ORIGINAL PAPER

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary:A Hybrid Curriculum Model

Ilya Zitter1 & Aimée Hoeve2 & Elly de Bruijn1

Received: 1 June 2015 /Accepted: 25 January 2016 /Published online: 3 February 2016# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract This article proposes a model for the design of a hybrid VET curriculumacross the school-work boundary. VET-curricula are designed on the basis of two maintypes of learning arrangements, namely, the plan for learning in school and for learningat the workplace. A challenge for curriculum development is creating consistencybetween different arrangements. Efforts are made to develop VET-curricula that gobeyond the school-work distinction. Ideally, a well-designed VET curriculum should behybrid in nature. It should combine the advantages of school-based and workplacelearning arrangements by binding these practices together, without losing the strengthof either. To gain insights into the nature of the enactment of an intended andimplemented hybrid VET curriculum at the micro level and at the same time contributeto improving educational practice, practice-based research was carried out in thecontext of educational innovation projects. The results added two insights to theproposed model that conceptualises hybrid VETcurricula, namely, the ‘layeredness’of a curriculum and a professional artefact to create consistency. This improved modelcan be the basis for systematic development of other hybrid curricula. Such develop-ments could lead to a broader empirical base to study the effects of hybrid curricula,specifically to determine whether an intentionally designed hybrid curriculum facili-tates students to successfully navigate the schoolwork boundary.

Keywords Vocational Education and Training (VET) . School-work boundary .

Curriculum design . Curriculummodel . HybridVETcurriculum

Vocations and Learning (2016) 9:111–131DOI 10.1007/s12186-016-9150-y

* Ilya Zitterilya.zitter@hu.nl

1 HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands2 HAN University of Applied Sciences, Arnhem, The Netherlands

Introduction

This article proposes a model for the design of a hybrid VET curriculum across theschool-work boundary. Vocational education and training (VET) aims to providepeople with the knowledge, skills and competences necessary to perform a job andencompasses broader objectives such as active citizenship, personal development andwell-being (European Commission 2012; Tessaring and Wannan 2004). To reach thesediverse aims and objectives, VET needs to offer a broad set of learning arrangements,also establishing horizontal connections in- and out-of-school (e.g., Billett 2011;Dumont and Istance 2010). There are high expectations of incorporating both school-based and workplace learning arrangements in VET, such as, providing a basis forlifelong learning, enhancing the transfer from school learning to practice, reinforcingacademic skills and personal development, developing occupational skills and capac-ities and developing a shared practice (Billett 2014; Lave and Wenger 1991; Poortmanet al. 2014).

Contemporary VET-curricula are designed on the basis of two main types oflearning arrangements, namely, the plan for learning in school and of learning at theworkplace (Aarkrog 2005; Schaap et al. 2012). Designs for school-based and work-place learning arrangements have different rationales and purposes. School arrange-ments usually aim to enhance disciplinary knowledge, theoretical insights and reflec-tion (Guile and Young 2003; Schaap et al. 2012), while workplace learning arrange-ments are considered an effective strategy to develop job related competencies and thedevelopment of vocation, career and professional identity (Billett 2014; Poortman et al.2014; Tynjälä 2013). From a curriculum perspective, the two learning arrangementsalso differ. Learning arrangements at school are usually based on formal, intentionallyplanned educational activities, while, learning activities at work in collaboration withother people are shaped by workplace culture and practice, making them not formal inthe educational sense, but also (partly) intentional or planned within the workplace(Tynjälä et al. 2003).

One of the major challenges for curriculum development is creating balance andconsistency between the various arrangements of a curriculum (Van den Akker 2003;2005; 2010). However, aligning the two aforementioned types of learning arrangementsis very difficult since different actors are involved who speak different languages, comefrom different cultural and historical backgrounds and pursue different interests(Biemans et al. 2009; Müller and Shavit 1998; Van Lieshout 2008). School and workcan be seen as distinct practices, with different aims (schooling and working) and withdifferent cultural and local histories (Akkerman and Bakker 2012).

