1) Define epistemology. State and explain different types of knowledge. Categorize the following into different types of knowledge [declarative/ procedural, Tacit/ Explicit and general/ contextually specific/ technologically specific.]

Using a book describing factors to consider when deciding whether to buy a company’s stock. This may include price to earnings ratio, dividends. Tacit Knowledge

A company document identifying the circumstances under which a consultant team’s manager should consider replacing a team member who is having problems with the project.

A manual describing the factors to consider in configuring a computer so as to achieve performance specifications Technologically Specific

A technician’s knowledge of symptoms to look for in trying to repair a faulty television set. Tacit Knowledge

A book describing steps to take in deciding whether to buy a company’s stock. Tacit Knowledge

A company document identifying the sequence of actions a consultant team’s manager should take when requesting senior management to replace a team member having problems with the project. Procedural Knowledge

Epistemology means understanding knowledge.

Epistemology is the study of the nature and scope of knowledge and justified belief. It analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims. It is essentailly about issues having to do with the creation and dissemination of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry.

Epistemology asks questions like: "What is knowledge?", "How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", "What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?", "What is its structure, and what are its limits?", "What makes justified beliefs justified?", "How we are to understand the concept of justification?", "Is justification internal or external to one's own mind?"

Types of Knowledge:

1) Explicit knowledge

-is knowledge that is recorded and communicated through mediums. It is our libraries and databases. The specific of what is contained is less important than how it is contained. Anything from the sciences to the arts can have elements that can be expressed in explicit knowledge.

The defining feature of explicit knowledge is that it can be easily and quickly transmitted from one individual to another, or to another ten-thousand or ten-billion. It also tends to be organized systematically. For example, a history textbook on the founding of America would take a chronological approach as this would allow knowledge to build upon itself through a progressive system; in this case, time.

2) Tacit Knowledge

It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to communicate tacit knowledge through any medium.

For example, the textbook on the founding of America can teach facts (or things we believe to be facts), but someone who is an expert musician can not truly communicate their knowledge; in other words, they can not tell someone how to play the instrument and the person will immediately possess that knowledge.

In this sense, tacit knowledge would most closely resemble a posteriori knowledge, as it can only be achieved through experience.

The biggest difficult of tacit knowledge is knowing when it is useful and figuring out how to make it usable. Tacit knowledge can only be communicated through consistent and extensive relationships or contact (such as taking lessons from a professional musician). But even in this cases there will not be a true transfer of knowledge. Usually two forms of knowledge are born, as each person must fill in certain blanks (such as skill, short-cuts, rhythms, etc.).

3) Propositional Knowledge (also Descriptive or Declarative Knowledge)

Propositional knowledge has the oddest definition yet, as it is commonly held that it is knowledge that can literally be expressed in propositions; that is, in declarative sentences or indicative propositions.

The best example is one that contrasts propositional knowledge with our next form of knowledge, non-propositional or procedural knowledge. Let’s use a textbook/manual/instructional pamphlet that has information on how to program a computer as our example. Propositional knowledge is simply knowing something or having knowledge of something.

4) Procedural Knowledge

is knowledge that can be used; it can be applied to something, such as a problem. Procedural knowledge differs from propositional knowledge in that it is acquired “by doing”; propositional knowledge is acquired by more conservative forms of learning.

One of the defining characteristics of procedural knowledge is that it can be claimed in a court of law. In other words, companies that develop their own procedures or methods can protect them as intellectual property. They can then, of course, be sold, protected, leased, etc.

2) What is knowledge management? What is Intellectual Capital? Explain how an organization is valued for their intellectual capital.

Knowledge management (KM) is the process of capturing, developing, sharing, and effectively using organizational knowledge.

It refers to a multi-disciplinary approach to achieving organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.

Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organisational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organization

Intellectual Capital is The value of a company or organization's employee knowledge, business training and any proprietary information that may provide the company with a competitive advantage.

Intellectual capital is considered an asset, and can broadly be defined as the collection of all informational resources a company has at its disposal that can be used to drive profits, gain new customers, create new products, or otherwise improve the business.

Intellectual capital is a real business asset, although measuring it is a very subjective task.

Companies spend millions annually training their employees in business-specific topics and otherwise paying for increased competence in their staff. This capital employed provides a return to the company, one that can contribute toward many years' worth of business value.

