a framework for understanding the training process leading to

Sports Med 2003; 33 (15): 1103-1126REVIEW ARTICLE 0112-1642/03/0015-1103/$30.00/0

Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved.

A Framework for Understanding theTraining Process Leading toElite PerformanceDavid J. Smith

Human Performance Laboratory, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Calgary, Calgary,Alberta, Canada

ContentsAbstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11031. Components of Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104

1.1 Factors Associated with Sport Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11051.2 Genetics and Athletic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11051.3 Deliberate Practice and Athletic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11071.4 Other Performance Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11081.5 Types of Athletes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108

2. Long-Term Training Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11092.1 Long-Term Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11092.2 Stages of Athletic Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110

3. Variables and Components of Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11103.1 Intensity, Duration and Volume of Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11103.2 Training Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11113.3 The S’s of Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112

4. Training Cycles and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11144.1 Training Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11144.2 Training Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11154.3 Tapering Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1115

5. The Training Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11165.1 Monitoring the Training Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11165.2 Errors in Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11185.3 Overtraining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118

6. Optimal Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11196.1 An Integrated Model of Athletic Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11196.2 Avoiding Overtraining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121

7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121

The development of performance in competition is achieved through a trainingAbstractprocess that is designed to induce automation of motor skills and enhancestructural and metabolic functions. Training also promotes self-confidence and atolerance for higher training levels and competition. In general, there are twobroad categories of athletes that perform at the highest level: (i) the geneticallytalented (the thoroughbred); and (ii) those with a highly developed work ethic (theworkhorse) with a system of training guiding their effort. The dynamics of

1104 Smith

training involve the manipulation of the training load through the variables:intensity, duration and frequency. In addition, sport activities are a combination ofstrength, speed and endurance executed in a coordinated and efficient mannerwith the development of sport-specific characteristics. Short- and long-termplanning (periodisation) requires alternating periods of training load with recov-ery for avoiding excessive fatigue that may lead to overtraining. Overtraining islong-lasting performance incompetence due to an imbalance of training load,competition, non-training stressors and recovery. Furthermore, annual plans arenormally constructed in macro-, meso- and microcycles around the competitivephases with the objective of improving performance for a peak at a predeterminedtime. Finally, at competition time, optimal performance requires a healthy body,and integration of not only the physiological elements but also the psychological,technical and tactical components.

The limits of human performance are continually increase the ability to sustain the highest powerbeing pushed in keeping with the Olympic motto output or speed of movement for a given distance or‘stronger, higher, faster’. World-best sport perform- time.[2] Within the training process, overcomingances appear to plateau for only short periods of training and competition stresses promotes will-time before being taken to new levels. This has been power, self-confidence and tolerance for higherachieved by several factors including more sophisti- training and competition demands.[3] Stress encom-cated coaching, the year-round training of passes all aspects of training, competition and non-high-performance athletes in ‘amateur’ sports, better training factors.[4] Stress can have both positive andequipment, incentives that motivate athletes to push negative effects depending on the state of the athletethe boundaries of intensity and volume of training, and recovery process. The ability to cope and man-and an advanced knowledge of training methodolo- age stress determines the state of an athlete, which ingy. Another factor contributing to improved per- turn determines the athlete’s reaction to subsequentformances has been the participation of segments of stress.[5] During a training phase of several weeks orthe world population who were previously excluded. months, training load (defined by the intensity, dura-The purpose of this paper is to set out a comprehen-

tion and frequency of exercise) varies and shouldsive framework of the components of performance

gradually increase in response to the training-in-and training that should be addressed when develop-

duced adaptation of various physical systems. Over-ing a short- and long-term training plan leading to

load training is the process of stressing an athlete atelite performance.a higher level than previously tolerated in order toprovide a stimulus for adaptation and supercompen-1. Components of Performancesation.[6,7] Supercompensation occurs when theoverload training and the following recovery areIn order to improve skill and performance inbalanced correctly and an overshoot in performancecompetition, athletes must prepare themselvesoccurs.[8] In global terms, training represents thethrough a training process where the physiologicalphysical, technical, intellectual and psychologicalobjective is to improve body function and optimisepreparation of an athlete through physical andperformance. The training process involves repeti-mental training.[9] The long-term goal of an athletiction of exercises designed to induce automation incareer should be sport mastery defined as consistent,the execution of a motor skill and develop structuralsuccessful, senior international competitive per-and metabolic functions that lead to increased physi-

cal performance.[1] Thus, the goal of training is to formance.

Adis Data Information BV 2003. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2003; 33 (15)

Training Components and Process 1105

1.1 Factors Associated with physical and psychological pre-requisites of per-formance.[3]Sport Performance

Sport performance requires an athlete to integratemany factors (figure 1), some trainable (physiology,Over many years of organised systematic train-psychology and biomechanics), some teachableing, an athlete will develop work capacity, athletic(tactics), and others outside the control of the athleteshape and acquire sport skills, which with plannedand coach (genetics and age). Other factors that playpeaking, should result in a high level of perform-a role in performance include the competition envi-ance. Work capacity or general fitness represents theronmental conditions, material and technical con-foundation on which to base other training states,[10]

straints, coordination, skill and the constitution ofwhereas athletic shape refers to the ability to use thethe mind and body.[3] It has been suggested thatdeveloped exercise capacity to execute a given sportperhaps the major factor determining an athlete’sactivity under specified conditions.[11] Athleticpotential to excel in his or her sport is geneticshape is an extension of work capacity, and at a highendowment, which includes not only anthropomet-level, an athlete may perform and attain results closeric characteristics, inherited cardiovascular traitsto his/her maximum potential.[10] At competitionand muscle fibre-type proportions but also the capa-time, physiological peaking is critical for optimalcity to improve with training.[16]

results and represents a point in time where fitnessand fatigue differences are maximised in favour of

1.2 Genetics and Athletic Performancethe overall performance outcome.[12] With appropri-ate training and recovery techniques, fitness should When awe-inspiring athletic feats occur at inter-be at a high functional state and fatigue reduced to national events, questions are often asked with refer-minimal levels facilitating a high work capacity and ence to how an athlete or athletes could achieve suchquick recovery rate. Peaking for a competitive per- levels of performance. Was it simply a case offormance results in the highest level of athletic superior coaching, access to good facilities and be-shape and is achieved through a tapering process. A ginning training at a young age or could their suc-taper is a period where training volume is reduced cess be attributable to underlying biological predis-prior to competition[13] since residual fatigue may positions?[18] Genetic traits are thought to accountmask or attenuate fitness gains that have occurred for up to half of the variation in performance be-through overload training.[14] Performance tween individuals and the other half in response topreparedness is the resultant of the interaction of thebody’s long-term fitness increase, stimulated bytraining, and the opposing short-term fatigue after-effects of training.[11] It reflects the readiness of anathlete for either an enhanced level of training or tosucceed in competition.[15] With tapering, fitnessand skill should reach relatively high levels suchthat through physiological and psychological adap-tations, the level of preparedness is optimised. Ta-pering is associated with physiological and psycho-logical adaptations that have a positive impact onperformance. Long-term training emphasis shouldproduce definite improvement in a sports result un-less the athlete’s psychological platform or experi-ence is insufficient to handle the pressure of compe-tition. Sport reflects the state of development of

Sportperformance

PhysiologyPsychology

Biomechanics

Integrator(athlete)

Geneticendowment

Trainability

Age

Injury

Fatigue

Diet

Drugs

Healthstatus

Training

Fig. 1. Factors associated with sport performance (reproducedfrom MacDougall and Wenger,[17] with permission).


