Carolina Sectionprogram are (from left) Treasurer BobFellers, scholarship recipient Phillip Warda,and Bob Humphrey, his welding instructor.

BATON ROUGESEPTEMBER 20Activity: Andy Afflick, welding manager,Trinity Marine, discussed welding ofbarges, bridges, and large industrial struc-tures. Roy Bonnette, SoutheasternLouisiana University (SLU) IndustrialTechnology staff member, assisted by Dis-trict 9 Director George Fairbanks, pre-sented an overview of a joint project be-tween the SLU staff and Student Chap-ter members and local industry to build areplica of the submarine Pioneer.

NEW ORLEANSSEPTEMBER 18Activity: The Section joined with DynamicInc., at Boomtown Casino to host a stu-dent welding education program. A high-light of the meeting was the students’ an-swers to questions related to their experi-ences working in the welding industry andwhat they could do to attract other stu-dents into the welding profession. Dy-namic Inc., donated the prize money. Thewinners included Johnny Tapp, DonnyMcMahon, and Brandon Kennedy.

DISTRICT 10Director: Richard A. HarrisPhone: (440) 338-5921

DISTRICT 11Director: Eftihios SiradakisPhone: (989) 894-4101


DECEMBER 200762

Dynamic Inc. employees attended the New Orleans Section program in September.

Shown during the Lakeshore Section’s tourof Robinson Metal are (from left) Neil Van-Lanen, Section Chair James Hoffman, andTom Verboncouer.

Speaker Rick Kreczmer (right) is shownwith Mark Rotary, Detroit Section techni-cal program chairman.

Shown at the September Milwaukee Section program are (from left) Chairman Jerry Blaski,speaker Scott Raether, Tom Dega, and Jennifer Koeller.

Shown at the October Milwaukee Section program are (from left) Dan Graves, Dave Christof-ferson, and Chair Gerald Blaski.

DETROITOCTOBER 11Speaker: Rick Kreczmer, Mid-West man-agerAffiliation: Farr APC, Granger, Ind.Topic: Determining the type, size, use,and maintenance of welding fume-collec-tion systemsActivity: The meeting was held at theUkrainian Cultural Center in Warren,Mich.

LAKESHOREOCTOBER 11Activity: The Section members touredRobinson Metal, Inc., in De Pere, Wis.,to study its numerous processes usinglaser and waterjet cutting, forming, weld-ing, machining, and assembly. The prod-ucts viewed included cabinets, consoles,conveyors, and enclosures. Tom Verbon-couer, sales and marketing manager, andNeil VanLanen, floor supervisor, con-ducted the program. Following the tour,the members had dinner at Legends inDe Pere where they discussed plans fortheir bus trip to attend the FABTECHInt’l & AWS Welding Show.

MILWAUKEESEPTEMBER 20Speaker: Scott Raether, director of op-erationsAffiliation: Novum Structures, LLCTopic: Architectural wondersActivity: Raether discussed the architec-tural features of the Overture Perform-ance Center in Madison, Wis., WrigleyBuilding in Chicago, Ill., and DolphinStadium in Miami, Fla. Assisting Raetherwere Tom Dega, contract administrator,and Jennifer Koeller, purchasing agent.The program was held at Charcoal Grill& Rotisserie in Milwaukee, Wis.

OCTOBER 18Activity: The Milwaukee Section mem-bers toured the Quad/Graphics, Inc., 1.7million sq-ft printing plant in Sussex, Wis.The presenters included pressman KurtMiller, Dan Graves, and Dave Christof-ferson. Following the tour, the groupdined at Thunder Bay Grille.

DISTRICT 12Director: Sean P. MoranPhone: (920) 954-3828

DISTRICT 13Director: W. Richard PolaninPhone: (309) 694-5404

CHICAGOOCTOBER 10Speaker: Steve BergAffiliation: Berg Engineering and Sales


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DISTRICT 14Director: Tully C. ParkerPhone: (618) 667-7744

Topic: Phased array ultrasonic inspectionof weldsActivity: This Chicago Section programwas a joint meeting with members of thelocal chapter of ASNT. The program,held at Bohemian Crystal Restaurant,was attended by 58 members and guests.

ILLINOIS VALLEYSEPTEMBER 19Activity: The Section members touredNicor Gas gas storage areas in Mendota,Ill. The presenters included Michael W.Fugate, region manager, supply opera-tions; and George Wilson, supervisor sup-ply operations, supply/storage at TroyGrove.

Shown at the joint Chicago Section and ASNT Chapter meeting are (from left) Pete Host,Eric Krauss, Chair Craig Tichelar, and Treasurer Marty Vondra.

St. Louis Section members and guests are shown during their tour of Cooper B-Line. Frontrow (from left) are presenters Keith Simon and Walter Ford Jr., Chairman Rick Suria, Dis-trict 14 Director Tully Parker, and Pat Cody, a past Section chairman.

Speaker Steve Berg (left) is shown withCraig Tichelar, Chicago Section chairman.

Nathan Lamirande (left) is shown receiv-ing underwater welding and cutting instruc-tion from his father, Jim Lamirande, Lex-ington Section chairman.

Indiana Section members are dwarfed bya Lift-A-Loft machine custom made forFedEx Corp. INDIANA

SEPTEMBER 19Activity: The Section members toured theLift-A-Loft Corp. facilities in Cowan, Ind.William P. Fulton, company president andCEO, conducted the tour. Charles“Butch” Weidner, district manager, Ho-bart Brothers Performance Welding, pre-sented a talk on weld size in relation tocost and cost-effectiveness, and metal corevs. solid wire. Twenty members attendedthe program.

LEXINGTONJUNE 9Activity: The Section members met atOcean Corporation, Inc., in Houston,Tex., to participate in a wet welding work-shop for welding instructors. SectionChair Jim Lamirande, an instructor atSouthside Tech Center in Lexington, Ky.,had the opportunity to teach underwaterwelding and cutting techniques to his son,Nathan Lamirande, who is employed atOceaneering International of MorganCity, La. About 40 participated in theactivity.


DECEMBER 200764

DISTRICT 15Director: Mace V. HarrisPhone: (952) 925-1222

Shown at the Saskatoon Section executivemeeting are (from left) Kevin Jones, JayJanzen, Vice Chair Ike Oguocha, andChairman Gus Marisca.

Shown at the joint Iowa and Eastern IowaSections meeting are (from left) Brad Wells,District 16 Director David Landon, andGerald Uttrachi, AWS president.

East Texas Section Chair Bryan Baker (left) is shown with speaker Scott Melton (center),and Andy Divin, Section program chair.

Scott Christensen (left) receives a speakerappreciation plaque from Jason Hill, Ne-braska Section vice chairman.

Shown at the joint North Texas Section and ASM Int’l meeting are (from left) ASM speakerRicky Baron, Section Chair Robert Tessier, and speaker Michael Beaton.

Nebraska Section members are shown during their tour of Valmont Industries. Presenter Scott Christensen is at far left.

ST. LOUISSEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section members touredCooper B-Line in Troy, Ill., to study itsmanufacturing and welding of aluminumand steel cable tray products. Walter FordJr., welding supervisor, and Keith Simon,manufacturing engineer, conducted theprogram. District 14 Director TullyParker attended the event.

ARROWHEADSEPTEMBER 29Activity: The executive committee metto discuss upcoming Section events. Themeeting was held at Goodfella’s Restau-rant in Eveleth, Minn.

OCTOBER 9Speaker: Chair Tom Baldwin, CWI, CWEAffiliation: Mesabi Range Community &Technical CollegeTopic: Brazing and braze weldingActivity: The seminar was held at MesabiRange Community & Technical Collegein Eveleth, Minn.


SASKATOONSEPTEMBER 26Activity: The Section’s executive com-mittee met at Boston Pizza in Saskatoon,Saskatchewan, Canada, to discuss semi-nars and conferences for the upcomingyear. Jay Janzen was elected treasurer,succeeding Membership Chair KevinJones; and Vice Chair Ike Oguocha wasnamed technical representative, suc-ceeding Chairman Augustin (Gus)Marisca.

67WELDING JOURNAL

DISTRICT 16Director: David LandonPhone: (641) 621-7476

IOWA and EASTERN IOWASEPTEMBER 11Speaker: Gerald Uttrachi, AWS presidentAffiliation: WA Technology, LLCTopic: Welding race cars and street rodsActivity: This was a joint meeting of theIowa and Eastern Iowa Sections. The pro-gram included a tour of Vermeer Mfg. Co.in Pella, Iowa. Bob Kephart received theDistrict 16 and the Iowa Section Merito-rious Awards. Brad Wells received theDistrict 16 and the Iowa Section DaltonE. Hamilton CWI of the Year Awards.Joe Steenhoek received the District 16and the Iowa Section Howard E. AdkinsInstructor Awards. Brett Baer receivedthe District 16 and Eastern Iowa Merito-rious Awards, and District 16 and East-ern Iowa Section Private Sector Awards.District 16 Director David Landon at-tended the program.

KANSAS CITYSEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section members toured theKansas Speedway to see the pit areas, re-pair garages, and operations in the Lin-coln Electric repair booth.

NEBRASKASEPTEMBER 20Activity: The Section members touredValmont Industries in Valley, Neb., tostudy the welding operations used tomanufacture light poles, utility poles, andirrigation equipment. Also studied werethe company’s galvanizing and anodizingpowder coatings facilities. Scott Chris-tensen, production manager, made apresentation and conducted the tour.

DISTRICT 17Director: Oren P. ReichPhone: (254) 867-2203

Affiliation: Fanuc Robotics AmericaTopic: Recent innovations in robotic arcwelding

NORTH TEXASOCTOBER 16Speakers: Ricky Baron, with MaterialAnalysis and chairman of the North TexasChapter of ASM Int’l; and MichaelBeaton, with Trinity Metals LabTopic: Failure analysis of weldsActivity: This was a joint meeting withmembers of the North Texas ASM Int’lChapter attended by 62 members andguests. Discussed were updates on theSection’s drive to assist the Dallas foodbank, and progress on the silent auctionevent. Past AWS President Ernest Levertattended the program. The meeting washeld at Spring Creek Barbeque in Irving,Tex.

TULSASEPTEMBER 25Speaker: Ron Weisz, account executiveAffiliation: 3M Occupational Health andEnvironmental Safety Div.Topic: Respirators and protecting work-ers from hexavalent chromium Activity: The program was held at Furr’sBuffet in Tulsa, Okla.

Shown at the Tulsa Section program arespeaker Ron Weisz (left) with ChairmanJamie Pearson.

Shown at the Houston Section’s program are (from left) speaker Jon Lee, Vice Chair RonTheiss, Julie Theiss, Dan Gates, and Wayne Knupple.

Shown at the British Columbia Section program are welding instructors Merv Kube (left)and Barry Donaldson (far right) with scholarship-winning students (from left) Dan Smythe,Taylor Squires, and Barbara Santinelli.

HOUSTONSEPTEMBER 19Speaker: Jon LeeTopic: Hydrogen-induced cracking inweldsActivity: The Section hosted its annualawards presentation night at Brady’sLanding. Jon Lee earned the District Pri-

EAST TEXASSEPTEMBER 20Speaker: Scott Melton, regional manager

DISTRICT 18Director: John L. MendozaPhone: (210) 353-3679

Society News Dec.:Layout 1 11/6/07 3:39 PM

DECEMBER 200768

vate Sector Instructor Award, HoustonSection Vice Chair Ron Theiss was pre-sented the District 18 Meritorious Award,Julie Theiss won the District 18 Direc-tor’s Award, Dan Gates accepted the Sec-tion CWI of the Year Award, and WayneKnupple received the District 18 Educa-tor Award.

Dave Baron discussed nondestructive test-ing methods with the British Columbia Sec-tion members in September.

Shown at the Olympic Section program are (from left) Publicity Chair John Powers, Secre-tary Chris Hobson, speaker Sjon Delmore, and Chairman Bob Plummer.

Don Schwemmer conducted the tour of theAMET facilities for the Idaho-MontanaSection and ISA and IEEE chapters.

Mariana Ludmer, Section secretary, isshown at the Los Angeles/Inland EmpireSection program.

Sjon Delmore demonstrates digital GMA welding for the Olympic Section members.

Shown at the Colorado Section program are (from left) Bob Page and Sam Sequra withGeneral Air, Section Chair James Corbin, and presenter Steve Duran.

DISTRICT 19Director: Neil ShannonPhone: (503) 201-5142

BRITISH COLUMBIASEPTEMBER 20Speaker: David Baron, supervisor of vi-sual inspectionAffiliation: Acuren Group, Inc.Topic: Nondestructive testing methodsActivity: Scholarships were presented toDan Smythe, Taylor Squires, and BarbaraSantinelli, students enrolled in the UALocal 170 Piping Trades School weldingprogram. In attendance were their weld-ing instructors Merv Kube and Barry Don-aldson. The event was held in New West-minster, B.C., Canada.

OCTOBER 16Activity: The British Columbia Sectionmembers toured Vancouver Shipyard Co.,Ltd., Washington Marine Group, in NorthVancouver, B.C., Canada. Norman Whyte,project manager, intermediate class ferry,addressed the group prior to the tour pre-senting the history of the project, designspecifications, project time lines, andother details. Forty-three members andguests participated in the program.

OLYMPICOCTOBER 18Speaker: Sjon DelmoreAffiliation: Digital Welding Solutions,Fronius U.S.A. (West)Topic: European aluminum welding tech-nology for U.S. boat and shipbuildingActivity: Following the PowerPoint pres-entation featuring Fronius welding equip-ment, the 25 attendees participated indemonstrations of 100% digital push-pullaluminum gas metal arc welding. The pro-gram was held in Bremerton, Wash.


69WELDING JOURNAL

DISTRICT 20Director: William A. KomlosPhone: (801) 560-2353

DISTRICT 22Director: Dale FloodPhone: (916) 933-5844

DISTRICT 21Director: Jack D. ComptonPhone: (661) 362-3218

Idaho-Montana Section members joined members of the local chapters of IEEE and ISAfor a tour of the AMET facilities.

Lia Gombo-Shoel (right) receives her Cer-tified Welding Inspector certificate fromShimon Address, Israel Section certifica-tion committee chairman, in September.

San Francisco Section Chair Tom Smeltzer (center) thanks presenters Dan Finnigan (left)and Jack Minser at the September meeting.

Shown at the Los Angeles/Inland EmpireSection program are (from left) speakerRicky Morgan, Chairman George Rolla,and Ted Peet.

COLORADOSEPTEMBER 13Speaker: Steve DuranAffiliation: General AirTopic: Getting the most out of your weld-ing work cellActivity: Following a PowerPoint presen-tation, Duran offered a hands-on demon-stration that compared metal core arcwelding with flux core arc welding forshielding gas usage and metal depositionrates.

IDAHO-MONTANAOCTOBER 12Activity: The Section members joinedmembers of the local IEEE and Instru-mentation, Systems, and Automation So-ciety of America (ISA) chapters for aproject briefing and tour of the AdvancedManufacturing Engineering Technolo-gies, Inc. (AMET), facilities in Rexburg,Idaho. Don Schwemmer, cofounder ofthe company, presented a talk then ledthe tour of the automated welding sys-tems, circuit board, machining, and as-sembly fabrication operations.

L.A./INLAND EMPIRESEPTEMBER 22Speaker: Ricky Morgan, CWI, deputy in-spector, ASNT board memberAffiliation: Smith-Emery Co.Topic: The Northridge earthquake revis-itedActivity: Ted Peet assisted Morgan withhis presentation. George Rolla was intro-duced as the incoming chairman. Rollapresented a talk about his plans for im-proving member involvement and inter-activity in the Section. Recognized fortheir services to the Los Angeles/InlandEmpire Section over the years were AWSPresident-Elect Gene Lawson, HenryJackson, and Bob Gibson.

SAN FRANCISCOSEPTEMBER 18Speakers: Dan Finnigan and JackMinser, district business manager, andtechnical sales manager, respectively

Affiliation: Thermal Dynamics Corp.Topic: Plasma cutting in the 21st centuryActivity: The program was held atSpenger’s Restaurant in Berkeley, Calif.Following the presentations, the 35 mem-bers reassembled outside at a ThermalDynamics demo truck to participate indemonstrations of plasma arc cutting.Five Section past chairmen were presentand recognized at the program.

InternationalISRAELSEPTEMBER 5Activity: Lia Gombo-Shoel was presentedher Certified Welding Inspector certifi-cate from Shimon Address, Section cer-tification committee chairman. The pres-entation took place in Tel-Aviv, Israel.


DECEMBER 200770

December 31 Deadline for Robotic and Automatic Arc Welding Award

Nominations are solicited for the2008 Robotic and Automatic ArcWelding Award. December 31 is

the deadline for submitting nominations.The nomination packet should include

a summary statement of the candidate’saccomplishments, interests, educationalbackground, professional experience,publications, honors, and awards.

Send your nomination package toWendy Sue Reeve, awards coordinator,550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126.

For more information, contact Reeveat [email protected], or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 293.

In 2004, the AWS D16 Robotic and Au-tomatic Arc Welding Committee, with theapproval of the AWS Board of Directors,established the Robotic and AutomaticArc Welding Award. The award was cre-ated to recognize individuals for their sig-nificant achievements in the area of ro-botic arc welding. This work can includethe introduction of new technologies, es-

tablishment of the proper infrastructure(training, service, etc.) to enable success,and any other activity having significantlyimproved the state of a company and/orindustry. The Robotic Arc Welding Awardis funded by private contributions. It willbe presented next year at the AWS Awardsand AWS Foundation Recognition Cere-mony and Luncheon to be held in con-junction with the FABTECH Interna-tional & AWS Welding Show, Oct. 6–8,2008, in Las Vegas, Nev.

Sustaining CompaniesIntermountain Electronics1503 S. Hwy. 6, PO Box 914

Price, UT 84501Representative: Darek Martinez

www.intermountainelectronics.comIntermountain Electronics is a Utah-

based corporation servicing the electricaland electronics needs of customers world-wide. It specializes in the manufacture ofelectrical distribution and control equip-ment for use in various manufacturing fa-cilities including surface and under-ground mining, power-generation, oil,and gas-generation plants, and refineries.Its engineering, sales, and manufacturingstaff members have many years of expe-rience in the design, fabrication, installa-tion, and maintenance of these types ofequipment. The company earned theMEP Utah Manufacturer of the YearAward for 2006.

SAS Global Corp.21601 Mullin Ave.Warren, MI 48089

Representative: John R. Nolanwww.sasglobalcorp.com

For more than 50 years, SAS GlobalCorp. has been one of the nation’s lead-ing suppliers of the highest-quality abra-sion-resistant steels, ceramics, and hard-facing materials, custom fabrications, en-gineering services, and solutions. Thecompany supplies a number of industries,including power, cement, and miningthroughout North and South America,Europe, and Asia.

Affiliate CompaniesAMT Metal Fabricator, Inc.

211 Parr Blvd.Richmond, CA 94801

Cushing Mfg. Co.2901 Commerce Rd.Richmond, VA 23234

DaveCo Industries4201 Mead Dr.

Plano, TX 75024

HKA Enterprises337 Spartangreen Blvd.

Duncan, SC 29334

Hanco, Ltd.102 Freedom Dr., PO Box 510

Lawrence, PA 15055

InSpec Resources, LLC16815 Royal Crest Dr., Ste. 120

Houston, TX 77058

OFI Custom Metal Fabrication10412 Design Rd.

Ashland, VA 23005

S S Stainless, Inc.PO Box 88637, Newton Town Centre

Surrey, BC V3W 0X1, Canada

Silverado Steel Solutions, LLC1450 N. First St.

Garland, TX 75040

Steel Effects 12300 Zavalla St.

Houston, TX 77085

V & F Fabrication Co., Inc.13902 Seaboard Cir.

Garden Grove, CA 92843

Suppporting Companies Advance Welding47 Allston Ave.

West Springfield, MA 04108

A. Zahner Co.1400 E. 9th St.

Kansas City, MO 64106

Poynter Sheet Metal8768 N. State Rd. 37

Bloomington, IN 47402

Educational InstitutionsColegio Mayor de Tecnologia, Inc.

Morse St., 151 N.Arroyo, PR 00714

Davenport W. Voc. Welding Program3505 W. Locust

Davenport, IA 52804

Lebanon Technology & Career Center757 Brice

Lebanon, MO 65536

Photon School of Welding, Inc.5528 W. 84th St.

Indianapolis, IN 46268♦

New AWS Supporters

Membership Counts

Member As of

Grades 11/1/07

Sustaining..........................................467Supporting.........................................289Educational.......................................443Affiliate..............................................408Welding distributor............................49Total corporate members..................1,656

Individual members.....................46,921Student + transitional members........5,413Total members..............................52,334


71WELDING JOURNAL

Guide to AWS Services550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126

www.aws.org; phone (800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559(Phone extensions are shown in parentheses.)

AWS PRESIDENTGerald D. [email protected]

WA Technology, LLC4313 Byrnes Blvd., Florence, SC 29506

ADMINISTRATIONExecutive Director

Ray W. Shook.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(210)

CFO/Deputy Executive DirectorFrank R. Tarafa.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(252)

Deputy Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . .(253)

Associate Executive DirectorJeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

Executive Assistant for Board ServicesGricelda Manalich.. [email protected] . . . .(294)

Administrative ServicesManaging Director

Jim Lankford.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(214)

IT Network DirectorArmando [email protected] (296)

DirectorHidail Nuñ[email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(287)

Database AdministratorNatalia [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(245)

Human ResourcesDirector, Compensation and Benefits

Luisa Hernandez.. [email protected] . . . . . . .(266)

Manager, Human Resources Dora Shade.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(235)

INT’L INSTITUTE of WELDINGSenior Coordinator

Sissibeth Lopez . . [email protected] . . . . . . .(319)Provides liaison services with other national andinternational professional societies and standardsorganizations.

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICESHugh K. Webster. . . [email protected], Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, DC

(202) 466-2976; FAX (202) 835-0243Identifies funding sources for welding educa-tion, research, and development. Monitors leg-islative and regulatory issues of importance tothe industry.

Brazing and Soldering Manufacturers’ Committee

Jeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

RWMA — Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance

ManagerSusan Hopkins.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(295)

WEMCO — Welding EquipmentManufacturers Committee

ManagerNatalie Tapley.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(444)

CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONSAssociate Executive Director

Jeff Weber.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

Corporate Director, Exhibition SalesJoe Krall.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297)Organizes the annual AWS Welding Show and

Convention, regulates space assignments, regis-tration items, and other Expo activities.

PUBLICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275)

Managing DirectorAndrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . .(249)

Welding JournalPublisher/Editor

Andrew Cullison.. [email protected] . . . . .(249)

National Sales DirectorRob Saltzstein.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . .(243)

Society and Section News EditorHoward [email protected] .(244)

Welding HandbookWelding Handbook Editor

Annette O’Brien.. [email protected] . . . . .(303)Publishes the Society’s monthly magazine, Weld-

ing Journal, which provides information on thestate of the welding industry, its technology, andSociety activities. Publishes Inspection Trends, theWelding Handbook, and books on general weldingsubjects.

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONSDirector

Ross Hancock.. [email protected] . . . . .(226)

Assistant DirectorAdrienne Zalkind.. [email protected] . . . .(416)

MEMBER SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480)

Deputy Executive DirectorCassie R. Burrell.. [email protected] . . . . .(253)

DirectorRhenda A. Mayo... [email protected] . . . . .(260) Serves as a liaison between Section members andAWS headquarters. Informs members about AWSbenefits and activities.

CERTIFICATION SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273)

Managing DirectorPeter Howe.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(309)

Director, OperationsTerry Perez.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(470)

Directs the department operations.

Director, Int’l Business & Certification ProgramsPriti Jain.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(258)

Directs all int’l business and certification pro-grams. Is responsible for oversight of all agencieshandling AWS certification programs.

Senior Manager, Certification ProgramsFrank Lopez Del Rincon. [email protected] (258)

Manages all national certification programs, in-cluding Accredited Test Facilities.

EDUCATION SERVICES Managing Director

Dennis Marks.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(237)

Director, Education Services Administrationand Convention Operations

John Ospina.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(462)

Director, Education Product DevelopmentChristopher Pollock.. [email protected] .(219)

Coordinates in-plant seminars and workshops.Administers the SENSE program. Assists Gov-ernment Liaison Committee and Education Com-mittees. Also responsible for conferences, exhibi-tions, and seminars. Organizes CWI, SCWI, and9-year renewal certification-driven seminars.

AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORSSenior Manager

Wendy S. Reeve.. [email protected] . . . . . .(293)Coordinates AWS awards and AWS Fellow andCounselor nominees.

TECHNICAL SERVICESDepartment Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340)

Managing DirectorAndrew R. Davis.. [email protected] . . . . . .(466)

Int’l Standards Activities, American Council ofthe Int’l Institute of Welding (IIW)

Director, National Standards ActivitiesJohn L. Gayler.. [email protected] . . . . . . . .(472)Personnel and Facilities Qualification, Comput-erization of Welding Information, Arc Weldingand Cutting

Manager, Safety and HealthStephen P. Hedrick.. [email protected] (305)Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of

Plastics and Composites

Technical PublicationsAWS publishes about 200 documents widely used

throughout the welding industry.Senior Manager

Rosalinda O’Neill.. [email protected] . . . . .(451)

Staff Engineers/Standards Program ManagersAnnette Alonso.. [email protected] . . . . . .(299)Automotive Welding, Resistance Welding, Oxy-fuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Definitions andSymbols

Stephen Borrero.. [email protected] . . . . .(334)Welding Iron Castings, Joining of Metals and Al-loys, Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Met-als and Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, SolderingHandbook

Rakesh Gupta.. [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(301)Filler Metals and Allied Materials, Int’l Filler

Metals, Instrumentation for Welding, UNS Num-bers Assignment

Brian McGrath . [email protected] . . . . .(311)Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of

Welds, Welding in Marine Construction, Pipingand Tubing

Selvis [email protected] . . . . .(313)Welding Qualification, Structural Welding

Kim [email protected] . . . . . . . . . . .(215)Machinery and Equipment Welding, Robotic and

Automatic Welding, Sheet Metal Welding, Ther-mal Spray

Reino [email protected] . . . . . . . . .(304)Welding in Sanitary Applications, High-Energy

Beam Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, FrictionWelding, Railroad Welding.

Note: Official interpretations of AWS standardsmay be obtained only by sending a request in writ-ing to the Managing Director, Technical Services.Oral opinions on AWS standards may be ren-dered. However, such opinions represent only thepersonal opinions of the particular individualsgiving them. These individuals do not speak onbehalf of AWS, nor do these oral opinions con-stitute official or unofficial opinions or interpre-tations of AWS. In addition, oral opinions are in-formal and should not be used as a substitute foran official interpretation.


DECEMBER 200772

Nominees for National Office

Only Sustaining Members, Members,Honorary Members, Life Members,or Retired Members who have been

members for a period of at least three yearsshall be eligible for election as a director ornational officer.

It is the duty of the National NominatingCommittee to nominate candidates for na-tional office. The committee shall hold anopen meeting, preferably at the Annual Meet-ing, at which members may appear to presentand discuss the eligibility of all candidates.

To be considered a candidate for the po-sitions of president, vice president, treasurer,or director-at-large, the following qualifica-tions and conditions apply:

President: To be eligible to hold the officeof president, an individual must have servedas a vice president for at least one year.

Vice President: To be eligible to hold theoffice of vice president, an individual musthave served at least one year as a director,other than executive director and secretary.

Treasurer: To be eligible to hold the of-fice of treasurer, an individual must be a

member of the Society, other than a Stu-dent Member, must be frequently availableto the national office, and should be of ex-ecutive status in business or industry withexperience in financial affairs.

Director-at-Large: To be eligible forelection as a director-at-large, an individ-ual shall previously have held office aschairman of a Section; as chairman or vicechairman of a standing, technical, or spe-cial committee of the Society; or as Districtdirector.

Interested persons should submit a let-ter stating which office they seek, includinga statement of qualifications, their willing-ness and ability to serve if nominated andelected, and a biographical sketch.

E-mail the letter to Gricelda Manalich,[email protected], c/o Damian J. Kotecki,chair, National Nominating Committee.

The next meeting of the National Nom-inating Committee is scheduled for Novem-ber 2007. The terms of office for candidatesnominated at this meeting will commenceJanuary 1, 2009.

Honorary Meritorious Awards

The Honorary-Meritorious Awards Committee makes recommendations for thenominees presented for Honorary Membership, National MeritoriousCertificate, William Irrgang Memorial, and the George E. Willis Awards. These

awards are presented during the FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show heldeach fall. The deadline for submissions is December 31 prior to the year of awards pre-sentations. Send candidate materials to Wendy Sue Reeve, secretary, HonoraryMeritorious Awards Committee, [email protected]; 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL33126. Descriptions of the awards follow.

National Meritorious Certificate Award:This award is given in recognition of thecandidate’s counsel, loyalty, and devotionto the affairs of the Society, assistance inpromoting cordial relations with industryand other organizations, and for the contri-bution of time and effort on behalf of theSociety.

William Irrgang Memorial Award: Thisaward is administered by the American Weld-ing Society and sponsored by The LincolnElectric Co. to honor the late William Ir-rgang. It is awarded each year to the indi-vidual who has done the most over the pastfive-years to enhance the American Weld-ing Society’s goal of advancing the scienceand technology of welding.

George E. Willis Award: This award is ad-ministered by the American Welding Societyand sponsored by The Lincoln Electric Co.to honor George E. Willis. It is awarded eachyear to an individual for promoting the ad-vancement of welding internationally by fos-tering cooperative participation in areas suchas technology transfer, standards rationaliza-tion, and promotion of industrial goodwill.

International Meritorious CertificateAward: This award is given in recognitionof the recipient’s significant contributionsto the worldwide welding industry. Thisaward reflects “Service to the Interna-tional Welding Community” in the broad-est terms. The awardee is not required tobe a member of the American WeldingSociety. Multiple awards can be given peryear as the situation dictates. The awardconsists of a certificate to be presentedat the awards luncheon or at another timeas appropriate in conjunction with theAWS president’s travel itinerary, and, ifappropriate, a one-year membership inthe American Welding Society.

Honorary Membership Award: AnHonorary Member shall be a person ofacknowledged eminence in the weldingprofession, or who is accredited with ex-ceptional accomplishments in the devel-opment of the welding art, upon whomthe American Welding Society sees fit toconfer an honorary distinction. An Hon-orary Member shall have full rights ofmembership.

AWS Publications Sales

Purchase AWS standards, books, and other publications from

World Engineering Xchange (WEX), [email protected]; www.awspubs.comToll-free (888) 935-3464 (U.S., Canada)

(305) 824-1177; FAX (305) 826-6195

Welding Journal ReprintsCopies of Welding Journal articles may be

purchased from Ruben Lara. (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 288; [email protected]

Custom reprints of Welding Journalarticles, in quantities of 100 or more,

may be purchased from FosteReprints

Toll-free (866) 879-9144, ext. [email protected]

AWS Mission Statement

The mission of the American WeldingSociety is to advance the science,

technology, and application of weldingand allied processes, including

joining, brazing, soldering, cutting, and thermal spraying.

It is the intent of the American Welding Society to build AWS to the

highest quality standards possible. The Society welcomes your suggestions.

Please contact any staff member or AWS President Gerald D. Uttrachi,

as listed on the previous page.

AWS Foundation, Inc.

The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation established to provide support

for educational and scientific endeavors of the American Welding Society.

Information on gift-giving programs is available upon request.

Chairman, Board of TrusteesRonald C. Pierce

Executive Director, AWSRay Shook

Executive Director, FoundationSam Gentry

550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126(305) 445-6628; (800) 443-9353, ext. 293

general information:(800) 443-9353, ext. 689; [email protected]


73WELDING JOURNAL

NEW PRODUCTS

Metal Cutting Saw FeaturesDry Cutting Technology

The saw, equipped with a 14-in., 72-tooth steel cutting carbide-tipped MetalDevil® blade, is powered by a 15-A motoroptimized for metal cutting at 1300rev/min. Clean cuts with minimal sparksare produced. The heavy-duty steel baseprovides stability with predrilled holes forbolt down to any workbench. Six presetmarkings in the base allow the vise to beset for 45- or 90-deg cuts.