Thus Intellectual capital is the term used to describe the intangible assets provided to an entity by its employees' efforts and also knowledge assets such as patents, trademarks, copyrights, and other results of human innovation and thought. Intellectual capital is often disaggregated into four categories:

Legally recognized intangible assets such as patents, copyrights, and franchises that are purchased

Legally salable and protected intangible assets such as trademarks, brands, customer lists, and customer orders

Structural intangible assets such as the systems and databases used within the company; examples of these systems are the information system, accounting system, purchasing system, and sales system

Human capital intangible assets such as what is in the minds of the individuals who work for the company; an example is the knowledge that researchers in a pharmaceutical company might have in their minds of past experiments and their results

Intellectual Capital: the new wealth of organizations

The wealth and value of organizations are increasingly based on intellectual capital.

Although acquiring talented individuals and investing in employee learning adds value to the organization, reaping the benefits of intellectual capital involves translating the wisdom of employees into reusable and sustained actions. This requires a culture that creates:

employee commitment,

encourages learning,

fosters sharing, and

involves employees in decision making.

An infrastructure to recognize and embed promising and best practices through social networks, evidence-based practice, customization of innovations, and use of information technology results in increased productivity, stronger financial performance, better patient outcomes, and greater employee and customer satisfaction.

3) Explain the terms: data, information, knowledge.

“You have recently visited the Restaurant for eating.” List different elements of this scenario which can be termed as data and information. Give an example about knowledge that may be useful in converting the data into information.

Knowledge

Firstly, let’s look at Knowledge. Knowledge is what we know. Think of this as the map of the World we build inside our brains. Like a physical map, it helps us know where things are – but it contains more than that. It also contains our beliefs and expectations. “If I do this, I will probably get that.” Crucially, the brain links all these things together into a giant network of ideas, memories, predictions, beliefs, etc.

It is from this “map” that we base our decisions, not the real world itself. Our brains constantly update this map from the signals coming through our eyes, ears, nose, mouth and skin.

You can’t currently store knowledge in anything other than a brain, because a brain connects it all together. Everything is inter-connected in the brain. Computers are not artificial brains. They don’t

understand what they are processing, and can’t make independent decisions based upon what you tell them.

There are two sources that the brain uses to build this knowledge - information and data.

Data

Data is/are the facts of the World. For example, take yourself. You may be 5ft tall, have brown hair and blue eyes. All of this is “data”. You have brown hair whether this is written down somewhere or not.

In many ways, data can be thought of as a description of the World. We can perceive this data with our senses, and then the brain can process this.

Human beings have used data as long as we’ve existed to form knowledge of the world.

Until we started using information, all we could use was data directly. If you wanted to know how tall I was, you would have to come and look at me. Our knowledge was limited by our direct experiences.

Information

Information allows us to expand our knowledge beyond the range of our senses. We can capture data in information, then move it about so that other people can access it at different times.

Here is a simple analogy for you.

If I take a picture of you, the photograph is information. But what you look like is data.

I can move the photo of you around, send it to other people via e-mail etc. However, I’m not actually moving you around – or what you look like. I’m simply allowing other people who can’t directly see you from where they are to know what you look like. If I lose or destroy the photo, this doesn’t change how you look.

So, in the case of the lost tax records, the CDs were information. The information was lost, but the data wasn’t. Mrs Jones still lives at 14 Whitewater road, and she was still born on 15th August 1971.

4) Compare and contrast between the knowledge and expertise.

Epistemology is how we know. In KO we make implicit epistemic statements about knowledge of concepts, acts (such as representation), entities, and systems. In so doing, we create knowledge, and our epistemic stance dictates what kind of knowledge that is. Some common names of epistemic stances are: pragmatic, positivistic, operationalist, referential, instrumental, empiricist, rationalist, realist, etc. Each of these makes claims as to what kind of knowledge can be created through research, and how it is gathered and how it is presented. These epistemic stances do this work because they have a systematic view on reality, our knowledge of it, and the meaning we can ascribe to it. The KO researcher that claims a pragmatic epistemic stance has made a statement against rationalist stances about the meaning of reality and how we come to know it.