1106 Smith

training.[19] The degree or magnitude of response to and II genotype (I allele and II genotype frequencytraining may also be under the control of inherited 0.7 and 0.48, respectively).[31] To further complicatetraits, such that not only is the framework of the defining the type of endurance performance that isbody regulated but that the plasticity of the response associated with an I allele (along a continuum fromto environmental factors (i.e. training) is also under strength endurance to prolonged duration endur-the same degree of genetic influence. The genetic ance), is the report that the duration of loaded repeti-potential of an athlete (genotype) is the combination tive biceps flexion increased in military recruitsof thousands of genes within the body forming its undergoing a 10-week physical training pro-genetic constitution. Phenotype (anatomical, physi- gramme.[31] There was an 11-fold increase in theological and behavioural characteristics) is the ob- duration for II genotype compared with DD individ-servable constitution resulting from the interaction uals suggesting that endurance of a relatively smallof its genotype with environmental influences. muscle group may be influenced in an ACE geno-Genes have a large effect on muscle composition, type-dependent manner.[26]

height, length of the trunk, arms and legs.[20] How- Other studies, however, have failed to find anever, functional factors such as the activity of en- association or skew of the I allele and endurancezymes in energy metabolism and cardiovascular en- athletes.[32,33] The most likely cause of these contra-durance can be modified by different types and dictory findings may be the selection of athletesamounts of physical training.[21,22]

from mixed sporting disciplines, therefore combin-Some evidence examining the influence of genet- ing several different phenotypes.[26] However, the

ic factors on human performance comes from re- most compelling evidence for association of the Isearch on the gene for angiotensin-converting allele and endurance performance is the trend ofenzyme (ACE) gene. ACE is responsible for the increasing I allele frequency with distance run inbreakdown of vasodilator kinins while promoting Olympic standard runners (0.35, 0.53, 0.62 forformation of the vasoconstrictor angiotensin II <200m, 400–3000m and >5000m, respectively).[23]

(ANG II). ANG II, in turn, stimulates adrenal aldo- The benefit conferred by the I allele on endurancesterone release, leading to salt and water retention, performance might involve genotype-dependent al-thus influencing blood volume and pressure.[23] A terations in cardiorespiratory response to training.[34]

polymorphism of the human ACE gene has been Although maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is oftendescribed in which the deletion (D allele) rather than used as a marker of aerobic fitness, endurance per-insertion (I allele) is associated with higher activity formance can vary greatly among athletes withby tissue ACE[24] and serum.[25] An allele is the equal VO2max,[35] and other factors such as runningexpression of a gene in several forms usually arising economy and speed at lactate threshold[36] influencethrough mutation. Humans carry two versions of the submaximal endurance performance. Currently,ACE allele[26] and different combinations of the two there is conflicting evidence on the effect of trainingalleles results in three variants: II; ID; and DD. The on VO2max,[37,38] whereas reduced oxygen consump-frequencies of these three variants have been report- tion at a fixed exercise intensity (improved efficien-ed as 0.24, 0.50 and 0.26 for II, ID and DD ge- cy) has been reported.[34] This has lead to the conclu-notypes, respectively, in a large cohort of healthy sion that it is likely that local muscle effects, rathermales.[27] Empirical evidence suggests that an I al- than a central cardiorespiratory mechanism, conferlele skew is associated with some aspect of endur- the enhanced endurance ability associated with theance performance as excess frequency of the I allele ACE I allele.[34,39] On the other hand, there is anin elite distance runners[23] and rowers[28-30] has been accumulation of evidence that suggests that the Dreported. Furthermore, mountaineers who have as- allele is associated with elite power-orientated ath-cended beyond 7000m without supplemental oxy- letic performance.[23,39] Myerson et al.[23] reported angen demonstrate a significant excess of the I allele increased frequency of the D allele among sprint



runners (<200m) and a report on Russian athletes talented; and (v) talents are relatively domain-spe-demonstrated an excess of the D allele in elite swim- cific.[42]

mers competing over short distances taking less than Alternatively, sport performance and expertise1 minute.[40]

could be the result of hours spent in focused, ef-It will be of significant interest to identify the fortful training, rather than the effect of innate,

types of training that will result in optimal perform- inheritable traits,[43] a position that has its roots inance for those carrying a particular genotype since, ‘The Theory of Deliberate Practice’ presented bywith current training regimens, there are athletes Ericsson et al.[44] Deliberate practice is defined aswho are superior, average, poor and non-responders any activity designed to improve current perform-to training.[21] Jones et al.[39] make the cautionary ance that is effortful and not inherently enjoyable.statement that the ACE I/D polymorphism should Their primary prediction suggests that the amount ofnot be considered a ‘gene for human performance’, time an individual is engaged in deliberate practicebut a marker of modulation such that one would

activities will be monotonically related to that indi-expect an excess of the I allele in the truly elite

vidual’s acquired performance.[44] Ericsson et al.[44]

endurance athlete, with a concordant excess of the Dsuggested that for the attainment of expertise, it was

allele represented in more power-oriented events.not simply training of any type, but the engagement

From the inherited trait perspective, whether a givenin ‘deliberate practice’. Deliberate practice is made

person will be a champion appears to be associatedup of activities done to develop required abilities

with: (i) the actual state of a number of complexthat are not intrinsically motivating, require effort

phenotypes before training; (ii) proper training, restand attention and do not lead to immediate social or

and nutrition; and (iii) the ability of the phenotypesfinancial rewards. Central to the notion of deliberate

to adapt to the training, rest and nutrition.[21] Skin-practice is the assumption that a direct relationship

ner[21] remarks that it is probable that elite perform-exists between the number of hours of deliberate

ers are those who begin with high levels of thepractice and the performance level achieved.[45-47] A

characteristics (phenotypes) needed for success insubstantial body of evidence also suggests that elite

their particular sport and also have superior adapta-performances require around 10 years of practice to

tions in those characteristics after training. Theseacquire the necessary skills and experience to per-

comments may have some validity but the complex-form at an international level;[47,48] the 10-year rule

ity of possible permutations of contributory factorswas first discussed by Simon and Chase.[49] Nine

may still not allow for accuracy in performanceyears appears to be a watershed in soccer and field

prediction.hockey, after which significantly more personal in-vestment of time and effort must be committed ifone is likely to reach international or national skill1.3 Deliberate Practice andlevel.[47]Athletic Performance

A confounding factor in the identification of tal-ent is the observed influence of physical maturity.Talent (genetic endowment) is both an appealingThe organisational structure of youth sport appearsand a common-sense explanation of what underliesto bias the selection procedure away from skills inskill in sport and most coaches believe that differ-favour of physical size.[18] The birth months ofences in talent determine who will succeed.[41]

skilled athletes in the sports of soccer,[50] ice-hock-Properties of talent that have been suggested are: (i)ey,[51,52] baseball[53] and cricket[54] have consistentlytalent originates from genetically transmitted struc-indicated that elite performers are more likely to betures; (ii) trained coaches may see early indicatorsborn in the first quartile of the selection year than theidentifying the presence of talent; (iii) early indica-last quartile. It is apparent that what coaches per-tors of talent provide a basis for predicting who isceive as early talent are the advantages afforded bylikely to excel; (iv) only a minority of children are