The M. K. Morse Co.www.mkmorse.com(800) 733-3377

Drum Lowers QualityDefects

The eXacto-Pak™ precision payoutdrum increases precision and improvesquality on automatic and robotic weldingapplications using metal cored wire. Theproduct, available in 400- and 600-lbdrums, is designed for high-volume pro-duction using 0.045- to 1⁄16-in.-diameterwire. It essentially eliminates quality de-fects attributed to wire wander, while im-proving wire feedability as well. To pro-vide better weld joint tracking by ensur-ing that the arc is consistently focused in

the center of the weld joint, the drum paysout wire in a straight and reliable pattern.

Hobart Brothers Co.Hobartbrothers.com(800) 424-1543

Welding Helmets IncludeThree Arc Sensors

The Motorsports™ and Fire Storm™ de-signs have been added to the company’sPerformance Series™ line of autodarken-ing welding helmets. New features include

three arc sensors instead of two, a quick-release front cover lens holder with a rub-ber spatter gasket, and lens controls locatedat the bottom of the lens. A competitionyellow background accented with red andgreen tear-aways and checkered flag graph-ics on all four sides is featured in the Mo-torsports helmet. The Fire Storm helmetsports a black background with yellow andred flames along the front, sides, and top.

Miller Electric Mfg. Co.www.MillerWelds.com/products/weldinghelmets(800) 426-4553

— continued from page 25

The AWS Certified Welding Fabricatorprogram assures you and your customersthat your facility has what it takes to deliverquality welded products.

AWS Certified Welding Fabricatorsexperience increased productivity and areduction in problems with outsideinspectors.

Let AWS audit your welding fabricationfacility and certify that you have a qualitymanagement system you can be proud of.

Call us today.

©20

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Does your company manage

to have high quality?

For more information on the AWS Certified WeldingFabricator program, visit our website atwww.aws.org/certification/FAB or call 1-800-443-9353 ext 448

®

NP December 2007:Layout 1 11/7/07 3:18 PM

NEWLITERATURE

Hybrid Laser Welding Systems Pictured

A brochure introduces the company’sHLx Series mechanized laser welding sys-tems utilizing hybrid laser arc, laser-only,or laser with cold wire fill welding. De-

tailed are 2D gantry, 3D robotic, and op-tions for custom-mechanized configura-tions. Described is the company’spatented closed-loop welding process con-trol that allows the system to monitor theweld joint in real time and modify theprocess to accommodate joint mismatches.The hybrid laser arc welding (HLAW)process combines deep weld penetrationand low heat input with the superior rootopening tolerance offered by gas metal arcwelding. Call the phone number listed toobtain a copy of the brochure.

ESAB Welding & Cutting Productswww.esabna.com(800) 372-2123

Heavy-Duty Clean AirSystems Illustrated

A profusely illustrated, 13-page, full-color brochure displays the company’sGold Series® customized heavy-duty,clean-air installations for a wide range ofindustrial applications using either out-side exhaust or recirculating. Pictured aretypical installations for controlling dust

and fume for welding and grinding, laserand plasma arc cutting, blasting, mining,paper scrap handling, fiberglass, and phar-maceutical compounds. Described is thecompany’s HemiPleat® dust collectormedia with Poly-Tech™ high-filtration andDura-Pleat® media for sticky dusts. De-tailed is the company’s extensive testingservices designed to determine each cus-tomer’s types of contaminants, particlesizes, solubilities, etc., in order to recom-mend and install the air-filtration systembest suited for the application.

Farr Air Pollution Controlwww.farrapc.com(800) 479-6801

ASM Literature Online

ASM International has more than20,000 authoritative technical articlesposted online via its new “Everything Ma-terial” global community. Many of the in-dividual titles can be downloaded for free,while others have a nominal fee. Some sin-gle articles, previously only available bun-dled in complete volumes such as booksin the ASM Handbook series, are now of-fered separately. Content from DoE In-formationBridge, the Handbook of Ther-mal Spray Technology, and InternationalThermal Spray Conference proceedings,as well as selected articles from the NASATechnical Reports Server and the DefenseTechnical Information Center, are alsoavailable through the site. A list of con-tent that is available free or on a per-arti-cle basis can be found at the Web site.

ASM Internationalhttp://asmcommunity.asminternational.org/portal/site/asm/everythingmaterialcelebration(440) 338-5151

DECEMBER 200774


New Lit Layout:Layout 1 11/6/07 2:55 PM

75WELDING JOURNAL

Catalog Details Automation Systems

Automation Systems and Control Com-ponents is a 165-page, full-color catalogfeaturing complete information on thecompany’s automation products, includ-ing its IndraLogic open PLC system, In-draMotion systems family, IndraControlL rack-based controls, and IndraWorksengineering framework software. Detailsare provided on how each modular au-tomation system and control componentcan increase the capacity, flexibility, andoverall efficiency of a production facilityusing the interplay of motion, logic, andautomation. Visit the Web site to view ordownload the document.

Bosch Rexroth Corp.www.boschrexroth-us.com/brccatalog(847) 645-3600

Hobart Institute Releases2008 Course Catalog

The 48-page 2008 Course Catalog pro-vides complete details about all of the In-

stitute’s programs and courses, classschedules, and services to be offered dur-ing the coming year. Included are detailson entrance requirements, workbooks,the training facility, on-site equipment,training methods, class sizes, code certifi-cations offered, students’ equipment listfor each course, course dates and tuition,placement and graduation rates, enroll-ment forms, local accommodations, loanprograms, and scholarships. Informationis also provided for in-plant training, andwelder certification and qualification.View or download the catalog from theWeb site or call to receive a copy by mail.

Hobart Institute of Welding Technologywww.welding.org/downloads.html(800) 332-9448

Innershield® Wires Detailedin New Brochure

The company has released a new ver-sion of its Innershield® wire product cat-alog highlighting the complete line of self-shielded flux cored wires for both auto-matic and semiautomatic welding for awide range of mild steel and low-alloy ap-plications. Displayed are wires for sheetand thick base metals, galvanized, spe-cialty zinc-coated carbon steels, and low-alloy and mild steel. The line of gaslesswires are ideal for welding outdoors and

welding metals with surface contaminants,scale, or light rust. Included is a selectionguide, and a detailed description of eachproduct, including key advantages, appli-cations, recommended welding proce-dures, and positions, along with depositedchemistry and mechanical properties. Callfor Bulletin C3.10, or download from theWeb site.

The Lincoln Electric Co.www.lincolnelectric.com(216) 481-8100

Stainless, Nickel,and Low Alloy

WeldingConsumables

• Consistent High

Quality Products

• Technical Support

In stock: St. Louis and Houston

1.800.776.3300www.midalloy.com


— continued on page 77

New Lit Layout:Layout 1 11/6/07 2:56 PM

PERSONNEL

Auburn Names Mfg. VP

Auburn Mfg. Inc.,Mechanic Falls,Maine, a supplier ofheat-resistant fabricsand products for weld-ing and industrial ap-plications, has ap-pointed Ernest C.(Skip) Mattox III vicepresident of manufac-turing. Prior to joiningthe company, Mattox

was vice president for sales and manufac-turing at Newtex Industries, Inc.

Airgas Appoints Senior VP

Airgas, Inc., Rad-nor, Pa., has ap-pointed Robert H.Young Jr. senior vicepresident and generalcounsel, replacingDean Bertolino, whohas left the company.Young previouslyserved as president ofthe Radnor-based lawfirm, McCausland,

Keen & Buckman, where he served as out-side counsel to Airgas for many years.

Laser Mechanisms MakesManagement Changes

Laser Mechanisms, Inc., FarmingtonHills, Mich., has named Mark Taggartmanaging director North American oper-ations, and Glenn Golightly managing di-rector Pacific Rim operations. Taggart,with the company since 1989, previouslyserved as general manager medical opera-tions. Golightly, also with the companysince 1989, most recently served as generalmanager industrial operations.

RobotWorx Promotes Two

RobotWorx, Marion, Ohio, has ap-pointed Josh Holtsberry to acquisitionsand sales manager, and named Michael

Hall customer service manager. With thecompany for five years, Holtsberry previ-ously served as applications engineer,shop manager, and sales manager. Hall,with the company for three years, willoversee parts inventories and manage allservice requests.

Magnatech Appoints Sales Director

Magnatech, EastGranby, Conn., hasnamed Scott Anthonydirector sales andmarketing — westernhemisphere. Previ-ously, Anthonyworked for Naiad Ma-rine, Inc., with respon-sibilities in domesticand internationalsales and marketing.

Tregaskiss DesignatesIndia Business Manager

Tregaskiss, Wind-sor, Ont., Canada,has appointed MajorS. P. Vaidya to its in-ternational salesteam as regionalbusiness manager forIndia. Vaidya, basedin Mumbai, has de-veloped his ownwelding torches andworked as a welding

consultant and company representativefor several welding brands in India duringthe past 20 years.

Five Laser ScientistsHonored at ICALEO®

Laser Institute of America (LIA), Or-lando, Fla., named Marshall G. Jones toreceive its 2007 Arthur L. SchawlowAward and named four new LIA Fellowsduring the 26th Int’l Congress on Appli-cations of Lasers & Electro-Optics (ICA-LEO®) held in October. The SchawlowAward is conferred each year to honor anoutstanding, career-long contributor tobasic and applied research in laser scienceand engineering whose achievements haveled to increased application of lasers in in-dustry, medicine, and daily life. WilliamShiner, LIA president, introduced the in-coming Fellows: Lin Li, professor of laserengineering at the University of Manches-ter, England; William Patrick Roach, sen-

ior science advisor, and Robert Thomas, asenior research physicist, both at the U.S.Air Force Research Laboratory in Texas;and John Tyrer, a LIA Senior Member anda professor in the department of mechan-ical engineering at Loughborough Uni-versity, England.

Bosch Rexroth Names VP

Bosch RexrothCorp., Hoffman Es-tates, Ill., has ap-pointedJeff Blackmanvice president — au-tomation sales. Black-man joined the com-pany in 1980 as a salesengineer in Leicester,UK, and held severalmanagerial positionsuntil 2001 when he was

named executive vice president and manag-ing director of sales and marketing for BoschRexroth China Ltd.

Genstar Hires NationalSales Manager

Genstar Technolo-gies, Chino, Calif.,has named Fred M.Herauf national salesmanager for its weld-ing and cutting au-tomation products.Herauf has morethan 25 years’ experi-ence in the thermalcutting business,most recently as sales

manager for Controlled Automation.

New Chairs Elected toPMA’s Local Districts

The Precision Metalforming Associa-tion (PMA), Cleveland, Ohio, has an-nounced new chairs for its 20 local dis-tricts. Elected were Chris Nantau(Canada), Keith Herbs (Carolinas), Den-nis Spitz (Chicago), Liz Comstock (Cleve-land), Pat Westergaard (E. Mich.), JimEichelberger (E. Pa.), Peter Fischer Sr.(Greater Mo.), Pat Bosler (Ind.), MichaelTofte (Lone Star), David Vaz (New Eng-land), Mark Weissenrieder and ElisabethBennis (N.Y./N.J.), Fermin Rodriguez (N.Calif.), Dave Kubacki (NW Ohio), JimMcGregor (Ohio Valley), Dale Congel-liere (S. Calif.), Peter Doolittle (S. NewEngland), Al Hentsch (Tenn.), Stuart Pe-terson (Twin Cities), Don Dawson (W.Mich.), and Michael Steger (Wis.).

DECEMBER 200776

Ernest Mattox III

Robert Young

Michael HallJosh Holtsberry

Scott Anthony

S. P. VaidyaFred Herauf

Jeff Blackman

Personnel December:Layout 1 11/6/07 8:17 AM

Alberici ConstructorsNames Project Director

Alberici Construc-tors, St. Louis, Mo.,has appointed JamesG. Klingensmith,P.E., a project direc-tor in its GeneralBuilding Division.Previously, Klingen-smith was a multipro-ject executive withGilbane Building Co.

Obituaries

George Kampschaefer

George EdwardKampschaefer Jr.,78, died October 3 inHouston, Tex. AnAWS Life Member,he served as District18 director from 1988through 1996. Born inChicago, Ill., he wentto school in Middle-town, Ohio, and re-ceived his degree inmetallurgical engi-

neering in 1951 from Purdue University.He served as an officer in the U.S. Navy,and later worked as manager of technicalservices for Armco Steel Corp. He servedas a leading metallurgical and welding en-gineer in the Houston area. A Life Mem-ber of ASM International, he served AWSand ASM in numerous committee posi-tions, as well as serving as Section chair-man for both organizations.

Mr. Kampschaefer is survived by hiswife, Peggy; sons, Mike and Scott; grand-children, Ian, Annelise, and Aric; and asister, Georgia Croake. The family re-quests donations be made to the GeorgeKampschaefer Scholarship Fund of theAmerican Welding Society, Houston Sec-tion, or a charity of your choice.

Kelvin D. Spain

Kelvin D. Spain,59, former presidentof Radyne Corp.,Milwaukee, Wis.,died Sept. 21. AnAWS member since2000, Mr. Spain wasborn in London, UK.He was a marathonbiker in school wherehe also played thehooker position on

the rugby team. When he was 17 years old,he took an apprenticeship at Radyne Ltd.,in Wokingham, UK, to become a test en-gineer in dielectric and induction heating

systems, then worked his way up to seniorproject engineer. He moved his family tothe United States in 1978 where heworked for Radyne Corp. in Canton,Ohio. While there, he was instrumental inthe purchase of AKO, an induction manu-facturing plant in Butler, Wis. In 2001, hewas appointed president of Radyne.

Just prior to his death, he had beenpromoted to president of Inductoheat,Inc., one of Radyne’s sister companies,which had always been his goal.

Mr. Spain presented many papers oninduction heating for brazing, heat treat-ing, forging, quality assurance, and water-cooling for AWS, ASM International,SME, and many other organizations.

He was a past master of Masonic Lin-coln Lodge in Menomonee Falls, Wis.,and served as secretary/treasurer. He wasa member of the church choir, played gui-tar weekly at the services, served as avestry member, Sunday school teacher, laydirector of happening for the EpiscopalDiocese of Milwaukee for high-school-ageyouths, and was a member of the DiocesanYouth Commission for many years. Mr.Spain is survived by his wife, Barb, anddaughters, Joanna, Vickie, and Jess.

H. Clay Birkhead Jr.

H. Clay Birkhead Jr., 75, died Oct. 7,2006. An AWS Life Member, he had beenactive in the Society since 1957, affiliatedwith the Milwaukee Section. During theKorean War he served overseas in theArmy Counterintelligence Corps. Mr.Birkhead was a commander of the Amer-ican Legion in Birmingham, Ala., wherehe coached the Little League Cardinals.Mr. Birkhead retired in 1996 after manyyears in the welding supply business. He issurvived by his wife, Marianne, two daugh-ters, a brother, and five grandchildren.

Joseph M. Moll III

Joseph M. Moll III, 55, a member ofthe AWS New Orleans Section, died Feb.26. Mr. Moll was a sales manager withGulf States Airgas for more than 30 years.A graduate of Nicholls State University,he was a member of Tau Kappa Epsilonfraternity, and a former member of theCaesar and Endemiyon Carnival Organi-zations. He is survived by his wife, Pemela;a daughter, Michelle; and a son, Joe.

Frank C. Hemelt

Frank C. Hemelt, 63, a member of theAWS New Orleans Section and vice pres-ident of Industrial Welding Supply (IWS),died March 14. A graduate of Tulane Uni-versity, he spent more than 30 years in thewelding supply business, starting at Wood-ward Wight then Mon-Arc Welding beforejoining IWS. He is survived by his wife,Cynthia; daughter, Kai; a sister, June H.Walker; and four grandchildren.

Free Hearing ProtectorWear-Time Tool Offered

The Howard Leight Wear-Time Evalu-ator alerts noise-exposed workers to howdamaging it can be to remove their hear-ing protection even for a few minutes dur-ing an 8-h shift. Intended primarily as atraining device, the outer ring of the largerdisc shows a range of decibel (dB) levels ofattenuation (noise-reduction rating orNRR) provided by various hearing pro-tectors, while the smaller disc shows timeincrements of 5, 10, 15, and 30 min. Byaligning the two discs, it can be deter-mined how much protection is lost by re-moving the hearing protector. The tool isavailable free to safety officers and educa-tors by calling the number shown.

Sperian Hearing Protection, LLCwww.howardleight.com(800) 430-5490

ASTM Releases SteelStandards Handbook

ASTM International offers its exten-sively revised DS67C, The Handbook ofComparative World Steel Standards, 4thEdition. It presents detailed explanationsof how to identify comparable steels thatare found in standards from around theworld, and evaluate each standard to en-sure that the selected steel is suited for theintended application. With the Handbook,users can compare standards from ASTM,AFNOR, API, ASME, BSI, EN, CSA,DIN, GB, ISO, JIS, and SAE. It featuresmore than 6100 steels, 450 worldwidestandards, 275 new or updated standards,and more than 30,000 pieces of Chinesesteel data. The 840-page, softcover, 81⁄2 -×11-in. volume is priced at $425. The Tableof Contents may be viewed online. Orderonline or by phone.

ASTM Internationalwww.astm.org(610) 832-9585

77WELDING JOURNAL

J. Klingensmith

Kelvin D. Spain

G. Kampschaefer

NEW LITERATURE— continued from page 75

Personnel December:Layout 1 11/6/07 8:17 AM

AWS Foundation GivesThanks for 2007

Planned giving can make a significant impact on welder workforce issues while providing income and other benefits to yourself

Charitable Remainder Unitrust provides a lifetime of rewards:

• Payment to you and/or family and friends• Immediate tax deduction for the value of the remainder interest

• Avoid capital gains tax on any appreciated asset•Future financial resources for the AWS Foundation

Contact us today! 800-443-9353, Ext. 331 [email protected]

© AWS 2007

IndividualsWilma J. AdkinsOsama Al-ErhayemRichard AmirikianRoman F. ArnoldyJack R. BarckhoffHil J. BaxDennis and Eddis BlunierD. Fred and Lou BovieWilliam A. and Ann M. BrothersCable Family FoundationAlan ChristophersonJoseph M. and Debbie A. CilliDonald E. and Jean ClevelandJack and Jo DammannMr. and Mrs. J. F. DammannLouis DeFreitasFrank G. DeLaurierWilliam T. DeLongEstate of Esther BaginskyRichard D. FrenchGlenn J. GibsonJames E. Greer & Adele M. KulikowskiJoyce E. HarrisonDonald F. and Shirley HastingsRobb F. HowellJeffrey R. HufseyJoseph R. JohnsonDeborah H. KurdJ. J. McLaughlinL. William and Judy MyersRobert and Annette O’BrienRobert L. PeasleeJoyce and Ronald C. PierceWerner QuasebarthJerome L. RobinsonRobert and Mitzie RoedigerSandy and Ray W. Shook

Myron and Ginny StepathCharley A. StoodyJulie S. TheissR. D. Thomas, Jr.James A. Turner, Jr.Gerald and Christine UttrachiNelson WallAmos O. and Marilyn WinsandNannette Zapata

CorporationsAirgasAir Liquide America CorporationAir Products and Chemicals, Inc.American Welding SocietyBohler Thyssen Welding USA, Inc.Caterpillar, Inc.Chemalloy Company, Inc.C-K WorldwideCor-Met, Inc.ESAB Welding & Cutting ProductsEdison Welding InstituteEutetic CastolinThe Fibre-Metal Products CompanyGases and Welding Distributors AssociationGibson Tube, Inc.Malcolm T. Gilliland, Inc.Gullco International, Inc.Harris Calorific, Inc.High Purity GasHobart Brothers Company- Corex- McKay Welding Products- Tri-MarkHobart Institute of Welding TechnologyHypertherm, Inc.Illinois Tool Works CompaniesIndependent Can Company

Inweld CorporationThe Irene & George A. Davis FoundationJ. W. Harris Company, Inc.John Tillman Co.Kirk FoundationKobelco Welding of America, Inc.The Lincoln Electric CompanyThe Lincoln Electric FoundationMK Products, Inc.Matsuo Bridge Co. Ltd.Miller Electric Mfg. Co.Mountain Enterprises, Inc.National Electric Mfg. AssociationNational Welders Supply CompanyNavy Joining CenterNORCO, Inc.ORS NASCO, Inc.OXO Welding Equipment CompanyPferd, Inc.Praxair Distribution, Inc.Resistance Welder Manufacturers Assoc. Roberts Oxygen Company, Inc.RWMASaf-T-CartSelect-Arc, Inc.SESCOShawnee Steel & Welding, Inc.Shell Chemical LP – WTCThermadyne Holdings CorporationTrinity Industries, Inc.Uvex Safety, Inc.Webster, Chamberlain & BeanWESCO Gas & Welding Supply, Inc.Weld-Aid ProductsWeld Tooling/Bug-O SystemsWeldstar CompanyWolverine Bronze Company

WWee wwoouulldd lliikkee ttoo tthhaannkk tthhee ffoolllloowwiinngg mmaajjoorr ddoonnoorrss wwhhoo hhaavveessuuppppoorrtteedd tthhee AAWWSS FFoouunnddaattiioonn

Planned Giving: Generating a Futurefor the Future Welder Workforce

& 79:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 2:42 PM Page 78

National Scholarship ProgramHoward E. and Wilma J. Adkins Memorial

ScholarshipAirgas – Jerry Baker ScholarshipAirgas – Terry Jarvis Memorial

ScholarshipArsham Amirikian Engineering

ScholarshipJack R. Barckhoff Welding Management

ScholarshipsEdward J. Brady Memorial ScholarshipWilliam A. and Ann M. Brothers

ScholarshipDonald F. Hastings ScholarshipDonald and Shirley Hastings ScholarshipWilliam B. Howell Memorial ScholarshipHypertherm – International HyTech

Leadership ScholarshipITW Welding Companies ScholarshipsJohn C. Lincoln Memorial ScholarshipMatsuo Bridge Company, Ltd. of Japan

ScholarshipMiller Electric World Skills Competition

ScholarshipRobert L. Peaslee – Detroit Brazing and

Soldering Division ScholarshipPraxair International ScholarshipResistance Welder Manufacturers

Association ScholarshipJerry Robinson – Inweld Corporation

ScholarshipJames A. Turner, Jr. Memorial Scholarship

Section Named ScholarshipsAmos and Marilyn Winsand – Detroit

Section Named ScholarshipRonald Theiss – Houston Section Named

ScholarshipRonald C. and Joyce Pierce – Mobile

Section Named ScholarshipLou DeFreitas – Santa Clara Valley

Section Named ScholarshipDonald and Jean Cleveland – Willamette

Valley Scholarship

District Named ScholarshipsEd Cable – Bug-O Systems District 7

Named ScholarshipDetroit Arc Welding – District 11 Named

ScholarshipDetroit Resistance Welding – District 11

Named Scholarship

Scholarship Programs inDevelopment

Shirley Bollinger – District 3 NamedScholarship

Gold Collar ScholarshipRobert L. O’Brien Memorial ScholarshipTed B. Jefferson ScholarshipThermadyne Industries Scholarship

AWS International Scholarship

Graduate Research FellowshipsGlenn J. Gibson FellowshipMiller Electric FellowshipAWS Fellowships (2)

History of Welding CDThis CD provides a story of weldinghistory, stressing the importance ofwelding and the critical shortage of skilledmanpower.

Educational ToolsEngineering Your FutureWelding So Hot It’s Cool Video/CDHot Careers in Welding Video

Miller Electric Mfg. Co. – Sponsor ofthe World Skills CompetitionScholarship

The Miller Electric ManufacturingCompany established this $40,000scholarship in 1995 to recognize andprovide financial assistance to contestantsrepresenting the United States in the WorldSkills Competition. To qualify, an applicantmust advance through the nationalSkillsUSA – VICA Competition and mustwin the biennial U.S. Open Weld Trials atthe AWS Welding Show. Past recipientscompeting in the World Skills Competitionare:

2007 Chance Pollo2005 Joel Stanley II2003 Miles Tilley2001 Dien Tran1999 Ray Connolly1997 Glen Kay III1995 Branden Muehlbrandt1993 Nick Peterson*1991 Robert Pope*

*1991 and 1993 recipients received alternatescholarship funds, which were prior to the start of theMiller Electric Mfg. Co. Scholarship.

We greatly appreciate thehundreds of individuals andcompanies who support theindustry’s future by contributingto the Foundation’s educationalprograms, which providescholarships and fellowships tostudents pursuing a careerwithin welding or relatedmaterials joining sciences.

The Mission of theAWS Foundation:

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Welding for the Strength of AmericaThe Campaign for the American Welding Society Foundation

Page 78 & 79:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 2:42 PM

WELDING JOURNALINDEX

A Brief History of Filler Metals — T. Hensley, (Oct) 113A Preview of the Thermal Spray Pavilion — K. Campbell, (Oct) 52A Study on the Effect of Brazing Time on Element Diffusion — S. K.

Gupta, M. S. Niranjan, and A. Kak, (Sept) 47Additive Manufacturing and Repair, Laser Engineered Net Shaping

Advances — R. P. Mudge and N. R. Wald, (Jan) 44Advanced Laser Technology Applied to Cladding and Buildup — S.

Nowotny, S. Scharek, and A. Schmidt, (May) 48Advancements in Flux Cored and Flux Coated Brazing Products — D.

Harris, (Mar) 53Advancing the Science of Automatic Brazing — R. Lohrey and G. Stout,

(Sept) 31Aerospace Applications, Welding Superalloys for — D. J. Tillack, (Jan) 28Alloys, The Welding of Titanium and Its — R. Sutherlin, (Dec) 40Aluminum Matrix Composites, Soldering — B. Wielage, I. Hoyer, and S.

Weis, (Mar) 67Applications, Laser Beam Welding: Benefits, Strategies, and — H.

Schlueter, (May) 37Applying Lean to Welding Operations — V. Vaidya and B. George,

(April) 32Assuring Accurate Preheat Temperatures — R. Hornberger, (April) 104Automatic Brazing, Advancing the Science of — R. Lohrey and G. Stout,

(Sept) 31Automating, Decisions to Make before — D. Steadham, (Nov) 43Automotive Industry, Laser Hybrid Welding in the — H. Staufer (Oct) 36Avoiding Defects in Stainless Steel Welds — R. D. Campbell, (May) 56AWS Adds Two-Run Option for Flux-Electrode Classification — D. D.

Crockett, (Nov) 46AWS 2006 Expo in Review — A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, and H.

Woodward, (Mar) 37Beam Welding: Benefits, Strategies, and Applications, Laser — H.

Schlueter, (May) 37Braze and Solder Materials for Joining Titanium to Composites,

Comparison of — G. N. Morscher, M. Singh, and T. Shpargel, (Mar)62

Brazer’s Questions: Paste or Preforms?, The — K. Allen and S. L.Feldbauer, (Mar) 55

Brazing for In-Space Construction, Electron Beam — Y. Flom, (Jan) 33Brazing, Advancing the Science of Automatic — R. Lohrey and G. Stout,

(Sept) 31Brazing Ceramic to Stainless Enhanced by Surface Modification — Kyu-

Yong Lee, (Sept) 35Brazing Products, Advancements in Flux Cored and Flux Coated — D.

Harris, (March) 53Brazing Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications — K. J.

Doherty, J. R. Tice, S. T. Szewczyk, and G. A. Gilde, (Sept) 41Brazing Time on Element Diffusion, A Study on the Effect of — S. K.

Gupta, M. S. Niranjan, and A. Kak, (Sept) 47Building Tank Cars from the Ground Up — M. R. Johnsen, (Nov) 32Cables Joined with Orbital Welding, Underwater — T. Nordahl, (June) 64Careers, College Program Grooms High Schoolers for Welding — K.

Campbell, (April) 112Caring for Flux Cored Wire, Selecting and — K. Packard, (July) 32Ceramic to Stainless Enhanced by Surface Modification, Brazing — Kyu-

Yong Lee, (Sept) 35Certifications for Welding Consumables, Sorting out — H. Sadler, (July)

42Challenges in Attaining Lead-Free Solders — P. Baskin, (Mar) 58Chrome-Moly Steel Tubing, Tips for GTA Welding 4130 — J. Fulcer and

J. Fogle, (Aug) 38Cladding and Buildup, Advanced Laser Technology Applied to — S.

Nowotny, S. Scharek, and A. Schmidt, (May) 48College Program Grooms High Schoolers for Welding Careers — K.

Campbell, (April) 112Company Tackles Welder Shortage by Opening Welding School, (April)

46

Company Takes Its Shop to the Utah Wilderness — H. M. Woodward,(Aug) 24

Comparison of Braze and Solder Materials for Joining Titanium toComposites — G. N. Morscher, M. Singh, and T. Shpargel, (Mar) 62

Composites, Comparison of Braze and Solder Materials for JoiningTitanium to — G. N. Morscher, M. Singh, and T. Shpargel, (Mar) 62

Composites, Soldering Aluminum Matrix — B. Wielage, I. Hoyer, and S.Weis, (Mar) 67

Consumables, Sorting out Certifications for Welding — H. Sadler, (July)42

Costs, Reducing Resistance Welding — N. Scotchmer, (Feb) 47Cross Wire Welding, The Other Resistance Process: — N. Scotchmer,

(Dec) 36Cutting, What’s New in — A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, and H. Woodward,

(Jan) 38Decisions to Make before Automating — D. Steadham, (Nov) 43Declassified, Historic Welding Project Now — J. A. Disney, (June) 54Defects in Stainless Steel Welds, Avoiding — R. D. Campbell, (May) 56Demystifying GMAW Gun Ratings — B. Giese, (Oct) 108Design Considerations for Robotic Welding Cell Safety — R. Wood,

(July) 38Determining Solder Alloy and Base Metal Compatibility — A. E. Shapiro,

(Sept) 33Distributor Can Offer You, What Your — K. Campbell, (Sept) 22EB Welding on the F-14, The Greatest Story Never Told: — R. W.

Messler Jr., (May) 41Efficiency, Improving Laser Welding — N. Longfield, T. Lieshout, I.

DeWit, T. Van Der Veldt, and W. Stam, May (52)Electrode Classification, AWS Adds Two-Run Option for Flux- — D. D.

Crockett, (Nov) 46Electrodes and Welds with Laser-Based Imaging, Inspecting RSW — C.

Reichert and W. Peterson, (Feb) 38Electrodes for Joining High-Strength Steels, How to Choose — K.

Sampath, (July) 26Electron Beam Brazing for In-Space Construction — Y. Flom, (Jan) 33Electron Beam Welding, Fifty Years of Nonvacuum — D. E. Powers,

(Dec) 32Element Diffusion, A Study on the Effect of Brazing Time on — S. K.

Gupta, M. S. Niranjan, and A. Kak, (Sept) 47Energy Saving Tips for Ducted Weld Fume Systems — E. Ravert, (July)

30Engineering Careers, ‘Project Lead the Way’ Attracts Students to — D. W.

Dickinson, (April) 28Environmental Mandates and Soldering Technology: The Path Forward —

P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 27Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld Toughness — Ph. P. Darcis,

J. D. McColskey, C. N. McCowan, and T. A. Siewert, (June) 48Expo in Review, AWS 2006 — A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, and H.

Woodward, (Mar) 37Fab Shop Maintain Tight Tolerances, Modular Fixturing Helps — (Aug)

34Fiber Lasers for Shipbuilding and Marine Construction, Investigating —

H. Ozden, (May) 26Fifty Years of Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding — D. E. Powers,

(Dec) 32Filler Metals, A Brief History of — T. Hensley, (Oct) 113Fixturing Helps Fab Shop Maintain Tight Tolerances, Modular — (Aug)

34Flux Cored and Flux Coated Brazing Products, Advancements in — D.