Knowlegde :

state of knowing, by which we also mean to be acquainted or familiar with, to be aware of, to recognize or apprehend facts, methods, principles, techniques and so on

"the capacity for action," an understanding or grasp of facts, methods, principles and techniques sufficient to apply them in the course of making things happen

codified, captured and accumulated facts, methods, principles, techniques and so on. When we use the term this way, we are referring to a body of knowledge that has been articulated and captured in the form of books, papers, formulas, procedure manuals, computer code and so on.

Definition : "Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. It originates and is applied in the minds of knowers. In organizations, it often becomes embedded not only in documents or repositories but also in organizational routines, processes, practices, and norms."(p.5).

Expertise can be defined as knowledge of higher quality.

•It address the degree knowledge

•An “expert” is one who is able to perform a task much better than others

For example:

•There can be expert vehicle drivers. Similarly we can have expert heart surgeon.

•Though the fields are different, each of them excels in the performance

TheSkillslevelofexpertsfromdifferentdomainsshouldnotbecomparedtoeachother.

•Allexpertsrequireroughlythesamecognitiveskills.Thedifferenceliesinthedepthoftheirexpertisewhencomparedtoothersinthesamedomain

•Expertise can be classified into three distinct categories:

•Associational Expertise

•Motor Skills Expertise

•Theoretical (Deep) Expertise

Types of Expertise

Associational Expertise:

•Inmostofthefieldsitisdesirablethatanexpertshouldhaveadetailedunderstandingofthebackgroundandunderlyingtheoryrelatedtothedomainofexpertise.Basedonhisexperiences,hecanassociatetheobservationsoftheperformancetoacertaincause.

•Thepersonwhocanfixaspecificproblems,usinghisexperientialexpertiseissaidtohaveassociationalunderstanding.Howeverifanyunseenproblemoccurshemayknowhowtoresolve.

Motor Skills Expertise:

•They are predominantly physical rather than cognitive.

•Human can improve these skills by practicing and taking a repeated training.

•Under motor skills, some people have greater abilities than others. But the real learning and the expertise is developed through persistent guided practice.

•For example: Driving a Car, Swimming, Skating

Theoretical(Deep)Expertise:

•Therearesomeproblems,whichrequiregoingbeyondasuperficialunderstandingofthedomain.

•Itisrequiredtoapplyacreativeingenuitywhichisbasedontheoreticalknowledgeofthedomain.

•Thistypeofknowledge,enablestheexpertstosolveproblemsthathavenotbeenseenmoreandhencecannotbesolvedbyassociationknowledge

•Thistypeofknowledgeisacquiredthroughformaltrainingandhandsonproblemsolving

5) State forces that drive the knowledge and explain any two.

Forces Driving

1. Increasing Domain Complexity: Intricacy of internal and external processes, increased competition, and the rapid advancement of technology all contribute to increasing domain complexity.

2. Accelerating Market Volatility: The pace of change, or volatility, within each market domain has increased rapidly in the past decade.

3. Intensified Speed of Responsiveness: The time required to take action based upon subtle changes within and across domains is decreasing.

4. Diminishing Individual Experience: High employee turnover rates have resulted in individuals with decision-making authority having less tenure within their organizations than ever before.

Every organisation exists in an environment that conditions the way the organisation conducts its business. Abell and Oxbrow give examples of a number of business drivers for different sectors which have influenced the way organisations in those sectors have gone about knowledge management, [Abell & Oxbrow, 2001]. A sample is given in the following table:

6) Explain the relevance of KM in today’s dynamic & complex environment.

Relevance of Knowledge Management in Todays Lav. Las. Lav. Las

All organizations can benefit from their people sharing, innovating, reusing, collaborating and learning.

Here is a list of 15 benefits which can result from knowledge management (KM) and enterprise social

networks (ESNs). What would you add to this list?

"Knowledge Management caters to the critical issues of organizational adaption, survival and competence in face of increasingly discontinuous environmental change. Essentially, it embodies organizational processes that seek synergistic combination of data and information processing capacity of information technologies, and the creative and innovative capacity of human beings."

Enabling better and faster decision making

a knowledge management environment can provide the basis for making good decisions. The reuse of

knowledge in repositories allows decisions be based on actual experience, large sample sizes, and

practical lessons learned.