1108 Smith

early physical maturation.[18] Therefore, current per- tractions and the capacity to relax.[11] Preparing anformance or competitive outcome is used as the athlete for and achieving a high level of perform-definitive criterion rather than utilising a mul- ance places great demands on the character andtifaceted evaluation format during the development constitution of an athlete. Tenacity, conscientious-years. The relative age effect includes physical, cog- ness, perseverance and readiness to perform arenitive, emotional and motivational factors.[55] some qualities of character required to overcomeNoakes,[56] however, suggests that early specialisa- barriers of training and competition.[3] Recovery,tion in endurance running is not of benefit and that a which is part of the training process, is necessary inyoung aspiring athlete should wait until his/her body order to reduce fatigue and to induce training adap-has matured sufficiently before engaging in inten- tation following training overload. Rest-recoverysive physical training. Despite the monotonic asso- can be defined on two levels: (i) in reference to theciation between hours of deliberate practice and the amount of time between exercise sessions on a dailyperformance level achieved, Helsen et al.[47] indicate or weekly basis; or (ii) in reference to the amount ofthat a theory of expertise based solely on deliberate time between longer cycles or periods of training.[57]

practice is still questionable. It may be that those The term ‘regeneration’ is sometimes used towho are more ‘talented’ are more motivated and refer to training cycles or periods of extended rest-consequently practice more.[47] Furthermore, they recovery within a long-term training plan.[57] Kell-note that much of the data would suggest that the man and Kallus[58] have suggested that recoverymost critical part of producing skilled athletes is to encompasses active processes of re-establishingfind individuals who are highly motivated and are psychological and physiological resources so thatlikely to persist over the long duration required to the athlete may tax those resources again either inproduce an expert. competition or training. Recovery depends on a

reduction of, a change of, or a break from stress.[59]

Furthermore, recovery should be closely matched1.4 Other Performance Factorswith the type, intensity and duration of previous

Other factors impacting the achievement of high- training phases[7] and how an athlete handles train-level performance include trainability of the athlete, ing psychologically since athletes have wide vari-neuromuscular efficiency and biomechanics, recov- ances in the extent to which they can tolerate theery potential and psychological factors, which in- physiological and emotional stress of training.[60]

clude the ability to tolerate pain and fatigue.Trainability refers to the potential for improvement 1.5 Types of Athletesand is influenced by genetics, age, prior traininghistory and current fitness/skill status. Neuromuscu- Although training aids every aspiring athlete atlar efficiency, which can be significantly influenced any level, there appears to be two broad categoriesby training, refers to the skill with which an athlete of athlete who perform at the highest performanceexecutes a given movement and relates to how effi- level. It seems, on the one hand, there are the geneti-ciently and intensively the athlete recruits muscle cally talented, and on the other hand, those with afibres in the appropriate muscle groups to produce a highly developed work ethic, with a system guidingmovement pattern accurately and powerfully.[11] At- their effort. From a physiological perspective, everytainment of consistent high performance is not athlete possesses capacities of speed and endurance.achieved without an athlete building a solid psycho- Pyne[61] has suggested that while the concepts oflogical platform. The psychological factors include developing fitness and speed in isolation are under-motivation, aggression, focus, the aptitude to toler- stood by coaches, an integrated approach is pre-ate pain and sustain effort, attitudes towards win- ferred for more complete development of these fac-ning and losing, the ability to cope with anxiety and tors. He has proposed four categories of athlete,stress, coach-ability, the competence to manage dis- using the analogy of horses:[61]



1. Wooden Horse – low fitness/low speed: athletes tive experience may be needed to achieve consistentwho are just commencing training or returning from world-class stature. Some authors have designedillness or injury. relatively detailed long-term training regimes that2. Bolter – low fitness/high speed: athletes who have address these different developmental timenatural speed and may not find it necessary to do the frames.[10,62,63] Balyi[64] has suggested a terminologysame volume of work as their team mates. This and long-term athlete participation structure revolv-athlete may have short-term success, but long-term ing around the following ‘seamless’ chronologicalprogress to elite competition may be limited. and developmental categories: FUNdamental; Train3. Workhorse – high fitness/low speed: these ath- to Train; Train to Compete; and Train to Win.letes are training specialists who are extremely dedi- Within such a structure of a long-term plan is thecated and consistent in their workouts. However, deliberate inclusion of a comprehensive monitoringthey struggle to lift the quality of their efforts when and testing system examining a broad spectrum ofin a competitive situation. This may be due to ex- current and potential performance characteristicscessive training loads, insufficient recovery or inad- and psychological traits.[65] This will assist theequate speed work. coach to continually assess and thus discover the4. Thoroughbred – high fitness/high speed: the ath- strongest and weakest link in the athlete’s train-lete with a combination of developed fitness and ing.[10]

natural speed is likely to have the greatest chance of Although the highest personal international per-success and improvement in the long term, when in formance(s) is usually achieved during the finalassociation with skill and tactical awareness. phase of an athlete’s competitive career, a distinct

Some coaches would argue that although characteristic of long-term plans is the inclusion ofthoroughbreds are a necessary ingredient for a suc- general athletic and multi-activity physical prepara-cessful programme, workhorses are also important tion. The chronological age of highest performanceas training partners or to push the squad training will vary between sports and depend on attainedenvelope and pull the thoroughbred along with them technical skill of the athlete, developed power, en-during periods of training overload. By ensuring that durance capacity and experience. The majority ofappropriate training is provided to suit the require- athletes are most successful after they have reachedments of each individual athlete, the chances of athletic maturation.[10] Athletes, particularly fe-making a workhorse more like a thoroughbred are males, in sports such as gymnastics, figure skating,increased and with correct peaking, a workhorse swimming and tennis may realise top-level perform-may also be highly competitive.[61]

ance in their late teens or early twenties, whereasathletes participating in rugby, soccer, volleyball,2. Long-Term Training Strategyspeed skating, distance running and cross-countryskiing achieve success in their late twenties or early

2.1 Long-Term Planning thirties. Thus, the concept of training age is impor-tant to consider when a long-term plan is developed.Long-term training spans a period between

The training strategy necessary to achieve a long-10–15 years of an athlete’s competitive life and isterm positive progression in the age-performancedivided into the phases not by age but by the degreeexponential curve[66] should include the careful se-of their advancing ability. The phases are: (i) basiclection of competitive opportunities appropriate totraining of fundamentals; (ii) in-depth specialisationthe athlete’s performance level (novice, junior, se-and progress towards maximum personal perform-nior). Long-term periodisation progress should notance power and capacity; and (iii) reaching an inter-be subordinated to short-term competitive events.[15]national level of competition.[1,10] Once an athleteOnce talent has been identified at a young age, therehas reached the fringe level of international per-

formance, a further period of 6–8 years of competi- is a tendency to exploit an athlete with early special-