Harris, (Mar) 53Flux Cored Wire, Selecting and Caring for — K. Packard, (July) 32Flux-Electrode Classification, AWS Adds Two-Run Option for — D. D.

Crockett, (Nov) 46Fume Systems, Energy Saving Tips for Ducted Weld — E. Ravert, (July)

30Future, Investing in Welding’s — (Jan) 27

Part 1 — WELDING JOURNALSUBJECT INDEX

DECEMBER 200780

WJ Index 2007:WJ Index 2006 11/8/07 11:07 AM

Greatest Story Never Told: EB Welding on the F-14, The — R. W. MesslerJr., (May) 41

GMAW Gun Ratings, Demystifying — B. Giese, (Oct) 108GTA Practices, Titanium Welding 101: Best — J. Luck and J. Fulcer,

(DEC) 26GTA Welding 4130 Chrome-Moly Steel Tubing, Tips for — J. Fulcer and

J. Fogle, (Aug) 38Hexavalent Chromium Standards, Understanding the New — (April) 109High Schoolers for Welding Careers, College Program Grooms — K.

Campbell, (April) 112High-Strength Steels, How to Choose Electrodes for Joining — K.

Sampath, (July) 26Historic Welding Project Now Declassified — J. A. Disney, (June) 54How to Choose Electrodes for Joining High-Strength Steels — K.

Sampath, (July) 26Hybrid Welding: An Alternative To SAW — (Oct) 42 Hybrid Welding in the Automotive Industry, Laser — H. Staufer (Oct) 36Hybrid Laser Welding, Practical Applications for — J. Defalco, (Oct) 47Imaging, Inspecting RSW Electrodes and Welds with Laser-Based — C.

Reichert and W. Peterson, (Feb) 38Improving Laser Welding Efficiency — N. Longfield, T. Lieshout, I.

DeWit, T. Van Der Veldt, and W. Stam, May (52)Innovative Repair Quickly Returns Nuclear Power Plant to Service — N.

Chapman, (Oct) 30In-Space Construction, Electron Beam Brazing for — Y. Flom, (Jan) 33Inspecting RSW Electrodes and Welds with Laser-Based Imaging — C.

Reichert and W. Peterson, (Feb) 38Intelligent Vision Boosts Robot Payback — J. Noruk, (Mar) 32Investigating Fiber Lasers for Shipbuilding and Marine Construction —

H. Ozden, (May) 26Investing in Welding’s Future — (Jan) 27Laser Beam Welding: Benefits, Strategies, and Applications — H.

Schlueter, (May) 37Laser Engineered Net Shaping Advances Additive Manufacturing and

Repair — R. P. Mudge and N. R. Wald, (Jan) 44Laser Hybrid Welding in the Automotive Industry — H. Staufer (Oct) 36Lasers for Shipbuilding and Marine Construction, Investigating Fiber —

H. Ozden, (May) 26Laser Technology Applied to Cladding and Buildup, Advanced — S.

Nowotny, S. Scharek, and A. Schmidt, (May) 48Laser Welding Efficiency, Improving — N. Longfield, T. Lieshout, I.

DeWit, T. Van Der Veldt, and W. Stam, May (52)Laser Welding, Practical Applications for Hybrid — J. Defalco, (Oct) 47Lead-Free Solders, Challenges in Attaining — P. Baskin, (Mar) 58Lean to Welding Operations, Applying — V. Vaidya and B. George,

(April) 32Making Resistance Spot Welding Safer — R. B. Hirsch, (Feb) 32Mechanized Welding on Large-Diameter Pipes, Using — J. Emmerson,

(June) 66Modular Fixturing Helps Fab Shop Maintain Tight Tolerances, (Aug) 34New AWS D1.8 Seismic Welding Supplement Outlined — R. O.

Hamburger, J. O. Malley, and D. K. Miller, (Feb) 28Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding, Fifty Years of — D. E. Powers,

(Dec) 32Operations, Applying Lean to Welding — V. Vaidya and B. George,

(April) 32Orbital Welding, Underwater Cables Joined with — T. Nordahl, (June) 64Other Resistance Process: Cross Wire Welding, The — N. Scotchmer,

(Dec) 36P91 and Beyond — K. K. Coleman and W. F. Newell Jr., (Aug) 29Photovoltaic Cell Assembly, Ultrasonic Welding Plays Key Role in — J.

Devine, (June) 52Pipe, Techniques for Successfully Welding Alloy — N. Borchert and D.

Phillips, (June) 58Pipe Weld Toughness, Exploring Methods for Measuring — Ph. P. Darcis,

J. D. McColskey, C. N. McCowan, and T. A. Siewert, (June) 48Pipes, Using Mechanized Welding on Large-Diameter — J. Emmerson,

(June) 66Power Plant to Service, Innovative Repair Quickly Returns Nuclear — N.

Chapman, (Oct) 30Practical Applications for Hybrid Laser Welding — J. Defalco, (Oct) 47Preforms?, The Brazer’s Question: Paste or — K. Allen and S. L.

Feldbauer, (Mar) 55Preheat Temperatures, Assuring Accurate — R. Hornberger, (April) 104‘Project Lead the Way’ Attracts Students to Engineering Careers — D. W.

Dickinson, (April) 28

Radioactive Materials, Securing Containers Of — G. R. Cannell, (Nov) 38Reducing Resistance Welding Costs — N. Scotchmer, (Feb) 47Reducing Shrinkage Voids in Resistance Spot Welds — A. Joaquin, A. N.

A. Elliot, and C. Jiang, (Feb) 24Repair Quickly Returns Nuclear Power Plant to Service, Innovative — N.

Chapman, (Oct) 30Reptiles, Students Learn Modern Skills from Ancient — K. Campbell,

(Oct) 111Research at LeTourneau University, Undergraduates Welding — Y.

Adonyi, (April) 44Resistance Process: Cross Wire Welding, The Other — N. Scotchmer,

(Dec) 36Resistance Spot Welds, Reducing Shrinkage Voids in — A. Joaquin, A. N.

A. Elliot, and C. Jiang, (Feb) 24Resistance Welding Costs, Reducing — N. Scotchmer, (Feb) 47Robot Payback, Intelligent Vision Boosts — J. Noruk, (Mar) 32Robotic Welding, Sturdy Exam Tables Rely on — (Mar) 46Robotic Welding Cell Safety, Design Considerations for — R. Wood,

(July) 38Safer, Making Resistance Spot Welding — R. B. Hirsch, (Feb) 32Safety, Design Considerations for Robotic Welding Cell — R. Wood,

(July) 38Saving Tips for Ducted Weld Fume Systems, Energy — E. Ravert, (July)

30SAW, Hybrid Welding: An Alternative To — (Oct) 42School, Company Tackles Welder Shortage by Opening Welding —

(April) 46Securing Containers of Radioactive Materials — G. R. Cannell, (Nov) 38Seismic Welding Supplement Outlined, New AWS D1.8 — R. O.

Hamburger, J. O. Malley, and D. K. Miller, (Feb) 28Selecting and Caring for Flux Cored Wire — K. Packard, (July) 32Service, Innovative Repair Quickly Returns Nuclear Power Plant to — N.

Chapman, (Oct) 30Shaping Advances Additive Manufacturing and Repair, Laser Engineered

Net — R. P. Mudge and N. R. Wald, (Jan) 44Shipbuilding and Marine Construction, Investigating Fiber Lasers for —

H. Ozden, (May) 26Shop to the Utah Wilderness, Company Takes Its — H. M. Woodward,

(Aug) 24Shortage by Opening Welding School, Company Takes Welder — (April)

46Shrinkage Voids in Resistance Spot Welds, Reducing — A. Joaquin, A. N.

A. Elliot, and C. Jiang, (Feb) 24Soars to New Heights, Stainless Steel Welding — R. Stahura and C.

Houska, (May) 30Solder Alloy and Base Metal Compatibility, Determining — A. E.

Shapiro, (Sept) 33Solder Materials for Joining Titanium to Composites, Comparison of

Braze and — G. N. Morscher, M. Singh, and T. Shpargel, (Mar) 62Soldering Aluminum Matrix Composites — B. Wielage, I. Hoyer, and S.

Weis, (Mar) 67Soldering Technology: The Path Forward, Environmental Mandates and

— P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 27Solders, Challenges in Attaining Lead-Free — P. Baskin, (Mar) 58Sorting out Certifications for Welding Consumables — H. Sadler, (July)

42Spot Welding Safer, Making Resistance — R. B. Hirsch, (Feb) 32Stainless Steel Welding Soars to New Heights — R. Stahura and C.

Houska, (May) 30Stainless Steel Welds, Avoiding Defects in — R. D. Campbell, (May) 56Stainless Enhanced by Surface Modification, Brazing Ceramic to — Kyu-

Yong Lee, (Sept) 35Standards, Understanding the New Hexavalent Chromium — (April) 109Story Never Told: EB Welding on the F-14, The Greatest — R. W. Messler

Jr., (May) 41Students Learn Modern Skills from Ancient Reptiles — K. Campbell,

(Oct) 111Students to Engineering Careers, ‘Project Lead the Way’ Attracts — D. W.

Dickinson, (April) 28Study on the Effect of Brazing Time on Element Diffusion, A — S. K.

Gupta, M. S. Niranjan, and A. Kak, (Sept) 47Sturdy Exam Tables Rely on Robotic Welding — (Mar) 46Superalloys for Aerospace Applications, Welding — D. J. Tillack, (Jan) 28Tables Rely on Robotic Welding, Sturdy Exam — (Mar) 46Tank Cars from the Ground Up, Building — M. R. Johnsen, (Nov) 32Techniques for Successfully Welding Alloy Pipe — N. Borchert and D.

81WELDING JOURNAL


Phillips, (June) 58The Weld-Wide Web — R. Hancock, (June) 68Thermal Spray Pavilion, A Preview of the — K. Campbell, (Oct) 52Tips for GTA Welding 4130 Chrome-Moly Steel Tubing — J. Fulcer and J.

Fogle, (Aug) 38Titanium and Its Alloys, The Welding of — R. Sutherlin, (Dec) 40Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications, Brazing — K. J.

Doherty, J. R. Tice, S. T. Szewczyk, and G. A. Gilde, (Sept) 41Titanium to Composites, Comparison of Braze and Solder Materials for

Joining — G. N. Morscher, M. Singh, and T. Shpargel, (Mar) 62Titanium Welding 101: Best GTA Practices — J. Luck and J. Fulcer,

(DEC) 26Tolerances, Modular Fixturing Helps Fab Shop Maintain Tight — (Aug)

34Toughness, Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld — Ph. P. Darcis,

J. D. McColskey, C. N. McCowan, and T. A. Siewert, (June) 48Training, Unions Offer Comprehensive Welder, (April) 39Tubing, Tips for GTA Welding 4130 Chrome-Moly Steel — J. Fulcer and

J. Fogle, (Aug) 38Ultrasonic Welding Plays Key Role in Photovoltaic Cell Assembly — J.

Devine, (June) 52Undergraduate Welding Research at LeTourneau University — Y.

Adonyi, (April) 44Understanding the New Hexavalent Chromium Standards — (April) 109Underwater Cables Joined with Orbital Welding — T. Nordahl, (June) 64Unions Offer Comprehensive Welder Training, (April) 39University, Undergraduates Welding Research at LeTourneau — Y.

Adonyi, (April) 44Using Mechanized Welding on Large-Diameter Pipes — J. Emmerson,

(June) 66Vision Boosts Robot Payback, Intelligent — J. Noruk, (Mar) 32Welding: An Alternative To SAW, Hybrid — (Oct) 42 Welding of Titanium and Its Alloys, The — R. Sutherlin, (Dec) 40Welding Offers Women New Career Opportunities — A. Zalkind and M.

Baker, (Oct) 115Welding Superalloys for Aerospace Applications — D. J. Tillack, (Jan) 28What’s New in Cutting — A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, and H. Woodward,

(Jan) 38What Your Distributor Can Offer You — K. Campbell, (Sept) 22Wilderness, Company Takes Its Shop to the Utah — H. M. Woodward,

(Aug) 24Women New Career Opportunities, Welding Offers — A. Zalkind and M.

Baker, (Oct) 115

AUTHORS FOR FEATURE ARTICLES

Adonyi, Y. — Undergraduate Welding Research at LeTourneauUniversity, (April) 44

Allen, K., and Feldbauer, S. L. — The Brazer’s Question: Paste orPreforms?, (Mar) 55

Baker, M., and Zalkind, A. — Welding Offers Women New CareerOpportunities, (Oct) 115

Baskin, P. — Challenges in Attaining Lead-Free Solders, (Mar) 58Borchert, N., and Phillips, D. — Techniques for Successfully Welding

Alloy Pipe, (June) 58Campbell, K. — College Program Grooms High Schoolers for Welding

Careers, (April) 112Campbell, K. — What Your Distributor Can Offer You, (Sept) 22Campbell, K. — A Preview of the Thermal Spray Pavilion, (Oct) 52Campbell, K. — Students Learn Modern Skills from Ancient Reptiles,

(Oct) 111Campbell, R. D. — Avoiding Defects in Stainless Steel Welds, (May) 56Cannell,G. R. — Securing Containers Of Radioactive Materials, (Nov) 38Chapman, N. — Innovative Repair Quickly Returns Nuclear Power Plant

to Service, (Oct) 30Coleman, K. K., and Newell Jr., W. F. — P91 and Beyond, (Aug) 29Crockett, D. D. — AWS Adds Two-Run Option for Flux-Electrode

Classification, (Nov) 46Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and Woodward, H. — What’s New in

Cutting, (Jan) 38Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and Woodward, H. — AWS 2006 Expo in

Review, (Mar) 37Darcis, Ph. P., McColskey, J. D., McCowan, C. N., and Siewert, T. A. —

Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld Toughness, (June) 48Defalco, J. — Practical Applications for Hybrid Laser Welding, (Oct) 47Devine, J. — Ultrasonic Welding Plays Key Role in Photovoltaic Cell

Assembly, (June) 52DeWit, I., Van Der Veldt, T., Stam, W., Longfield, N., and Lieshout,T. —

Improving Laser Welding Efficiency, May (52)Dickinson, D. W. — ‘Project Lead the Way’ Attracts Students to

Engineering Careers, (April) 28Disney, J. A. — Historic Welding Project Now Declassified, (June) 54Doherty, K. J., Tice, J. R., Szewczyk, S. T., and Gilde, G. A. — Brazing

Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications, (Sept) 41Elliot, A. N. A., Jiang, C., and Joaquin, A. — Reducing Shrinkage Voids in

Resistance Spot Welds, (Feb) 24Emmerson, J. — Using Mechanized Welding on Large-Diameter Pipes,

(June) 66Feldbauer, S. L., and Allen, K. — The Brazer’s Question: Paste or

Preforms?, (Mar) 55Flom, Y. — Electron Beam Brazing for in-Space Construction, (Jan) 33Fogle, J., and Fulcer, J. — Tips for GTA Welding 4130 Chrome-Moly Steel

Tubing, (Aug) 38Fulcer, J., and Fogle, J. — Tips for GTA Welding 4130 Chrome-Moly Steel

Tubing, (Aug) 38Fulcer, J., and Luck, J. — Titanium Welding 101: Best GTA Practices,

(Dec) 26George, B., and Vaidya, V. — Applying Lean to Welding Operations,

(April) 32Giese, B. — Demystifying GMAW Gun Ratings, (Oct) 108Gilde, G. A., Doherty, K. J., Tice, J. R., and Szewczyk, S. T., — Brazing

Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications, (Sept) 41Gupta, S. K., Niranjan, M. S., and Kak, A. — A Study on the Effect of

Brazing Time on Element Diffusion, (Sept) 47Hamburger, R. O., Malley, J. O., and Miller, D. K. — New AWS D1.8

Seismic Welding Supplement Outlined, (Feb) 28Hancock, R. — The Weld-Wide Web, (June) 68Harris, D. — Advancements in Flux Cored and Flux Coated Brazing

Products, (Mar) 53Hensley, T. — A Brief History of Filler Metals, (Oct) 113Hirsch, R. B. — Making Resistance Spot Welding Safer, (Feb) 32Hornberger, R. — Assuring Accurate Preheat Temperatures, (April) 104Houska, C., and Stahura, R. — Stainless Steel Welding Soars to New

Heights, (May) 30Hoyer, I., Weis, S., and Wielage, B. — Soldering Aluminum Matrix

Composites, (Mar) 67Jiang, C., Joaquin, A., and Elliot, A. N. A.— Reducing Shrinkage Voids in

Resistance Spot Welds, (Feb) 24Joaquin, A., Elliot, A. N. A., and Jiang, C. — Reducing Shrinkage Voids in

Resistance Spot Welds, (Feb) 24Johnsen, M. R. — Building Tank Cars from the Ground Up, (Nov) 32Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., and Cullison, A. — What’s New in

Cutting, (Jan) 38Johnsen, M. R., Cullison, A., and Woodward, H. — AWS 2006 Expo in

Review, (Mar) 37Kak, A., Gupta, S. K. and Niranjan, M. S. — A Study on the Effect of

Brazing Time on Element Diffusion, (Sept) 47Lee, Kyu-Yong — Brazing Ceramic to Stainless Enhanced by Surface

Modification, (Sept) 35Lieshout,T., DeWit, I., Van Der Veldt, T., Stam, W., and Longfield, N. —

Improving Laser Welding Efficiency, May (52)Lohrey, R., and Stout, G. — Advancing the Science of Automatic Brazing,

(Sept) 31Longfield, N., Lieshout,T., DeWit, I., Van Der Veldt, T., and Stam, W. —

Improving Laser Welding Efficiency, May (52)Luck, J., and Fulcer, J. — Titanium Welding 101: Best GTA Practices,

(DEC) 26Malley, J. O., Miller, D. K., and Hamburger, R. O. — New AWS D1.8

Seismic Welding Supplement Outlined, (Feb) 28McColskey, J. D., McCowan, C. N., Siewert, T. A., and Darcis, Ph. P. —

Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld Toughness, (June) 48McCowan, C. N., Siewert, T. A., Darcis, Ph. P., and McColskey, J. D. —

DECEMBER 200782


A Look at the Optimization of Robot Welding Speed Based on ProcessModeling — M. Ericsson and P. Nylén, (Aug) 238-s

A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical Process Parameters inFriction Stir Welding — J. H. Record, J. L. Covington, T. W. Nelson, C.D. Sorensen, and B. W. Webb, (April) 97-s

A Methodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape — N. Okui, D.Ketron, F. Bordelon, Y. Hirata, and G. Clark, (Feb) 35-s

A New Proposal of HAZ Toughness Evaluation Method — Part 1: HAZToughness of Structural Steel in Multilayer and Single-Layer WeldJoints — H. Furuya, S. Aihara, and K. Morita, (Jan) 1-s

A New Proposal of HAZ Toughness Evaluation Method: Part 2 — HAZToughness Formulation by Chemical Compositions — H. Furuya, S.Aihara, and K. Morita, (Feb) 44-s

A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing Complex MetalComposites — F.-W. Bach, T. A. Deisser, U. Hollaender, K. Moehwald,and M. Nicolaus, (Dec) 373-s

A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas MetalArc Welding — J. X. Xue, L. L. Zhang, Y. H. Peng, and L. Jia, (April)90-s

Al-Cu-Li, Tensile and Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded— G. Padmanabham, M. Schaper, S. Pandey, and E. Simmchen, (June)147-s

Aluminum Alloys, Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in ResistanceSpot Welding of — M. Rashid, S. Fukumoto, J. B. Medley, J.Villafuerte, and Y. Zhou, (Mar) 62-s

Aluminum Alloys and SPCC Steel Sheet Joints, Application of Magnetic

Pulse Welding for — T. Aizawa, M. Kashani, and K. Okagawa, (May)119-s

Aluminum, Effects of Sheet Surface Conditions on Electrode Life inResistance Welding — Z. Li, C. Hao, J. Zhang, and H. Zhang, (April)81-s

Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a 300-W, Single-Mode, Ytterbium FiberLaser, Low-Speed Laser Welding of — A. G. Paleocrassas and J. F. Tu,(June) 179-s

Aluminum, Variable AC Polarity GTAW Fusion Behavior in 5083 — M.A. R. Yarmuch and B. M. Patchett, (July) 196-s

Application of Magnetic Pulse Welding for Aluminum Alloys and SPCCSteel Sheet Joints — T. Aizawa, M. Kashani, and K. Okagawa, (May)119-s

Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, Examination of Crater Crack Formationin Crater Nitrogen-Containing — D. D. Nage and V. S. Raja, (April)104-s

Bimetallic Joint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), Examining the — V. V. Rybin, B. A. Greenberg,O. V. Antonova, L. E. Kar’Kina, A. V. Inozemtsev, V. A. Semenov, andA. M. Patselov, (July) 205-s

Brazed Joints in Welding Transformers, Sulfide-Induced Corrosion ofCopper-Silver-Phosphorus — D. R. Sigler, J. G. Schroth, Y. Wang, andD. Radovic, (Nov) 340-s

Chemical Compositions, A New Proposal of HAZ Toughness EvaluationMethod: Part 2 — HAZ Toughness Formulation by — H. Furuya, S.Aihara, and K. Morita, (Feb) 44-s

Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld Toughness, (June) 48Messler, Jr., R. W. — The Greatest Story Never Told: EB Welding on the

F-14, (May) 41Miller, D. K., Hamburger, R. O., and Malley, J. O. — New AWS D1.8

Seismic Welding Supplement Outlined, (Feb) 28Morscher, G. N., Singh, M., and Shpargel, T. — Comparisons of Braze

and Solder Materials for Joining Titanium to Composites, (Mar) 62Mudge, R. P., and Wald, N. R. — Laser Engineered Net Shaping

Advances Additive Manufacturing and Repair, (Jan) 44Newell Jr., W. F., and Coleman, K. K. — P91 and Beyond, (Aug) 29Niranjan, M. S., Kak, A., and Gupta, S. K. — A Study on the Effect of

Brazing Time on Element Diffusion, (Sept) 47Nordahl, T. — Underwater Cables Joined with Orbital Welding, (June) 64Noruk, J. — Intelligent Vision Boosts Robot Payback, (Mar) 32Nowotny, S., Scharek, S., and Schmidt, A. — Advanced Laser Technology

Applied to Cladding and Buildup, (May) 48Ozden, H. — Investigating Fiber Lasers for Shipbuilding and Marine

Construction, (May) 26Packard, K. — Selecting and Caring for Flux Cored Wire, (July) 32Peterson, W., and Reichert, C. — Inspecting RSW Electrodes and Welds

with Laser-Based Imaging, (Feb) 38Phillips, D., and Borchert, N. — Techniques for Successfully Welding

Alloy Pipe, (June) 58Powers, D. E. — Fifty Years of Nonvacuum Electron Beam Welding,

(Dec) 32Ravert, E. — Energy Saving Tips for Ducted Weld Fume Systems, (July)

30Reichert, C., and Peterson, W. — Inspecting RSW Electrodes and Welds

with Laser-Based Imaging, (Feb) 38Sadler, H. — Sorting out Certifications for Welding Consumables, (July)

42Sampath, K. — How to Choose Electrodes for Joining High-Strength

Steels, (July) 26Scharek, S., Schmidt, A., and Nowotny, S. — Advanced Laser Technology

Applied to Cladding and Buildup, (May) 48Schlueter, H. — Laser Beam Welding: Benefits, Strategies, and

Applications, (May) 37Schmidt, A., Nowotny, S., and Scharek, S. — Advanced Laser Technology

Applied to Cladding and Buildup, (May) 48Scotchmer, N. — Reducing Resistance Welding Costs, (Feb) 47Scotchmer, N. — The Other Resistance Process: Cross Wire Welding,

(Dec) 36Shapiro, A. E. — Determining Solder Alloy and Base Metal

Compatibility, (Sept) 33

Shpargel, T., Morscher, G. N., and Singh, M. — Comparisons of Brazeand Solder Materials for Joining Titanium to Composites, (Mar) 62

Siewert, T. A., Darcis, Ph. P., McColskey, J. D., and McCowan, C. N. —Exploring Methods for Measuring Pipe Weld Toughness, (June) 48

Singh, M., Shpargel, T., and Morscher, G. N. — Comparisons of Brazeand Solder Materials for Joining Titanium to Composites, (Mar) 62

Stadler, H. — Laser Hybrid Welding in the Automotive Industry, (Oct) 36Stahura, R., and Houska, C. — Stainless Steel Welding Soars to New

Heights, (May) 30Stam, W., Longfield, N., Lieshout, T., DeWit, I., and Van Der Veldt, T. —

Improving Laser Welding Efficiency, (May) 52Staufer, H. — Laser Hybrid Welding in the Automotive Industry, (Oct) 36Steadham, D. — Decisions to Make before Automating, (Nov) 43Stout, G., and Lohrey, R. — Advancing the Science of Automatic Brazing,

(Sept) 31Sutherlin, R. — Welding of Titanium and Its Alloys, The, (Dec) 40Szewczyk, S. T., Gilde, G. A., Doherty, K. J., and Tice, J. R. — Brazing

Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications, (Sept) 41Tice, J. R., Szewczyk, S. T., Gilde, G. A., and Doherty, K. J. — Brazing

Titanium for Structural and Vehicle Applications, (Sept) 41Tillack, D. J. — Welding Superalloys for Aerospace Applications, (Jan) 28Vaidya, V., and George, B. — Applying Lean to Welding Operations,

(April) 32Van Der Veldt, T., Stam, W., Longfield, N., Lieshout,T., and DeWit, I. —

Improving Laser Welding Efficiency, May (52)Vianco, P. T. — Environmental Mandates and Soldering Technology: The

Path Forward, (Sept) 27Wald, N. R., and Mudge, R. P. — Laser Engineered Net Shaping

Advances Additive Manufacturing and Repair, (Jan) 44Wielage, B., Hoyer, I., and Weis, S. — Soldering Aluminum Matrix

Composites , (Mar) 67Weis, S., Wielage, B., and Hoyer, I. — Soldering Aluminum Matrix

Composites, (Mar) 67Wood, R. — Design Considerations for Robotic Welding Cell Safety,

(July) 38Woodward, H., Cullison, A., and Johnsen, M. R. — What’s New in

Cutting, (Jan) 38Woodward, H., Cullison, A., and Johnsen, M. R. — AWS 2006 Expo in

Review, (Mar) 37Woodward, H. M. — Company Takes Its Shop to the Utah Wilderness,

(Aug) 24Zalkind, A., and Baker, M. — Welding Offers Women New Career

Opportunities, (Oct) 115

Part 2 – RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT SUBJECT INDEX

83WELDING JOURNAL


Chromium on the Weldability and Microstructure of Fe-Cr-Al WeldCladding, The Effect of — J. R. Regina, J. N. Dupont, and A. R.Marder, (June) 170-s

Cladding, The Effect of Chromium on the Weldability and Microstructureof Fe-Cr-Al Weld — J. R. Regina, J. N. Dupont, and A. R. Marder,(June) 170-s

Comparison of Friction Stir Weldments and Submerged Arc Weldments inHSLA-65 Steel — P. J. Konkol and M. F. Mruczek, (July) 187-s

Composites, A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing ComplexMetal — FR. -W. Bach, T. A. Deisser, U. Hollaender, K. Moehwald,and M. Nicolaus, (Dec) 373-s

Computational Kinetics Simulation of the Dissolution and Coarsening inthe HAZ during Laser Welding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy — A. D. Zervakiand G. N. Haidemenopoulos, (Aug) 211-s

Control, Double-Electrode GMAW Process and — K. H. Li, J. S. Chen,and Y. M. Zhang, (Aug) 231-s

Control of Diffusible Weld Metal Hydrogen through Flux ChemistryModification — J. du Plessis, M. du Toit, and P. C. Pistorius, (Sept) 273

Corrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in WeldingTransformers, Sulfide-Induced — D. R. Sigler, J. G. Schroth, Y. Wang,and D. Radovic, (Nov) 340-s

Crack Formation in Nitrogen-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds,Examination of Crater — D. D. Nage and V. S. Raja, (April) 104-s

Defect in High-Speed Gas Metal Arc Welds, The Discontinuous WeldBead — T. C. Nguyen, D. C. Weckman, and D. A. Johnson, (Nov) 360-s

(Diffusion Welding), Examining the Bimetallic Joint of OrthorhombicTitanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy — V. V. Rybin, B. A.Greenberg, O. V. Antonova, L. E. Kar’Kina, A. V. Inozemtsev, V. A.Semenov, and A. M. Patselov, (July) 205-s

Discontinuous Weld Bead Defect in High-Speed Gas Metal Arc Welds,The — T. C. Nguyen, D. C. Weckman, and D. A. Johnson, (Nov) 360-s

Dissimilar Alloy Welds, Technical Note: Martensite Formation inAustenitic/Ferritic — J. N. DuPont and C. S. Kusko, (Feb) 51-s

Dissimilar-Filler Welds, Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation in — S. Kouand Y. K. Yang, (Oct) 303-s

Dissimilar-Filler Welds, Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation in — Y. K. Yangand S. Kou, (Dec) 379-s

Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys, Improving Reliability of Heat Transfer andMaterials Flow Calculations during Friction Stir Welding of — R.Nandan, B. Prabu, A. De, and T. Debroy, (Oct) 313-s

Dissimilar-Filler Metal Al-Cu Welds, Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregationin — S. Kou and Y. K. Yang, (Nov) 331-s

Double-Electrode GMAW Process and Control — K. H. Li, J. S. Chen,and Y. M. Zhang, (Aug) 231-s

Dual-Phase Steel, The Effect of Coatings on the Resistance Spot WeldingBehavior of 780 MPa — M. Tumuluru, (June) 161-s

Effect of Chromium on the Weldability and Microstructure of Fe-Cr-AlWeld Cladding, The — J. R. Regina, J. N. Dupont, and A. R. Marder,(June) 170-s

Effect of Coatings on the Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of 780 MPaDual-Phase Steel, The — M. Tumuluru, (June) 161-s

Effects of Fusion Zone Size and Failure Mode on Peak Load and EnergyAbsorption of Advanced High-Strength Steel Spot Welds — X. Sun, E.V. Stephens, and M. A. Khaleel, (Jan) 18-s

Effects of Sheet Surface Conditions on Electrode Life in ResistanceWelding Aluminum — Z. Li, C. Hao, J. Zhang, and H. Zhang, (April)81-s

Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloys, Influenceof Lubricants on — M. Rashid, S. Fukumoto, J. B. Medley, J.Villafuerte, and Y. Zhou, (Mar) 62-s

Electrode Life in Resistance Welding Aluminum, Effects of Sheet SurfaceConditions on — Z. Li, C. Hao, J. Zhang, and H. Zhang, (April) 81-s

Electrode — Part 2, Response of Exothermic Additions to the Flux CoredArc Welding — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson, (Nov) 349-s

Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the Enhanced ModifiedFaraday Cup, Transferring — T. A. Palmer, J. W. Elmer, K. D. Nicklas,and T. Mustaleski, (Dec) 388-s

Electron Beam Weldments of AZ61A-F Extruded Plates, OptimumEvaluation for — C. Chi and C. Chao, (May) 113-s

Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency Electric ResistanceWeldingwith Image Processing — D. Kim, T. Kim, Y. W. Park, K. Sung, M.Kang, C. Kim, C. Lee, and S. Rhee, (Mar) 71-s

Examination of Crater Crack Formation in Nitrogen-ContainingAustenitic Stainless Steel Welds — D. D. Nage and V. S. Raja, (April)

104-sExamining the Bimetallic Joint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and

Titanium Alloy (Diffusion Welding) — V. V. Rybin, B. A. Greenberg,O. V. Antonova, L. E. Kar’Kina, A. V. Inozemtsev, V. A. Semenov, andA. M. Patselov, (July) 205-s