Making it easy to find relevant information and resources

When faced with a need to respond to a customer, solve a problem, analyze trends, assess markets,

benchmark against peers, understand competition, create new offerings, plan strategy, and to think

critically, you typically look for information and resources to support these activities. If it is easy and fast

to find what you need when you need it, you can perform all of these tasks efficiently.

Reusing ideas, documents, and expertise

Once you have developed an effective process, you want to ensure that others use the process each

time a similar requirement arises. If someone has written a document or created a presentation which

addresses a recurring need, it should be used in all future similar situations. When members of your

organization have figured out how to solve a common problem, know how to deliver a recurring service,

or have invented a new product, you want that same solution, service, and product to be replicated as

much as possible. Just as the recycling of materials is good for the environment, reuse is good for

organizations because it minimizes rework, prevents problems, saves time, and accelerates progress.

Avoiding redundant effort

No one likes to spend time doing something over again. But they do so all the time for a variety of

reasons. Avoiding duplication of effort saves time and money, keeps employee morale up, and

streamlines work. By not spending time reinventing the wheel, you can have more time to invent

something new.

Avoiding making the same mistakes twice

George Santayana said, "Those who ignore history are doomed to repeat it." If we don't learn from our

mistakes, we will experience them over and over again. Knowledge management allows us to share

lessons learned, not only about successes, but also about failures. In order to do so, we must have a

culture of trust, openness, and reward for willingness to talk about what we have done wrong. The

potential benefits are enormous. If NASA learns why a space shuttle exploded, it can prevent

recurrences and save lives. If FEMA learns what went wrong in responding to Hurricane Katrina, it can

reduce the losses caused by future disasters. If engineers learn why highways and buildings collapsed

during a previous earthquake, they can design new ones to better withstand future earthquakes. If you

learn that your last bid or estimate was underestimated by 50%, you can make the next one more

accurate and thus earn a healthy profit instead of incurring a large loss.

Taking advantage of existing expertise and experience

Teams benefit from the individual skills and knowledge of each member. The more complementary the

expertise of the team members, the greater the power of the team. In large organizations, there are

people with widely-varying capabilities and backgrounds, and there should be a benefit from this. But as

the number of people increases, it becomes more difficult for each individual to know about everyone

else. So even though there are people with knowledge who could help other people, they don't know

about each other. The late Lew Platt, former CEO of HP, is widely quoted as saying "If only HP knew

what HP knows, we would be three times more productive." Knowing what others know can be very

helpful at a time of need, since you learn from their experience and apply it to your current

requirements.

Communicating important information widely and quickly

Almost everyone today is an information worker, either completely or partially. We all need information

to do our jobs effectively, but we also suffer from information overload from an increasing variety of

sources. How can we get information that is targeted, useful, and timely without drowning in a sea of

email, having to visit hundreds of web sites, or reading through tons of printed material? Knowledge

management helps address this problem through personalized portals, targeted subscriptions, RSS

feeds, tagging, and specialized search engines.

Promoting standard, repeatable processes and procedures

If standard processes and procedures have been defined, they should always be followed. This allows

employees to learn how things are done, leads to predictable and high-quality results, and enables large

organizations to be consistent in how work is performed. By providing a process for creating, storing,

communicating, and using standard processes and procedures, employees will be able to use them

routinely.

Providing methods, tools, templates, techniques, and examples

Methods, tools, templates, techniques, and examples are the building blocks supporting repeatable

processes and procedures. Using these consistently streamlines work, improves quality, and ensures

compatibility across the organization.

Making scarce expertise widely available

If there is a resource who is in great demand due to having a skill which is in short supply, knowledge

management can help make that resource available to the entire organization. Ways of doing so include

community discussion forums, training events, ask the expert systems, recorded presentations, white

papers, podcasts, and blogs.

Showing customers how knowledge is used for their benefit

In competitive situations, it is important to be able to differentiate yourself from other firms.

Demonstrating to potential and current customers that you have widespread expertise and have ways of

bringing it to bear for their benefit can help convince them to start or continue doing business with you.

Conversely, failure to do so could leave you vulnerable to competitors who can demonstrate their

knowledge management capabilities and benefits.