1110 Smith

isation and an over-ambitious competitive calendar. can be achieved through involvement in variousTraining tends to focus on the outcome (winning) sports or activities. Early specialisation can lead to arather than the process (optimal training) and over- one-sided training of junior athletes in one particularcompeting results in under-training.[67] This often event. Such youngsters are generally capable ofproduces successful junior champions but they do achieving good results at a relatively early age, butnot progress to be competitive at a senior level due often do not improve their performances as expec-to burnout (see section 5). ted, when they become adults. General versatility

gives the background for later specialisation in one2.2 Stages of Athletic Career event and the broader the base is, the higher the

standard will be in one event.[3] Since very differentAn athlete, whose performance progression is maturation processes are at work during the teen

presented in figure 2, was initiated into competitive years, training programmes for the developing ath-swimming at the age of 10 years (stage 1) and lete should reflect these events rather than be tem-undertook in-depth specialisation from the age of 14 pered versions of adult or senior programmes.[65]

years (stage 2) that resulted in the attainment of Furthermore, as an athlete progresses through stagenational team status by age 17 years. Mastery and 2, parent education, lifestyle awareness and flexiblestabilisation of high performance (stage 3) produced school programmes need to be addressed in order toOlympic medals in 1996 and 2000. A long-term plan accommodate the increasing demands and disciplineshould reflect an athlete’s improvement rate, such as required of training.that presented in figure 2, with a natural progressionthat is much higher at the beginning and during the 3. Variables and Componentsspecialisation phase (stage 2) than stage 3.[10]

of TrainingThe plan should be based on the recruitment of

young, keen athletes who may show different levels3.1 Intensity, Duration and Volumeof ability. During stage 1, sport fundamentals shouldof Trainingbe established as well as general athletic ability. For

a young prospective athlete and junior athlete, the The dynamics of training involve the manipula-initial and specialisation stages should be solidly tion of the following training variables: intensity,based on multi-activity physical preparation.[10]

duration and frequency. The intensity of training is aSpecialisation aims at achieving the highest per- qualitative component and is a function of the activi-formance in an adult on the basis of versatility which ties performed in a given unit of time. Intensity

measurement varies between sports. Where distanceand time are factors, absolute intensity is recorded asspeed. In activities performed against resistance,intensity is measured in kilograms lifted or thrown.In racket or team sports, absolute intensity may bemeasured by the frequency or pace of movement orthe tempo of the game.[10] Relative intensity, on theother hand, can be quantified as a proportion of anathlete’s maximum speed, race performance or aphysiological variable such as maximum heart rate.For training prescription purposes, %VO2max[68-70]

or % heart rate reserve[71-73] are often used in re-search training studies or speeds based on ventilato-ry or blood lactate concentration parameters deter-mined during an incremental progressive exercise

1.400

1.450

1.500

1.550

1.600

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Age (y)

Stage 2

Stage 3

Stage 1

Mea

n sp

eed

(m/s

ec)

Olympics

1992 1996 2000

Fig. 2. Example of an age-performance exponential performancecurve for a swimmer.



test in a laboratory.[74,75] Ventilatory and metabolic year and is the combination of duration and frequen-cy. The terms ‘volume’ and ‘duration’ are oftenparameters are superior to percentages of VO2maxconfused and erroneously used interchangea-for the determination of training intensity recom-bly.[10,95] As an athlete progresses through the youth,mendations.[76] A study in endurance-trained indi-junior and senior levels, and is able to tolerate theviduals revealed intensities between 86% and 118%training load, the overall volume of training be-of the individual anaerobic threshold for a givencomes important. A continual increase in training75% of VO2max.[77] This illustrates that the methodvolume is probably one of the highest priorities inused to determine training intensity has significantcontemporary training, particularly for the aerobictraining implications, particularly when one consid-sports.[10] In a study of cross-country skiers betweeners the variance in training response of athletesthe ages of 14 and 24 years, the average annualsupposedly undertaking an identical training pro-training distance for 1 week increased significantlygramme.in every age and sex group.[81] Similarly, trainingPapers reviewing the influence of the three train-volume in marathon running has been shown to haveing variables on athlete adaptive response concludea significant influence on performance outcome inthat training intensity is the major parameter influ-recreational runners.[96-98] At the international level

encing the effects of training on the cardiorespirato-of endurance-based sports (e.g. cross-country ski-

ry system.[78-80] Although high-intensity training hasing), it is common practice to accumulate between

produced improvements in VO2max in cross-country800 and 1000 hours of training per year.[94] At the

skiers,[81-83] cyclists[84,85] and distance runners,[86,87]

elite level of sport, the amount of volume increase isimprovements in performance have also occurred in

a function of the individual characteristics and spe-trained athletes without any increase in

cifics of a sport and a high correlation exists be-VO2max.[84,88,89] It has also been shown that the

tween volume of hours of training per year andaddition of a small amount of high-intensity training

desired performance.[10] As outlined in section 1.3,to normal training can improve performance.[90] For

the monotonic relationship between the amount ofa detailed review of high-intensity training see Laur- deliberate practice and eventual performance out-sen and Jenkins.[91] On a cautionary note, however, come in the team sports of soccer and field-hock-some authorities on this topic suggest that no more ey[47] supports the notion of increased volume ofthan 5–20% of the training load should be accom- training in the long term.plished at intensities greater than the anaerobicthreshold.[92-94] Although overtraining studies have

3.2 Training Loadfailed to demonstrate impaired performance, there isa wealth of practical experience which suggests that Training load is a combination of the followinga large volume of high-intensity training is poorly elements: intensity, duration and frequency. Opti-tolerated.[79]

mal training adaptation will take place if the magni-Training frequency refers to the number of train- tude of the training load is applied to a high-per-

ing sessions within a given time-frame such as a day formance athlete in an appropriately sequencedor a week. It is common practice to have between 5 manner. Coaches will often organise training both inand 14 training sessions per week depending on the the short- and long-term by alternating periods ofsport, the performance level of an athlete and the increasing training load with recovery. Trainingpurpose of training at specific points in a training loads can be classified as the loads of a singlecycle. The duration of training is the quantitative session or microcycle of 3–5 days in the followingcomponent of training referring to the time or the manner: excessive load (surpasses the functionalamount of exercise in a training session. On the capacity of the body and results in a form of over-other hand, the volume of training implies the total training); trainable load (results in a specific trainingquantity of training performed per week, month or effect); maintenance load (is sufficient to avoid a


1112 Smith

detraining effect); recovery load (favours promotion cal and predictive training assessment deservesgreater future attention and specific developmentof the recovery process after a previous excessive orexamining the physiological impact of supra-trainable load); and useless load (is below the inten-VO2max training intensities.sity or value necessary to achieve any of the pre-

viously established effects).[1]

3.3 The S’s of TrainingThe determinants of the training load include: thespecificity of training (amount of general versus

For effective training, specific components ofspecific training); training stimulus of the load; thetraining must be addressed by a coach. Athleticmagnitude of the training, which should be relativeperformance incorporates the basic physiologicalto the performance development status; the durationcomponents of strength, speed and stamina (endur-and intensity of cycles of training throughout a year;ance) in combination with skill. An athlete seeks to

and the sequencing and interrelationship of the train-develop a fitness specific to the demands of the

ing elements in skill-dominated events.[11] The or-sport.[101] Exercises and sport activities are some

ganisation of loading is closely associated with se-combination of strength endurance, speed strength

lecting the optimal rest between successive sessions.and speed endurance executed in a coordinated and

The rest pause is actually a training method which isefficient manner where training develops sport-spe-

just as important as muscular work, and it should becific characteristics (figure 3). The dominance of

employed skilfully.[11] This highlights the extremelyone of the basic components can be illustrated by

complex connection between an athlete’s fitnessweightlifting (strength), track sprinting (speed) and

state, training load and tolerance for training. How-marathon running (endurance). Yet most sports re-

ever, it should be noted that the ability to sustain quire development of some combination of the spe-intensity (intensity endurance), whether it is of a cific components. Factoring into the training milieushort or long duration, is developed through the is the potential negative effect of one trainingapplication of intensity. Furthermore, the typical method on another component. Strength training fordescription of training load erroneously focuses up- example has a profound negative influence onon absolute demand rather than relative biological muscle mitochondria,[102] which are essential forimpact. Therefore, it is important that coaches and endurance. Thus training is a complex process ofsport scientists quantify training load by attempting mixing and sequencing the variables and compon-to estimate the actual effect on the athlete. ents of training so that at competition time, a tapered