Exothermic Additions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 1,Response of — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson (Oct) 293-s

Extruded Plates, Optimum Evaluation for Electron Beam Weldments ofAZ61A-F — C. Chi and C. Chao, (May) 113-s

Fabrication of a Carbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel Transition Joint UsingDirect Laser Deposition — A Feasibility Study — J. D. Farren, J. N.DuPont, and F. F. Noecker II, (Mar) 55-s

Failure Mode on Peak Load and Energy Absorption of Advanced High-Strength Steel Spot Welds, Effects of Fusion Zone Size and — X. Sun,E. V. Stephens, and M. A. Khaleel, (Jan) 18-s

Failure of Welded Floor Truss Connections from the Exterior Wall duringCollapse of the World Trade Center Towers — S. W. Banovic and T. A.Siewert, (Sept) 263-s

Faraday Cup, Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using theEnhanced Modified — T. A. Palmer, J. W. Elmer, K. D. Nicklas, and T.Mustaleski, (Dec) 388-s

Filler Metal Al-Cu Welds, Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation inDissimilar- — S. Kou and Y. K. Yang, (Nov) 331-s

Fillet Weld Geometry Using a Genetic Algorithm and a Neural NetworkTrained with Convective Heat Flow Calculations, Tailoring — A.Kumar and T. Debroy, (Jan) 26-s

Floor Truss Connections from the Exterior Wall during Collapse of theWorld Trade Center Towers, Failure of Welded — S. W. Banovic and T.A. Siewert, (Sept) 263-s

Flux Chemistry Modification, Control of Diffusible Weld Metal Hydrogenthrough — J. du Plessis, M. du Toit, and P. C. Pistorius, (Sept) 273-s

Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 1, Response of ExothermicAdditions to the — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson, (Oct)293-s

Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 2, Response of ExothermicAdditions to the — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson, (Nov)349-s

Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li, Tensile and— G. Padmanabham, M. Schaper, S. Pandey, and E. Simmchen, (June)147-s

Friction Stir Welding, A Look at the Statistical Identification of CriticalProcess Parameters in — J. H. Record, J. L. Covington, T. W. Nelson,C. D. Sorensen, and B. W. Webb, (April) 97-s

Friction Stir Weldments and Submerged Arc Weldments in HSLA-65,Comparison of Steel — P. J. Konkol and M. F. Mruczek, (July) 187-s

Friction Stir Welding of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys, ImprovingReliability of Heat Transfer and Materials Flow Calculations during —R. Nandan, B. Prabu, A. De, and T. Debroy, (Oct) 313-s

Friction Stir Welding of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys, ImprovingReliability of Heat Transfer and Materials Flow Calculations during —R. Nandan, B. Prabu, A. De, and T. Debroy, (Oct) 313-s

Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Metal Al-CuWelds — S. Kou and Y. K. Yang, (Nov) 331-s

Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Welds — S. Kouand Y. K. Yang, (Oct) 303-s

Fusion Zone Shape, A Methodology for Prediction of — N. Okui, D.Ketron, F. Bordelon, Y. Hirata, and G. Clark, (Feb) 35-s

Gas Metal Arc Welding, A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for JointTracking in — J. X. Xue, L. L. Zhang, Y. H. Peng, and L. Jia, (April)90-s

Gas Metal Arc Welds, The Discontinuous Weld Bead Defect in High-Speed — T. C. Nguyen, D. C. Weckman, and D. A. Johnson, (Nov)360-s

Geometry Using a Genetic Algorithm and a Neural Network Trained withConvective Heat Flow Calculations, Tailoring Fillet Weld — A. Kumarand T. Debroy, (Jan) 26-s

GMAW Process and Control, Double-Electrode — K. H. Li, J. S. Chen,and Y. M. Zhang, (Aug) 231-s

GTA Weld Pool Surface, Image Processing for Measurement of Three-Dimensional — H. S. Song and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 323-s

HAZ during Laser Welding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy, Computational KinetictsSimulation of the Dissolution and Coarsening in the — A. D. Zervakiand G. N. Haidemenopoulos, (Aug) 211-s

HAZ Toughness Formulation by Chemical Compositions, A New Proposalof HAZ Toughness Evaluation Method: Part 2 — H. Furuya. S. Aihara,

DECEMBER 200784


and K. Morita, (Feb) 44-sHeat Flow Calculations, Tailoring Fillet Weld Geometry Using a Genetic

Algorithm and a Neural Network Trained with Convective — A.Kumar and T. Debroy, (Jan) 26-s

High-Frequency Electric Resistance Welding with Image Processing,Estimation of Weld Quality in — D. Kim, T. Kim, Y. W. Park, K. Sung,M. Kang, C. Kim, C. Lee, and S. Rhee, (Mar) 71-s

High-Strength Steel Spot Welds, Effects of Fusion Zone Size and FailureMode on Peak Load and Energy Absorption of Advanced — X. Sun,E. V. Stephens, and M. A. Khaleel, (Jan) 18-s

Hybrid Process for Manufacturing Complex Metal Composites, A PVDJoining — FR. -W. Bach, T. A. Deisser, U. Hollaender, K. Moehwald,and M. Nicolaus, (Dec) 373-s

Hybrid Process for the Prevention of Weld Bead Hump FormationSimulation Study of a — M. H. Cho and D. F. Farson, (Sept) 253-s

Hydrogen through Flux Chemistry Modification, Control of DiffusibleWeld Metal — J. du Plessis, M. du Toit, and P. C. Pistorius, (Sept) 273-s

Hump Formation, Simulation Study of a Hybrid Process for thePrevention of Weld Bead — M. H. Cho and D. F. Farson, (Sept) 253-s

Image Processing, Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with — D. Kim, T. Kim, Y. W. Park, K. Sung, M.Kang, C. Kim, C. Lee, and S. Rhee, (Mar) 71-s

Image Processing for Measurement of Three-Dimensional GTA WeldPool Surface — H. S. Song and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 323-s

Improving Reliability of Heat Transfer and Materials Flow Calculationsduring Friction Stir Welding of Dissimilar Aluminum Alloys — R.Nandan, B. Prabu, A. De, and T. Debroy, (Oct) 313-s

Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Welding ofAluminum Alloys — M. Rashid, S. Fukumoto, J. B. Medley, J.Villafuerte, and Y. Zhou, (Mar) 62-s

Influence of Oxygen on the Nitrogen Content of Autogenous StainlessSteel Arc Welds, The — M. du Toit and P. C. Pistorius, (Aug) 222-s

Influence of Molybdenum on Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures, The— T. D. Anderson, M. J. Perricone, J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder,(Sept) 281-s

Kinetics Simulation of the Dissolution and Coarsening in the HAZ duringLaser Welding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy, Computational — A. D. Zervakiand G. N. Haidemenopoulos, (Aug) 211-s

Laser Deposition — A Feasibility Study, Fabrication of a Carbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel Transition Joint Using Direct — J. D. Farren, J. N.DuPont, and F. F. Noecker II, (Mar) 55-s

Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a 300-W, Single-Mode,Ytterbium Fiber Laser, Low-Speed — A. G. Paleocrassas and J. F. Tu,(June) 179-s

Laser, Low-Speed Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a300-W, Single - Mode, Ytterbium Fiber — A. G. Paleocrassas and J. F.Tu, (June) 179-s

Laser Welding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy, Computational Kinetics Simulation ofthe Dissolution and Coarsening in the HAZ during — A. D. Zervakiand G. N. Haidemenopoulos, (Aug) 211-s

Low-Speed Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a 300-W,Single-Mode, Ytterbium Fiber Laser — A. G. Paleocrassas and J. F.Tu, (June) 179-s

Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Welds, Weld-Bottom — Y. K. Yangand S. Kou, (Dec) 379-s

Magnetic Pulse Welding for Aluminum Alloys and SPCC Steel SheetJoints, Application of — T. Aiwaza,, M. Kashani, and K. Okagawa,(May) 119-s

Martensite Formation in Austenitic/Ferritic Dissimilar Alloy Welds,Technical Note: — J. N. DuPont and C. S. Kusko, (Feb) 51-s

Measuring On-Line and Off-Line Noncontact Ultrasound Time of FlightWeld Penetration Depth — A. Kita and I. C. Ume, (Jan) 9-s

Modeling, A Look at the Optimization of Robot Welding Speed Based onProcess — M. Ericsson and P. Nylén, (Aug) 238-s

Molybdenum on Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures, The Influence of— T. D. Anderson, M. J. Perricone, J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder,(Sept) 281-s

Neural Network Trained with Convective Heat Flow Calculations,Tailoring Fillet Weld Geometry Using a Genetic Algorithm and a — A.Kumar and T. Debroy, (Jan) 26-s

Nitrogen-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, Examination ofCrater Crack Formation in — D. D. Nage and V. S. Raja, (April) 104-s

Nitrogen Content of Autogenous Stainless Steel Arc Welds, The Influenceof Oxygen on the — M. du Toit and P. C. Pistorius, (Aug) 222-s

Optimum Evaluation for Electron Beam Weldments of AZ61A-FExtruded Plates — C. Chi and C. Chao, (May) 113-s

Oxygen on the Nitrogen Content of Autogenous Stainless Steel ArcWelds, The Influence of — M. du Toit and P. C. Pistorius, (Aug) 222-s

Parameters Using the Enhanced Modified Faraday Cup, TransferringElectron Beam Welding — T. A. Palmer, J. W. Elmer, K. D. Nicklas,and T. Mustaleski, (Dec) 388-s

Penetration Depth, Measuring On-Line and Off-Line NoncontactUltrasound Time of Flight Weld — A. Kita and I. C. Ume, (Jan) 9-s

Plates from Different Materials, Thermal Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick— Z. Abdulaliyev, S. Ataoglu, and D. Guney, (July) 201-s

Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, A Methodology for — N. Okui, D.Ketron, F. Bordelon, Y. Hirata, and G. Clark, (Feb) 35-s

Pipe Steels, Weldability Evaluation of Supermartensitic Stainless — J.E.Ramirez, (May) 125-s

Polarity GTAW Fusion Behavior in 5083 Aluminum, Variable AC — M.A. R. Yarmuch and B. M. Patchett, (July) 196-s

Prediction of Element Transfer in Submerged Arc Welding — P. Kanjilal,T. K Pal, and S. K. Majumdar, (May) 135-s

Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li, Tensile and Fracture Behavior of— G. Padmanabham, M. Schaper, S. Pandey, and E. Simmchen, (June)147-s

PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing Complex MetalComposites, A — FR. -W. Bach, T. A. Deisser, U. Hollaender, K.Moehwald, and M. Nicolaus, (Dec) 373-s

Reactor Applications, Repair Techniques for Fusion — M. H. Tosten, S. L.West, W. R. Kanne Jr., and B. J. Cross, (Aug) 245-s

Repair Techniques for Fusion Reactor Applications — M. H. Tosten, S. L.West, W. R. Kanne Jr., and B. J. Cross, (Aug) 245-s

Resistance Spot Welding of Aluminum Alloys, Influence of Lubricants onElectrode Life in — M. Rashid, S. Fukumoto, J. B. Medley, J.Villafuerte, and Y. Zhou, (Mar) 62-s

Resistance Spot Welding Behavior of 780 MPa Dual-Phase Steel, TheEffect of Coating on the — M. Tumuluru, (June) 161-s

Resistance Welding Aluminum, Effects of Sheet Surface Conditions onElectrode Life in — Z. Li, C. Hao, J. Zhang, and H. Zhang, (April) 81-s

Resistance Welding with Image Processing, Estimation of Weld Quality inHigh-Frequency Electric — D. Kim, T. Kim, Y. W. Park, K. Sung, M.Kang, C. Kim, C. Lee, and S. Rhee, (Mar) 71-s

Response of Exothermic Additions to the Flux Cored Arc WeldingElectrode — Part 1 — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson,(Oct) 293-s

Response of Exothermic Additions to the Flux Cored Arc WeldingElectrode — Part 2 — S. H. Malene, Y. D. Park, and D. L. Olson,(Nov) 349-s

Robot Welding Speed Based on Process Modeling, A Look at theOptimization of — M. Ericsson and P. Nylén, (Aug) 238-s

Simulation Study of a Hybrid Process for the Prevention of Weld BeadHump Formation — M. H. Cho and D. F. Farson, (Sept) 253-s

Spot Welds, Effects of Fusion Zone Size and Failure Mode on Peak Loadand Energy Absorption of Advanced High-Strength Steel — X. Sun, E.V. Stephens, and M. A. Khaleel, (Jan) 18-s

Stainless Steel Transition Joint Using Direct Laser Deposition — AFeasibility Study, Fabrication of a Carbon Steel-to- — J. D. Farren, J.N. DuPont, and F. F. Noecker II, (Mar) 55-s

Stainless Steel Arc Welds, The Influence of Oxygen on the NitrogenContent of Autogenous — M. du Toit and P. C. Pistorius, (Aug) 222-s

Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures, The Influence of Molybdenum on— T. D. Anderson, M. J. Perricone, J. N. DuPont, and A. R. Marder,(Sept) 281-s

Statistical Identification of Critical Process Parameters in Friction StirWelding, A Look at the — J. H. Record, J. L. Covington, T. W. Nelson,C. D. Sorensen, and B. W. Webb, (April) 97-s

Steel Sheet Joints, Application of Magnetic Pulse Welding for AluminumAlloys and SPCC — T. Aizawa, M. Kashani, and K. Okagawa, (May)119-s

Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick Plates from Different Materials, Thermal— Z. Abdulaliyev, S. Ataoglu, and D. Guney, (July) 201-s

Structural Steel in Multilayer and Single-Layer Weld Joints, A NewProposal of HAZ Toughness Evaluation Method — Part 1: HAZToughness of — H. Furuya, S. Aihara, and K. Morita, (Jan) 1-s

Submerged Arc Welding, Prediction of Element Transfer in — P. Kanjilal,T. K. Pal, and S. K. Majumdar, (May) 135-s

Submerged Arc Weldments in HSLA-65, Comparison of Steel Friction

85WELDING JOURNAL


AUTHORS FOR RESEARCH SUPPLEMENTS

Stir Weldments and — P. J. Konkol and M. F. Mruczek, (July) 187-sSulfide-Induced Corrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in

Welding Transformers — D. R. Sigler, J. G. Schroth, Y. Wang, and D.Radovic, (Nov) 340-s

Supermartensitic Stainless Pipe Steels, Weldability Evaluation of — J.E.Ramirez, (May) 125-s

Tailoring Fillet Weld Geometry Using a Genetic Algorithm and a NeuralNetwork Trained with Convective Heat Flow Calculations — A. Kumarand T. Debroy, (Jan) 26-s

Technical Note: Martensite Formation in Austenitic/Ferritic DissimilarAlloy Welds — J. N. DuPont and C. S. Kusko, (Feb) 51-s

Techniques for Fusion Reactor Applications, Repair — M. H. Tosten, S. L.West, W. R. Kanne Jr., and B. J. Cross, (Aug) 245-s

Tensile and Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li— G. Padmanabham, M. Schaper, S. Pandey, and E. Simmchen, (June)147-s

Thermal Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick Plates from Different Materials —Z. Abdulaliyev, S. Ataoglu, and D. Guney, (July) 201-s

Three-Dimensional GTA Weld Pool Surface, Image Processing forMeasurement of — H. S. Song and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 323-s

Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy (Diffusion Welding), Examiningthe Bimetallic Joint of Orthorhombic — V. V. Rybin, B. A. Greenberg,O. V. Antonova, L. E. Kar’Kina, A. V. Inozemtsev, V. A. Semenov, andA. M. Patselov, (July) 205-s

Toughness Evaluation Method, A New Proposal of HAZ — Part 1: HAZToughness of Structural Steel in Multilayer and Single-Layer WeldJoints — H. Furuya, S. Aihara, and K. Morita, (Jan) 1-s

Toughness Evaluation Method: Part 2 — HAZ Toughness Formulation byChemical Compositions, A New Proposal of HAZ — H. Furuya. S.Aihara, and K. Morita, (Feb) 44-s

Tracking in Gas Metal Arc Welding, A Wavelet Transform-BasedApproach for Joint — J. X. Xue, L. L. Zhang, Y. H. Peng, and L. Jia

Transfer in Submerged Arc Welding, Prediction of Element — P. Kanjilal,T. K. Pal, and S. K. Majumdar, (May) 135-s

Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the EnhancedModified Faraday Cup — T. A. Palmer, J. W. Elmer, K. D. Nicklas, andT. Mustaleski, (Dec) 388-s

Transition Joint Using Direct Laser Deposition — A Feasibility Study,Fabrication of a Carbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel — J. D. Farren, J. N.DuPont, and F. F. Noecker II, (Mar) 55-s

Ultrasound Time of Flight Weld Penetration Depth, Measuring On-Lineand Off-Line Noncontact — A. Kita and I. C. Ume, (Jan) 9-s

Variable AC Polarity GTAW Fusion Behavior in 5083 Aluminum — M. A.R. Yarmuch and B. M. Patchett, (July) 196-s

Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas Metal ArcWelding, A — J. X. Xue, L. L. Zhang, Y. H. Peng, and L. Jia, (April)90-s

Weldability Evaluation of Supermartensitic Stainless Pipe Steels — J.E.Ramirez, (May) 125-s

Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Welds — Y. K. Yangand S. Kou, (Dec) 379-s

World Trade Center Towers, Failure of Welded Floor Truss Connectionsfrom the Exterior Wall during Collapse of the — S. W. Banovic and T.A. Siewert, (Sept) 263-s

Abdulaliyev, Z., Ataoglu, S., and Guney, D. — Thermal Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick Plates from Different Materials, (July) 201-s

Aihara, S., Morita, K., and Furuya, H. — A New Proposal of HAZToughness Evaluation Method — Part 1: HAZ Toughness of StructuralSteel in Multilayer and Single-Layer Weld Joints, (Jan) 1-s

Aizawa, T., Kashani, M., and Okagawa, K. — Application of MagneticPulse Welding for Aluminum Alloys and SPCC Steel Sheet Joints,(May) 119-s

Anderson, T. D., Perricone, M. J., DuPont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. —The Influence of Molybdenum on Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures,(Sept) 281-s

Antonova, O. V., Kar’Kina, L. E., Inozemtsev,A. V., Semenov, V. A.,Patselov, A. M., and Greenberg, B. A. — Examining the BimetallicJoint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Ataoglu, S., Guney, D., and Abdulaliyev, Z. — Thermal Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick Plates from Different Materials, (July) 201-s

Bach, F.-W., Deisser, T. A., Hollaender, U., Moehwald, K., and Nicolaus,M. — A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing ComplexMetal Composites, (Dec) 373-s

Banovic, S. W., and Siewert, T. A. — Failure of Welded Floor TrussConnections from the Exterior Wall during Collapse of the WorldTrade Center Towers (Sept) 263-s

Bordelon, F., Hirata, Y., Clark, G., Okui, N., and Ketron, D. — A Methodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, (Feb) 35-s

Chao, C., and Chi, C. — Optimum Evaluation for Electron BeamWeldments of AZ61A-F Extruded Plates, (May) 113-s

Chen, J. S., Zhang, Y. M., and Li, K. H. — Double-Electrode GMAWProcess and Control, (Aug) 231-s

Chi, C., and Chao, C. — Optimum Evaluation for Electron BeamWeldments of AZ61A-F Extruded Plates, (May) 113-s

Cho, M. H., and Farson, D. F. — Simlation Study of a Hybrid Process forthe Prevention of Weld Bead Hump Formation, (Sept) 253-s

Clark, G., Okui, N., Ketron, D., Bordelon, F., and Hirata, Y. — A Methodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, (Feb) 35-s

Covington, J. L., Nelson, T. W., Sorensen, C. D., Webb, B. W., and Record,J. H. — A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical ProcessParameters in Friction Stir Welding, (April) 97-s

Cross, B. J., Tosten, M. H., West, S. L., and Kanne Jr., W. R. — RepairTechniques for Fusion Reactor Applications, (Aug) 245-s

De, A., Debroy, T., Nandan, R., and Prabu, B. — Improving Reliability of

Heat Transfer and Materials Florw Calculations during Friction StirWelding of Dissimilkar Aluminum Alloys, (Oct) 313-s

Debroy, T., Nandan, R., Prabu, B., and De, A.— Improving Reliability ofHeat Transfer and Materials Florw Calculations during Friction StirWelding of Dissimilkar Aluminum Alloys, (Oct) 313-s

Debroy, T., and Kumar, A. — Tailoring Fillet Weld Geometry Using aGenetic Algorithm and a Neural Network Trained with ConvectiveHeat Flow Calculations, (Jan) 26-s

Deisser, T. A., Hollaender, U., Moehwald, K., Nicolaus, M., and Bach, FR.-W. — A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing ComplexMetal Composites, (Dec) 373-s

DuPont, J. N. and Kusko, C. S. — Technical Note: Martensite Formationin Austenitic/Ferritic Dissimilar Alloy Welds, (Feb) 51-s

DuPont, J. N., Noecker II, F. F., and Farren, J. D. — Fabrication of aCarbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel Transition Joint Using Direct LaserDeposition — A Feasibility Study, (Mar) 55-s

Dupont, J. N., Marder, A. R., and Regina, J. R. — The Effect ofChromium on the Weldability and Microstructure of Fe-Cr-Al WeldCladding, (June) 170-s

du Plessis, J., du Toit, M., and Pistorius, P. C. — Control of Diffusible WeldMetal Hydrogen through Flux Chemistry Modification, (Sept) 273-s

DuPont, J. N., Marder, A. R., Anderson, T. D., and Perricone, M. J. —The Influence of Molybdenum on Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures,(Sept) 281-s

du Toit, M., and Pistorius, P. C. — The Influence of Oxygen on theNitrogen Content of Autogenous Stainless Steel Arc Welds, (Aug) 222-s

du Toit, M., Pistorius, P. C., and du Plessis, J. — Control of Diffusible WeldMetal Hydrogen through Flux Chemistry Modification, (Sept) 273-s

Elmer, J. W., Nicklas, K. D., Mustaleski, T., and Palmer, T. A. —Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the EnhancedModified Faraday Cup, (Dec) 388-s

Ericsson, M., and Nylén, P. — A Look at the Optimization of RobotWelding Speed Based on Process Modeling, (Aug) 238-s

Farren, J. D., DuPont, J. N., and Noecker II, F. F. — Fabrication of aCarbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel Transition Joint Using Direct Laser

Farson, D. F., and Cho, M. H. — Simlation Study of a Hybrid Process forthe Prevention of Weld Bead Hump Formation, (Sept) 253-s

Fukumoto, S., Medley, J. B., Villafuerte, J., Zhou, Y., and Rashid, M. —Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Weldingof Aluminum Alloys, (Mar) 62-s

DECEMBER 200786


Furuya, H., Aihara, S., and Morita, K. — A New Proposal of HAZToughness Evaluation Method — Part 1: HAZ Toughness of StructuralSteel in Multilayer and Single Layer Weld Joints, (Jan) 1-s

Furuya, H., Aihara, S., and Morita, K. — A New Proposal of HAZToughness Evaluation Method: Part 2 — HAZ Toughness Formulationby Chemical Compositions, (Feb) 44-s

Greenberg, B. A., Antonova, O. V., Kar’Kina, L. E., Inozemtsev,A. V.,Semenov, V. A., and Patselov, A. M. — Examining the Bimetallic Jointof Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy (DiffusionWelding), (July) 205-s

Guney, D., Abdulaliyev, Z., and Ataoglu, S. — Thermal Stresses in Butt-Jointed Thick Plates from Different Materials, (July) 201-s

Haidemenopoulos, G. N., and Zervaki, A. D. — Computational KineticsSimulation of the Dissolution and Coarsening in the HAZ duringLaser Welding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy, (Aug) 211-s

Hao, C., Zhang, J., Zhang, H., and Li, Z. — Effects of Sheet SurfaceConditions on Electrode Life in Resistance Welding Aluminum,(April) 81-s

Hirata, Y., Clark, G., Okui, N., Ketron, D., and Bordelon, F. — A Methodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, (Feb) 35-s

Hollaender, U., Moehwald, K., Nicolaus, M., Bach, F.-W., and Deisser, T.A. — A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for Manufacturing ComplexMetal Composites, (Dec) 373-s

Inozemtsev, A. V., Semenov, V. A., Patselov, A. M., Greenberg, B. A.,Antonova, O. V., and Kar’Kina, L. E. — Examining the BimetallicJoint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Jia, L., Xue, J. X., Zhang, L. L., and Peng, Y. H. — A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas Metal Arc Welding, (April)90-s

Johnson, D. A., Nguyen, T. C., and Weckman, D. C. — The DiscontinuousWeld Bead Defect in High-Speed Gas Metal Arc Welds, (Nov) 360-s

Kang, M., Kim, C., Lee, C., Rhee, S., Kim, D. Kim, T., Park, Y. W., andSung, K. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistanceWelding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Kanjilal, P., Pal, T. K., and Majumdar, S. K. — Prediction of ElementTransfer in Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 135-s

Kanne Jr., W. R., Cross, B. J., Tosten, M. H., and West, S. L. — RepairTechniques for Fusion Reactor Applications, (Aug) 245-s

Kar’Kina, L. E., Inozemtsev, A. V., Semenov, V. A., Patselov, A. M.,Greenberg, B. A., and Antonova, O. V. — Examining the BimetallicJoint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Kashani, M., Okagawa, K., and Aizawa, T. — Application of MagneticPulse Welding for Aluminum Alloys and SPCC Steel Sheet Joints,(May) 119-s

Ketron, D., Bordelon, F., Hirata, Y., Clark, G., and Okui, N. — A Methodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, (Feb) 35-s

Khaleel, M. A., Sun, X., and Stephens, E. V. — Effects of Fusion ZoneSize and Failure Mode on Peak Load and Energy Absorption ofAdvanced High-Strength Steel Spot Welds, (Jan) 18-s

Kim, C., Lee, C., Rhee, S., Kim, D. Kim, T., Park, Y. W., Sung, K. andKang, M. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Kim, D., Kim,T., Park, Y. W., Sung, K., Kang, M., Kim, C., Lee, C., andRhee, S. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Kim, T., Park, Y. W., Sung, K., Kang, M., Kim, C., Lee, C., Rhee, S., andKim, D. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Kita, A., and Ume, I. C. — Measuring On-Line and Off-Line NoncontactUltrasound Time of Flight Weld Penetration Depth, (Jan) 9-s

Konkol, P. J., and Mruczek, M. F. — Comparison of Friction StirWeldments and Submerged Arc Weldments in HSLA-65 Steel, (July)187-s

Kou, S., and Yang,Y. K. — Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation inDissimilar-Filler Metal Al-Cu Welds, (Nov) 331-s

Kou, S., and Yang,Y. K. — Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation inDissimilar-Filler Welds, (Oct) 303-s

Kou, S., and Yang,Y. K. — Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Welds, (Dec) 379-s

Kumar, A., and Debroy, T. — Tailoring Fillet Weld Geometry Using aGenetic Algorithm and a Neural Network Trained with ConvectiveHeat Flow Calculations, (Jan) 26-s

Kusko, C. S., and DuPont, J. N. — Technical Note: Martensite Formation

in Austenitic/Ferritic Dissimilar Alloy Welds, (Feb) 51-sLee, C., Rhee, S., Kim, D. Kim, T., Park, Y. W., Sung, K., Kang, M., and

Kim, C. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Li, Z., Hao, C., Zhang, J., and Zhang, H. — Effects of Sheet SurfaceConditions on Electrode Life in Resistance Welding Aluminum,(April) 81-s

Li, K. H., Chen, J. S., and Zhang, Y. M. — Double-Electrode GMAWProcess and Control, (Aug) 231-s

Majumdar, S. K., Kanjilal, P., and Pal, T. K. — Prediction of ElementTransfer in Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 135-s

Malene, S. H., Park, Y. D., and Olson, D. L. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 1, (Oct)293-s

Malene, S. H., Park, Y. D., and Olson, D. L. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 2, (Nov)349-s

Marder, A. R., Regina, J. R., and Dupont, J. N. — The Effect ofChromium on the Weldability and Microstructure of Fe-Cr-Al WeldCladding, (June) 170-s

Marder, A. R., Anderson, T. D., Perricone, M. J., and DuPont, J. N. —The Influence of Molybdenum on Stainless Steel WeldMicrostructures, (Sept) 281-s

Medley, J. B., Villafuerte, J., Zhou, Y., Rashid, M., and Fukumoto, S. —Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Weldingof Aluminum Alloys, (Mar) 62-s

Moehwald, K., Nicolaus, M., Bach, FR. -W., Deisser, T. A., andHollaender, U. — A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for ManufacturingComplex Metal Composites, (Dec) 373-s

Morita, K., Furuya, H., and Aihara, S. — A New Proposal of HAZToughness Evaluation Method — Part 1: HAZ Toughness of StructuralSteel in Multilayer and Single-Layer Weld Joints, (Jan) 1-s

Morita, K., Furuya., H., and Aihara, S. — A New Proposal of HAZToughness Evaluation Method: Part 2 — HAZ Toughness Formulationby Chemical Compositions, (Feb) 44-s

Mruczek, M. F., and Konkol, P. J. — Comparison of Friction StirWeldments and Submerged Arc Weldments in HSLA-65 Steel, (July)187-s

Mustaleski, T., Palmer, T. A., Elmer, J. W., and Nicklas, K. D. —Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the EnhancedModified Faraday Cup, (Dec) 388-s

Nage, D. D. and Raja, V. S. — Examination of Crater Crack Formation inNitrogen-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, (April) 104-s

Nandan, R., Prabu, B., De, A., and T. Debroy — Improving Reliability ofHeat Transfer and Materials Florw Calculations during Friction StirWelding of Dissimilkar Aluminum Alloys, (Oct) 313-s

Nelson, T. W., Sorensen, C. D., Webb, B. W., Record, J. H., and Covington,J. L. — A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical ProcessParameters in Friction Stir Welding, (April) 97-s

Nguyen, T. C., Weckman, D. C., and Johnson, D. A. — The DiscontinuousWeld Bead Defect in High-Speed Gas Metal Arc Welds, (Nov) 360-s

Nicklas, K. D., Mustaleski, T., Palmer, T. A., and Elmer, J. W. —Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the EnhancedModified Faraday Cup, (Dec) 388-s

Nicolaus, M., Bach, FR. -W., Deisser, T. A., Hollaender, U., andMoehwald, K. — A PVD Joining Hybrid Process for ManufacturingComplex Metal Composites, (Dec) 373-s

Noecker II, F. F., Farren, J. D., and DuPont, J. N., — Fabrication of aCarbon Steel-to-Stainless Steel Transition Joint Using Direct LaserDeposition — A Feasibility Study, (Mar) 55-s

Nylén, P., and Ericsson, M. — A Look at the Optimization of RobotWelding Speed Based on Process Modeling, (Aug) 238-s

Okagawa, K., Aizawa, T., and Kashani, M. — Application of MagneticPulse Welding for Aluminum Alloys and SPCC Steel Sheet Joints,(May) 119-s

Okui, N., Ketron, D., Bordelon, F., Hirata, Y., and Clark, G. — AMethodology for Prediction of Fusion Zone Shape, (Feb) 35-s

Olson, D. L., Malene, S. H., and Park, Y. D. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 1, (Oct)293-s

Olson, D. L., Malene, S. H., and Park, Y. D. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 2, (Nov)349-s

Padmanabham, G., Schaper, M., Pandey, S., and Simmchen, E. — Tensileand Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li,

87WELDING JOURNAL

WJ Index 2007:WJ Index 2006 11/8/07 12:38 PM

(June) 147-sPal, T. K., Majumdar, S. K., and Kanjilal, P. — Prediction of Element

Transfer in Submerged Arc Welding, (May) 135-sPaleocrassas, A. G., and Tu, J. F. — Low-Speed Laser Welding of

Aluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a 300-W, Single-Mode, YtterbiumFiber Laser, (June) 179-s