Efforts are made to develop VET-curricula that go beyond the school-work dichot-omy. In educational research there is a growing attention to reexamine the relationshipbetween school and work (Berner 2010). Some scholars, like Aarkrog (2005), assertthat strict distinctions are necessary and that ‘attempts to make school copy learning inthe workplace or the workplace adopt the characteristics of school-based learning willdiminish the advantages of learning in school and in the workplace’ (p. 146). Othersargue for the importance of rethinking the relations between school and work, byentering school-based and work-based learning into a closer relationship and promotinghorizontal connectedness across activities and subjects, in- and out-of-school (Griffithsand Guile 2003; Dumont and Istance 2010; Tynjälä 2008). In literature, some advocate

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an approach to creating settings for learning ‘which break through the barriers createdby overly defined and differing contexts (e.g. school and work)’ (Griffiths and Guile2003, p. 57). Others agree and take it even further by stating that it is necessary to go‘way beyond the traditional notions of work experience placements’ and ‘start buildingstronger, integrative combinations between the settings in which VET takes place, and,ultimately, create VET programs, which model the way learning occurs in theworkplace’ (Unwin 2009, p. 5).

Alongside the scientific interest, in educational practice as well, there is a growinginterest from different stakeholders (government, vocational institutes, industry, em-ployers and students) to rethink the relationships between school and work, to providestudents with learning experiences at the workplace, while at the same time integratingsuch experiences into educational programs (Billett 2014). In different countriesthroughout the world, systemic and innovative initiatives are undertaken that crossthe school-work boundary (Devins 2013; Dumont and Istance 2010). For example, inAustralia there are many on-going initiatives to provide different kinds of experiencesin practice settings, such as, placements, practicums, work experience programs andprofessional experiences (Billett 2011). A specific Australian example is the large-scale, nationwide program to develop partnerships between schools and three majorsectors, minerals and energy; building and construction; and aviation (Flynn et al.2013). A European example of such a systemic approach can be found in Finlandwhere compulsory, guided and assessed on-the-job learning periods are introduced intothe Finnish VET system (Virtanen et al. 2014).

Besides the above more systemic approaches, there is the overall orientation ofmaking school-based learning arrangements more authentic and situated. Introducingauthenticity can take many forms, such as, authentic learning (e.g., De Bruijn andLeeman 2011), project-based learning (e.g., Helle et al. 2006), school-based mini-companies (e.g., European Commission 2005) and hands-on simulations (e.g.,Khaled et al. 2014). Likewise, cognitive apprenticeship (Brown et al. 1989), situatedlearning and legitimate peripheral participation (Lave and Wenger 1991) are well-known approaches that, in different ways, are attempting to break the encapsulationof school learning (Engeström 2009).

We position ourselves in the line of international research that commends rethinkingthe relationship between learning at work and learning at school. Therefore, weconsider that striving for hybridity is the key. A process of ‘hybridization’(Akkerman and Bakker 2011, p. 17) combines ingredients from different contexts intoa new practice that stands in between established practices, such as school–work. Thishybrid nature is similar to what is known in VET research as ‘connectivity’ (Griffiths2003), which refers to bringing together things that have been separated, like formaleducation and the workplace (Tynjälä 2009). Ideally, a well-designed VET curriculumshould be hybrid in nature, .i.e., combines the advantages of school-based and work-place learning arrangements by binding these intersecting practices together, withoutlosing the strength of either. In an intentionally designed hybrid VET curriculum‘different (…) elements are woven together into coherent programs of learning (…)rather than a program that combines different components with the aim of offering amore enticing menu of learning’ (Zitter and Hoeve 2012, in OECD 2013, p. 138).

To come to a closer understanding of the (potential) hybridity of a VET curriculum,we propose a model that goes beyond the classic school-work dichotomy and takes a

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid... 113

more subtle approach to conceptualize this hybridity. This article takes a designperspective: the enhanced understanding of the hybridity should lead to a balancedand consistent curriculum in practice. After the model for Hybrid VET curricula isintroduced in the next section, we describe a case study research on the development,i.e. design and implementation, of a Hybrid VET curriculum in Dutch VET. Thelessons drawn form case study lessons are presented in the discussion section.

Hybrid VET Curriculum Model

To study the in potential hybrid nature of VETcurricula, the classic separation of schoolbased and work based learning environments with its strict distinction between twophysical locations (school and the workplace) is not particularly helpful. A problematicissue is the tendency to view the question of enhancing of learning in VET indichotomous terms (Griffiths 2003). Therefore, we propose a more nuanced approachto overcome the classic division between school and work and go beyond the standardjuxtaposition of school and the workplace as distinct settings for learning.