A method for objectively quantifying the training athlete has maximised the physiological and skillload, based on heart rate response, has been devel- components necessary for optimal performance.oped by Banister and associates.[99,100] The concept Additional components are (p)sychology, sup-of training impulse (TRIMP) is determined as the pleness, stature, and sustenance.[65,103] The psycho-product of training duration and intensity where the logical component has been discussed previouslyaverage heart rate is multiplied by a non-linear met- (see section 1.4). Suppleness or flexibility refers toabolic adjustment factor that is based on the classi- the aspect of passive and dynamic actions, bothcally described blood lactate curve and the duration specific and non-specific, where lack of flexibilityof a training session.[99,100] This method of quanti- may have negative effects on learning or executingfying a training load can be used in the fitness- techniques and impose extra workload and tensionfatigue model of training response, which has been on those muscles compensating for the deficiency.shown to account for variations in performance. A Agility combined with flexibility results in mobility,limitation of the TRIMP method, however, is that which is the quality of performing a movementonly aerobic training intensities, eliciting heart rate quickly with good timing and coordination throughresponses up to maximum heart rate, can be deter- a wide range of movement, such as in diving, gym-mined. Despite this drawback, this form of analyti- nastics, karate, wrestling and team sports.[10]



Strengthmaximum

Speed enduranceStamina (aerobic) maximum Speed maximum

Elasticstrength/power

Strengthendurance

MobilityAnthropometry

Age/sex developmentTechnical competence

Specificstrength

Specificendurance

Specificspeed

Fig. 3. Schematic representation of the relationship of basic fitness characteristics and their involvement in specific fitness required ofindividual discipline/sports (reproduced from Dick,[101] with permission).

Dick[101] uses the word ‘mobility’ to describe the provide useful data in periods of rapid growth andcapacity to perform joint actions through a wide development.[65]

range of movement where the influence of joint The term ‘sustenance’ is focused on the need forstructure, elasticity of soft tissues and neuromuscu- sound nutritional practices and recovery strategieslar coordination are significant. that aggressively counter the prior training or com-

Stature and physique refers to those aspects of petition stress or at least aid the restorative processbody development such as body mass, lean tissue that a specific load has induced.[65] An adequate diet,mass and fat to muscle ratio, all of which are of in terms of quantity and quality, before, during andinterest in performance optimisation. In some in- after training and competition will maximise per-stances, a particular morphological predisposition is formance. Rehydration and recovery of fluid bal-an overriding factor in sport performance, e.g. ance after exercise,[107] together with the timing andheight, or an average body build may be moulded to method of increased carbohydrate intake to copemeet the demands of a sport.[104] A comprehensive with heavy training, competition and recovery, areanthropometric profile can be estimated from essential for optimal training.[108-110] Athletes areheight, weight, skinfolds, girths, and skeletal length frequently undernourished with respect to carbohy-and breadth measurements.[104-106] Being meticu- drate, particularly in heavy training, therefore, theirlous, however, with accurate landmarking and mea- training and performance suffer.[111] Protein intakesurement, is critical for reliable anthropometric is also important, particularly during heavy trainingmeasurements.[106] Current trends in body composi- blocks. The daily protein intake of 1.2–1.6 g/kgtion research include compartmental assessment us- bodyweight has been recommended for strength anding dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). The endurance athletes undertaking heavy train-greatest advantage of DEXA over other laboratory ing.[112-114] However, athletes in some sports (e.g.methods may be the ability to assess regional as well cycling) often exceed these protein levels when un-as total body composition and analyse separate com- dertaking substantial training, largely as a by-prod-partments of the body (fat, soft tissue and bone).[106] uct of high energy intakes.[115] Sustenance is a sig-When the anthropometric status of athletes is mea- nificant component of training in special case situa-sured routinely, loss of muscle mass or fat can be tions such as travel, altitude, hot and humidinformative in assessing under-performance, and environments where hydration becomes a factor inchanges in segmental lengths and proportions may performance.[116] A comprehensive and adequate di-


1114 Smith

et that is well timed in its administration is a build- a programme for a specific situation.[65] Periodisa-ing block for a stable health platform and a sound tion provides the structure for controlling the stressrecovery programme, as well as being important for and regeneration that is essential for training im-growth and maturation.[65] An extension of the term provements. Planning assists in achieving regularity‘sustenance’ should include the growing area of all in the training process and lifestyle, and decreasesstrategies aimed at initiating, ensuing, or maximis- the danger of monotony and mental saturationing both general and specific recovery and regenera- through variation despite high training frequency.[9]

tion, thereby aiding the underlying well-being of the The periodisation model also lends itself to theathlete. Such strategies may transcend the traditional establishment of performance objectives, trainingboundaries of training and performance. Strategies emphasis and test standards for each phase of train-may include psycho-physiological activities, neuro- ing, thereby eliminating the random approach thatmuscular stimulation, the use of thermoregulatory may lead to excessive increases of volume or inten-stimuli, and the manipulation of environmental or sity, and insufficient regeneration.[6] Further in-ambient conditions. depth commentaries on periodisation have been

written by Satori and Tschiene,[121] Nadori and4. Training Cycles and Strategies Granek,[122] Balyi,[123] Verkhoshansky,[124]

Bompa,[10] and Siff and Verkhoshansky.[11]

Optimal performance strategy centres around theproblem of how to design a programme within an

4.1 Training Structureannual plan that: (i) maximises performance poten-tial at a known future date; and (ii) minimises the

Periodisation is the division of a training yearrisk of fatigue and over-training during the period ofinto manageable phases with the objective of im-training leading up to that date.[117-119] It is wellproving performance for a peak(s) at a predeter-established that in order to attain a significant im-mined time(s). Annual plans are normally construct-provement in performance, training should follow aed around the number of competitive phases in acyclic pattern.[9,66] The development of performanceyear. For those sports that have one competitiveis achieved by the systematic change in training loadphase such as speed skating and other winter sports,parameters of which volume and intensity are thethe plan is monocyclic and traditionally divided intomost general training characteristics. Programmespreparatory, competitive, and transition or recoveryin which athletes are subjected to a steady regularphases. For sports that have winter and summerload are discouraged.[9] Furthermore, it has beencompetitive schedules (e.g. track-and-field andsuggested that training monotony and high trainingswimming), the organisation is bi-cyclic. In multi-loads may be factors related to negative adaptationscyclic sports, the planning process becomes compli-to training.[120] The requirement that training loadscated and decisions have to be made around the mostbe administered in a logical fashion to promoteimportant competitions.[10] Bompa[10] suggests thattraining adaptation and prevent overtraining impliesmonocycles should be used for novice and juniora systematic and well-planned approach to the de-athletes, bi-cycles for experienced athletes, and tri-velopment of a training programme.[6] Periodisationcycles are only recommended for advanced athletesis a process of planning that enables the utilisation ofwho have extensive training backgrounds. Toocorrect loads and adequate regeneration periods formany competitions create significant stress throughavoiding excessive fatigue. It is a systematic andtravel, expectations, social and psychological fac-methodological planning tool that serves as a direc-tors that can lead to under-performance and eventu-tional template for both athlete and coach. The con-ally burnout. Careful construction of the yearly andcept is not a rigid one with only one form of ap-long-term plans is critical for the development of aproach; rather, it is a framework within and around

which a coach and sport science team can formulate successful senior athlete.