Palmer, T. A., Elmer, J. W., Nicklas, K. D., and Mustaleski, T. —Transferring Electron Beam Welding Parameters Using the EnhancedModified Faraday Cup, (Dec) 388-s

Pandey, S., Simmchen, E., Padmanabham, G., and Schaper, M. — Tensileand Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li,(June) 147-s

Park, Y. W., Sung, K., Kang, M., Kim, C., Lee, C., Rhee, S., Kim, D. andKim, T. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Park, Y. D., Olson, D. L., and Malene, S. H. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 1, (Oct)293-s

Park, Y. D., Olson, D. L., and Malene, S. H. — Response of ExothermicAdditions to the Flux Cored Arc Welding Electrode — Part 2, (Nov)349-s

Patselov, A. M., Greenberg, B. A., Antonova, O. V., Kar’Kina, L. E.,Inozemtsev, A. V. and Semenov, V. A. — Examining the BimetallicJoint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Patchett, B. M., and Yarmuch, M. A. R. — Variable AC Polarity GTAWFusion Behavior in 5083 Aluminum, (July) 196-s

Peng, Y. H., Jia, L., Xue, J. X., and Zhang, L. L. — A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas Metal Arc Welding, (April)90-s

Perricone, M. J., DuPont, J. N., Marder, A. R., and Anderson, T. D. — TheInfluence of Molybdenum on Stainless Steel Weld Microstructures,(Sept) 281-s

Pistorius, P. C., and du Toit, M. — The Influence of Oxygen on theNitrogen Content of Autogenous Stainless Steel Arc Welds, (Aug) 222-s

Pistorius, P. C., du Plessis, J. and du Toit, M. — Control of Diffusible WeldMetal Hydrogen through Flux Chemistry Modification, (Sept) 273-s

Prabu, B., De, A., Debroy, T., and Nandan, R.— Improving Reliability ofHeat Transfer and Materials Florw Calculations during Friction StirWelding of Dissimilkar Aluminum Alloys, (Oct) 313-s

Radovic, D., Sigler, D. R., Schroth, J. G., and Wang, Y. — Sulfide-InducedCorrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in WeldingTransformers, (Nov) 340-s

Raja, V. S. and Nage, D. D.— Examination of Crater Crack Formation inNitrogen-Containing Austenitic Stainless Steel Welds, (April) 104-s

Ramirez, J. E. — Weldability Evaluation of Supermartensitic Stainless PipeSteels, (May) 125-s

Rashid, M., Fukumoto, S., Medley, J. B., Villafuerte, J., and Zhou, Y. —Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Weldingof Aluminum Alloys, (Mar) 62-s

Record, J. H., Covington, J. L., Nelson, T. W., Sorensen, C. D., and Webb,B. W. — A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical ProcessParameters in Friction Stir Welding, (April) 97-s

Regina, J. R., Dupont, J. N., and Marder, A. R. — The Effect ofChromium on the Weldability and Microstructure of Fe-Cr-Al WeldCladding, (June) 170-s

Rhee, S., Kim, D. Kim, T., Park, Y. W., Sung, K., Kang, M., Kim, C., andLee, C. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Rybin, V. V., Greenberg, B. A., Antonova, O. V., Kar’Kina, L. E.,Inozemtsev,A. V., Semenov, V. A.and Patselov, A. M. — Examining theBimetallic Joint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and TitaniumAlloy (Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Schaper, M., Pandey, S., Simmchen, E., and Padmanabham, G. — Tensileand Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li,(June) 147-s

Schroth, J. G., Wang, Y., Radovic, D., and Sigler, D. R. — Sulfide-InducedCorrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in WeldingTransformers, (Nov) 340-s

Semenov, V. A., Patselov, A. M., Greenberg, B. A., Antonova, O. V.,Kar’Kina, L. E., and Inozemtsev,A. V. — Examining the BimetallicJoint of Orthorhombic Titanium Aluminide and Titanium Alloy(Diffusion Welding), (July) 205-s

Siewert, T. A., and Banovic, S. W. — Failure of Welded Floor TrussConnections from the Exterior Wall during Collapse of the World Trade

Center Towers, (Sept) 263-sSigler, D. R., Schroth, J. G., Wang, Y., and Radovic, D. — Sulfide-Induced

Corrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in WeldingTransformers, (Nov) 340-s

Simmchen, E., Padmanabham, G., Schaper, M., and Pandey, S. — Tensileand Fracture Behavior of Pulsed Gas Metal Arc-Welded Al-Cu-Li,(June) 147-s

Song, H. S. and Zhang, Y. M. — Image Processing for Measurement ofThree-Dimensional GTA Weld Pool Surface, (Oct) 323-s

Sorensen, C. D., Webb, B. W., Record, J. H., Covington, J. L., and Nelson,T. W., — A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical ProcessParameters in Friction Stir Welding, (April) 97-s

Stephens, E. V., Khaleel, M. A., and Sun, X. — Effects of Fusion ZoneSize and Failure Mode on Peak Load and Energy Absorption ofAdvanced High-Strength Steel Spot Welds, (Jan) 18-s

Sun, X., Stephens, E. V., and Khaleel, M. A. — Effects of Fusion ZoneSize and Failure Mode on Peak Load and Energy Absorption ofAdvanced High-Strength Steel Spot Welds, (Jan) 18-s

Sung, K., Kang, M., Kim, C., Lee, C., Rhee, S., Kim, D. Kim, T. and Park,Y. W. — Estimation of Weld Quality in High-Frequency ElectricResistance Welding with Image Processing, (Mar) 71-s

Tosten, M. H., West, S. L., Kanne Jr., W. R., and Cross, B. J. — RepairTechniques for Fusion Reactor Applications, (Aug) 245-s

Tu, J. F., and Paleocrassas, A. G. — Low-Speed Laser Welding ofAluminum Alloy 7075-T6 Using a 300-W, Single-Mode, YtterbiumFiber Laser, (June) 179-s

Tumuluru, M. — The Effect of Coatings on the Resistance Spot WeldingBehavior of 780 MPa Dual-Phase Steel, (June) 161-s

Ume, I. C., and Kita, A. — Measuring On-Line and Off-Line NoncontactUltrasound Time of Flight Weld Penetration Depth, (Jan) 9-s

Villafuerte, J., Zhou, Y., Rashid, M., Fukumoto, S., and Medley, J. B. —Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Weldingof Aluminum Alloys, (Mar) 62-s

Wang, Y., Radovic, D., Sigler, D. R., and Schroth, J. G. — Sulfide-InducedCorrosion of Copper-Silver-Phosphorus Brazed Joints in WeldingTransformers, (Nov) 340-s

Webb, B. W., Record, J. H., Covington, J. L., Nelson, T. W., and Sorensen,C. D. — A Look at the Statistical Identification of Critical ProcessParameters in Friction Stir Welding, (April) 97-s

Weckman, D. C., Johnson, D. A., and Nguyen, T. C. — The DiscontinuousWeld Bead Defect in High-Speed Gas Metal Arc Welds, (Nov) 360-s

West, S. L., Kanne Jr., W. R., Cross, B. J., and Tosten, M. H. — RepairTechniques for Fusion Reactor Applications, (Aug) 245-s

Xue, J. X., Zhang, L. L., Peng, Y. H., and Jia, L. — A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas Metal Arc Welding, (April)90-s

Yang,Y. K., and Kou, S. — Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation inDissimilar-Filler Metal Al-Cu- Welds, (Nov) 331-s

Yang,Y. K., and Kou, S. — Fusion-Boundary Macrosegregation inDissimilar-Filler Welds, (Oct) 303-s

Yang,Y. K., and Kou, S. — Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation in Dissimilar-Filler Welds, (Dec) 379-s

Yarmuch, M. A. R., and Patchett, B. M. — Variable AC Polarity GTAWFusion Behavior in 5083 Aluminum, (July) 196-s

Zervaki, A. D., and Haidemenopoulos, G. N. — Computational KineticsSimulation of the Dissolution and Coarsening in the HAZ during LaserWelding of 6061-T6 Al-Alloy, (Aug) 211-s

Zhang, H., Li, Z., Hao, C., and Zhang, J. — Effects of Sheet SurfaceConditions on Electrode Life in Resistance Welding Aluminum, (April)81-s

Zhang, J., Zhang, H., Li, Z., and Hao, C. — Effects of Sheet SurfaceConditions on Electrode Life in Resistance Welding Aluminum, (April)81-s

Zhang, L. L., Peng, Y. H., Jia, L., and Xue, J. X. — A Wavelet Transform-Based Approach for Joint Tracking in Gas Metal Arc Welding, (April)90-s

Zhang, Y. M., Li, K. H., and Chen, J. S. — Double-Electrode GMAWProcess and Control, (Aug) 231-s

Zhang, Y. M., and Song, H. S. — Image Processing for Measurement ofThree-Dimensional GTA Weld Pool Surface, (Oct) 323-s

Zhou, Y., Rashid, M., Fukumoto, S., Medley, J. B., and Villafuerte, J. —Influence of Lubricants on Electrode Life in Resistance Spot Weldingof Aluminum Alloys, (Mar) 62-s

DECEMBER 200788

WJ Index 2007:WJ Index 2006 11/8/07 12:39 PM

TECHNICAL PROGRAM ABSTRACT SUBMITTAL Annual FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show

Las Vegas, October 6-8, 2008 (Complete a separate submittal for each paper to be presented.)

Primary Author (Full Name): Affiliation: Mailing Address: City: State/Province Zip/Mail Code Country: Email: Co-Author(s): Name (Full Name): Affiliation Address: City: State/Province Zip/Mail Code Country: E-Mail: Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address: City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: E-Mail:

Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address: City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: E-Mail: Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address: City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: E-Mail: Answer the following about this paper Original submittal? Yes No Progress report? Yes No Review paper? Yes No Tutorial? Yes No What welding processes are used? What materials are used? What is the main emphasis of this paper? Process Oriented Materials Oriented Modeling To what industry segments is this paper most applicable? Has material in this paper ever been published or presented previously? Yes No If “Yes”, when and where? Is this a graduate study related research? Yes No If accepted, will the author(s) present this paper in person? Yes Maybe No Keywords: Please indicate the top four keywords associated with your research below

Guidelines for abstract submittal and selection criteria: Only those abstracts submitted on this form will be considered. Follow the guidelines and word limits indicated. Complete this form using MSWord. Submit electronically via email to [email protected]. Technical/Research Oriented Applied Technology Education New science or research. Selection based on technical merit. Emphasis is on previously unpublished work in science or engineering relevant to welding, joining and allied processes. Preference will be given to submittals with clearly communicated benefit to the welding industry.

New or unique applications. Selection based on technical merit. Emphasis is on previously unpublished work that applies known principles of joining science or engineering in unique ways. Preference will be given to submittals with clearly communicated benefit to the welding industry.

Welding education at all levels. Emphasis is on education/training methods and their successes. Papers should address overall relevance to the welding industry.

Check the category that best applies: Technical/Research Oriented Applied Technology Education

& 90:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 8:26 AM Page 89

Proposed Title (max. 50 characters):Proposed Subtitle (max. 50 characters):Abstract: Introduction (100 words max.) – Describe the subject of the presentation, problem/issue being addressed and it’spractical implications for the welding industry. Describe the basic value to the welding community with reference tospecific communities or industry sectors.

Technical Approach, for technical papers only (100 words max.) – Explain the technical approach, experimental methodsand the reasons why this approach was taken.

Results/Discussion (300 words max.) – For technical papers, summarize the results with emphasis on why the resultsare new or original, why the results are of value. For other papers, elaborate on why this paper is of value to the community, describe key work in the field and provide an integration of these separate activities into a “continuum.”

.

Conclusions (100 words max.) – Summarize the conclusions and how they could be put to use – how and by whom

NOTE: Abstract must not exceed one page and must not exceed the recommended word limit given aboveNote: Presentations should avoid the use of product trade names.

Return this form, completed on both sides, toAWS Education ServicesTechnical Papers 2008 550 NW LeJeune Road Miami FL 33126 FAX 305-648-1655

MUST BE RECEIVED NO LATER THAN FEBRUARY 29, 2008.

Page 89 & 90:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 8:27 AM

POSTER ABSTRACT SUBMITTAL Annual FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show

Las Vegas, NV – October 6-8, 2008 (Complete a separate submittal for each poster.)

Primary Author (Full Name): School/Company: Mailing Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email: Poster Title (max. 50 characters): Poster Subtitle (max. 50 characters): Co-Author(s): Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email:

Name (Full Name): Affiliation: Address:

City: State/Province: Zip/Mail Code: Country: Email:

Poster Requirements and Selection Criteria: Only those abstracts submitted on this form will be considered. Follow the guidelines and word limits indicated. Complete this form using MSWord. Submit electronically via email to [email protected] or print and mail. Maximum size – 44 inches tall x 30 inches wide. (Vertical format, please). Must be legible from a distance of 6 feet. A minimum font size of 14 pt. is suggested. Posters must be submitted to AWS as a single flat printed medium (e.g. laminated print or foam core board mount). Any technical topic relevant to the welding industry is acceptable (e.g. welding processes & controls, welding procedures, welding design, structural integrity related to welding, weld inspection, welding metallurgy, etc.). Submittals that are incomplete and that do not satisfy these basic guidelines will not be considered for competition.

Posters accepted for competition will be judged based on technical content, clarity of communication, novelty/relevance of the subject & ideas conveyed and overall aesthetic impression. Criteria by category as follows:

(A) Student (B) Student (C) Student (D) Professional Students enrolled in 2 yr. college and/or certificate programs at time of submittal. Presentation need not represent actual experimental work. Rather, emphasis is placed on demonstrating a clear understanding of technical concepts and subject matter. Practical application is important and should be demonstrated.

For students enrolled in baccalaureate engineering or engineering technology programs at the time of submittal. Poster should represent the student’s own experimental work. Emphasis is place on demonstrating a clear understanding of technical concepts and subject matter. Practical application and/or potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

For students enrolled in graduate degree programs in engineering or engineering technology at time of submittal. Poster should represent the student’s own experimental work. Poster must demonstrate technical or scientific concepts. Emphasis is placed on originality and novelty of ideas presented. Potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

For anyone working in the welding industry or related field. Poster must demonstrate technical or scientific concepts. Emphasis is placed on original contributions and the novelty of the presentation. Potential relevance to the welding industry is important and should be demonstrated.

(E) High School Junior or Senior high school students enrolled in a welding concentration at the time of submittal. Presentation should represent technical concepts and application to the welding industry. Practical application and creativity are important and should be demonstrated.

& 92:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 8:32 AM Page 91

Check the category that applies:

(A) Student 2-yr. or Certificate Program

(B) Student 4-yr. Undergraduate

(C) Graduate Student

(D) Professional (E) High School

Poster Title (max. 50 characters): Poster Subtitle (max. 50 characters): Abstract: Introduction (100 words) – Describe the subject of the poster, problem/issue being addressed and it’s practical implications for the welding industry. Technical Approach & Results (200 words) – Explain the technical approach. Summarize the work that was done as it relates to the subject of the poster. . Conclusions (100 words) – Summarize the conclusions and how they could be used in a welding application.

Return this form, completed on both sides, via email to [email protected] MUST BE RECEIVED NO LATER THAN March 28, 2008

Page 91 & 92:FP_TEMP 11/6/07 8:34 AM

CLASSIFIEDS

CAREER OPPORTUNITIESCAREER OPPORTUNITIES

93WELDING JOURNAL

Place Your Classified Ad Here!

Contact Frank Wilson,Advertising Production

Manager

(800) 443-9353,ext. 465

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REPRINTS

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call FosteReprints at(219) 879-8366 or(800) 382-0808 or.

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District Sales ManagerPosition includes all sales responsibilitiesfor selling Welding Electrodes, SolidWelding Wire and Tubular Welding Wiresin the territory. The candidate for DistrictSales Manager can be located anywherewithin the territory but must be willing totravel 80% of the time throughout the ter-ritory. Territory includes upper Midwest –No. IL / WI / MN / IA, Northeast – NewEngland / E. NY / E. PA / DE / MD.College degree preferred, with a minimumof five years experience selling technicalwelding products.

Mail Resumé to:

Michael W. TecklenburgNational Sales ManagerSelect-Arc / Arcos Alloys600 Enterprise Dr.Ft. Loramie, OH 45845or e-mail to: [email protected]

AWS CWI or CAWIDynasteel Corporation

Qualified applicant shall have theability and equipment required toperform complex shop mathemat-ics. Knowledge of V.T., D.P.T andM.T. is required. Employee willverify weldments in all stages offabrication in accordance withprint design and record dimen-sions. Immediate openings inIuka, MS, and Natchez, MS.E-O-E

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Technical ManagerEutectic Corporation, recognized for innova-tion in the sector of wear and fusion technolo-gy, is seeking a Technical Manager to head itsdevelopment and technical service activities.The position will be located at the NorthAmerican Headquarters situated in theMilwaukee, Wisconsin, area.

The successful candidate will have at least aBachelor’s degree in Metallurgy or a compli-mentary discipline as well as the industrialexperience necessary to contribute to thecontinued success of this rapidly expandingcompany. We are looking for candidate withdrive, initiative and the self-motivation neces-sary to lead a team of technicians.Responsibilities will include managing thetechnical department, creating a strong inter-face with customers, the market as well asGlobal R & D, developing applications andproducts, working with manufacturing plantsin the USA, Canada and Mexico. A workingknowledge of welding, brazing and thermalspray processes will be a distinct advantage.

This is a career development opportunity andwe welcome applications from suitable candi-dates. Relocation support is available. Pleasevisit our website at www.eutectic-na.com.

For consideration, please mail, fax or e-mailresume with salary requirements to:

Human Resources Dept.Eutectic CorporationN94 W14355 Garwin Mace Dr.Menomonee Falls, WI 53051

Fax (262) 532-4692e-mail [email protected] M/F/D/V

AWS is recruiting instructors with experiences in the education and application of welding, visual inspec-tion, radiographic interpretation, metallurgy, NDE processes and project management, to name a few.Current or recent retirees from industry, manufacturers, academia, sales or higher education are encour-aged to submit credentials and references. Consultants with an impressive track record for solving cus-tomer welding problems through improved welder/inspector/engineer understanding and performance arealso encouraged to apply. Expectations include AWS seminars, customized in-plant training, and nation-ally advertised workshops and conferences. AWS pays above the average for conducting week long sem-inars. Please send resume, references and a cover letter to:

D. MarksManaging Director of Education ServicesAmerican Welding Society550 N.W. LeJeune Rd.Miami, FL 33126

ADJUNCT INSTRUCTORSAMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY

DEC 2007 CLASSIFIEDS:Classified Template 11/8/07 2:41 PM

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95WELDING JOURNAL

The AWSCertification Committee

Is seeking the donation of sets ofShop and Erection drawings ofhighrise buildings greater than tenstories with Moment Connectionsincluding Ordinary MomentResistant Frame (OMRF) andSpecial Moment Resistant Frame(SMRF) for use in AWS trainingand certification activities.Drawings should be in CAD for-mat for reproduction purposes.Written permission for unrestrictedreproduction, alteration, andreuse as training and testingmaterial is requested from theowner and others holding intellec-tual rights. For further information,contact:

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call FosteReprints at(219) 879-8366 or(800) 382-0808 or.

Request for quotes can be faxed to(219) 874-2849.

You can e-mail FosteReprints at [email protected]


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DECEMBER 200796


WELDING RESEARCH

-s373WELDING JOURNAL

ABSTRACT. In the present work, a newhybrid process is introduced: the gas/solid-transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding.With this process, the filler metal is trans-ported by a gaseous phase to the joiningarea. The filler metal reacts with the basemetal by a metallurgical gas-solid reactionand forms a liquid transition phase, whichsolidifies isothermally during further heattreatment. In this work, a fundamental in-vestigation was made of the process, andsimple model systems such as antimony(gas.)/iron (sol.), antimony (gas.)/steel(sol.), and zinc (gas.)/nickel (sol.) were de-veloped. The entire process was modeled,taking into account the physical sequences(filler metal evaporating, filler metaltransport to the joining areas, filler metaladsorption to the base metal, alloying ofthe filler metal and the base metal,isothermal solidification). The gas/solid-TLP-bonding process allows the joining ofvery small and complex components,where up to now no suitable joiningprocess existed.

Introduction

For manufacturing complex metalcomponents, soldering or brazing is oftenthe sole way of realizing tight and strongjoints between the manufacturing materi-als. The choice of the filler metal dependson the base material, the brazed joint re-quirements, and the brazing technique(Refs. 1, 2). The application of the fillermetal is usually effected in the form ofwires, foils, pastes, and increasingly bycoatings like PVD, CVD, electroless andelectrodeposited layers, as well as thermalspraying (Refs. 3–9).

Especially with the application of PVDtechnology, further development of thebrazing with isothermal solidification oc-

curred using transient-liquid-phase (TLP)bonding (Refs. 10–12). This technology ischaracterized by the use of heterogeneoussolder systems, which show a low meltingeutectic on their own or in combinationwith the base material. During the brazingprocess, a eutectic liquid transient phase isconstituted at the surfaces of the base ma-terial, which again solidifies with furtherheat treatment and develops a strong andtight joint.

For joining very small and geometricalambitious components, the filler metaldosage has to be very accurate. With fur-ther miniaturization of the joining compo-nents, coating technologies reach theirlimits with brazing, considering the com-plex handling required (i.e., positioning ofthe components in a PVD-recipient or inan electrolyte solution for electro- or elec-troless deposition). Due to these facts, it isdesirable to develop a new joining tech-nology that applies the filler metal in a dif-ferent way than the standard brazingprocess; for example, tranporting the fillermetal to the base materials through agaseous phase during brazing. Subse-quently, a metallurgical gas/solid reactionoccurs and a liquid transition phase is con-stituted, which solidifies during furtherheat treatment. This is the so-calledgas/solid-TLP-bonding process.

The principle of the gas/solid-TLPbonding can be divided into five se-quences. In the first stage, the filler metalevaporates in an evacuated container.

During the second stage, the gaseous fillermetal is transported to the surface of thespecimens by means of convective gasflow. The third stage describes the ad-sorption of the filler metal onto the speci-men’s surface. Accordingly, in stage 4, thealloying of the filler metal with compo-nents from the base material proceedsuntil the formation of a liquid transitionphase takes place. Finally, in stage five,there is an isothermal solidification of thealloy by means of further enrichment ofthe components from the base materialcaused by diffusion processes.

For a successful joining process, someconditions have to be met. There must besuitable kinetics. That means that thetransport of the filler metal onto the spec-imen’s surface has to be faster than the al-loying of the filler metal with the base ma-terial to the solid composition, becauseotherwise no transient liquid phase isformed. Hence, the vapor pressure of thesolder metal has to be sufficiently high tobe transported to the specimens. Lastly,suitable mixing thermodynamics must betaken into account, since a liquid solder-poor alloy has to exist within the fillermetal/base material system at the dedi-cated temperature.

This leads to an appropriate model sys-tem: the iron-antimony system — Fig. 1.This system was chosen because it is ofpractical relevance; the filler metal, asmentioned above, has to be transported bymeans of a convective gas flow onto thespecimen’s surface. The properties for an-timony (vapor pressure of 35 mbar at1100°C [Ref. 13]) are given. Finally, at thistemperature, antimony can be alloyed toiron with a substance of 0.7 before reach-ing the solidus of α-iron.

The gray line and the right axis of thephase diagram represent the thermody-namic activity of antimony in an idealizedform, according to Raoult’s law.

Alloying on the iron surface takesplace with antimony, and the Sb-activity

SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 2007

Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

KEYWORDS

BrazingFiller MetalGas/Solid ReactionLiquid TransitionSolderingVapor

A PVD Joining Hybrid Process forManufacturing Complex Metal Composites

A unique brazing method offers the possibilities of joining very small and geometrically diverse components

BY FR.-W. BACH, T. A. DEISSER, U. HOLLAENDER, K. MOEHWALD, AND M. NICOLAUS

FR.-W. BACH, T. A. DEISSER, U. HOLLAEN-DER, K. MOEHWALD, and M. NICOLAUS arewith the Institute of Materials Science, LeibnizUniversity of Hanover, Germany.

Bach 12 07layout:Layout 1 11/7/07 11:06 AM Page 373

WELDING RESEARCH

-s374 DECEMBER 2007, VOL. 86

decreases by reason of vapor pressuredegradation over the mixture. Concerningthe activity varieties of antimony, a Sb-transport is initiated (thermodynamicpower). By a further diffusion process (Sbdiffuses into Fe and/or vice versa), an al-loying up to α-Fe proceeds and an isother-mal solidification occurs that is character-istic for the TLP bonding (Refs. 14, 15).

Experimental

Brazing experiments were carried outin a process cell made of quartz-glass —Fig. 2. At the bottom of the cell, antimonygranules were deposed in an amount ofabout 100 mg. A spacer made of aluminaor quartz glass was located slightly aboveto separate the iron specimens from theantimony. The iron rods were 20 mm longand 8 mm in diameter, and were placedonto the spacer. The front surfaces of therods were face ground in such a way that amaximum joint clearance of 20 micronswas in between. The prepared process cellwas connected to a rotary vane pump,evacuated (approximately 10–3 mbar),melted off, and placed in a furnace for fur-ther heat treatment. The process timesvaried from 2.5 h up to 10 h, and all ex-

periments were carried out at a tempera-ture of 1100°C. For microstructure inves-tigations, the brazed specimens were cutthrough, ground, polished, and micro-graphs were made.

Results

Figure 3 shows the cross sections of thesamples brazed for 2.5–10 h at 1100°C. Forthe sample processed for 2.5 h at 1100°C,a partial closed brazing joint clearance(approximately 70 μm) was observed. Thebright phase within the brazing clearancewas identified as ε phase (FeSb). With thesample for the 5-h process, the joint clear-ance was just 20 μm wide, and it was nearlyclosed after 7.5 h, showing the ε phase justin some isolated areas. Complete fillingwas reached after 10 h. This behavior isreasonable with the diffusion process. Thelonger the heat treatment, the more anti-mony was able to diffuse into the iron (andcontrary) until the solidus of α-Fe wasreached. Figure 4 depicts a cross section ofa brazed steel sample. Except for a fewpores within the contact area, the jointclearance was entirely filled. Despite etch-ing, no differing phases from the base ma-terial were found. The specimen was a ho-mogenous compact body. However,SEM-studies revealed a Fe-Sb-mixedphase at the border area (ε phase of theFe-Sb-phase diagram).

On the other hand, inside the body, thebrazed joint, by reason of the long heattreatment, was alloyed such that no moreε phase was detected. The braze joint wasa compact single-phased area of α iron,containing less than 2 at.-% of Sb. Thissample was “welded” far below its meltingtemperature.

Butt joint round specimens, brazed withgaseous antimony and provided with exter-

nal screw threads for fixing, were tensiletested. The metallographic results were re-flected by the tensile strength data outlinedin Fig. 6. As the heat treatment period in-creased and an accordingly decrease in Fe-Sb phases within the braze joint occurred,the tensile strength grew to a final value of177 MPa after 10 h — Figs. 5, 6.

Discussion

The sequences of this new joining tech-nique are structured as follows:

1) Filler metal evaporation inside avacuum chamber

2) Filler metal transport to the brazingjoint by convective gas flow

3) Filler metal adsorption onto thebase material surface

4) Alloying with constituents from thebase material to form a liquid alloy filmwithin the braze joint

5) Isothermal alloy solidificationwithin the braze joint by further enrich-ment with constituents from the base material.

Antimony Transport over Gaseous Phaseby Convective Gas Flow

Steps 1 and 2 — Proceeding on the as-sumption of freely exposed surfaces, thematerial transport in the gaseous phase ofsequences 1 and 2 proceeds so fast thatthese steps do not affect the total kinetics,e.g., between solid iron and gaseous anti-mony. The vapor pressure is the equilib-rium vapor pressure of the pure fillermetal, as a function of temperature. How-ever, thin gaps indicate a reduced vaporpressure, because the alloying occurringreduces the thermodynamic activity of an-timony. At first approximation, the vaporpressure within small cavities can be at-

a T xp T x

p TSb SbSb Sb

Sb

xSb

,,

,

with lim

( ) = ( )( )0

→→

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟1

aSb= 1 Raoult's standardization

(1)

Where Sb activity

a T x

p T xSb Sb

Sb S

,

,( ) =

bb( ) = Sb-vapor pressure over the mixture

vapor pressp TSb0 ( ) = uure of pure Sb at

temperatture T

Fig. 1 — Phase diagram of Fe–Sb. Fig. 2 — Process cell.


tributed to Raoult’s law. The resultingpressure deviation between the inner gapand the free ambient gas affects the con-vective gas transport in the cavity. Fur-thermore, this depends on the inlet geom-etry. So, additionally, the inlet geometrymust be taken into account, the dimen-sions of which constitute the free path ofthe gaseous particles, and the gas trans-port must be regarded as a Knudsen-effusion. Reaction conditions existingwith the antimony experiments (750°C upto 1100°C) resulted in vapor pressures ofapproximately 3000 Pa maximum — Fig.4. Consequently, transport within thegaseous phase can be described in goodapproximation, according to ideal gases.

Adsorption of Sb onto the Fe-Surface

Step 3 — For describing the adsorp-tion occurrences at the border of thesolid/gaseous phase, a set of rules for thecharacterization of such adsorptionisotherms exist. On one hand experimen-tal data is required. On the other hand,known appendages about diffusionprocesses into the solid, as well as chem-ical reactions between gaseous and solidphase, must be considered. In the case ofgaseous antimony, which adsorbs on solidiron, an immediate alloying up to the liq-uidus curve will occur, causing a reduc-tion of the thermodynamic activity of theadsorbing gaseous Sb in comparison withthe ambient gaseous Sb. On this basis —beyond the knowledge of precise adsorp-tion isotherms — the maximum possibleadsorption rate can be formulated as thenumber of collisions per time unit of an-timony atoms on the interface (less the desorbed Sb atoms at reduced vaporpressure). This leads to a simplified de-pendency of the mass-oriented Sb-ad-sorbtion rate on the temperature andcomposition of the formed alloy layer atthe liquidus curve

Diffusion Processes at the Fe-Sb System

Steps 4 and 5 — Basic principle for de-scribing the diffusion process is the fol-lowing equation (Fick’s 2nd law):

(3)

where c = concentration (particle den-sity), t = time, x = location coordinate,and D = diffusion coefficient.

If the diffusion coefficient D is not afunction of the particle density N and thelocation x, then Equation 3 is valid. Fromthe presented experiments and the testconditions, the results indicate the follow-ing method of resolution:

Figure 8 shows the braze experimentsequence. First, the joint clearance d0 be-tween the iron samples is closed by meansof gaseous phase transported antimony.Iron is alloyed. Until the liquidus equilib-rium is reached, iron is alloyed by anti-mony because of occurring diffusionprocesses (Sb diffuses into Fe and viceversa). At 1100°C, cSb(liq.) = 47 wt-% —Fig. 1. Due to the formed liquid phase, d0expands to the area dliq, where an iron-an-timony mixture is located. Having the for-mation of a liquid transient phase, anti-mony diffuses further into the ironsubstrate. The Fe-Sb phase is impover-ished of antimony until the isothermal so-lidification is initiated. The solidus equi-

librium concentration is reached. At1100°C cSb(sol.) amounts to 10 wt-%.

The change in joint clearance width isgiven from

is received

(5)

The concentration distribution of anti-mony out of the liquid mixed phase intoiron is characterized by dissolving the dif-fusion equation (Equation 3). Solutionstherefore are given standard work, like

d dc liqc liqliqFe Sb

Sb Fe.

.