Accelerating delivery to customers

Speed of execution is another important differentiator among competitors. All other things being equal,

the company which can deliver sooner will win. Knowledge sharing, reuse and innovation can

significantly reduce time to deliver a proposal, product, or service to a customer. And that translates

into increased win rates, add-on business, and new customers.

Enabling the organization to leverage its size

As an organization grows, the increasing size is only a benefit if it can use the knowledge of all of its

employees. Through the use of tools such as communities, expertise locators, and repositories, the full

power of a large enterprise can be exploited.

Making the organization's best problem-solving experiences reusable

Consistently applying proven practices, also known as best practices or good practices, can significantly

improve the results of any firm. For example, if a manufacturing plant in one part of the world has

figured out how to prevent the need for product rework, and all other plants around the world adopt

this practice, savings will flow directly to the bottom line. By establishing a process for defining,

communicating, and replicating proven practices, an enterprise takes advantage of what it learns about

solving problems.

Stimulating innovation and growth

Most businesses want to increase their revenues, but it becomes increasingly difficult as industries

mature and competition increases. Creating new knowledge through effective knowledge sharing,

collaboration, and information delivery can stimulate innovation. If you achieve this and many of the

other 14 benefits enabled by knowledge management, you should be able to achieve growth.

7) Explain how Knowledge Management perspective will empower decision making in future.

Making it easy to find relevant information and resources

When faced with a need to respond to a customer, solve a problem, analyze trends, assess markets, benchmark against peers, understand competition, create new offerings, plan strategy, and to think critically, you typically look for information and resources to support these activities. If it is easy and fast to find what you need when you need it, you can perform all of these tasks efficiently.

Reusing ideas, documents, and expertise

Once you have developed an effective process, you want to ensure that others use the process each time a similar requirement arises. If someone has written a document or created a presentation which addresses a recurring need, it should be used in all future similar situations. When members of your organization have figured out how to solve a common problem, know how to deliver a recurring service, or have invented a new product, you want that same solution, service, and product to be replicated as much as possible. Just as the recycling of materials is good for the environment, reuse is good for organizations because it minimizes rework, prevents problems, saves time, and accelerates progress.

Avoiding redundant effort

No one likes to spend time doing something over again. But they do so all the time for a variety of reasons. Avoiding duplication of effort saves time and money, keeps employee morale up, and streamlines work. By not spending time reinventing the wheel, you can have more time to invent something new.

Avoiding making the same mistakes twice

George Santayana said, "Those who ignore history are doomed to repeat it." If we don't learn from our mistakes, we will experience them over and over again. Knowledge management allows us to share lessons learned, not only about successes, but also about failures. In order to do so, we must have a culture of trust, openness, and reward for willingness to talk about what we have done wrong. The potential benefits are enormous. If NASA learns why a space shuttle exploded, it can prevent recurrences and save lives. If FEMA learns what went wrong in responding to Hurricane Katrina, it can reduce the losses caused by future disasters. If engineers learn why highways and buildings collapsed during a previous earthquake, they can design new ones to better withstand future earthquakes. If you learn that your last bid or estimate was underestimated by 50%, you can make the next one more accurate and thus earn a healthy profit instead of incurring a large loss.

Taking advantage of existing expertise and experience

Teams benefit from the individual skills and knowledge of each member. The more complementary the expertise of the team members, the greater the power of the team. In large organizations, there are people with widely-varying capabilities and backgrounds, and there should be a benefit from this. But as the number of people increases, it becomes more difficult for each individual to know about everyone else. So even though there are people with knowledge who could help other people, they don't know about each other. The late Lew Platt, former CEO of HP, is widely quoted as saying "If only HP knew what HP knows, we would be three times more productive." Knowing what others know can be very helpful at a time of need, since you learn from their experience and apply it to your current requirements.

Communicating important information widely and quickly

Almost everyone today is an information worker, either completely or partially. We all need information to do our jobs effectively, but we also suffer from information overload from an increasing variety of sources. How can we get information that is targeted, useful, and timely without drowning in a sea of email, having to visit hundreds of web sites, or reading through tons of printed material? Knowledge management helps address this problem through personalized portals, targeted subscriptions, RSS feeds, tagging, and specialized search engines.

Providing methods, tools, templates, techniques, and examples

Methods, tools, templates, techniques, and examples are the building blocks supporting repeatable processes and procedures. Using these consistently streamlines work, improves quality, and ensures compatibility across the organization.