4.2 Training Phases

Through questionnaires and practice, the cyclicarrangement of training loads has been shown toproduce performance excellence. The formulationof cycles is a complex process and it has becomeconfused by the use of various terminologies.Matveyev[66] listed the cycles as micro, meso andmacro where a microcycle referred to a structure ofseparate training sessions or small grouping of sev-

Load

ing

3 : 11 : 1 2 : 1 4 : 1

Time (wks)

Fig. 4. Examples of training cycles.[3]eral sessions; mesocycles were a grouping of severalmicrocycles with a predetermined training objective

A criterion for determining the length of a meso-or performance goal; and macrocycles reflectedcycle may be based on whether a training objectivegroupings of mesocycles within a semiannual oris metabolic or neural in nature.[122] Longer cyclesannual plan. Bompa[10] and Pyne,[125] on the otherare suggested for metabolic training and shorterhand, use the term ‘microcycle’ for the weeklyones for neural adaptation purposes.training plan and ‘macrocycle’ as representing a

phase of 2–6 weeks. The term ‘mesocycle’ is notused by Bompa,[10] and Pyne[125] states that meso- 4.3 Tapering Strategiescycles represent an entire season or time period of16–24 weeks. Microcycles of training are normally Tapering is used to describe a reduction in train-considered to consist of 6 days of training and one ing after high-intensity and/or volume training priorrest day; five and two; four and one; or three and to an athletic event in order to allow recovery andone.[1]

enhance performance. Variables that can be alteredA classification system of specific microcycles during tapering include training frequency, duration

has been proposed: of training sessions (volume), intensity, and the• ordinary, moderate microcycle (intermediate length of time for which the training load is reduced.

training load); Furthermore, various formats of the taper include: a• shock microcycle (significant increase in load to single step reduction in training load;[126-128] an in-

previous microcycle); cremental step-wise reduction;[129] or a fast or slow• applied microcycle (to allow athlete to adjust to exponential taper.[130,131]

new training conditions or to ensure competition Tapers that improve swim performance oftenpreparedness); consist of a 60–90% reduction in weekly training

• competition microcycle; volume.[129] However, in distance runners, a 7-day,

• recovery microcycles (microcycles after compe- 62% reduction in weekly training volume did nottition or shock cycles).[66] improve performance as determined by an exercise

test to exhaustion when intensity was also low.[13] InShock microcycles (increased volume and/or in-contrast, a 7-day taper with an overall 85% reduc-tensity) are necessary to elicit a training overloadtion in weekly training volume improved 5km racebut must be monitored carefully to avoid injury ortime.[132]overtraining. The lengths of microcycles will vary

between sports, and coaches may use different com- The Shepley et al.[13] and Houmard et al.[132]

binations to produce effective competitive perform- studies illustrate the equivocal stance of the scien-ance. Typical cycles follow a pattern with the alter- tific literature when examining investigations in thisnation of training load and relative recovery in a area. However, despite a bewildering array of find-format such as 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 3 : 1 or 4 : 1.[3] These ings, a number of key tenants do percolate throughcycles are represented in figure 4. the taper area. Exercise intensity during a taper


1116 Smith

appears to be the key factor. In studies that utilised performed significantly better in maximal cycleergometry than the slow exponential group and wasexercise intensities of ≤70% VO2max, either main-improved more than, but not significantly so, in atained or worsened performance was attained.[133,134]

5km run. The results demonstrate that an exponen-Alternatively, in tapers including exercise intensi-tial decay taper protocol following a standardties ≥90% VO2max[13,135] or maintained high-intensi-square-wave quantity of training is superior to aty strength training[136] have resulted in improvedstep-decrement taper.[131] In summary, it appearsperformance. Furthermore, with a 90% reduction inthat a successful taper involves a significant reduc-training volume during 7 days that included high-tion in training volume by a range of 60–90% depen-intensity intervals, there was a 22% improvement inding on pre-taper training and the fitness level of theexercise time (approximately 5 minutes) to exhaus-athlete over a 7–21 day period. Training intensitytion.[13] A key suggestion is that intense exerciseshould be maintained at or above 90% VO2max tomay be necessary to maintain training-associatedmaintain the fitness component. Unfortunately, toadaptations with a reduction in training volumedate, there has not been a definitive study or series ofduring the taper period.[129]

studies on the optimal reductions in frequency, dura-Taper duration depends on the pre-taper trainingtion, intensity and format. However, a comprehen-

volume and intensity, and is generally 7–21 days insive review of the taper variables has summarised

length. For endurance athletes specifically, a taperstudy findings.[139]

that lasts longer than 21 days would result in main-tenance rather than an improvement in perform- 5. The Training Responseance.[137] Mathematical models developed to calcu-late the optimal combination of frequency, volume,

5.1 Monitoring the Training Responseintensity and duration needed for an effective tapersuggest that fitness level of an athlete influences the

It is extremely difficult to measure and quantifytaper duration. An approximate duration of 16 days

all input factors affecting an athlete and to assessor less is suggested before a loss of training-asso- how the body has integrated the stimuli in determin-ciated adaptation takes place.[100,138] However, Fitz- ing a measured output response. Aside from theClarke et al.[138] suggest that if an athlete has a growing knowledge surrounding genetic predisposi-relatively low fitness level, a fast taper is required tion (see section 1.2), researchers have discussed awith a reduced training stimulus for 6–10 days or number of parameters in the literature with potentialalternate days of rest and moderate training through for monitoring the training responses. Smith and10 days. Norris[140] have suggested that the ratio between

Finally, the taper format influences the perform- glutamine (Gm) and glutamate (Ga) blood concen-ance outcome. Recently, four different taper trations may be an indicator of tolerance to training.profiles: step reduction versus exponential decay (τ Athletes that have a relatively low Gm/Ga ratio= 5 days) and fast exponential decay (τ = 4 days) under conditions of low training volume at the be-versus slow exponential decay (τ = 8 days) were ginning of a macrocycle following a rest period,stimulated in a systems model to predict perform- appear to be more susceptible to over-reaching andance resulting from a standard square-wave quantity overtraining than those athletes who have high ra-of training for 28 days.[131] The results of the stimu- tios. Furthermore, most endurance athletes appear tolation were tested experimentally in field trials with demonstrate high Gm/Ga ratios and tolerate trainingtriathletes. The results showed that the exponential well. Other relationships between training and dif-taper group made significantly greater improvement ferent hormonal levels have been established, suchabove the pre-taper standard than the step-reduction as norepinephrine,[141] testosterone[142,143] and bio-group in cycle ergometry, and was better, but not logical markers such as iron.[118] Salivary immu-significantly so, in a 5km run. A fast taper group noglobulin-A (IgA) has also been suggested as a



marker for identifying athletes who are more prone Fourier or wavelet analysis, lie in their magnifyingvariations in the autonomic nervous system activity,to upper respiratory tract infections.[144,145] Normal-which makes them more useable and reliable.[156]ly, post-exercise salivary IgA levels are lower thanHRV indices include: the high-frequency (HF) peakpre-exercise, and recovery occurs within 24 hoursof the spectrum (0.15–0.40Hz), which representsbut may remain depressed for longer periods afterparasympathetic activity; the low frequency (LF)high-intensity training.[146] Endurance athletes ap-peak of the spectrum (0.04–0.15Hz) represents bothpear to be at a considerably higher risk of develop-parasympathetic and sympathetic activities;[148] anding infections than power sports or mixed type ofsympathovagal balance is expressed as a percentagesport.[147] In a 12-month study, athletes adhering to aof LF/HF.healthier lifestyle significantly reduced infections