This model is the result of previous research in higher vocational education(EQF levels 5–7) that studied curricula that aimed to go beyond the conventionaldistinction between school and workplace and were designed as hybrid (Zitter 2010;Zitter et al. 2009; 2011; 2012). Subsequent research was conducted in secondaryvocational education (EQF levels 1-4/5). Related research is carried out into the designof ‘hybrid learning configurations’ (Cremers et al. 2014), defined as a social practicesituated at the interface of school and the workplace, in which learning is embedded inill-structured, authentic tasks (such as assignments for real-life clients), and it typicallytranscends disciplines, traditional structures and sectors.

We propose the following model to conceptualise a hybrid VET curriculum,consisting of two dimensions: 1) acquisition-participation and 2) constructed-realistic(see Fig. 1).

The first dimension characterises the learning processes that are to be triggered inVET-curricula: acquisition and participation (Sfard 1998). Acquisition is placed on oneend of the first dimension and in this metaphor knowledge is considered as a com-modity that can be acquired, transferred and shared. This type of learning processfocuses on learning activities like integrating, generalizing and articulating and aims fordeveloping meaningful, flexible knowledge and skills, which are required for compe-tent professional behaviour (De Bruijn and Leeman 2011; De Bruijn 2012). On theother end of the dimension we position participation, which characterises learning asgrowing into becoming a full member of a professional community. Central in this viewof learning is the process of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’, in which learnersparticipate in communities of practitioners, moving toward full participation in thesociocultural practices of a community (Lave and Wenger 1991). This process oflearning is characterised by situatedness, contextuality and cultural embeddedness, itis considered as a process of growing into becoming a full member of a community.Learning could take the form of, for example, observing and listening to experiencedcolleagues and imitate their behaviour (Aarkrog 2005).

The second dimension models the conditions under which the above learningprocesses can take place in VET curricula. We distinguish constructed conditions and

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realistic conditions on either side of this dimension. Constructed conditions arecharacterised as low-fidelity: the rich reality of society, and specifically ofprofessional practice, is filtered out. Constructed conditions can also be of slightlyhigher fidelity, for example, by involving simulation technology. Realistic conditions,on the other hand, closely mirror the actual workplace or are fully real and situated in anactual workplace. Khaled et al. (2014) present a similar continuum, going fromcontextualised, ‘near work’ exercises (e.g., cases and simulations) that take place atschools (i.e., non-work-based learning contexts) to learning experiences that take placeat the workplace, such as internships (i.e., work-based learning contexts). The abovedimension and its continuum are also in line with the tenets of the Four-ComponentInstructional Design (4C/ID) model (Van Merriënboer and Kirschner 2012) in whichlearning tasks offer whole-task practice, requiring all or almost all necessary skills,associated knowledge and attitudes to perform the task, starting with relatively easywhole-learning tasks and progressing towards more difficult ones (Van Merriënboeret al. 2003). Furthermore, the constructed-realistic dimension is aligned with theconcept of ‘legitimate peripheral participation’ (Lave and Wenger 1991) which de-scribes how novices participate in authentic work by starting in peripheral tasks withless risk factors, gradually advancing to taking full responsibility.

The two dimensions form four quadrants (Zitter 2010; Zitter et al. 2012; Zitter andHoeve 2012): constructed-acquisition, constructed-participation, realistic-acquisitionand realistic-participation (see Fig. 1). Below, These four quadrants are described.

Fig. 1 Model hybrid VET curriculum

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid... 115

1) Constructed-Acquisition. This quadrant focuses on learning in terms of acquisitionand is to take place under conditions in which the rich reality of society, specif-ically the rich reality of professional practice or working life, is absent, simplifiedor filtered out. The archetypical example of this quadrant is a classic classroom-setting, in which a teacher teaches theory in the form of direct instruction. In classicclassroom-settings, rich reality is used to illustrate theoretical concepts, for exam-ple, in the form of stories told by the teacher, while contextualisation of conceptstakes place in the form of examples in textbooks and at the most by pictures orperhaps video-material.