Making scarce expertise widely available

If there is a resource who is in great demand due to having a skill which is in short supply, knowledge management can help make that resource available to the entire organization. Ways of doing so include community discussion forums, training events, ask the expert systems, recorded presentations, white papers, podcasts, and blogs.

Making the organization's best problem-solving experiences reusable

Consistently applying proven practices, also known as best practices or good practices, can significantly improve the results of any firm. For example, if a manufacturing plant in one part of the world has figured out how to prevent the need for product rework, and all other plants around the world adopt this practice, savings will flow directly to the bottom line. By establishing a process for defining, communicating, and replicating proven practices, an enterprise takes advantage of what it learns about solving problems.

8) Explain the processes performed under knowledge discovery and knowledge sharing.

Knowledge Discovery:

Knowledgediscoverymaybedefinedasthedevelopmentofnewtacitorexplicitknowledgefromdataandinformationorfromthesynthesisofpriorknowledge.

Thediscoveryofnewexplicitknowledgereliesmostdirectlyoncombination, whereas thediscoveryofnewtacitknowledgereliesmostdirectlyonsocialization.

Combination:discoveryofnewexplicitknowledge

Combination: discovery ofnewexplicitknowledge

Throughcommunication,integration,andsystemizationofmultiplestreamsofexplicitknowledge,newexplicitknowledgeiscreated either incrementallyor radically (NahapietandGhoshal1998).

Existingexplicitknowledge,data,andinformationarereconfigured,recategorizedandrecontextualizedtoproducenewexplicitknowledge.

Forexample,whencreatinganewproposaltoaclient,explicitdata,information,andknowledgeem-beddedinpriorproposalsmaybecombinedintothenewproposal.Also,dataminingtechniquesmaybeusedtouncovernewrelationshipsamongstexplicitdatathatmaybeleadtocreatepredictiveorcategorizationmodelsthatcreatenewknowledge.

Knowledge Discovery -Socialization

Socialization: is thesynthesisoftacitknowledgeacrossindividuals,usuallythroughjointactivitiesratherthanwrittenorverbalinstructions.

Inthecaseoftacitknowledge,theintegrationofmultiplestreamsforthecreationofnewknowledgeoccursthroughthemechanismof socialization (Nonaka1994).

For example, by transferringideasandimages,apprenticeshipshelpnewcomerstoseehowothersthink.DavenportandPrusak (1998)describedhowconversationsatthewatercoolerhelpedknowledgesharingamonggroupsatIBM.

Ineithercase,newknowledgeisdiscoveredbysynthesizingknowledgefromtwoormoredistinctareaswithexplicitknowledgefromtwoareasbeingsynthesizedthroughcombination,andtacitknowledgefromtwoareasbeingsynthesizedthroughsocialization

Knowledge Sharing:

Knowledgesharingistheprocessthroughwhichexplicitortacitknowledgeiscommunicatedtootherindividuals.

●3importantclarifications:

EffectiveTransferrecipientcanunderstand&actonit.Whatissharedisknowledgeinsteadofrecommendationsbasedonknowledge.

Involveutilizationofknowledgewithoutinternalizingtheknowledge

Itmaytakeplaceacrossindividuals,groups,departmentsor organizations; sharingknowledgeenhancesorganizationalinnovativenessandperformance.

●Dependingonwhetherexplicitortacitknowledgeisbeingshared, exchangeorsocializationprocessesareused.

●Socialization, which wasdiscussedinknowledge discovery, facilitatesthesharingoftacitknowledge

●in cases in which new tacit knowledge is being created as well as where are notbeing created. There isnointrinsicdifferencebetweenthesocializationprocesswhenusedforknowledgediscoveryorknowledgesharing,althoughthewayinwhichtheprocessmaybeusedcouldbedifferent.