compared with those reporting daily stress, lack of In a study of young and middle-aged mixed sexnutritional awareness or lack of sleep.[147] Thus, an recreational runners, a 12-week running pro-athlete’s biochemical profile may assist a coach or gramme, which included two tapers, resulted in asport scientist in characterising athletes for specific significant increase in HRV, total power and high-suitable training regimes. However, these tech- frequency power in all groups. The data indicatedniques require performance efforts and blood tests that HRV measurement appears to provide an effec-that are not usually endorsed by coaches as they may tive non-invasive assessment of cardiovascular ad-infringe upon training particularly if maximal ef- aptation to aerobic training.[157] Other recent trainingforts are necessary. studies have found an increase in sympathetic tone

in endurance athletes at the end of a 6–9 weekRecent scientific advances in heart rate variabil-overtraining protocol,[158] and 3 weeks of heavyity (HRV) analysis show promise as a non-invasivetraining shifted the cardiac autonomic balance to-resting measurement tool for assessing the degreeswards a predominance of the sympathetic over theof fatigue and preparedness for performance. HRV,parasympathetic drive.[156] In the latter study, duringa marker of parasympathetic activity, is an accepteda recovery week following the heavy training, thereterm to describe variations of both instantaneouswas an abrupt compensation marked by a dramaticheart rate and RR-interval,[148] and the rhythmicincrease in HRV, associated with a relative increaseperiodicity of the sinoatrial neural discharge appearsin the parasympathetic drive and a decrease in theto vary with respiration.[149] Furthermore, circulato-sympathetic drive.[156] As a long-term database isry function is modulated through the interplay ofbuilt on an athlete, the measurement of HRV maysympathetic and parasympathetic outflow and isprovide a monitoring tool that minimises the numberviewed as a reciprocal phenomenon.[149] One of theof athletes who do not realise their performancemost pronounced cardiovascular adaptations to en-potential due to inappropriate training.durance training is a lowered resting heart rate,

which has been proposed to occur through an in- The comprehensive monitoring of athletes re-crease in parasympathetic or vagal tone.[150,151] quires the formation of a sport science/medical teamHowever, training and extraneous stressors can in- to provide the coach with detailed information atduce changes in autonomic function[152,153] that re- both the individual athlete and group levels in ordersult in under-performance of an athlete even after an to assist the coach to make informed decisions re-appropriate regeneration period. An increase in rest- garding the effects and consequent planning of train-ing heart rate has been suggested as a marker for ing. A multidisciplinary team of dedicated profes-monitoring under-recovery,[154,155] but an increase in sionals should consist of strength trainers, nutrition-a few beats, which may be statistically significant, is ists, massage therapists, physicians, sportof limited practical value due to their dependence on psychologists and others depending on the nature ofnumerous environmental factors and mental stress. the sport. It is advisable to have a qualified individu-In contrast, the advantages of HRV indices, using al (lead sport scientist) with a good working rela-


1118 Smith

tionship with the coach, to act as a funnel for infor- which together with an inappropriate lifestyle ormation in order to provide him/her with an ongoing social environment can lead to a situation of over-synopsis of the circumstances surrounding a training training.group or individual athlete.[65]

5.3 Overtraining5.2 Errors in Training

In its simplest form, overtraining has been de-Within any training squad, there will be athletes scribed as an imbalance between training and recov-

who will respond favourably or only marginally to a ery,[14] and a range of terms have been used totraining programme depending on the type of athlete describe it. The terms most often used include:and their ability to cope with the training demands staleness, burnout, overreaching, and short- andand non-training stress factors. The sequence of long-term overtraining.[159] Staleness is an initialtraining and the interplay between work and recov- failure of the body’s adaptive mechanisms to copeery are critical elements of attaining a desired train- with psychological and physiological stress.[160] It ising response. Faults in the training process were a state in which the athlete has difficulty maintain-initially summarised by Harre[9] and have been dis- ing standard training regimens and can no longercussed by several authors.[10,65,101] Errors in training achieve previous performance results.[161] Stalenessinclude: can be regarded as an undesirable response that is a• Recovery is often neglected with mistakes in the consequence or product of overtraining.[60,162] A

micro- and macrocycle sequence. There is inade- state of chronically depressed performance accom-quate use of general exercise sessions for recov- panied by some of the more serious symptoms ofery purposes. overtraining has been termed the ‘overtraining syn-

• Demands on an athlete are made too quickly drome’[6] and is considered to be synonymous withrelative to capacity, compromising the adaptive staleness.[14] Burnout, on the other hand, can beprocess. considered more severe than staleness[163] and is

• After a break in training due to illness or injury, defined as a psychological, emotional and physicalthe training load is increased too rapidly. withdrawal from formerly pursued and enjoyable

• High volume of both maximal and submaximal sport as a result of chronic stress.[164] Overreachingintensity training. or short-term overtraining is an accumulation of

• The overall volume of intense training is too high training and non-training stress and is characterisedwhen the athlete is primarily engaged in an en- by transient performance incompetence which isdurance sport. reversible within a short-term recovery period of

• Excessive attention and time are spent in com- 1–2 weeks and can be rewarded by a state ofplex technical or mental aspects without adequate supercompensation.[155] Sufficient high levels ofrecovery or down time. overload training that push an athlete into an over-

• Excessive number of competitions with maxi- reached state are a normal and necessary part of themum physical and psychological demands com- training process.[165] However, if an athlete is notbined with frequent disturbance of the daily rou- monitored closely, the short-term fatigued state cantine and insufficient training. often turn into long-term overtraining. Overtraining

• Bias of training methodology with insufficient is a long-lasting performance incompetence whichbalance. lasts 3 weeks or more[166] due to an imbalance of

• The athlete lacks trust in the coach due to high training load, competition, non-training stressorsexpectations or goal setting which has led to and recovery.[7] In addition to performance incom-frequent performance failure. petence, athletes exhibit an alteration in well-beingThe underlying theme of these errors is the im- rating[60,167,168] and may show an increased rate of

balance between intensity and adequate recovery, infections.[8] Conditions that may result in overtrain-



ing include errors in the training methods used, significant particularly when the principle of indi-lifestyle, social environment of the athlete and vidual differences is applied to athletes or teams.health-related problems. The principle of individualisation suggests that ath-

letes will react and adapt differently over individualSince improvement in performance is the specifictime frames even when presented with identicalgoal of training, performance should be the goldtraining regimes.[11,65] During a training cycle, anstandard for the training and overtraining reaction.[7]

athlete is in a constant flux along a continuum fromThe diagnosis of an overtraining syndrome, or stale-negative and positive responses and a state of over-ness, is based on the demonstration of decreasedtraining may exist towards the end of a cycle whensport-specific performance with more or less pro-sufficient recovery is excluded from the trainingnounced mood disturbances after the exclusion of anprocess. At competition time, a state of under-recov-organic disease.[169] Performance can be practicallyery may prevail even with a taper as fatigue maydetermined as maximum peak power, speed or timehave been too great to recover from in the usualof a race distance, or under-distance, or time totaper period. Under-recovery refers to a failure toexhaustion for a given speed or power.[7] Infulfil current recovery demands[59] that may resultergometric studies, overtrained endurance athletesfrom either training and/or non-training stress.show an impaired maximal lactate production andUnder-performance is performance incompetencereduced time to exhaustion in high-intensity endur-where an athlete is unable to execute practiced skillsance exercises,[168,170] while the submaximal lactate-in competition or training at expected levels basedperformance relation and the resulting anaerobicon previously established performance/training cri-threshold as well as the anaerobic alactic perform-teria. Under-performance is a consistent unex-ance remain relatively unchanged.[169] Despite aplained performance deficit (recognised and agreedwide array of markers[6,169] and tools for diagnosingupon by the coach and athlete) despite 2 weeks ofovertraining, there is currently no single marker.relative rest.[171] However, it cannot be assumed thatThe duration of the short-endurance stress test, theunder-performance is a result of inappropriate phys-maximal lactate concentration of the incrementalical training alone. Under-performance can resultgraded exercise, as well as the altered mood profile,from either insufficient recovery or from prolongedappear to be the most sensitive parameters.[168]

recovery which can lead to detraining. Furthermore,other factors such as psychological stress, the type6. Optimal Performanceof recovery activity, travel, personality and socio-