2) Constructed-Participation. This quadrant is to trigger a different learning process,namely participation and is to take place under constructed conditions of a low-fidelity nature. Constructed-participation has an established track record in educa-tional practice and science as ‘authentic learning’ (e.g., De Bruijn and Leeman2011; Herrington et al. 2014; Van Merriënboer and Kirschner 2012). To triggerlearning as participation under constructed conditions, elements of the rich realityof professional practice are present, but not entirely. Parts of reality are, forexample, left out, simplified, enacted or simulated. Moreover, the conditions aresafer and more ‘fool proof’, so less can go wrong, by providing more assistanceand allowing more room for errors and do overs. Simulations are examples whichcan be positioned in this quadrant. In simulations, the vocational context and tasksare replicated in either a virtual or live environment at school or at a training centre(Khaled et al. 2014). Simulations can either be live, hands-on or virtual, technol-ogy-based. Another concept which fits in this quadrant is ‘workplace simulations(WPS)’: ‘WPS are authentic learning environments at school, which should attract,inspire, and challenge students to acquire knowledge (learning) skills, and attitudesrelevant for a vocational profession’ (Jossberger et al. 2010, p. 415)

3) Realistic-Participation. Constructed conditions are to be designed as more high-fidelity by introducing more of rich reality, like for example, paying customers andtime pressure. Besides, conditions can be designed as more realistic by providingless or no assistance and demand adherence to professional standards, such as,wearing safety gear or a uniform. This quadrant can be situated at school groundsor at the workplace. Under realistic conditions learning processes that are charac-terized as ‘participation’ are to be triggered. When taking place at the workplace,this quadrant is similar to what is known as ‘workplace learning’.

The archetypical example of the realistic-participation quadrant is learning throughwork experience or on-the-job training, which has a long history (Tynjälä 2013). Guileand Griffiths (2001) provide us with a typology of work experiences, consisting of thefollowing types that differ in the level of connectivity between education and work:traditional, experiential, generic, work process and connective. In the traditional model,work experiences students are simply ‘launched into the world of work’, while in theconnective model work experiences enable students to take explicit account of thelearning which occurs within and between the different contexts of education and work.In this quadrant, we refer to all types of these models.

(4) Realistic-Acquisition. This quadrant aims to trigger learning processes character-ized as ‘acquisition’ that are to take place under realistic conditions, for example,

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reflection can take place on work experiences, to make work process knowledgeexplicit (cf., Boreham 2002). Another example is to pause a work process andengage in a collaborative problem solving process which aims at triggeringacquiring knowledge of the practical problem in question. This quadrant is closelyrelated to what is known in literature as ‘reflective practice’ (e.g., Thompson andPascal 2012). Examples of reflective practice can also be found in Gurtner et al.(2011); they provide a taxonomy of help-seeking requests observed at the work-place, such as, requesting an opinion, advice or validation, that could trigger thelearning process of acquisition under realistic conditions as meant in this quadrant.

Research Questions

The manifestation of the hybrid nature of VET curricula can be studied with the help ofthe above model. A differentiation between various levels of a curriculum has proven tobe very useful when dealing with curricular issues, from the international level (supra)ranging to the individual level (nano), with macro, meso and micro as the levels inbetween. As an illustration, when applying the conceptual model at the macro level, itwould be possible to analyse the extent to which a system prescribes a certain balancebetween the four quadrants of the introduced model. In Dutch VET, for example, atleast 20 % of the curriculum is to take place in the form of practice settings. Which, interms of the model, means under realistic conditions, aimed at both acquisition andparticipation, though the latter is not specified.

Besides, curricula can be represented in various forms, clarification is especiallyuseful when trying to understand the problematic efforts to change a curriculum(Van den Akker 2010). Overall, a distinction can be made between the intended,implemented and attained curriculum (for further details, see Table 1). The focus ofthis study is on the intended and implemented curriculum at the micro level.Empirical studies of how curricula are intended and how they work in action(implemented curriculum) in VET are hard to find (Wesselink and Zitter 2016).

To gain further insights into the nature of the enactment of a hybrid VET curriculumand at the same time contribute to improving educational practice, practice-basedresearch was carried out jointly with the developers of educational innovation projects.In this article part of this practice-based research, namely an in-depth case study, ispresented, aiming to answer the following research questions:

Table 1 Levels of a curriculum (Van den Akker 2003;2005;2010) and research focus

Intended Ideal Vision (rationale or basic philosophy underlying a curriculum)

Formal/written Intentions as specified in curriculum documents and/or materials

Implemented focus:micro level

Perceived Curriculum as interpreted by its users (especially teachers)

Operational Actual process of teaching and learning (also, curriculum-in-action)

Attained Experiential Learning experiences as perceived by learners

Learned Resulting learning outcomes of learners

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid... 117

How can an intended hybrid VET curriculum at the micro level be characterised?How does an implemented hybrid VET curriculum at the micro level operate inreal life?