●For example, when usedtoshareknowledge,aface-to-face meeting (amechanismthatfacilitatessocialization) could involveaquestion-and-answersessionbetweenthesenderandrecipientofknowledge, whereas whenusedtocreateknowledgeaface-to-facemeetingcouldtakemoretheformofadebateorjointproblem-solving

•Exchange, in contrastto socialization, focuses onthesharingofexplicit knowledge. It isusedtocommunicateortransferexplicitknowledgeamongindividuals,groups,andorganizations(Grant1996).Initsbasic nature, the processofexchangeofexplicitknowledgedoesnotdifferfromtheprocessthroughwhichinformationis communicated. An exampleofexchangeisaproductdesignmanualbeingtransferredbyoneemployeetoanother,whocanthenusetheexplicitknowledgecontainedinthemanual.Exchangingadocumentcouldalsobeusedtotransferinformation.

•For example: Product design manual transferred by one employee to another

9) Who is knowledge worker?

In Knowledge Management (KM), employees and managers who contribute significantly to the intellectual capital of the company are called Knowledge Workers(KW). • It is debatable that the employees are valued for the knowledge they bring to the corporation depends on whether their knowledge is recorded or otherwise captured for future use. • So-called knowledge organizations that take a systematic approach to capturing this information—transform employees and managers to knowledge workers, regardless of their actual job titles or duties. But even the best knowledge organizations do not treat every employee as a knowledge worker.

Knowledge workers typically add to the value of the corporation by contributing to the corporate knowledge assets, by documenting problems solving activities, by reporting best practices, and by disseminating information in newsletters, online, and in other publications. In each case, the knowledge worker is either works as the channel for or the source of the information.

The typical knowledge worker in corporate America works in marketing, intellectual property, engineering, programming, and other occupations that involve more thought than physical labor.

KWExamples: Artists in the marketing division who produce the media files are typically considered knowledge workers, as media can constitute the intellectual capital of a company, whether the company is a knowledge organization or not.

Customer support representatives are commonly considered knowledge workers because they work with information from customers through direct contact; through interactions through the phone, e-mail, or traditional mail; or through directly observing customer activity in a retail setting. • Managers at all levels can be considered knowledge workers if they are involved in creating new revenues from existing knowledge by reformatting and repackaging information in existing markets or introducing existing products into new markets.

10) State and explain different contributors and detractors of knowledge worker’s loyalty.

Only Bullet Points description in( Page no 185) of Mam notes

Contributors

Difficulty Locating Alternative Employment

Emotional Bond

Investment

Compensation

Detractors

Employment alternatives

Frustration level

11) Explain KM strategies, their types and drivers of knowledge strategy.

Knowledge management is the process of capturing, developing, sharing, and effectivelyusing organizational knowledge.

It refers to a multi-disciplinary approach to achieving organizational objectives by making the best use of knowledge.

Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organizational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organization.

Strategies:

Internal knowledge management – giving their staff access to knowledge in order to support them to do their jobs better or to improve organizational performance. This can include various types of tools and

approaches – intranets, toolkits, databases of research or lessons learned, communities of practice, knowledge sharing events.

Knowledge dissemination – generating knowledge and making their organizational knowledge as widely accessible, or known to the external world especially development partners. For organizations with a strong base either in research, or in practical on the ground experience a next natural step is to want to make the knowledge you have as widely available, accessible and used as possible.

Knowledge brokering – connecting development partners to relevant knowledge and expertise wherever it comes from. Here the role is to help connect development partners with the knowledge they need, whether or not it comes from within your own organization.

Building knowledge capacity – building the capacity of development partners to generate, acquire, share and use knowledge effectively. This is perhaps the most challenging but also most fundamental way to put knowledge at the service of development.

Knowledge management strategies and instruments for companies include:

actively managing knowledge (push strategy).: In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the repository.

Pull Strategy:individuals making knowledge requests of experts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull strategy)

Knowledge Sharing (fostering a culture that encourages the sharing of information, based on the concept that knowledge is not irrevocable and should be shared and updated to remain relevant)

Storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)

Cross-project learning

Knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a company accessible by all)

Expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the experts)

Best practice transfer.

Expert Systems (knowledge seeker responds to one or more specific questions to reach knowledge in a repository)

Knowledge fair

Competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of competences of individual organisation members)

Proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)

Master-apprentice relationship

Collaborative technologies (groupware, etc.)

Knowledge repositories (databases, bookmarking engines, etc.)

Measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicit knowledge for companies)

Knowledge brokers (some organisational members take on responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to talk about a specific subject)

Social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc.)

Inter-project knowledge transfer