.= +

( ) ⋅( ) ⋅

⎛⎝⎜

⎞⎠⎟0 1i

ρρ

dAn V

An V

dAn V

liq Sb Sb

Fe Fe

Fe Fe

. = ⋅ ⋅

+ ⋅ ⋅

= + ⋅ ⋅

1

1

10 (4)

where amounni = tt of i,molar volume of i,

= cross sectVAi =

iion of specimen.Considering

nmM

MVi

i

ii

i= =, ρii

ii

i

i

cmV

mM

,

where mass of i, molar mass

=

== of i,

= density of i, concentration o

ρiic = ff i,= total volume,V

�m

A

p X p

Sb adsorbed

Sb Sb Liquidus SbSb

−

−

=

−( )0 2πΜRTT

mA

Sb adsorbed

(2)

where mass-oriente�

− = dd

adsorption rate per Area AaXSb Liquidus− = mmount of substance Sb

at liquidus (dependennt on T, cp. Fig. 1)molar mass Sb

vΜSb

Sbp== aapor pressure Sb above surface

vapor ppSb0 = rressure equilibrium of

pure Sb

∂∂

= ∂∂

ct

D cx

i2

2

WELDING RESEARCH


Fig. 3 — Cross sections of brazed specimens.


WELDING RESEARCH

DECEMBER 2007, VOL. 86-s376

Ref. 16. The following terms are applied

As a result the antimony concentrationdistribution is given by

(6)

Equation 7 de-fines the Gauss-ian error func-tion

(7)

The experiments mentioned in the previ-ous section are supported by Equation 6.With DSb = 3⋅10–9 cm2/s (according toRef. 17) and d0 = 30 μm as well as cSb(liq.)= 47 wt-% (Fig. 1), the concentration dis-tribution depicted in Fig. 6 was the result.These calculations indicated that the equi-librium concentration was not yet reached

after 2.5 h and 5 h. Consequently, the for-mation of ε phase is impossible. With a du-ration of 7.5 h, the equilibrium concentra-tion of α-Fe (cSb(sol.) = 89.7 wt-%) wasachieved and the joint clearance was allbut closed, which is in line with the experiments.

Conclusions

The presented method provides theopportunity of joining components with agaseous phase by applying PVD-technol-

erf x e dxxz

( ) = ⋅ −∫2 2

0πc x t c liq

dx

D t

Sb Sb

liq

Sb

, .

.

( ) = ⋅ ( ) ⋅

−

⋅ ⋅

⎛

⎝

12

22

×

erf⎜⎜⎜⎜

⎞

⎠

⎟⎟⎟

+

⋅ ⋅

⎛

⎝

⎜⎜⎜

⎞

⎠

⎟⎟⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢⎢

+erf

dx

D t

liq

Sb

.

22

⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥

∂∂

=

= > =

=

cx

c

c xd

t

Sb

xSb

Sbliq

0

0

0

20

;

.

for and

Fig. 4 — Micrographs, SEM pictures, and EDX-analysis of brazed steelspecimens.

Fig. 5 — Sb-gaseous brazed Fe tensile test specimen.

Fig. 6 — Tensile strength of brazed Fe samples as a function of exposure time toSb gas.

Fig. 7 — Antimony vapor pressure curve.

Fig. 8 — Braze experiment sequences.


WELDING RESEARCH


ogy. Besides using antimony as a gaseousfiller metal, other metals were considered.Brazing of nickel using zinc is also possi-ble as seen in Fig. 7. Here within the braz-ing joint a β-phase (NiZn) can be found.In this system, the concentration distribu-tion can be described qualitatively accord-ing to Equation 6 as well. The brazing ofiron with gaseous zinc is also possible —Fig. 11.

This new joining technology is suitablefor a series of applications. The gaseousbraze transport allows small and complexcomponents to be brazed where previ-

ously no joining technology was available.Potential applications can be found in mi-crosystems or light construction. Goods inbulk, such as small steel balls, can bejoined (Fig. 12), which offers the possibil-ity of manufacturing low-weight rigidparts of any geometry.

References

1. Petrunin, I. E. 1991. Handbuch Löttechnik,1st edition, Berlin, Verlag Technik.

2. Brazing Handbook, 4th edition, 1991.Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

3. Wielage, B., Hartung, F., Möhwald, K.,and Ashoff, D. 1992. Löten Arc-PVD-met-allisierter Ingenieurkeramik als Hybridtech-nologie von Metall/Keramik -Verbindungen.Fortschritt-Berichte VDI 254(5): 16–31.

4. Steffens, H.-D., Hartung, F., and Möh-wald, K. 1992. Metallisieren und Löten von In-genieurkeramik als Hybridtechnologie für neueEinsatzgebiete. DVS-Berichte 148: 233 to 238.

5. Steffens, H.-D., Ashoff, D., Möhwald, K.,and Müller, J.-U. 1994. Entwicklungen zumLöten von Keramik und Metall. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI 317(2): 40–54.

6. Steffens, H.-D., Wilden, J., and Möhwald,

Fig .9 — Concentration distribution of Sb calculated with Equation 6.

Fig. 10 — Nickel brazed with gaseous Zn (REM-photograph, concen-tration distribution).

Fig. 11 — Iron brazed with gaseous Zn. Fig. 12 — Rod of brazed steel balls using antimony gas.


WELDING RESEARCH


K. 1995. Einsatz von ionenplattierten Diffu-sionsbarrieren und Belotungssystemen beimLöten von Stahl/Leichtmetallverbindungen.DVS-Berichte 166: 94–98.

7. Steffens, H.-D., and Möhwald, K. 1997.Entwicklungstendenzen beim Löten unter demEinsatz von Beschichtungen. Fortschritt-Berichte VDI 414(2): 107–121.

8. Möhwald, K. 1996. Einsatz des Ionen-plattierens beim Löten. Ph. D. dissertation.University of Dortmund, Germany.

9. Bach, Fr.-W., and Möhwald, K. 1999. Ein-satz metallischer Überzüge für neue Lö-sungswege in der Löttechnologie. Info-ServiceFachgesellschaft Löten 1: 5–6.

10. Lugscheider, E., Bobzin, K., and Lake,M. K. 2001. Deposition of solder for micro-join-ing on M.E.M.S. components by means of mag-netron sputtering. Surface and Coatings Tech-nology 142: 813–816.

11. Sinclair, C. W., Purdy, G. R., and Mor-ral, J. E. 2000. Transient liquid-phase bondingin two-phase ternary systems. Metallurgical and

Materials Transactions A 31A(4): 1187–1192.12. Gale, W. F. 1999. Applying TLP bonding

to the joining of structural intermetallic com-pounds. The Journal of the Minerals, Metals andMaterials Society 51(2): 49–52.

13. Meyer, R. J., Peters, F., Gmelin, L., andPietsch, L. H. E. 1952. Gmelins Handbuch derAnorganischen Chemie 18b. 68, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Gmelin Verlag.

14. Zhou, Y. 2001. Analytical modeling ofisothermal solidification during transient liquidphase (TLP) bonding. Journal of Material Sci-ence Letters 20(9): 841–844.

15. Cain, S. R., Wilox, J. R., and Venkatra-man, R. 1997. A diffusional model for transientliquid phase bonding. Acta mater. 45(2):701–707.

16. Crank, J. 1956. The Mathematics of Dif-fusion. England, Oxford Press.

17. Bruggeman, G. A., and Roberts Jr., J. A.1975. The Diffusion of Antimony in Alpha Iron.Metallurgical Transactions A 6A: 755–760.

18. Müller, W., and Müller, J.-U. 1995. Löt-

technik: Leitfaden für die Praxis, Düsseldorf,Deutscher Verlag für Schweißtechnik DVS-Verlag GmbH.

All authors should address themselves to thefollowing questions when writing papers for submissionto the Welding Research Supplement:

◆ Why was the work done?◆ What was done?◆ What was found?◆ What is the significance of your results?◆ What are your most important conclusions?With those questions in mind, most authors can

logically organize their material along the following lines,using suitable headings and subheadings to divide thepaper.

1) Abstract. A concise summary of the majorelements of the presentation, not exceeding 200 words,to help the reader decide if the information is for him orher.

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3) Experimental Procedure, Materials, Equipment.4) Results, Discussion. The facts or data obtained

and their evaluation.5) Conclusion. An evaluation and interpretation of

your results. Most often, this is what the readersremember.

6) Acknowledgment, References, and Appendix.

Keep in mind that proper use of terms, abbreviations,and symbols are important considerations in processinga manuscript for publication. For welding terminology, theWelding Journal adheres to AWS A3.0:2001, StandardWelding Terms and Definitions.

Papers submitted for consideration in the WeldingResearch Supplement are required to undergo PeerReview before acceptance for publication. Submit anoriginal and one copy (double-spaced, with 1-in. marginson 81⁄2 x 11-in. or A4 paper) of the manuscript. Amanuscript submission form should accompany themanuscript.

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WELDING RESEARCH


ABSTRACT. Filler metals different (dis-similar) from the base metal in composi-tion are common in arc welding, butmacrosegregation can exist in the resul-tant welds and degrade the weld quality.Two macrosegregation mechanisms(Mechanisms 1 and 2) have been pro-posed recently for the case of completemixing between the filler metal and thebulk weld pool. Here the case of incom-plete mixing was investigated. The liq-uidus temperatures of the bulk weld metalTLW, base metal TLB, filler metal TLF, andpartially mixed filler metal near the poolbottom TLF’ were considered in additionto the stagnant or laminar-flow layer ofliquid base metal along the weld poolboundary suggested by Savage. Mecha-nism 3 is for filler metals making TLW <TLB and thus TLF < TLF’ < TLW < TLB.The partially mixed filler metal solidifiesinto a filler-rich zone near the pool bottomwith a solidification front at TLF’. SinceTLF’ is well below TLB, there exists aheadof the front a wide region cooler than TLB.Thus, convection can easily carry the liq-uid base metal from the layer into thecooler region to freeze quickly beforecomplete mixing occurs. This results in apartially mixed base metal in a filler-richzone near the weld bottom. The binary Ni-Cu alloy system was chosen because largedifferences in liquidus temperatures canbe selected to clearly verify the mecha-nisms. Ni was welded by gas metal arcwelding (GMAW) with filler metal Cu. Afiller-rich zone existed as proposed, withislands of partially mixed base metal scat-tered near the weld bottom. Evidence ofquick freezing was found. Mechanism 4 isfor filler metals making TLW > TLB andthus TLF > TLF’ > TLW > TLB. The par-tially mixed filler metal freezes quickly inthe region cooler than TLF’ near the poolbottom. This results in a filler-rich zone

near the weld bottom that intrudes into afiller-deficient beach along the fusionboundary. Cu was welded with filler metalNi. A filler-rich zone and a filler-deficientbeach existed as proposed. Evidence ofquick freezing was again found. With fillermetal Cu-30Ni, macrosegregation wassimilar but less.

Introduction

Dissimilar filler metals, that is, fillermetals different from the workpiece incomposition, are routinely used in arcwelding. It has been recognized for morethan 40 years that macrosegregation canexist near the fusion boundary of arc weldsmade with dissimilar filler metals and de-grade the weld quality (Refs. 1–17). Thepresent study deals with welding oneworkpiece material with a dissimilar fillermetal, that is, dissimilar-filler welding, andthe resultant weld is called a dissimilar-filler weld. Welding two metals of differ-ent compositions together with or withouta filler metal, that is, dissimilar-metalwelding, is beyond the scope of the presentstudy.

Kou and Yang (Refs. 18, 19) have re-cently studied macrosegregation near thefusion boundary of dissimilar-filler welds.The filler metal mixed completely with thehomogeneous bulk weld pool andmacrosegregation was caused by poormixing of the liquid base metal with thebulk weld pool alone. The liquidus tem-perature of the bulk weld metal TLW andthe liquidus temperature of the base metal

TLB were considered in addition to thestagnant or laminar-flow layer of liquidbase metal along the weld pool boundarysuggested by Savage (Ref. 3).

Kou and Yang (Ref. 18) presented thefollowing fundamental solidification con-cepts for dissimilar-filler welding, whichcan also be applied to the present study.First, the melting front is at TLB instead ofTLW, because solid-state diffusion is fartoo slow to change the composition of thesolid to that in equilibrium with the bulkweld metal to make it melt completely atTLW. Second, the solidification front is nolonger isothermal everywhere at TLW as inwelding without a dissimilar filler metal(undercooling is assumed negligible inmost arc welding). It is at TLW only alongthe bulk solidification front where the ho-mogeneous bulk weld pool begins to so-lidify at its liquidus temperature TLW.Third, the liquid base metal can freezequickly in a liquid cooler than TLB beforecomplete mixing occurs, so can the liquidweld metal freeze quickly in a liquid coolerthan TLW. Either way, macrosegregation ispromoted. Fourth, if the filler metalmakes TLW < TLB, complete mixingthroughout the weld pool may be possibleunder ideal conditions, but if the fillermetal makes TLW > TLB, complete mixingis impossible because the base metal alongthe outside of the boundary of completemixing is still above TLB and thus mustform a liquid layer of the base metal.

Macrosegregation can occur near thefusion boundary even when the fillermetal mixes completely with the bulk weldpool. In light of the solidification conceptsdescribed above, Kou and Yang (Ref. 18)proposed two mechanisms for suchmacrosegregation. In Mechanism 1, forfiller metals making TLW < TLB, the re-gion of liquid weld metal immediatelyahead of the bulk solidification front(TLW) is below TLB simply because of TLW< TLB and not any undercooling. The liq-uid base metal swept in here from the liq-uid base-metal layer by convection canfreeze quickly into filler-deficient penin-

KEYWORDS

Dissimilar Filler MetalsMacrosegregationSolidificationWeld PoolLiquidus TemperatureNi-CuFiller-Rich Zone

Weld-Bottom Macrosegregation Caused byDissimilar Filler Metals

Filler metals with a large difference in liquidus temperature from the base metal can cause severe macrosegregation,

and mechanisms are proposed to explain this

BY Y. K. YANG AND S. KOU

Y. K. YANG and S. KOU ([email protected]) are,respectively, graduate student and professor in theDepartment of Materials Science and Engineer-ing, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Kou Supplement December 2007layout:Layout 1 11/7/07 3:03 PM Page 379

WELDING RESEARCH


sulas or islands. These peninsulas or is-lands often appear roughly parallel to thefusion boundary in a weld transverse orlongitudinal micrograph. The liquid basemetal remaining in the layer solidifies as afiller-deficient beach. This mechanismwas confirmed by macrosegregation in gasmetal arc welds of 1100 Al (essentiallypure Al) made with filler metal 4145 Al(essentially Al-4Cu-10Si), which madeTLW < TLB.

In Mechanism 2, for filler metals mak-ing TLW > TLB, the stagnant or laminar-flow layer of liquid base metal is belowTLW simply because TLW > TLB. The liq-uid weld metal pushed in here from thebulk weld pool by convection can freezequickly as weld-metal intrusions into anoften continuous filler-deficient beach.Meanwhile, the liquid base metal left inthe space between the intrusions can so-lidify into filler-deficient peninsulas or is-lands of random orientations. These filler-deficient features are distinctly differentfrom those formed by Mechanism 1. This

was a new kind of macrosegregation notreported previously. This mechanism wasconfirmed by macrosegregation in gasmetal arc welds of Cu made with fillermetal Cu-30Ni, which made TLW > TLB.

The present study focuses on themacrosegregation that forms in the weldwhen the dissimilar filler metal reaches the

weld pool bottom before it is completelymixed with the bulk weld pool. Two mech-anisms, Mechanisms 3 and 4, are proposedto explain such macrosegregation. Thesetwo mechanisms are more complicatedthan Mechanisms 1 and 2 described previ-ously for the macrosegregation that formsnear the fusion boundary when the dissim-ilar filler metal is completely mixed with thebulk weld pool. The binary Ni-Cu alloy sys-tem is selected as a test material. Macroseg-regation in these welds differs significantlyboth in morphology and severity from thatobserved previously near the fusion bound-ary (Ref. 18).

The binary Ni-Cu alloy system is se-lected for welding because of the follow-ing reasons. First, as will be shown later (inFig. 1), it has a simple phase diagram easyfor understanding the weld microstruc-ture. Second, it has a wide temperaturerange over which TLW and TLB can be var-ied relative to each other. A large differ-ence between TLW and TLB will make itseffect on macrosegregation more signifi-

Fig. 1 — Ni-Cu phase diagram (Ref. 21).

Fig. 2 — Mechanism for macrosegregation formation caused by a partially mixed dissimilar fillermetal that makes TLW < TLB (Mechanism 3). A — Phase diagram; B — longitudinal cross sectionof weld pool.

Table 1 — Welds, Dilutions, Compositions, and Liquidus Temperatures

Composition (wt-%) LiquidusTemperature (°C)

Welds Dilution Base Filler Weld Base Filler Weld ΔT =Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal Metal TLB – TLW

(b) (f) (TLB) (TLF) (TLW) (°C)

Ni(b)/Cu(f) 51.4% Ni Cu Cu-51.3Ni 1455 1085 1321 +134> 99.0 > 99.99

Ni(b)/Cu-30Ni(f) 38.9% Ni Cu-30.4Ni Cu-57.4Ni 1455 1239 1342 +113Cu(b)/Ni(f)-1 35.3% Cu Ni Cu-64.7Ni 1085 1455 1366 –281

> 99.99 > 99.67Cu(b)/Ni(f)-2 44.1% Cu Ni Cu-55.9Ni 1085 1455 1338 –253Cu(b)/Cu-30Ni(f) 49.1% Cu Cu-30.4Ni Cu-15.3Ni 1085 1239 1168 –83


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cant and thus easier to verify. Third, Niand Cu are soluble in each other com-pletely, and there are no intermetalliccompounds either to complicate the weldmicrostructure or cause weld cracking.Fourth, welding wires or Ni, Cu, and Cu-Ni alloys (such as Cu-30Ni) are commer-cially available.

Experimental Procedure

Ni 200 (commercially pure Ni, 99.6%purity) and Cu 101 (also known as oxygen-free, electronic-grade Cu, 99.99% purity)were used for welding. They were all 6.4mm (1⁄4 in.) thick, 51 mm (2 in.) wide, and102 mm (4 in.) long. The copper plateswere heat-treated at 800°C for 24 h underargon atmosphere and cleaned beforewelding. This was found to improve pene-tration. Pure Ni, pure Cu, and Cu-30.40Niwelding wires were used. The wire diame-ters were 1.1, 1.3, and 1.1 mm, respectively.

Bead-on-plate gas metal arc welding(GMAW) was carried out under the fol-

lowing welding conditions: 6.4–8.5 mm/s(15–20 in./min) travel speed, 169 and 212mm/s (400, 500 in./min) wire feeding rate,30–37 V arc voltage, 300–350 A averagecurrent, and Ar shielding. The contacttube to workpiece distance was about 19mm (3⁄4 in.), and the torch was held per-pendicular to the workpiece. The weldlength on the Ni plate was about 97 mmlong. As for the weld on a Cu plate, a Curun-on plate about 75 mm long was used,allowing an extra weld length of about 25mm on the run-on plate.

The resultant welds were cut in themiddle and polished to prepare longitudi-nal and transverse cross sections. In somecases, in order to help reveal the develop-ment of macrosegregation, an additionallongitudinal cross section was taken to in-

clude the weld crater. The samples wereetched with two different etching solu-tions. The first etching solution was aniron chloride solution consisting of 3 g ofFeCl3, 2 mL of 37% HCl, and 100 mL ofmethanol. The second was an ammoniumpersulfate solution consisting of 10 g of(NH4)2S2O8 and 100 mL of distilled water.Welds made on pure copper were etchedwith the first solution to highlight thefiller-rich intrusions, and then etchedagain with the second solution to revealthe fusion boundary in copper moreclearly. All other welds were etched withthe first solution only.

The concentration of any element, E,in a homogeneous weld metal can be cal-culated as follows (Ref. 20):% E in weld metal = (% E in base metal)

Fig. 3 — Macrographs of filler-rich zone whenTLW < TLB. A — Longitudinal; B — transverse.Base metal: Ni; filler metal: Cu.

Fig. 4 — Longitudinal micrograph showingfiller-rich zone with islands of partially mixedbase metal in filler-rich metal when TLW < TLB.Base metal: Ni; filler metal: Cu.

Fig. 5 — Longitudinal micrograph showingfiller-rich zone with islands of partially mixedbase metal in filler-rich metal and filler-deficientpeninsulas along fusion boundary when TLW <TLB. Base metal: Ni; filler metal: Cu.


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× [Ab / (Ab + Af)] + (% E in filler metal)× [Af / (Ab + Af)] (1)where Ab and Af are the areas in the weldtransverse cross section that are below andabove the workpiece surface, respectively.Equation 1 is based on the assumption ofuniform composition in the weld metal,that is, no macrosegregation (Ref. 20). Al-though macrosegregation was severe inthe present study, it was essentially limitedto near the weld bottom. Arc welds aretypically much narrower at the bottomthan at the top, and those in the present

study were no exceptions. Thus, the vol-ume within which macrosegregation oc-curred was still much smaller than theoverall volume of the weld, and Equation1 was still used as an approximation forcalculating the average composition of theweld metal. Since the density of Ni (8.90g/cm3) is almost identical to that of Cu(8.96 g/cm3), the accuracy of Equation 1will not be affected by the concentrationsof Ni and Cu relative to each other in theweld metal.

In Equation 1, areas Ab and Af repre-sent contributions from the base metaland filler metal, respectively. The ratio Ab/ (Ab + Af) is the so-called dilution ratio.Areas Ab and Af were determined by en-larging the transverse macrograph on acomputer monitor and by using commer-cial computer software.

The welds were also examined under ascanning electron microscope, and thecomposition profiles across the fusionboundary were determined by energy dis-persive spectroscopy (EDS).

Results and Discussion

Table 1 summarizes the results of weld-ing experiments. For convenience, eachweld is identified with the base metal (b)followed by the filler metal (f). For in-stance, weld Ni(b)/Cu(f) refers to a weldwith pure Ni as the base metal and pure Cuas the filler metal. Similarly, weldCu(b)/Cu-30Ni(f) refers to a weld withpure Cu as the base metal and Cu-30Ni asthe filler metal.

Figure 1 shows the binary Ni-Cu phasediagram (Ref. 21). For pure Ni the liq-uidus temperature is its melting point1455°C. Likewise, for pure Cu the liquidustemperature is its melting point 1085°C.

Welds with TLW < TLB

Two mechanisms are proposed as fol-lows for macrosegregation in welds madewith a dissimilar filler metal that is not com-pletely mixed with the bulk weld pool whenit reaches the pool bottom. Mechanism 3,shown in Fig. 2, is for filler metals makingTLW < TLB. A phase diagram similar to thebinary Ni-Cu phase diagram is shown in Fig.2A for convenience of discussion. The com-position of the base metal is CB and that ofthe filler metal CF. The composition of theresultant bulk weld metal is somewhere be-tween CB and CF, depending on the extentthe filler metal is diluted by the liquid basemetal. The liquidus temperature of the bulkweld metal TLW is below that of the basemetal TLB. The partially mixed filler metalnear the pool bottom may not be exactlyuniform in composition. As will be shownsubsequently, the composition of the par-tially mixed filler metal CF’ is close to CF

Fig. 6 — Macrosegregation in weld with TLW <TLB. A — Transverse micrograph; B — composi-tion profile; C — transverse micrograph near fu-sion boundary; D — composition profile acrossfusion boundary. Base metal: Ni; filler metal: Cu.

Fig. 7 — Evidence of quick freezing of partiallymixed liquid base metal suggested by Mechanism3. A — Bulk weld metal showing coarser den-drites near point E in Fig. 6A; B — left side of is-land at point A in Fig. 6A showing much finerdendrites than bulk weld metal. Both have aboutthe same composition of Ni-48Cu. Base metal:Ni; filler metal: Cu.


near the fusion boundary where mixing ismost limited and CW near the bulk weldpool where mixing is complete. Thus, theliquidus temperature of the partially mixedfiller metal TLF’ is close to TLF near the fu-sion boundary (where TLF’ << TLB) andTLW near the bulk weld pool (where TLF’ <TLB). Thus, TLF’ is between TLF and TLW.Therefore, TLF < TLF’ < TLW < TLB whenthe filler metal makes TLW < TLB.

As shown in Fig. 2B, in the bulk weldpool the solidification front is at TLW be-cause the bulk weld pool is homogeneousat the composition of CW (undercooling isusually negligible in most arc welding).Near the pool bottom, however, the solid-ification front is at TLF’ because the fillermetal is only partially mixed and the aver-age composition is CF’ near the pool bot-tom. This partially mixed filler metal so-lidifies into a filler-rich zone along theweld near its bottom.

A stagnant or laminar-flow layer of liq-uid base metal can exist along the leadingportion of the weld pool boundary be-cause of weak convection near the poolboundary as suggested by Savage (Ref. 3).According to fluid mechanics (Ref. 22),the velocity of a moving liquid is zero at asolid wall, that is, the so-called “no-slip”

boundary condition for fluid flow.Since TLF’ is well below TLB, there ex-

ists a wide region ahead of the solidifica-tion front near the pool bottom corre-sponding to TLF’ < T < TLB, that is, coolerthan TLB. Thus, convection can easilycarry the liquid base metal from the layerof base metal near the fusion boundaryinto the cooler region to freeze quickly be-fore complete mixing occurs. The liquidbase metal may break up while being car-ried. Consequently, partially mixed basemetal can scatter as islands in the filler-rich zone. The resultant welds can shownumerous islands of partially mixed basemetal in the form of streaks or swirls in thefiller-rich zone. The composition of the is-lands can be somewhere between the com-positions of the base metal and the bulkweld metal depending on the extent ofmixing while freezing.

Since a very thin layer of liquid basemetal may still exist near the pool boundary,it can also be carried by convection into the

cooler region and solidify as small peninsu-las right next to the fusion boundary, as sug-gested by Mechanism 1. This is also shownin Fig. 2B. The remaining liquid base metalcan solidify as a very thin beach.

Figure 3A shows a longitudinal macro-graph at the crater end of weldNi(b)/Cu(f), taken along the weld centralplane. The weld crater was longer than themacrograph and its head was thus not in-cluded. Since the melting point of pure Niis 1455°C, the liquidus temperature of thebase metal TLB was 1455°C. As shown inTable 1, the dilution was 51.4%. FromEquation 1 and the compositions of thebase metal and filler metal, the averageweld metal composition was Cu-51.3Ni orNi-48.7Cu. From the Ni-Cu phase dia-gram, the liquidus temperature of theweld metal, TLW, was 1321°C. Thus, TLWwas below TLB and the difference (TLB –TLW) was as high as 134°C(1455°–1321°C).

As shown in the macrograph in Fig. 3A,

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Fig. 8 — Transverse cross section of filler-richzone formed when TLW < TLB. A — Macrograph;B — micrograph. Base metal: Ni; filler metal: Cu-30Ni.

Fig. 9 — Mechanism for macrosegregation formation caused by a partially mixed dissimilar filler metalthat makes TLW > TLB (Mechanism 4). A — Phase diagram; B — longitudinal cross section of weldpool.


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weld Ni(b)/Cu(f) is macroscopically inho-mogeneous. A filler-rich zone exists alongthe bottom of the weld. Figure 3B shows atransverse macrograph of the same weldtaken about in the middle of the weld. Afiller-rich zone exists near the bottom ofthe weld.

Figures 4 and 5 are micrographs show-ing the filler-rich zone in weldNi(b)/Cu(f). Numerous islands of partiallymixed base metal exist in the filler-richzone, some are more like streaks, andsome others more like swirls. These is-lands were caused by weld pool convec-tion, which can be turbulent and time de-pendent (Ref. 20). The darker-etchingbackground is the filler-rich metal. A cou-ple of small peninsulas are visible along

the fusion boundary in Fig. 5. Their for-mation, by Mechanism 1, has been de-scribed previously (Ref. 18).

Figure 6A shows the transverse micro-graph of the filler-rich zone of weldNi(b)/Cu(f). Numerous lighter-etching is-lands of partially mixed base metal are sur-rounded by darker-etching filler-richmetal. The islands were smaller at the zonebottom but became more increasinglyspread out and diffused away from it. It ap-pears that mixing was lowest near the fu-sion boundary and increased away from it.

The results of macrosegregation mea-surements by energy dispersive spec-troscopy (EDS) along path AE in Fig. 6Aare shown in Fig. 6B. As shown, the weldbottom is richer in Cu (that is, the filler)

than the bulk weld metal (DE) except atislands (points A, B, and C) of partiallymixed base metal. This is why the area iscalled the filler-rich zone. The horizontalline is the average composition of the bulkweld metal of 48.7% Cu calculated basedon the dilution ratio. The measured com-position of the bulk weld metal fluctuates

Fig. 10 — Macrographs of filler-rich zone whenTLW > TLB. A — Longitudinal; B — transverse.Base metal: Cu; filler metal: Ni.

Fig. 11 — Longitudinal micrograph showingfiller-rich zone formed when TLW > TLB. Basemetal: Cu; filler metal: Ni.

Fig. 12 — Macrosegregation in weld with TLW >TLB. A — Transverse micrograph; B — compo-sition profile. Base metal: Cu; filler metal: Ni.

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along DE because of microsegregationacross the dendrite arms. It is lower than,but still reasonably close to, the calculatedone. A slightly lower value is required bythe conservation of Cu because the filler-rich zone is higher than 48.7% Cu. Thecomposition of the filler-rich metal be-tween islands decreases from the weldbottom to the bulk weld metal, that is,from AB to BC to CD and finally DE.

The composition profile measuredalong path AE in Fig. 6C at smaller inter-vals than those in Fig. 6A is shown in Fig.6D. The base metal AB has no Cu fromthe filler metal, the weld metal BC next tothe fusion boundary has about 75% Cu onthe average, the island CD has only about50% Cu, and the weld metal DE just be-yond the island has about 70% Cu. Thus,next to the fusion boundary (BC in Fig.6D, where the composition of the filler-rich metal was about 75% Cu) TLF’ =1220°C. Thus, TLF’ (1220°C) << TLB(1445°C) near the fusion boundary.

Figure 7 shows the evidence of quickfreezing of the partially mixed liquid basemetal in the cooler liquid region ahead ofthe solidification front. Figure 7A showsthe dendritic structure near point E in Fig.6A, and Fig. 7B shows a much finer den-dritic structure of island at point A in Fig.6A. According to the composition profileshown in Fig. 6B, point E and the island atpoint A both have a composition of aboutNi-48Cu. However, the latter has a muchfiner dendritic structure than the former,suggesting the latter was cooled muchfaster than the former — faster than whatcan be accounted for by the difference inlocation. This is consistent with the quickfreezing of the partially mixed liquid basemetal proposed by Mechanism 3.

Figure 8 shows the transverse macro-graph of weld Ni(b)/Cu-30Ni(f). As shownin Table 1, the dilution was 38.9%. FromEquation 1 and the compositions of thebase metal and filler metal, the averageweld metal composition was about Cu-57.4Ni or Ni-42.6Cu. From the Ni-Cuphase diagram, the corresponding liq-uidus temperature of the weld metal, TLW,was 1342°C. Thus, TLW was below TLB andthe difference (TLB – TLW) was as high as113°C (1455°–1340°C).

Figure 8A shows a filler-rich zone(lighter-etching) near the bottom of weldNi(b)/Cu-30Ni(f). This zone is somewhatsmaller than that in weld Ni(b)/Cu(f) —Fig. 3B. The temperature difference (TLB– TLW) 113°C here is somewhat less thanthat of 134°C in the pure Ni weld madewith pure Cu filler metal. As shown in themicrograph in Fig. 8B, the filler-rich zonecontains many islands (light-etching) ofpartially mixed base metal. As comparedto weld Ni(b)/Cu(f) (Fig. 6A), these is-lands are more like streaks than swirls.

Welds with TLW > TLB

Mechanism 4, shown in Fig. 9, is forfiller metals making TLW > TLB. As shownby the phase diagram in Fig. 9A, the liq-uidus temperature of partially mixed fillermetal TLF’ is again between TLF and TLW.Therefore, TLF > TLF, > TLW > TLB whenthe filler metal makes TLW > TLB.