The research method is set out in the next section. In light of this special issue, in themethod-section we elaborate on and make the complex process of attaining the dualgoals, on the one hand carrying out solid research and the other hand innovatingeducational practice, transparent.

Methodology

To answer the research questions, an in-depth descriptive, embedded, single-case study(Yin 2011) was carried out of educational innovation aiming for a hybrid VETcurriculum. This case can be considered as a ‘unique case’ (Yin 2011), since it coversa distinctive curriculum innovation.

The Hospitality Case The main unit of analysis of this case study is a 10-week part ofa curriculum at the micro level. It is part of a curriculum for chefs and cooks in thehospitality industry. This 10-week part of the curriculum was developed and imple-mented first by this case in their educational innovation project. In the main unit ofanalysis, there are three units of analysis embedded, i.e. ‘kitchen skills lab’, ‘kitchenpractice’ and ‘culinary knowledge’ (see Table 2). The 10-week part of the curriculumhas a weekly rhythm: Mondays kitchen skills lab; Tuesdays, Wednesdays andThursdays kitchen practice and Fridays for culinary knowledge.

Data Gathering A case study protocol (Ashley 2012; Yin 2011) was developed tocapture the entire set of procedures involved in the collection of data for a casestudy. The input for this protocol was gathered during an initial field visit, testedand adjusted in the pilot phase and consequently used to guide the in-depth study(see Table 2).

To study the intended curriculum at the micro level during the pilot phase, curric-ulum documents were collected (e.g. student manuals, hand-outs and obligatory re-sources) about the ideal and formal/written curriculum (Van den Akker 2003, 2005,2010). The implemented curriculum at the micro level was observed in the form ofphotos, field notes and audio/video. The main participants were the three different typesof teachers responsible for the three embedded parts of the curriculum at the micro leveland the students that were present during the different periods of observation. After thepilot studies, the audio was switched to video. The quality of the audio was not optimaland the video also provided an overview of the overall situations, which complementedthe more detailed photos taken throughout the observations. The field notes were aimedat keeping a record of the process of actions of the main participants. The photos weretaken to record critical moments which were later used for peer debriefing, reflexivity,member checks and as a form of thick descriptions (see ‘trustworthiness’ below).During the pilot studies, it turned out that using photos was experienced as moreinformative and appealing for the practitioners involved (in comparison to just usingplain text).

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Tab

le2

Datagatheringandanalysis

Unitof

analysis

Type

ofteacher

Students

Type

ofdata

Duration

Field

visit

Context

ofhospitalitycase

ingeneral(2010)

Overalleducationalcontext

Overalleducationalcontext

Curriculum

documentsand

observations

1day

Pilotstudies:Casestudyprotocol

andIntended

HybridVETcurriculum

atthemicro

level

Firstversioncurriculum

innovatio

nat

school-w

orkboundary

(2011)

Teachers(theoryandpractice)

6studentsfrom

entrepreneurial/m

anagem

ent

program

(2firstyear,2

syear,2

thirdyear)

Curriculum

documentsand

observations

2days

Second

versioncurriculum

innovationat

school-w

orkboundary

(2012)

Teachers(theoryandpractice)

5studentsfrom

entrepreneurial/m

anagem

ent

(3)andhead

chefs/cooks(2)programs

Curriculum

documentsand

observations

2days

In-depth

study:

Implem

entedHybridVETcurriculum

atthemicro

level

Kitchenskillslab(2013)

Teacher(practice)

13studentsfrom

head

chefs/cooksprogram

Observations:photos,field

notesandvideo

4hours

Kitchenpractice(2013)

Teacher(practice)

16studentsfrom

entrepreneurial/m

anagem

ent

(6)andhead

chefs/cooks(10)

programs

Observations:photos,field

notesandvideo

8hours

Culinaryknow

ledgetheory

(2013)

Teacher(theory)

18studentsof

thechefs/cooksprogram

Observations:photos,field

notesandvideo

3hours(twice)