Optimal performance requires integration of not logical issues must be part of a multi-facetedonly the physiological elements, but also of the model.[172]

psychological, technical and tactical components.[66]

An integrated athletic performance is also affected 6.1 An Integrated Model ofby a health factor and the final performance out- Athletic Performancecome requires all components to function at nearoptimal levels on the day of competition. A problem Despite the notion that physical performance isis that top-class athletes and their coaches constantly the ultimate goal of training, sport scientists haveprotract both the volume and intensity of training in realised that athletes may encounter stress fromorder to find an edge in competition. Many great three basic sources that are physiological, psycho-champions in a variety of endurance sports have had logical and social in origin. Thus, the athlete is athe extraordinary ability to tolerate significant train- living, psychosociophysiological system.[173] Per-ing levels that are beyond the level of their contem- formance development and optimal training dependporaries and that prove devastating when other ath- heavily on the ability to integrate and react to asletes attempt to replicate the champion’s pro- many relevant variables as possible. Therefore,gramme.[79] Thus, the risk of overtraining is there is a requirement for a holistic approach to


1120 Smith

Athletic performance (integrated performance outcome)

Optimal Under-performance

Periodisation plan and competition sequencing

Physiology Biomechanics Psychology Tactics Health/lifestyle

Sequence of training (macro, meso, micro)

Optimal/poor Optimal/poor Optimal/poor Optimal/poor Optimal/poor

Weighttraining

% Muscle

fat

Volume

Recoverytraining

Repetitionability

EquipmentTechnique

Emotionalstability

Confidence

Psych. Socialdistractions

Focusand

discipline

Cognitivestress

Nontrainingstress

Health

Fatigue

Sickness

Work School Finances

Competition analysis

Intensity

Fig. 5. A model of the contributing components to a measurable sport performance outcome called ‘athletic performance’. Psych =psychological.

monitoring instead of focusing solely on single vari- a major competition, but on money and entertain-ables such as training load.[174] The ultimate goal of ment. It is important for coaches, where possible, tomonitoring is to give each element the appropriate carefully select appropriate in-season competitiondegree of individual attention while simultaneously opportunities as specific training to challenge anwatching and guiding all others. Furthermore, when athlete and to provide an evaluation of training state.necessary, knowledge about non-training stressors

The five components (physiology, biomechanics,will assist athletes and their coaches to adjust the

psychology, tactics and heath/lifestyle) should bephysical training load in relation to variations inevaluated at in-season competitions, and finaltotal stress experienced.[174] A model representingtapered and peaked performance times on a scalefactors that influence athletic performance is pre-from optimal to poor in order to determine thesented in figure 5.[175]

effectiveness of training. In order to establish theWithin the athletic performance model, competi- support system to truly push the limits of perform-

tion sequencing has a central position. Although ance, a formal systematic evaluation and planningcompetition can be regarded as the highest form of process should occur at the end of each macrocycletraining stimulus, excessive competition, partic- or season (6 months). The process rotates fromularly in a short period of time, can lead to under- initial planning, implementation, training, perform-performance. The demands of the competitive envi-

ance and evaluation to the formulation of the nextronment, intensity and psychological stress can pro-

new plan.[67] Balyi[67] suggests when evaluating bothvide a stimulus to the training process, but insuffi-

the training and performance parameters, the fol-cient recovery can push an athlete towards the over-

lowing questions can assist in the development oftraining syndrome. In many sports today, at both thethe new plan:junior and senior levels, the competition calendar is

not based on a periodised plan, promoting peaking at • What were the objectives of the previous plan?



• What actually happened and were the objectives signed and monitored sequence of physical andmet? mental stresses that are accompanied by planned

recovery based on the current level of fitness.[11]• What was learned?Furthermore, the training effect of a programme• What should be done next to sustain/developwithin a macrocycle is determined not by the sum ofstrengths and improve weaknesses?the stimuli, but by their interrelation, schedule and• Who needs to be informed about the new plantime intervals between various stimuli.[176] It is un-and strategies of training?fortunate that most scientific studies reported in theWithout this systematic approach, the long-termliterature are relatively short term (6–20 weeks), doplan will not lead to optimal performance and willnot use elite athletes, and suggest that the dose-certainly obstruct the ability to repeat the series ofresponse (biological impact) is predictable and ifevents and conditions that led to a peak performancerepeated will produce the same response. The im-in subsequent cycles.pact of a training load is determined by current (pre-training cycle) fitness/fatigue ratio, performance de-6.2 Avoiding Overtrainingvelopment status (level of sport mastery), and the

Training strategies for avoiding overtraining sequence and duration of the applied load. Since anhave been summarised by several authors.[6,56,79]

athlete’s fitness and performance status are dynamicCommon training themes for endurance athletes in- and usually moving in a positive performance direc-clude: low-intensity endurance training as a neces- tion, it is likely that any dose-response will notsary platform for higher intensity specific train- produce a uniform and predictable adaptation whening;[9,94] alternate hard and easy training;[56,92] train- continually repeated. Thus, the training responseing based upon only 2–3 hard sessions per necessitates continual monitoring in order for ad-week;[92,94] training intensity as the key to suc- justment of the applied training to maximise thecess;[79,80] and rest and recovery as necessary before individual training effect.competitions.[56] These themes go hand in hand withcommon features of structured training programmes 7. Conclusionsas summarised by Pyne[125] where:

• the long-term performance goal for the season The limits of human performance are continuallyforms the basis upon which the training pro- being challenged through, among other reasons,gramme is designed; year-round training and an advanced knowledge of

• there is a progressive and cyclical increase in training methodology. Sport performance requirestraining load; an athlete to integrate many factors, some trainable

• there is a logical sequence to the order of the (psychology, physiology and skill), some teachabletraining phases; (tactics) and others outside the control of the athlete

• the training process is supported by scientific and coach (genetics and age). Although genetic en-monitoring; dowment is a common-sense explanation of what

• there is intensive use of recovery techniques underlies performance in sport, an alternative posi-throughout the training programme; tion is that sport expertise could be the result of

• there is an emphasis on skill development and hours spent in focused training or deliberate prac-refinement maintained throughout the training tice. Thus, at the highest levels of sport, there areprogramme; genetically talented ‘thoroughbreds’ and other ath-

• there is an underlying component for the im- letes who have a highly developed work ethicprovement and maintenance of general athletic (‘work horses’) with a system guiding their effort.abilities. Long-term training spans a period betweenThe attainment of consistent high performance 10–15 years of an athlete’s competitive life and is

requires effective training that is a carefully de- divided into phases not by age but by the degree of


1122 Smith

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a framework for understanding the training process leading to

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