According to Mechanism 2 (Ref. 18),since TLW > TLB, the base metal along theoutside of the TLW isotherm is above itsliquidus temperature TLB and hence mustmelt completely, as shown in Fig. 9B.Thus, regardless of convection in the bulkweld pool, a stagnant or laminar-flowlayer of liquid base metal must exist alongthe weld pool boundary. The layer solidi-fies into a continuous filler-deficientbeach. This layer is below TLF’ and is thuscooler than the liquid weld metal. Thus,the partially mixed filler metal pushed intothis cooler layer can freeze quickly into in-trusions. Filler-deficient peninsulas or is-lands can exist in the space formed be-

tween the intrusions in random orienta-tion with respect to the weld interface.

Since the filler metal reaches the poolbottom only partially mixed, it can freezequickly in the region below its liquidustemperature TLF’ near the pool bottom.This results in a filler-rich zone in the form

Fig. 13 — SEM images showing evidence ofquick freezing of partially mixed filler metal(filler-rich liquid) in cooler layer of liquid basemetal suggested by Mechanism 4. A — Filler-richmetal at point P in Fig. 12A; B — filler-rich in-trusion near point C in Fig. 12A. Base metal: Cu;filler metal: Ni.

Fig. 14 — Macrosegregation in weld with TLW >TLB. A — Transverse macrograph; B — composi-tion profile across weld bottom; C — transversemicrograph near fusion boundary; D — composi-tion profile across fusion boundary. Base metal:Cu; filler metal: Cu-30Ni.


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of a core along the bottom of the weld onthe longitudinal cross section. On thetransverse cross section of the weld, thefiller-rich zone often appears as a filler-rich nugget. A filler-deficient beach existsbetween the filler-rich zone and the fusionboundary, with intrusions from the filler-rich zone.

Figure 10A shows a longitudinalmacrograph at the crater end of weldCu(b)/Ni(f)-1, taken along the weld cen-tral plane. The welding direction was fromright to left. Again, the crater was longerthan the macrograph and its head was thusnot included. As shown, weld Cu(b)/Ni(f)-1 is macroscopically inhomogeneous. Alarge filler-rich zone exists along the bot-tom of the weld. Since the melting point ofpure Cu is 1085°C, the liquidus tempera-ture of the base metal TLB was 1085°C.From Table 1, the dilution was 35.3%.From Equation 1 and the compositions ofthe base metal and filler metal, the weldmetal composition was about Ni-35.3Cuor Cu-64.7Ni. From the Ni-Cu phase dia-gram, the liquidus temperature of theweld metal, TLW, was 1366°C. Thus, TLW> TLB and the difference (TLW – TLB) wasas high as 281°C.

Figure 10B shows a transverse macro-graph of a similar weld, that is, weldCu(b)/Ni(f)-2 at a location well behind thecrater. From Table 1, the dilution was44.1%. From Equation 1 and the compo-sitions of the base metal and filler metal,the weld metal composition was about Ni-44.1Cu or Cu-55.9Ni. From the Ni-Cuphase diagram, the liquidus temperatureof the weld metal, TLW, was 1338°C. Thus,TLW > TLB and the difference (TLW – TLB)was as high as 253°C.

Figure 11 shows a longitudinal micro-graph of the filler-rich zone well behindthe crater of weld Cu(b)/Ni(f)-1. The tran-sition from the filler-rich zone to the bulkweld metal appears rather sharp, nothinglike the islands in the filler-rich zone men-tioned previously. The upward and back-ward flow pattern of the filler-rich liquidduring welding is clearly revealed. A filler-deficient beach exists along the fusionboundary between the filler-rich zone andthe fusion boundary. The bottom of thefiller-rich zone intrudes into the beach atvarious locations.

Figure 12A is a transverse micrographof weld Cu(b)/Ni(f)-2. The light-etching,filler-rich nugget corresponds to thedarker-etching band along the weld bot-tom in Fig. 10A and the darker-etching,filler-rich zone in Fig. 10B. A thick filler-deficient beach exists between the nuggetand the fusion boundary. As shown, thebottom of the nugget extends into thefiller-deficient beach of base metal as in-trusions at various locations. These intru-sions correspond to those shown in the

longitudinal micrograph in Fig. 11. Sev-eral very small light-etching islands arealso visible in the beach.

Figure 12 shows macrosegregation inweld Cu(b)/Ni(f)-2. The composition pro-file taken by EDS along path AE in Fig.12A is shown in Fig. 12B. The base metal(AB at 0% Ni) is pure Cu, the beach alongthe fusion boundary (BC at 0% Ni) is alsopure Cu, and the nugget (CD at about75% Ni) has more Ni (that is, the fillermetal) than the bulk weld metal (DE atabout 52% Ni). Thus, it is clear the nuggetwas filler-rich and the beach was com-pletely filler-deficient, that is, unmixedbase metal (Cu). This confirms the filler-rich zone and the filler-deficient beachalong the fusion boundary in the micro-graphs shown previously in Figs. 10 and11. The 75% Ni of the filler-rich zone sug-gests that the filler-metal (originally 100%Ni) was only partially mixed before itstarted to freeze at a liquidus temperatureof nearly 1400°C according to the phasediagram. Thus, TLF’ (1400°C) >> TLB(1085°C) near the weld bottom. The 52%Ni of the bulk weld metal was reasonablyclose to the 55.9% Ni average weld metalcomposition calculated from the dilutionratio but slightly lower. A slightly lowervalue is required by the conservation of Nibecause the nugget already had a higherNi content than 55.9%.

Figure 13 shows the evidence of quickfreezing of the partially mixed filler metal,that is, the filler-rich liquid, in weldCu(b)/Ni(f)-2. Figure 13A shows a finedendritic structure at point P in Fig. 12A,thus indicating the quick freezing of thefiller-rich liquid below its liquidus temper-ature TLF’, as suggested by Mechanism 4.The solidification structure near point Cin Fig. 12A is shown in Fig. 13B. No den-dritic or even cellular structure can beseen, thus indicating an even quickerfreezing of the intrusion in the cooler layerof liquid base metal along the pool bound-ary, as suggested by Mechanism 4. Thecompositions of the filler-rich metalsshown in Fig. 13A and B are both aboutCu-75Ni based on the composition mea-surement shown in Fig. 12B.

Figure 14A shows the transversemacrograph of weld Cu(b)/Cu-30Ni(f).The liquidus temperature of the basemetal TLB was 1085°C, the melting pointof Cu. From Table 1, the dilution was49.1%. From Equation 1 and the compo-sitions of the base metal and filler metal,the weld metal composition was about Ni-84.7Cu or Cu-15.3Ni. From the Ni-Cuphase diagram, the liquidus temperatureof the weld metal, TLW, was 1168°C. Thus,TLW > TLB and the difference (TLW – TLB)was 83°C.

The composition profile along pathAD in Fig. 14A is shown in Fig. 14B. The

horizontal line shows the average 15.3%Ni content of the whole weld calculatedbased on the dilution ratio and the com-positions of the base and filler metals. Al-though the composition fluctuated due tomicrosegregation, it still can be seen thatthe Cu content decreases from above theaverage value near the weld interface tobelow it in the bulk weld metal. This indi-cates the weld bottom was richer in filler-metal than average up to around point C,although a clear filler-rich nugget couldnot be seen in the weld macrograph.

The filler-deficient beach and the in-trusions from the weld metal are stillclearly visible, as shown in the transversemicrograph in Fig. 14C. The beach is sig-nificantly thinner than that of weldCu(b)/Ni(f)-2 in Fig. 12A. This is mainlybecause of the much smaller temperaturedifference (TLW – TLB), that is, 83°C as op-posed to 253°C in weld Cu(b)/Ni(f)-2.

The composition profile along path AEin Fig. 14C is shown in Fig. 14D. The filler-deficient beach BC has no Ni and is thuscompletely filler-deficient or unmixed.Along CE the composition fluctuates dueto microsegregation and the average isaround 20% Ni, which is higher than thecalculated 15.3% Cu average of the entireweld. Thus, again the weld metal near theweld bottom is richer in filler-metal thanaverage.

For both Mechanisms 1 and 2, a fillermetal with a large difference from the basemetal in the liquidus temperature is morelikely to cause more macrosegregationunder identical welding conditions. Thewire feed rate and the travel speed arelikely to affect the extent of macrosegre-gation as well, but more work will beneeded to determine their effect. The liq-uid viscosity and diffusion coefficient mayalso have some influence.

Conclusions

The present study builds upon the so-lidification concepts and macrosegrega-tion mechanisms (Mechanisms 1 and 2)proposed and verified recently by the au-thors (Refs. 18, 19). The solidificationconcepts still apply here, but themacrosegregation mechanisms are morecomplicated because the filler metal canreach the weld pool bottom before mixingcompletely with the bulk weld pool andcause macrosegregation near the weldbottom. The liquidus temperatures of thebulk weld metal TLW, base metal TLB,filler metal TLF, and partially mixed fillermetal near the pool bottom TLF’ were allconsidered in addition to the stagnant orlaminar-flow layer of liquid base metalalong the weld pool boundary suggestedby Savage (Ref. 3). To verify the mecha-nisms the Ni-Cu binary alloy system was


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selected and gas metal arc welding wasconducted with dissimilar filler metals.The microstructure and macrosegrega-tion in the resultant welds were examined.The conclusions are as follows:

1. Filler metals with a large differencefrom the base metal in the liquidus tem-perature can mix partially with the bulkweld pool during welding and cause severemacrosegregation in the bottom of the re-sultant weld.

2. Two new mechanisms have been pro-posed for the formation of macrosegrega-tion in arc welds made with dissimilar fillermetals that are not mixed with the bulkweld pool completely before reaching thepool bottom. The mechanisms, Mecha-nisms 3 and 4, explain the formation oftwo distinctly different forms of severemacrosegregation near the weld bottomwell within the fusion boundary.

3. Mechanism 3 is for filler metals thatlower the liquidus temperature of the weldmetal, that is, TLW < TLB. Here, TLF < TLF’< TLW < TLB. The partially mixed fillermetal forms a filler-rich liquid near thepool bottom, which solidifies at TLF’ into afiller-rich zone along the resultant weld.Since the solidification front near the poolbottom is at TLF’ and since TLF’ is wellbelow TLB, there exists ahead of the front awide region between TLB and TLF’, that is,cooler than TLB. Convection can thus eas-ily carry the liquid base metal from thestagnant or laminar-flow layer into thecooler region and allow it to freeze quicklybefore complete mixing occurs. This can re-sult in numerous islands of partially mixedbase metal in a filler-rich zone along theweld near its bottom.

4. A filler-rich zone has been observednear the bottom of welds made by weldingNi with filler metals Cu (TLW = 1321°Cand TLB = 1455°C) and Cu-30Ni (TLW =1342°C and TLB = 1455°C), where TLW <TLB. Islands of partially mixed base metalin the form of streaks or swirls scatterednear the weld bottom well within the fu-sion boundary. The dendritic structurewas much finer in an island near the fusionboundary than in the bulk weld metal, sug-gesting quick freezing of the partiallymixed liquid base metal in the cooler liq-uid region ahead of the solidification frontnear the weld pool bottom. These experi-mental results confirm Mechanism 3.

5. Mechanism 4 is for filler metals thatraise the liquidus temperature of the weldmetal, that is, TLW > TLB. Here, TLF >TLF’ > TLW > TLB. The partially mixedfiller metal forms a filler-rich liquid nearthe pool bottom, which freezes quickly inthe region cooler than TLF’ and results ina filler-rich zone along the weld near itsbottom. The stagnant or laminar-flowlayer of liquid base metal solidifies as acontinuous filler-deficient beach between

the filler-rich zone and the fusion bound-ary, with filler-rich intrusions penetratinginto the beach.

6. A filler-rich zone has been observednear the bottom of a weld made by weld-ing Cu with filler metal Ni (TLW = 1366°Cand TLB = 1085°C) and a similar weld(TLW = 1338°C and TLB = 1085°C), whereTLW > TLB. In the transverse macrographthe filler-rich zone appeared as a nuggetnear the weld bottom. A filler-deficientbeach existed in between the filler-richzone and the fusion boundary with intru-sions from the filler-rich zone. The ab-sence of a discernable dendritic or cellularstructure in the filler-rich intrusion sug-gests very quick freezing of the partiallymixed filler metal in the cooler layer of liq-uid base metal along the pool boundary.These experimental results confirmMechanism 4.

7. Similar but less macrosegregationhas been observed in the transversemacrograph of a weld made by welding Cuwith filler metal Cu-30Ni (TLW = 1168°Cand TLB = 1085°C), where TLW > TLBagain but with a much smaller difference.These results also confirm Mechanism 4.

8. The binary Ni-Cu system is usefulfor studying macrosegregation in weldsmade with dissimilar filler metals. Its sim-ple isomorphous phase diagram extend-ing over a wide liquidus-temperaturerange of 370°C allows dissimilar-fillerwelds to be made with TLW differing fromTLB to various extents.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Na-tional Science Foundation under GrantNo. DMR-0455484. The authors aregrateful to Bruce Albrecht and ToddHolverson of Miller Electric Manufactur-ing Co., Appleton, Wis., for donating thewelding equipment (including Invision456P power source, and XR-M wirefeeder and gun).

References

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2. Savage, W. F., and Szekeres, E. S. 1967. Amechanism for crack formation in HY-80 steelweldments. Welding Journal 46: 94-s to 96-s.

3. Savage, W. F., Nippes, E. F., and Szekeres,E. S. 1976. A study of fusion boundary phe-nomena in a low alloy steel. Welding Journal 55:260-s to 268-s.

4. Duvall, D. S., and Owczarski, W. A. 1968.Fusion-line composition gradients in an arc-welded alloy. Welding Journal 47: 115-s to 120-s.

5. Karjalainen, L. P. 1979. Weld fusionboundary structures in aluminum and Al-Zn-Mg alloy. Z. Metallkde 70: 686–689.

6. Doody, T. 1992. Intermediate mixedzones in dissimilar metal welds for sour service.Welding Journal 61: 55–60.

7. Omar, A. A. 1998. Effects of welding pa-rameters on hard zone formation at dissimilarmetal welds. Welding Journal 67: 86-s to 93-s.

8. Lippold, J. C., and Savage, W. F. 1980. So-lidification of austenitic stainless steel weld-ments: Part 2 — The effect of alloy compositionon ferrite morphology. Welding Journal 59: 48-sto 58-s.

9. Baeslack III, W. A., Lippold, J. C., andSavage, W. F. 1979. Unmixed zone formation inaustenitic stainless steel weldments. WeldingJournal 58: 168-s to 176-s.

10. Ornath, F., Soudry, J., Weiss, B. Z., andMinkoff, I. 1991. Weld pool segregation duringthe welding of low alloy steels with austeniticelectrodes. Welding Journal 60: 227-s to 230-s.

11. Albert, S. K., Gills, T. P. S., Tyagi, A. K.,Mannan, S. L., Kulkarni, S. D., and Rodriguez,P. 1997. Soft zone formation in dissimilar weldsbetween two Cr-Mo steels. Welding Journal 66:135-s to 142-s.

12. Linnert, G. E. 1967. Welding Metallurgy,vol. 2. American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.

13. Savage, W. F., Nippes, E. F., and Szek-eres, E. S. 1976. Hydrogen induced cold crack-ing in a low alloy steel. Welding Journal 55: 276-s to 283-s.

14. Rowe, M. D., Nelson, T. W., and Lippold,J. C. 1999. Hydrogen-induced cracking alongthe fusion boundary of dissimilar metal welds.Welding Journal 78: 31-s to 37-s.

15. Kent, K. G. 1970. Weldable Al-Zn-Mgalloys. Metals and Materials 4: 429–440.

16. Cordier, H., Schippers, M., andPolmear, I. 1977. Microstructure and intercrys-talline fracture in a weldable aluminum-zinc-magnesium alloy. Z. Metallkde 68: 280–284.

17. Pirner, M., and Bichsel, H. 1975. Corro-sion resistance of welded joints in AlZnMg.Metall 29: 275–280.

18. Kou, S., and Yang, Y. K. 2007. Fusion-boundary macrosegregation in dissimilar-fillerwelds. Welding Journal 86(10): 303-s to 312-s.

19. Yang, Y. K., and Kou, S. 2007. Fusion-boundary macrosegregation in dissimilar-fillerAl-Cu welds. Welding Journal 86(11): 331-s to339-s.

20. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd ed.Wiley, New York, N.Y., pp. 114, 180, 206, and306.

21. ASM Int’l. 1986. Binary Alloy Phase Di-agrams, vol. 1. ASM Int’l, Metals Park, Ohio, p.106.

22. Kou, S. 1996. Transport Phenomena andMaterials Processing. John Wiley and Sons, NewYork, N.Y., pp. 57–60.


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ABSTRACT. A procedure for transfer-ring electron beam welding parametersbetween different machines using the En-hanced Modified Faraday Cup (EMFC)electron beam diagnostic tool is described.Unlike existing qualitative methods basedon the transfer of machine settings, thisprocedure utilizes quantitative measure-ments of specific beam parameters, whichcan be correlated to the size and shape ofthe welds produced by the different weld-ing machines. As a demonstration of thistransfer procedure, a sharply focused 100-kV, 10-mA beam produced on one ma-chine at a work distance of 457 mm isreplicated on another machine with a de-focused beam at a work distance of 210mm. Measurements made with this diag-nostic tool show that the peak power den-sities of the resulting beams vary by only2%, while the beam distribution parame-ters, which are a measure of the beamwidth, vary by 4 to 7%. Using these well-characterized beams, autogenous weldswith similar shapes and depths were thenproduced on 304L stainless steel samples.The measured depths of these welds varyby only approximately 8%, thus providingevidence for the utility of the use of this di-agnostic tool in the transfer of beam para-meters between different machines.

Introduction

The process for transferring a set ofelectron beam welding parameters fromone machine to another can be brokendown into three consecutive steps: welddevelopment, weld transfer, and produc-tion. Each of these categories includes anumber of independent operations per-formed on a dedicated development weld-

ing machine and one or more dedicatedproduction welding machine(s). Signifi-cant redundancy is introduced into the de-velopment and transfer of these weldingparameters by the cost and critical natureof the applications. As a result, a series ofcostly and time-consuming weld develop-ment cycles are typically required beforethe transfer of a set of welding parametersis complete.

A typical weld development study beginswith the development of a set of welding pa-rameters on a dedicated development weld-ing machine. The essential electron beamweld parameters include weld power as acombination of beam voltage and current,travel speed, working distance, vacuumlevel, focus coil current setting, and anyunique beam oscillation requirements. Theweld parameters are initially chosen basedon operator experience and are further re-fined through a series of parametric weldstudies using subsize mock parts, whichallow the effects of the weld joint geometryon the weld shape and size to be deter-mined. The selection of acceptable weldingparameters is also complicated by the evenlarger number of possible permutationsavailable for achieving a given weld size andshape. After choosing the most suitable setof welding parameters, a full-size mock partis then welded in order to provide a final testof the acceptability of these parameters.

Once a set of acceptable welding para-meters is chosen, the entire process is re-peated on the production welding ma-chine. This repetition is necessary in orderto take into account any differences in the

design of the electron guns in the two ma-chines, the size of the vacuum chambersthat affects the placement of the part ineach chamber, the capabilities of differentwelding machines, and general differencesin the performance of the welding ma-chines dictated by age and maintenancehistory. As a result, welding parametersdeveloped on one machine do not easilyreplicate the weld size and shape pro-duced by the other, making this processmore consistent with two distinct weld de-velopment operations. This complicatedand time-consuming procedure for deter-mining and transferring acceptable weldparameters is in need of replacement by amore quantitative method.

One of the primary areas in need ofbetter quantitative understanding is themeasurement and characterization of theelectron beam. In recent years, severalmajor advancements have been made inthe development of diagnostic tools forcharacterizing electron beams (Refs. 1–7).These beam probing techniques are pri-marily based on modifications to a tradi-tional Faraday Cup and utilize direct mea-surements of the electron beam current toobtain a profile of the beam energy distri-bution as the beam passes over an edge,slit, or pinhole (Ref. 8). The resulting sig-nal obtained as the beam passes over theedge or slit can provide information aboutthe beam shape and size along with thepower density.

Using the data obtained with a givendiagnostic system, estimations of thesharp focus setting, the beam diameter,the general beam profile, and the powerdensity distribution can be made, assum-ing that the machine has been properlycalibrated. However, since these rudimen-tary beam probing systems take only a sin-gle profile of the beam, it must be assumedthat the beam is radially symmetrical andhas a circular cross section for the resultsto be generally useful. While this assump-tion may be valid for idealized Gaussian-

Transferring Electron Beam WeldingParameters Using the Enhanced

Modified Faraday Cup

An advanced diagnostic tool allowed a set of welding parametersto be quickly and easily transferred between EB welding machines

at two widely separated locations

BY T. A. PALMER, J. W. ELMER, K. D. NICKLAS, AND T. MUSTALESKI

T. A. PALMER and J. W. ELMER are withLawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Liver-more, Calif. K. D. NICKLAS and T.MUSTALESKI are with BWXT Y-12 National Se-curity Complex, Oak Ridge, Tenn.

KEYWORDS

Electron Beam WeldingEnhanced Modified Faraday CupBeam CharacterizationDiagnosticsProcess ControlWeld Transfer

Palmer Supp Dec 2007corr layout:Layout 1 11/7/07 2:23 PM Page 388

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shaped beams, electron beams typicallytake on elliptical and noncircular shapesor power density distributions, especiallywhen out of focus. Previous research (Ref.9) has also shown that sharply focusedbeams can take on non-Gaussian charac-teristics in different welding machines.Therefore, a means for efficiently produc-ing a complete profile of the beam size,shape, and power density distribution isneeded.

An advanced diagnostic tool, whichutilizes a variation of the slit detection sys-tem, has been developed at Lawrence Liv-ermore National Laboratory (LLNL) toprovide quantitative information on theproperties of electron beams used in weld-ing (Refs. 4–7). The Enhanced ModifiedFaraday Cup (EMFC) system collects thebeam through a series of radial slits as thebeam is oscillated in the shape of a circleover a tungsten disk. Once the radial slitdata are collected, computer tomographyalgorithms are used to reconstruct thepower density distribution of the beam.Based on this reconstruction, several im-portant beam parameters, including mea-sures of the peak power density and beamwidth, are determined.

Given the unique capabilities of thistool, it is envisioned that the EMFC diag-nostic tool can be incorporated into thedevelopment, transfer, and production as-pects of an improved weld transfer proce-dure. This improved procedure is basedon a thorough characterization of thewelding machines used in developmentand production. The steps inherent incharacterizing and comparing the perfor-mance of different welding machinesusing this diagnostic tool have been dis-cussed previously (Ref. 9). With this im-proved understanding of machine perfor-mance, the reliance on qualitativemeasures for choosing welding parame-ters will decrease as a database of beamcharacteristics produced by each machineand the resulting weld properties are com-piled. As a result, many of the redundantsteps described previously can be re-moved, and a more streamlined processwill result.

In this study, the EMFC diagnostic toolis used to characterize the beams pro-duced by welding machines located at theLawrence Livermore National Labora-tory (LLNL) and the BWXT Y-12 Na-tional Security Complex (Y-12) over arange of focus settings at different workdistances. The effects of these changes onthe beams produced by each machine areanalyzed, and the characteristics of eachwelding machine are then compared at thesame machine settings. By taking advan-tage of the knowledge gained throughthese characterization efforts, beams withsimilar peak power density and beam

width values are produced at widelyseparated work distances on the twowelding machines.

These work distances are based onthe typical locations where welds aremade in each welding machine. Previouswork has emphasized the effect ofchanging work distance to producesharply focused beams with similar prop-erties on different welding machines(Ref. 9). This study, though, focuses onthe use of changes in the focus settingson one machine to produce a beamequivalent to a sharply focused beam onanother. Welds with a similar size andshape are then produced, showing that asignificantly streamlined and modern-ized weld transfer procedure can be uti-lized with the integration of this ad-vanced EB diagnostic tool.

Experimental

Electron Beam Diagnostic Tool

A photograph of the EMFC deviceis shown in Fig. 1A. This device has anumber of unique features, which aredescribed in more detail elsewhere(Refs. 4–7, 9). During operation, thebeam enters the top of the devicethrough a tungsten slit disk containing17 radial linear slits. Figure 1B showsthe interaction between the beam andthe radial slits as the beam is deflectedin a circular path over the tungsten slitdisk. When the beam is deflected alonga circular path approximately 25.4 mmin diameter, it passes over each slit, anda portion of the beam current is captured.The signal is then converted into a voltagedrop across a known resistor and capturedby a fast sampling analog-to-digital (A/D)converter before being transferred to thedata acquisition software.

As the beam passes through each slit, itis sampled at a different angle, providing17 different profiles of the beam shapeafter each revolution of the beam aroundthe tungsten slit disk. These waveformsare then compiled into a single sinogram.An example of a typical sinogram, con-taining 17 waveforms, is shown in Fig. 2A.If necessary, a digital filtering routine isapplied to the data to remove any elec-tronic noise that may appear. The data arethen fed into a computer-assisted tomo-graphic (CT) imaging algorithm in orderto reconstruct the power density distribu-tion of the beam (Refs. 7, 10) — Fig. 2B.

Once reconstructed, the peak powerdensity of the electron beam and two dis-tribution parameters are then measured.Figure 2C provides an illustration of howthese parameters are determined. Thefirst distribution parameter is the fullwidth of the beam at one-half its peak

power density (FWHM). This parameterrepresents the width at 50% of the beampeak power density. The second parame-ter is the full width of the beam measuredat 1/e2 of its peak power density (FWe2).This parameter represents the width ofthe beam at 86.5% of the beam peakpower density. For simplicity, this mea-surement is considered to be a suitablerepresentation of the beam diameter.Since the cross section of the measuredbeam is not always circular, the area of thebeam at each of these two points in the re-constructed power density distributioncurve is measured, and the diameter of acircle having the same area is used to rep-resent both values. These approximationsare good for most beams with generallycircular cross-sectional shapes, such as theGaussian-like distributions typicallyfound near the sharp focus setting.

Electron Beam Welding Machines andIntegration of Diagnostics

The general characteristics of theLLNL and Y-12 welding machines used inthis study are listed in Table 1. Each weld-ing machine is capable of an accelerating

Fig. 1 — A — The Enhanced Modified Faraday Cup; B— an electron beam being deflected in a circular patternover the radial slits in the tungsten slit disk located onthe top of the EMFC.

A

B


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voltage of 150 kV and a beam current of50 mA. However, because of the 20-yeardifference in the age of the two weldingmachines, there are differences in the con-struction of the upper column and elec-tron gun assembly. The two machines alsohave vacuum chambers that are signifi-cantly different in size, with the chamberon the Y-12 welding machine being muchlarger. As a comparison, the height of thechamber on the Y-12 welding machine isapproximately 1070 mm, while that for theLLNL machine is approximately 750 mm.Such a difference in the chamber height

can have a direct effecton the size of fixturingused to hold the work-piece and the work dis-tances used during weld-ing. In this case, the workdistance typically used inthe LLNL welding ma-chine (210 mm) is muchsmaller than that usedfor the Y-12 welding ma-chine (457 mm).

The EMFC diagnostictool was then used to ex-amine the effects ofchanges in the focus set-ting on the properties ofa 100-kV, 10-mA beamproduced by both theLLNL and Y-12 weldingmachines at a number ofwork distances. Only asingle accelerating volt-

age and beam current at a vacuum level of5 × 10–5 Torr are chosen in order to mini-mize the number of weld parametersbeing altered and to concentrate on the ef-fects of changes in focus setting and workdistance. Gauges measuring the accelerat-ing voltage, beam current, and focus coilcurrent are all within the limits of their re-spective annual calibrations. Beam cur-rents are verified by using the EMFC as atraditional Faraday Cup (Ref. 10). Thefocus response for each welding machineis characterized by measuring the beam

properties at focus settings both aboveand below the operator-determined sharpfocus setting. Each set of data presentedhere has been filtered using a high-fre-quency electronic cut-off filter to removeunwanted electronic noise. Changes inpeak power density, FWHM, and FWe2values are then measured and trackedwith changes in the focus settings.

Without diagnostics, the sharp focussetting for a given set of weld parametersis typically determined by the operator di-recting the beam onto a high melting pointtarget material, such as tungsten, and ad-justing the focus coil current setting. Asthe beam comes in contact with the target,light is emitted. The intensity of this lightvaries with changes in the focus coil cur-rent setting. When the emitted lightreaches a maximum intensity, the beam isconsidered to be at sharp focus (Ref. 11).Different operators may interpret thebrightest emission from the target mater-ial differently, resulting in different defin-itions of “sharp focus” for the same set-tings on the same machine. Thesedifferences can become more pronouncedwhen the definition of “sharp focus” in-volves multiple machines and operators.

With the aid of the EMFC diagnostictool, the “sharp focus” setting can be de-fined in a more quantitative fashion (Ref.9). This setting corresponds to the focuscoil current setting at which the highestpeak power density value for a given set ofmachine settings is obtained. Because thefocus coil current settings vary betweenwelding machines, it is necessary to definea relative focus setting so that the samerelative focus condition can be achievedon different welding machines. The focuscoil current at the sharp focus setting isused as the reference value and is set to avalue of zero. Focus coil current settingsabove this value are given a positive value,while those below are given a negativevalue, as shown in the following relationship:

Relative Focus Setting = Focus Coil Current – Sharp Focus Coil Current (1)

Fig. 2 — Basic overview of operation of the EMFC system beginning with(A) a computed sinogram compiling the profiles seen by all 17 slits; B —a 3D tomographic reconstruction of the power density distribution of thebeam; and C — a slice through the center of the reconstructed beam withthe peak power density, FWHM, and FWe2 measurements indicated.

Table 1 — Characteristics of Electron Beam Welding Machines Used in This Study

Welding Machine #1 Welding Machine #2

Location Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory BWXT Y-12 PlantManufacturer Hamilton Standard Leybold HerareusSerial number 175 649Voltage (kV) 150 150Current (mA) 50 50Filament Type Ribbon* RibbonElectron Gun Type R167-R R167-RSize of Chamber (m3) 0.393 1.54Year of Manufacture 1964 1984

* Ribbon filament upgrade made to machine circa 1990.

A B

C


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where the focus coil current (mA) is thevalue for each focus setting and the sharpfocus coil current (mA) represents thefocus coil current at which the highestpeak power density is obtained. The ma-chine focus setting corresponds to theamount of defocus above (positive) orbelow (negative) the point of sharpest

focus. A more in-depth de-scription of the utility of thismethodology for definingsharp focus is provided else-where (Ref. 9).

Using the EMFC diag-nostic tool, the effects ofchanges in the focus settingsat a number of work dis-tances are monitored oneach welding machine.Here, the work distance isdefined as the distance fromthe top of the chamber to thetop of the tungsten slit diskon the EMFC diagnostictool. The minimum workdistance in this study is lim-ited by the ability of the de-flection coils to produce a25.4-mm-diameter circle. In

both welding machines, this minimumwork distance is 127 mm. The maximumwork distance in each welding machine islimited by the size of the chamber and thepositioning systems within the chamber.These work distances correspond to 457mm on the LLNL welding machine and508 mm on the Y-12 welding machine. Thechanges in focus settings at each work dis-

tance are varied between values of approx-imately 25 units above and 25 units belowthe sharp focus settings.

Particular attention is paid to the workdistances at which welds are typically madein each machine. For the LLNL weldingmachine, a work distance of 210 mm is com-mon, while a work distance of 457 mm isused in the Y-12 welding machine. At thesework distances, the effects of positivechanges in focus on the peak power densityand width of beams produced by both ma-chines are analyzed. Based on these results,the feasibility of producing beams with sim-ilar peak power density and beam distribu-tion parameters, as measured by the EMFCdiagnostic tool, is determined. In order toproduce these similar beam characteristics,a defocused beam is required on the LLNLwelding machine in order to match thesharply focused beam produced by the Y-12welding machine.