Toservethepaying

custom

ersof

therestaurant,there

wereanother11

studentsworking

inthedining

room

oftherestaurant

aswell:4from

theentrepreneurial/m

anagem

entp

rogram

and8from

thehost/hostess

program.T

hese

studentswerenotpartof

theobservations

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid... 119

Data Analysis and Trustworthiness The data were analysed by two researchers in thesame three phases (initial field study, two pilot studies and in-depth study). Theconceptual model (acquisition-participation, constructed-realistic) can be consideredas the ‘sensitizing concepts’ (Bowen 2006) and lens to analyse the data. The data wasanalysed by the two researchers, till consensus was reached. Thick descriptive data wasgathered and the data analysis was alternated with peer debriefings and member checks(Guba 1981; Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007; Yin 2011).

To further increase the quality and trustworthiness of naturalistic inquiries, such asthe practice-based research presented here, the following measures are taken (cf., Guba1981; Onwuegbuzie and Leech 2007; Yin 2011):

– Prolonged engagement at a site. Spending extended time at the site helped theparticipants to adjust to the presence of the two researchers and gave sufficient timeto check the developing perceptions, as was done extensively through reflectivedialogue (with each other) and discussions (with others).

– Persistent observation. The extended time frame enabled the two researchers toidentify the common qualities as well as the atypical characteristics of the casestudy.

– Peer debriefing and reflexivity. The two researchers discussed the emerging in-sights frequently with different practitioners, educational experts and outsideeducational researchers. Also, many presentations and workshops (for practitionersand researchers) were carried out, to expose the intermediary research results tocritical questions. These frequent discussions, presentations and workshops wereexplicitly used as peer debriefing and to critically reflect on the research activitiesand intermediary results.

– Member checks. After the pilot and in-depth studies the intermediary results werepresented to the key participants, in this case, the three participating teachers.These discussions were used as member checks, to test the interpretations thatare made.

– Collect thick descriptive data and develop thick descriptions. Rich data werecollected, to develop rich, thick descriptions. These descriptions are also intendedto help the target audience make judgments about how fitting and usable the resultscould be to improve their own practice.

Case Selection Before the descriptive case study presented here could be carried out,suitable cases had to be found, which were aiming to carry out the required educationalinnovation of designing and implementing a hybrid VET curriculum at the micro leveland were also willing and able to participate in multi-annual practice-based research.The process of case selection was both complex and elaborate (see Fig. 2).

In the phase (2008/2009) preceding the practice-based research an exploratory studyof VET-practice in the Netherlands and a study of international literature (Huismanet al. 2010) was carried out, with the additional goal of finding suitable cases. Five casestudies were carried out, which, were selected on the basis of the following criteria(see Fig. 2). a) Intention for long-term, intensive participation in an educationalinnovation project that would provide the research-context for the accompanying

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multi-annual practice-based research. b) To increase the feasibility of the innovationprojects, the educational institute was required to take joint ownership in applying for asubsidy from the national policy measure ‘innovation of vocational and professionaleducation’ (HPBO n.d.). To finance the practice-based research, separate research fundswere acquired. c) The main goal of the educational innovation had to be the design andimplementation of a hybrid VET curriculum at the micro level. d) The initial, experi-mental development phase of the curriculum at the micro level should be over. It shouldbe feasible to take the step from an intended curriculum to an implemented curriculumwithin the duration of this practice-based research.

Informal meetings and interviews, referrals from experts and practitioners from thebroad network available to the research-team and more pragmatic issues (i.e. availabil-ity) finally resulted in five exploratory cases. After the explorative study, three of thecases dropped out, all three because they could not comply with the criteria for theintention of long term participation (a), taking joint ownership of applying for theinnovation subsidy (b) and the intention to take the step from an intended to animplemented curriculum (d). After the exploratory study, came the funding. The jointapplication process of the remaining two cases indeed resulted in acquiring thenecessary funding for the innovation projects and thus providing suitable contexts forthe accompanying practice-based research (e). In the end, two innovation projectsstarted in August 2010 and lasted till August 2013 and the accompanying practice-

Fig. 2 Case selection

A Design Perspective on the School-Work Boundary: A Hybrid... 121

based research started January 2010 and lasted till January 2014. After acquiring thenecessary subsidy, the monitoring started. The developments were monitored bydocument analysis (project plans, progress and evaluation reports, design documentsand educational material), semi-structured group-interviews and site visits. On the basisof the monitoring-process the last step of the case selection process could be taken (e).It became clear that in the last research year, one case was not ready to take the stepfrom the intended curriculum to implementation of the curriculum, while the other casewas ready for implementation (f). Therefore only one, ‘unique’ case (Yin 2011) wasselected for this in-depth study: ‘the hospitality case’.