As a final step, autogenous welds aremade on 9.5-mm-thick 304L samples usingnominally equivalent beams on each ma-chine at each work distance using an accel-erating voltage of 100 kV and a beam cur-rent of 10 mA at a travel speed of 17 mm/s.The weld coupons are fabricated from ma-terial taken from a single heat, and the

Fig. 3 — Plots comparing the following measured values: A — Peakpower density, B — FWHM ,, and C — FWe2 with changes in thefocus setting for 100-kV, 10-mA beams at different work distances onthe LLNL welding machine.

Table 2 — Chemical Composition of 304L Stainless Steel Samples Used in This Study (All values are in wt-%.)

Fe Cr Ni Mn Mo C N Si Co Cu S PBal. 18.20 8.16 1.71 0.47 0.020 0.082 0.44 0.14 0.35 0.0004 0.03

Table 3 — Summary of Beam Parameters Made at the Sharp Focus Setting Measured at Each Work Distance on the LLNL and Y-12 WeldingMachines for a 100-kV, 10-mA Beam

Work Distances127 mm 184 mm 229 mm 305 mm 381 mm 457 mm 508 mm

LLNL Welding MachinePeak Power Density (kW/mm2) 34.9 21.6 20.0 14.1 10.2 7.79 —FWHM (mm) 0.155 0.204 0.210 0.251 0.298 0.344 —FWe2 (mm) 0.262 0.332 0.346 0.413 0.486 0.557 —

Y-12 Development Welding MachinePeak Power Density (kW/mm2) 50.3 — 27.5 19.4 14.9 11.6 10.2FWHM (mm) 0.131 — 0.178 0.212 0.240 0.278 0.294FWe2 (mm) 0.221 — 0.299 0.357 0.408 0.462 0.493

A

C

B


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chemical composition is given in Table 2.After welding, a single sample is removedfrom each weld at a point approximatelyhalfway between the beginning and end ofthe weld interface. The sample is thenmounted in cross section and metallo-graphically prepared and etched using anelectrolytic oxalic acid solution to exposethe fusion zone. Measurements of thedepth, width at the top surface, and meltedarea are made on each cross section, andthe results obtained from the differentwelding machines are compared. Thesemeasurements are made on electronic im-ages of each weld cross section using a com-mercially available image analysis softwarepackage, Image Pro Plus, Version 4.1 fromMedia Cybernetics, Inc., Silver Spring, Md.

Results andDiscussion

Characterization ofWelding Machines

In the development of aprocedure for transfer-ring weld parameters, itis first necessary to char-acterize the perfor-mance of each weldingmachine using theEMFC diagnostic. Theprocedures used herematch those described ina previous publication(Ref. 9). In each weldingmachine, the effects ofchanges in focus settingand work distance on thepeak power density,

FWHM, and FWe2 values of each beam areexamined. At each work distance, the ma-chine focus settings are varied between val-ues approximately 25 units above (positivedefocus setting) and 25 units below (nega-tive defocus setting) the sharp focus setting.This range of focus settings provides anearly complete picture of the focus re-sponse of each welding machine at a givenwork distance, accelerating voltage, andbeam current. Further changes in the focussettings follow the same trends as the beamscontinue increasing in width, while the peakpower density slowly approaches a mini-mum value.

Figures 3A–C and 4A–C show the ef-fects of these changes in focus on the peakpower density, FWHM, and FWe2 values

at work distances between 127 and 508 mmfor the LLNL and Y-12 welding machines,respectively. It is evident in Figs. 3A and4A that changes in work distance have apronounced affect on the measured peakpower density in each welding machine. Atthe shortest work distance (127 mm), bothwelding machines produce beams with thehighest peak power density values both atthe sharp focus setting as well as over therange of focus settings. The focus responseof each welding machine at this work dis-tance shows a sharply defined peak powerdensity maximum at the sharp focus set-ting. As the work distance is increased, thepeak power density values measuredacross the range of focus settings decrease.These changes in work distance also alterthe general shape of the curves, with thechanges in focus setting having a less pro-nounced affect on the peak power density,especially at settings near the sharp focus.The resulting curves, therefore, take on amuch flatter appearance.

Changes in work distance and focussetting also have an affect on the resultingFWHM and FWe2 values, as shown in Fig.3B, C for the LLNL welding machine andFig. 4B, C for the Y-12 welding machine.At the shortest work distance (127 mm),the narrowest FWHM and FWe2 valuesare observed across the range of focus set-tings for each welding machine. There arealso several differences between thetrends observed in these distribution pa-rameters with changes in focus setting andthose observed with the peak power den-sity measurements. For example, there isnot a well-defined peak in the FWHM andFWe2 values at the sharp focus setting. Ateach work distance, changes in the focussetting near the sharp focus setting have arather small affect on the resultingFWHM and FWe2 values. A minimum offive or more focus setting increments in ei-ther the positive or negative direction isrequired in order to produce a substantialchange in these values for any workdistance.

These changes in the peak power den-

Fig. 4 — Plots comparing the following measured values: A — Peakpower density, B — FWHM, and C — FWe2 with changes in the focus set-ting for 100-kV, 10-mA beams at different work distances on the Y-12welding machine.

Table 4 — Summary of Linear Regression Coefficients in the Relationships between Beam Distribution Parameters and Work Distance for Both Welding Machines

FWHM = y0 + m (WD)FWHM FWe2

y0 m y0 mLLNL Welding Machine 8.97 × 10–2 5.49 × 10–4 7.84 × 10–2 4.30 × 10–4

Y-12 Welding Machine 7.16 × 10–2 7.66 × 10–4 1.34 × 10–1 7.15 × 10–4

A

C

B


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sity and beam distribution parameters as afunction of work distance can be corre-lated to changes in the focal length of theelectron focusing lens. As the focal lengthof the beam is changed, the divergenceangle of the beam exiting the optics in theupper column is altered. For example, asthe focal length of the lens decreases atshorter work distances, the beam diver-gence angle increases. With the increasein the divergence angle of the beam, smallchanges in the focus setting near the sharpfocus produce larger changes in the peakpower density and beam width. At longerwork distances, the focal length of the lensis increased, thus causing the divergenceangle to decrease. With this decreased di-vergence angle, small changes in the focussetting near sharp focus produce onlysmall changes in the peak power densityand beam width.

The effects of changes in work distanceon the beam properties at the sharp focussetting are of greater interest in providinga quantitative characterization of individ-ual welding machine performance. A sum-mary of the characteristics of sharply fo-cused beams produced at each workdistance on both machines is given inTable 3. As shown in this table, changes inthe work distance have a marked effect onthe resulting beam parameters of thesharply focused beams, with the shorterwork distances displaying significantlyhigher peak power density values and nar-rower beam distribution parameters.

It is also apparent that beams pro-duced at the same work distance on thetwo welding machines display differentpeak power density and beam width val-ues. In general, the sharp focus beams pro-duced by the Y-12 welding machine dis-play a higher peak power density andnarrower FWHM and FWe2 values thanthe LLNL welding machine over the rangeof work distances studied here. For exam-ple, at a work distance of 127 mm, themeasured peak power density values forthe LLNL and Y-12 welding machines are34.9 and 50.3 kW/mm2, respectively, cor-

responding to a differ-ence of nearly 31%. Asthe work distances in-crease up to 457 mm,similar differences be-tween approximately27 and 33% are ob-served in the peakpower density valuesmeasured at the re-spective sharp focussettings of each ma-chine. In the case ofthe FWHM and FWe2beam distribution pa-rameters, the mea-sured values for thebeams produced bythe LLNL welding ma-chine at the sharpfocus setting are typi-cally between 15 and19% higher than thosemeasured on the Y-12 welding machineover the range of work distances.

Direct comparisons between the peakpower density, FWHM, and FWe2 valuesmeasured on each welding machine at thesharp focus setting at each work distanceare plotted in Fig. 5A–C. Even though themeasured values differ, both welding ma-chines show similar trends in how thesebeam parameters change with work dis-tance. For example, both the FWHM andFWe2 values measured at the sharp focussettings over a range of work distances inthe LLNL welding machine decrease lin-early with decreasing work distance, asshown in Fig. 5B, C. On the other hand,the peak power density trends for the twowelding display machines similar nonlin-ear behavior.

These results obtained using the EMFCdevice can also be used to determineunique characteristics of each welding ma-chine (Ref. 9). The FWHM-Work Dis-tance relationships for both machines areplotted in Fig. 6A, while the FWe2-WorkDistance relationships are plotted in Fig.6B. The coefficients corresponding to the

linear regressions for the LLNL and Y-12welding machines, respectively, are sum-marized in Table 4. In the relationshipshown in this table (FWHM = y0 +m*WD), WD represents the work distancemeasured from the top inside of the vac-uum chamber to the top of the diagnostic.The slopes (m) of the FWHM relation-ships vary by a factor of approximately 1.4,with the Y-12 welding machine displayingthe higher values. With these two relation-ships, the work distances on the two ma-chines can be adjusted to produce beamswith the same FWHM and FWe2 values,thus allowing the work distance to be usedas a variable to produce similar welds ondifferent welding machines.

A comparison between the peak powerdensity measurements of the beams pro-duced by each welding machine at thesharp focus setting and the various workdistances is shown in Fig. 7. Overlaid onthese experimental measurements arecurves of the predicted peak power den-sity, based on the FWHM relationships asa function of work distance, as defined inTable 4. The following relationship for thepeak power density (PPD) of the beam is

Fig. 5 — Plots showing the comparisons between the measured values ofthe following: A — Peak power density, B — FWHM, and C — FWe2 mea-sured at the sharp focus settings over the range of work distances for boththe LLNL and Y-12 welding machines.

A

C

B


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Fig. 6 — Comparisons between the following measured values A — FWHM; and B — FWe2 measured at sharp focus settings for both welding machines as afunction of work distance for 100-kV, 10-mA beams.

Fig. 7 — Comparison between peak power density values measured onboth welding machines at their respective sharp focus settings as a func-tion of work distance for 100-kV, 10-mA beams. The theoretical peakpower density for each welding machine is also plotted as a function ofthe work distance.

Fig. 8 — Schematic drawing showing the major components found inthe upper column of an electron beam welding machine. The location ofthe focus coils and the beam crossover location are also highlighted.

Table 5 — Overview of Beam Crossover Locations in the Two EB Welding Machines

Work Distance Lens Lens to Crossover Lens to Magnification Crossover Peak FWHM d*(mm)(mm) Distance Workpiece Distance* Crossover to Workpiece Power (mm)

(mm) Distance (mm) (mm) Distance (mm) Distance (mm) Density(kWmm–2)

LLNL Welding Machine127 115 242 163 48 5.04 290 34.9 0.155 0.031184 115 299 163 48 6.23 347 21.6 0.204 0.033229 115 344 163 48 7.17 392 20.0 0.210 0.029305 115 420 163 48 8.75 468 14.1 0.251 0.029381 115 496 163 48 10.33 544 10.2 0.298 0.029457 115 572 163 48 11.92 620 7.79 0.344 0.029

Y-12 Welding Machine127 130 257 183 53 4.85 310 50.3 0.131 0.027229 130 359 183 53 6.77 412 27.5 0.178 0.026305 130 435 183 53 8.21 488 19.4 0.212 0.026381 130 511 183 53 9.64 564 14.9 0.240 0.025457 130 587 183 53 11.08 640 11.6 0.278 0.025508 130 638 183 53 12.04 691 10.2 0.294 0.024

* Calculated based on FWHM measurements.

A B


WELDING RESEARCH


then used to fit the experimental data(Ref. 10).

where kV is the beam voltage and mA is thebeam current. This relationship is based onthe assumption that each welding machineproduces a Gaussian-shaped beam at eachwork distance. The factor of 2.35 originatesfrom the relationship between the FWHMvalue for an ideal Gaussian beam and itsstandard deviation (Ref. 11).

Using this relationship, the work dis-tance corresponding to a desired peakpower density at the sharp focus can bepredicted for each welding machine. Theplot shows that equivalent peak powerdensity values at different work distancesfor two or more welding machines can alsobe predicted. This plot also points out thedifferences in the performance of the twowelding machines, indicating that at agiven work distance, the two machinesproduce sharply focused beams with dif-ferent peak power densities. Overall,though, beams produced by different ma-chines can be matched by changes in ei-ther the work distance or focus settings.

Estimation of the Beam CrossoverLocation

The work distance, as defined up to thispoint, is the distance from the top of thechamber to the surface of the workpiece.This definition of the work distance pro-vides a means for consistently placing theworkpiece at the same location in thechamber of each welding machine. How-ever, this measurement is really only ap-plicable on the welding machine on whichit is made and cannot be transferred to adifferent welding machine that may have adifferent construction of the upper column.The effects of variations in the constructionof the two welding machines studied herecan be at least partly responsible for differ-

ences in the measuredpeak power density andbeam distribution para-meters at the sharp focuscondition for each workdistance.

Given the differencesin the age, maintenancerecords, and construc-tion of the uppercolumns of the two weld-ing machines, it becomesdifficult to attribute dif-ferences in performanceto specific characteristicsof each machine. Inorder to compare theperformance differencesof these two electronbeam welding machinesmore easily, a simplifiedupper column construc-tion is used here. Usingthis simplified design as abaseline, general perfor-mance characteristics of the two weldingmachines can then be compared. Aschematic diagram of this simplifiedupper column is shown in Fig. 8. For thisdiscussion, only the location of the mag-netic focusing lens, where the beam is atits widest, and the beam crossover loca-tion, where the size of the beam is at itsnarrowest (d*), are considered in order tosimplify the analysis. Of these two, the lo-cation of the magnetic focusing lens in theupper column can be physically measured,while the beam crossover location and d*value are determined using results ob-tained by the EMFC diagnostic.

Physical measurements made in theupper column of each welding machineshow that the focus lens in the LLNL ma-chine is located approximately 115 mmabove the top of the vacuum chamber,while the focus lens in the Y-12 machine islocated approximately 130 mm above thetop of the chamber. These measurementsrepresent only general locations for thefocus coil and do not discriminate be-

tween the top, center, or bottom of thefocus lens. The performance of the elec-tron focus lens can also vary due to differ-ences in construction or degradation overtime. Such unique internal characteristicsare difficult to quantify when comparingdifferent welding machines and may affectthe beam properties in unknown wayseven under the same experimental condi-tions. Since the location of these coils andtheir performance varies between weldingmachines, they are not suitable for defin-ing a standard work distance to be usedbetween machines. Therefore, it becomesnecessary to develop a means for takinginto account other more difficult to quan-tify differences in machine performance.

The beam crossover location depends,in part, on the gun design and can be cor-related with the location of the anode.However, the electron guns used on thetwo systems are different, with the anodesin the upper columns mounted at differentdistances from the cathode in the elec-tron gun (Ref. 12), and physical measure-ments of the anode are difficult. The the-

PPD W mmkV mA

FWHM

/*2

2

22.35

(2)⎛⎝

⎞⎠ =

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟π

Fig. 9 — Plots comparing the following measured values: A — Peakpower density; B — FWHM; and C — FWe2 measured in the LLNL andY-12 welding machines for 100-kV, 10-mA beams at work distances of210 and 457 mm, respectively. Results from the LLNL welding machineare representative of multiple measurements made at each focus setting.Error bars represent the standard deviation of the results around an av-erage value. The dashed lines show the amount of defocus required onthe LLNL machine in order to match parameters on the Y-12 machine.

A B

C


WELDING RESEARCH


oretical beam crossover location can beestimated using the results obtained withthe EMFC on sharply focused beams atdifferent work distances. It corresponds tothe work distance where the electron gunwould theoretically produce a sharply fo-cused beam with a FWHM or FWe2 ofzero. In Fig. 6A, B, the linear regressionsof the measured beam distribution para-meters are extended to FWHM and FWe2values of zero. The two distribution para-meters produce slightly different resultsfor both machines. With the FWHM val-ues, the beam crossover location is ap-proximately 163 mm above the top of thechamber for LLNL welding machine and183 mm above the top of the chamber forthe Y-12 welding machine. Measurementsof the FWe2 values provide beamcrossover locations of approximately 175and 188 mm above the top of the cham-bers on the LLNL and Y-12 welding ma-chines, respectively. Unlike physical mea-surements of the focus lens location, theestimation of this crossover point takesinto account the performance of the weld-ing machine and gives some meaning todifficult-to-define variables.

The fundamentals of electron beamoptics are analogous to those of tradi-tional optics (Refs. 13, 14), thus allowingthe analysis of machine performance to beestimated using traditional geometric op-tics relationships. As shown in theschematic diagram of the upper column inFig. 8, there are several important mea-surements that define the performance ofthe electron optics on each machine.Starting at the surface of the workpieceand proceeding up to the top of the vac-uum chamber, there are three importantmeasurements: the work distance (WD),the lens distance (LD), and the crossoverdistance (CO). These measurements de-fine the distances between the surface ofthe workpiece and the top of the vacuumchamber (WD), the magnetic focusinglens and the top of the vacuum chamber(LD), and between the beam crossoverpoint and the top of the vacuum chamber(CO), respectively. In addition, the diam-eter of the electron beam at the crossoverpoint (d*) is required to determine the di-ameter of the beam at the surface of theworkpiece (D).

Measurements of these distances have

been made on each machine and are listedin Table 5. Whereas LD and WD are phys-ical measurements, the CO measurementis determined from measurements of theFWHM values of sharply focused beamsat each work distance made using theEMFC diagnostic tool. In practice, theWD measurement is the only one that canbe varied by the operator. With these mea-surements, it becomes possible to use theresults obtained with the EMFC to betterunderstand the characteristics of eachwelding machine. The calculation of thelens magnification, which is described inthe relationship shown below, is onemeans for characterizing the performanceof both machines.

This relationship is based on standardoptics equations available in standard ref-erences (Ref. 15). Equation 3 states thatthe magnification is the ratio of the beamdiameter at the surface of the workpiece(D) to the beam diameter at crossover(d*) in the upper column, which is a func-tion of the machine settings, constructionof the upper column, and cathode design.As shown in Table 5, the calculated mag-nifications for the LLNL welding machineare approximately 4 to 7% higher thanthose for the Y-12 welding machine.

Such differences in magnification canbe the result of variations in the d* valuesin each machine. These d* values can bedetermined using the physical and diag-nostic measurements described in the sec-tions above. Using the data in Table 5, thed* values at each work distance are calcu-lated using Equation 3 and the magnifica-tion and FWHM values, which are consid-

MD

d

WD LD

CO LD= = +

−

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

*(3)

Table 6 — Summary of Beam Parameters and Weld Dimensions Produced by the LLNL WeldingMachine and the Y-12 Welding Machine in the Transfer of Beam Parameters for a 1-kW (100-kV,10-mA) Beam at Work Distances of 210 and 457 mm, Respectively (All welds were made at atravel speed of 17 mm/s.)

LLNL Welding Machine (S/N 175) Y-12 Welding MachineSharp +11 Defocus Sharp

Peak Power Density (kW/mm2) 19.9 11.0 11.6FWHM (mm) 0.212 0.259 0.278FWe2 (mm) 0.346 0.444 0.461Weld Depth (mm) 4.08 2.89 2.64Weld Width at Top Surface (mm) 1.34 1.93 1.46Weld Width at Half Depth (mm) 0.62 0.67 0.60Aspect Ratio 3.04 1.50 1.80Cross-sectional Area (mm2) 2.51 2.64 2.16

Fig. 10 — Plots showing the reconstructed beams made at a constant voltage of 100 kV and current of 10 mA on the following: A — The LLNL welding ma-chine at a defocus setting of +11 and a work distance of 210 mm (PPD = 11.9 kW/mm2); and B — the Y-12 welding machine at the sharp focus setting and awork distance of 457 mm (PPD = 11.6 kW/mm2).

A B


WELDING RESEARCH


ered to be the beam width (D). As shownin Table 5, each welding machine displaysa different d* value over the range of workdistances, with the LLNL welding ma-chine displaying an average value of 0.030±0.002 mm and the Y-12 welding ma-chine displaying an average value of 0.026±0.001 mm. The observed variations inthe calculated d* values are small and theresult of experimental variations in themeasurement of the FWHM values.

This difference in d* values between thetwo welding machines, most likely caused bythe differences in the anode noted previ-ously, explains the differences in beam char-acteristics over the range of work distancesstudied here. Additional factors, such as thealignment and vacuum level of the uppercolumn and differences in the characteris-tics of the focus lenses, can also contributeto variations in beam properties but are dif-ficult to quantify. With this knowledge,though, it is now possible to produce beamswith similar characteristics at different workdistances in these two welding machines,thus providing the basis for developingmodern transfer procedures for electronbeam welding.

Transferring Weld Parameters

Based on the results detailed above, itis apparent that these two welding ma-chines produce beams with different char-acteristics at the same machine settingsand work distances. These performancedifferences, as defined by the characteris-tics of the beams produced by each weld-ing machine, are the reason that existingqualitative means for weld transfer arelacking. With the characterization of thetwo welding machines described above, itis possible to produce similar beams at dif-ferent work distances on the two weldingmachines by taking into account differ-ences in d* and beam magnification thatresult from differences in the constructionof the upper columns. However, in manycases, the work distances, particularly inproduction welding machines, are fixed byeither the size of the weld fixturing or therequirements of the appropriate WeldProcess Specification. Under these condi-tions, it thus becomes necessary to usechanges in focus to obtain similar beams.

In this case, the work distances are fixed,with the LLNL welding machine having awork distance of 210 mm and the Y-12welding machine with a work distance of457 mm. The EMFC diagnostic tool, withits ability to provide quantitative informa-tion on the beams produced by each weld-ing machine, is used to measure differencesin the performance of the two machines attheir respective work distances. Because ofthe shorter work distance employed on theLLNL welding machine, the beam must be

defocused in order to replicate that pro-duced by the Y-12 welding machine. Theamount of defocusing required for theLLNL welding machine is determined bycharacterizing the focus response of thismachine and comparing it with that for theY-12 welding machine at their respectivework distances.

Comparisons between the peak powerdensity, FWHM, and FWe2 values mea-sured at work distances of 210 mm for theLLNL welding machine and 457 mm forthe Y-12 welding machine are shown inFig. 9A–C. In these figures, the effects ofpositive changes in the focus settings oneach welding machine are shown. A pos-itive defocus setting is desirable for par-tial penetration welds because thecrossover point for the beam, where thepeak power density would be at its maxi-mum, is located above the surface of thepart to be welded. With the crossoverpoint above the part, the beam is diverg-ing by the time it reaches the part, mak-ing the potential for weld overpenetra-tion less likely. Dashed lines on eachfigure also represent the defocus re-quired on the LLNL welding machine inorder to produce a beam with similar pa-rameters to those produced at sharpfocus on the Y-12 welding machine.

Table 6 provides a summary of themeasured beam parameters at the re-spective sharp focus settings for theLLNL and Y-12 welding machines atwork distances of 210 and 457 mm, re-spectively. The sharply focused beamproduced by the LLNL welding ma-chine displays a peak power densitynearly 42% larger than that produced bythe Y-12 welding machine. In turn, theFWHM and FWe2 values for thissharply focused beam are both approxi-mately 25% smaller than those mea-sured for the sharply focused beam onthe Y-12 welding machine.

In order to replicate the beam pro-duced by the Y-12 welding machine on theLLNL machine, the beam is defocused.With a +11 change in the focus setting, thepeak power density for the LLNL weldingmachine decreases by 40% and the FWHMand FWe2 values increase by approximately22 and 28%, respectively. After the defocuscorrection is made to the beam produced bythe LLNL welding machine, the resultingpeak power density values vary by only ap-proximately 2%, while the difference in thebeam distribution parameters is 7% for theFWHM values and 4% for the FWe2 values.

Reconstructions of the power densitydistribution for the defocused beam onthe LLNL welding machine and the sharpfocused beam on the Y-12 welding ma-chine are shown Fig. 10A, B. These fig-ures provide a great deal more informa-tion concerning the power density

distribution and the orientation of thebeams than available in the measurementsgiven in Table 6. For example, the defo-cused beam produced by the LLNL weld-ing machine is slightly elongated along thex-axis. Such variations from the circular-shaped beams observed at sharp focusconditions are typical for defocusedbeams. On the other hand, the sharply fo-cused beam produced by the Y-12 weldingmachine is round, consistent with that typ-ically observed with beams at sharp focus.Even though the orientations of the beamsdiffer, the power density distribution andgeneral size of the beams produced by thetwo welding machines are very similar.

Cross sections of the welds made on theLLNL and Y-12 welding machines using thebeams described above are shown in Fig.11A, B. Table 6 also includes a summary of

Fig. 11 — Micrographs showing the weld cross sec-tions in 304L stainless steel produced by the follow-ing: A — The LLNL welding machine at a work dis-tance of 210 mm and a focus condition of +11; andB — the Y-12 welding machine at a work distance of457 mm and at the sharp focus setting for 100-kV, 10-mA beams at a travel speed of 17 mm/s.

A

B


WELDING RESEARCH


the measurements of the weld depth, width,and cross-section area. In general, the twowelds display similar depths, differing byonly 0.30 mm or approximately 8%, with theweld produced by the LLNL welding ma-chine being the deeper of the two. Eventhough the width of the beam produced bythe Y-12 welding machine is larger, thewidth of the weld produced by the LLNLwelding machine, as measured at the topsurface of the weld, is approximately 0.5 mmwider than that produced by the Y-12 weld-ing machine, corresponding to a differenceof nearly 25%. This difference in width canbe attributed, in part, to the orientation ofthe beam produced by the LLNL weldingmachine, which is elongated along the axislying parallel to the direction of welding. Onthe other hand, the widths of the welds, asmeasured at the half-depth level, are fairlysimilar, varying by only approximately 10%.

The above experiments show that it ispossible to produce welds that are similar inshape and size by considering the differ-ences in the performance of two machinesdetermined using the EMFC diagnostictool. With this tool, the characteristics of theelectron beam are quantified to a level thatallows similar beams to be reproduced withease on different welding machines. Usingthese results as a baseline, a procedure forthe transfer of electron beam welding para-meters between two machines can beadapted to specific needs. In any modifiedprocedure, the EMFC diagnostic tool is in-tegrated into each step of this procedure.Beginning with the weld developmentstage, the EMFC diagnostic tool provides ameans for quantitatively characterizing thebeam and ensuring that it exhibits the samecharacteristics each time that it is used. Dur-ing the transfer of weld parameters, the useof the EMFC diagnostic tool significantlystreamlines the process by removing redun-dant test welds on each machine and mini-mizes the time and cost required to move apart from development to production.Therefore, traditional methodologies thatrely on multiple test welds to transfer weld-ing parameters from development to pro-duction can be replaced by one based on a thorough knowledge of machine performance.

Summary

With the use of an advanced electronbeam diagnostic tool, a means for quicklyand easily transferring a set of welding pa-rameters between electron beam weldingmachines at two widely separated loca-tions has been demonstrated. The EMFCdiagnostic tool is first used to characterizethe beams produced by each welding ma-chine over a range of focus settings at workdistances spanning the height of the vac-uum chamber on each welding machine.The characterization of these beams gen-

erally shows that increases in the work dis-tance can significantly decrease the result-ing peak power density and increase thebeam width of sharply focused beams.These effects, though, are not consistentacross the two welding machines, with theY-12 machine producing sharply focusedbeams with higher peak power density andlower FWHM and FWe2 values at thesame work distance, accelerating voltage,and beam current.

Because the two machines have vac-uum chambers of different sizes, the weldis made at a longer work distance in the Y-12 welding machine (457 mm) than theLLNL welding machine (210 mm). Usingthe EMFC tool, the effects of changes infocus settings on the beams produced bythe two machines at these work distancesare examined. Based on these results, amachine focus setting of +11 on theLLNL welding machine is found to pro-duce a beam very similar to the sharply fo-cused beam produced by the Y-12 weldingmachine at a work distance of 457 mm.Welds have been made using these well-characterized beams. The resulting weldcross sections are similar in appearanceand size.

Overall, the results of this weld trans-fer exercise show that with minimal effort,a weld produced on one electron beamwelding machine can be repeated on a sec-ond machine at a significantly differentwork distance using diagnostics. Transfer-ring weld parameters from one machine toanother utilizing the EMFC diagnostictool results in a significant decrease in thetime, effort, and money required to de-velop weld parameters on two or moremachines. It also represents a significantadvance by utilizing quantitative measuresof the beam parameters produced by eachwelding machine and correlating thesevalues to the resulting weld dimensions.

Acknowledgments

This document was prepared as an ac-count of work sponsored by an agency ofthe United States government. Neitherthe United States government, nor theUniversity of California, nor any of theiremployees makes any warranty, express orimplied, or assumes any legal liability orresponsibility for the accuracy, complete-ness, or usefulness of any information, ap-paratus, product, or process disclosed, orrepresents that its use would not infringeprivately owned rights. Reference hereinto any specific commercial product,process, or service by trade name, trade-mark, manufacturer, or otherwise, doesnot necessarily constitute or imply its en-dorsement, recommendation, or favoringby the U.S. government or the Universityof California. The views and opinions ofauthors expressed herein do not necessar-

ily state or reflect those of the U.S. gov-ernment or the University of California,and shall not be used for advertising orproduct endorsement purposes. TheLLNL portion of this work was performedunder the auspices of the U.S. Depart-ment of Energy by University of Califor-nia, Lawrence Livermore National Labo-ratory, under Contract W-7405-Eng-48.The Y-12 portion of this work has beensupported by the Y-12 National SecurityComplex, Oak Ridge, Tenn., managed byBWXT Y-12, L.L.C., for the U.S. Depart-ment of Energy under contract DE-AC05-00OR22800. The authors would also liketo acknowledge the contributions of AlanTeruya (LLNL) for his substantial soft-ware development support, and RobertVallier (LLNL) and Jackson Go (LLNL)for performing the metallography on theweld samples.

References

1. LaFlamme, G. R., and Powers, D. E.1991. Welding Journal 70(10): 33–40.

2. Dilthey, U., and Weiser, J. 1995. Schw.and Schn. 47(7): 558–564.

3. Dilthey, U., and Weiser, J. 1995. Schw.and Schn. 47(5): 339–345.

4. Elmer, J. W., and Teruya, A. T. 2001. Weld-ing Journal 80(12): 288-s to 295-s.

5. Elmer, J. W., and Teruya, A. T. 1998. Sci.Technol. Weld. Joining 3(2): 51–58.

6. Elmer, J. W., Teruya, A. T., and O’Brien,D. W. 1993. Welding Journal 72(11): 493-s to505-s.

7. Teruya, A., Elmer, J., and O’Brien, D.1991. The Laser and Electron Beam in Welding,Cutting, and Surface Treatment: State-of-the-Art1991. pp. 125–140. Englewood, N.J.: BakishMaterials Corp.

8. Nello, O. 2001. Electron Beam ProbingSystems — A Review. TWI Bulletin, May/June,pp. 38–40.

9. Palmer, T. A., and Elmer, J. W. 2006.Characterization of the effects of changes infocus and work distance on electron beamproperties using an advanced diagnostic tool, inpress. Science and Technology of Welding andJoining.

10. Elmer, J. W., Teruya, A. T., and Palmer,T. A. 2002. User’s Guide: An Enhanced Modi-fied Faraday Cup for the Profiling of the PowerDensity Distribution in Electron Beams.UCRL-MA-148830, Lawrence Livermore Na-tional Laboratory, Livermore, Calif.

11. AWS C7.1M/C7.1:2004, RecommendedPractices for Electron Beam Welding. 2004.Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

12. Eastman, R., and Gusek, R. 2006. Pri-vate communication.

13. deWolf, D. A. 1990. Basics of ElectronOptics. New York, N.Y.: John Wiley & Sons,Inc.

14. Reimer, L. 1998. Scanning Electron Mi-croscopy: Physics of Image Formation and Mi-croanalysis. 2nd ed. Berlin, Germany: Springer.

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