Broader Research Context This study was carried out in Dutch vocational educationat secondary level (mbo) provided by regional centres (Smulders et al. 2013). In Dutchmbo, there are two main types of curricula: 1) full-time, mainly school-based curriculawith practical periods at the workplace and 2) part-time, dual curricula in whichlearning and working (apprenticeship training) are combined. In the school-basedcurricula, the practical periods in companies make up at least 20 % of the study timeto a maximum of 59 %; in the dual curricula, training takes place in a company (basedon an employment) during at least 60 % of the study time (Smulders et al. 2013). DutchVET can be characterised as a ‘mixed model’ (OECD, 2009 in Poortman et al. 2012).In times of economic growth, more students participate in the part-time, dual curricula,while in less prosperous times more students take part in full-time, school-basedcurricula.

Results

Intended Hybrid VET Curriculum at the Micro Level

The hospitality case is situated at the grounds of an educational institute offeringsecondary vocational education (14,000 students). In this case, there are a total of ninecurricula (both school-based routes with full-time education and work-based routeswith part-time education). These 9 curricula cater to about 350 students: a mix of chefs/cooks, (coordinating) hosts and entrepreneurs/managers hospitality in training.

A distinctive feature of the hospitality school is that it comprises three differentrestaurants: a lunch room, a health-food bar and an à la carte restaurant. Theserestaurants are situated at school grounds and cater to approximately 1400 payingcustomers a week. There are professionally equipped kitchens to prepare the meals forthe restaurants. Besides, there are other supportive departments, such as, reception,purchasing & supply and finance & personnel. The different areas, such as thereception, restaurants and kitchens, are also used to practice skills. The availableperiods of time when paying customers are absent are used and besides, the necessarypreparatory tasks are used as practice opportunities. There are also demo kitchenswhere teachers can demonstrate intricate processes on camera shown on a number ofscreens, while thinking aloud and explaining related theoretical concepts.

The students of the different curricula are the staff of the restaurants and supportivedepartments. Students from the entrepreneurial/management curriculum manage thestudents from the other curricula (hosts and chefs/cooks). The staff is organized to

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mirror the standard vocations and hierarchical structure of the hospitality industry.Names of the different jobs, task descriptions and responsibilities as conventionallyused in working life, are used throughout this case as well. Though situated in a school,the above conditions closely mirror actual workplaces.

At the micro level, the curricula are divided into 10-week modules. The studied10-week module is part of the curriculum for chefs/cooks. In this module, threeseparate parts can be identified: ‘kitchen skills lab’, ‘kitchen practice’ and ‘culinaryknowledge’. There is a weekly rhythm: Mondays kitchen skills lab; Tuesdays,Wednesdays and Thursdays kitchen practice and Fridays for culinary knowledge.Analysis shows that these parts of the intended curriculum at the micro level can bemodelled as followed (see Fig. 3).

The kitchen skills lab is mainly intended as constructed-participation. The kitchenarea is constructed in nature since students are practicing different skills while workingunder conditions with more time and assistance than available in an actual kitchen (inthe workplace). The preparatory work (‘mise en place’) needed for the evening servicefor the paying customers is used to practice intricate processes, in this case, making puffpastry and thickened sauces. The intended kitchen practice is mainly intended asrealistic-participation. In this part of the curriculum, the students have to run dinnerservices and prepare five-course meals for the à la carte restaurant. They have tocollaborate with the host/esses to provide a fine dining experience for paying cus-tomers. The intended culinary knowledge is mainly intended as constructed-acquisition.This component focuses on the theoretical concepts, in this case, the underlying theoryof pastry and sauce making. The fourth quadrant of realistic-acquisition is notintentionally designed as a separate part of the curriculum at the micro level.

Implemented Hybrid VET Curriculum at the Micro Level

In the next sections, the implemented curriculum at the micro level is described. Theanalysis of the three main parts of the studied 10-week module is presented below.

The ‘kitchen skills lab’ (see Fig. 4) starts with a demonstration by the skills labteacher. The teacher thinks aloud while working, offers explanations and asks questionsto verify understanding of the steps involved. Next, the students have to practicemaking puff pastry . This step takes up most of the time of the skills lab. Duringpractice, the skills lab teachers walks around to offer assistance. The teacher showsmore intricate steps in slow motion, asks questions, solves problems together with

Fig. 3 Four quadrants intended curriculum at the micro level

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students, offers explanations and offers help when requested or when necessary. Allterms relevant to making the puff pastry are mapped in relation to each other in aparticipative process in front of the whiteboard.

Kitchen practice (see Fig. 5) is started by the senior student enacting the role of headchef. The start-up was prepared together with the kitchen practice teacher in advance.The chef goes through the whole service step by step, explains the requirements, alertsthe other chefs of potential difficulties and answers all kinds of questions. Next, all thechefs start working on preparing the five-course meals. Though they are preparing forpaying customers, part of this process is carried out under more ‘constructed’ condi-tions since there is more time and assistance available than in a regular, commercialkitchen. The kitchen practice teacher walks around to offer assistance. Similar to theskills lab teacher, the kitchen practice teacher shows more intricate steps in slowmotion, asks questions, solves problems together with students, offers explanationsand offers help when requested or necessary. However, the teacher also delegates partof these tasks to the head chef of this dinner service. Also, assistance is moreoperational in nature to ensure a smooth dinner service, while the skills lab teacherfocuses more on ‘practicing till perfect’. At one moment during the dinner service, theskills lab teacher stepped in and took over to finish some of the main courses. As aresult, the realistic conditions became more constructed, since in a real kitchen, suchassistance would not be common and chefs/cooks would find themselves ‘in the weeds’as it is called in the food industry when chefs/cooks are overwhelmed and fall behind.Dinner service is concluded with an evaluation guided by the head chef and the kitchenpractice teacher.

Culinary knowledge (see Fig. 6) concludes a week in this 10-week part of thecurriculum at the micro level. The theory teacher starts by presenting the underlyingtheory, in this case of making puff pastry and sauces. During the instruction, two types

Fig. 5 Four quadrants implemented curriculum at the micro level: ‘kitchen practice’

Fig. 4 Four quadrants implemented curriculum at the micro level: ‘kitchen skills lab’

124 I. Zitter et al.

of film material are used: material videos by students themselves earlier in the week andmaterial from the professional website for continuing education in the hospitalityindustry. The teacher continues with more ‘traditional’ instruction using aPowerPoint presentation to further explain relevant theoretical concepts. Next, theteacher demonstrates making soup. Like the skills lab teacher, the teacher thinks aloudand explains during working. However, the teacher also goes into theoretical conceptsduring working, instead of only explaining how it’s done (like in the skills lab). Eachculinary knowledge session is concluded by reflecting on the week and formulatinglearning goals for the upcoming week.

Connections Between the Four Quadrants

There are two salient results about the connections between the four quadrants in thestudied implemented hybrid VET curriculum at the micro level: embeddedness and aconnecting professional artefact. These two insights are presented below.

Quadrants Embedded Within Another Quadrant The first insight is related to theembedded nature of the quadrants, the layeredness of the quadrants. The intendedcurriculum shows that three separate parts were designed, which could be characterizedas three of the four quadrants (i.e. kitchen skills lab as constructed-participation, kitchenpractice as realistic-participation and culinary knowledge as constructed-acquisition),while the fourth quadrant (realistic-acquisition) was not designed as a separate part. Theimplemented curriculum shows that within each of parts, the other quadrants areembedded, including the fourth quadrant that was not intentionally designed.Through this embedded nature, the implemented curriculum shows how connectionsbetween the quadrants are made in action.

Professional Artefact to Connect the Four Quadrants Analysis shows that a profes-sional artefact, namely the restaurant menu, is used to connect the different parts of thecurriculum logically to each other to form a consistent curriculum. During the in-depthphase of this case study, the warm appetizers of the restaurant menu provided the commonthread and more specifically: warm appetizers on the basis of puff pastry (see Fig. 7).

In the kitchen skills lab students practice making puff pastry (dominantly constructed-participation). In the course of kitchen practice the prepared puff pastry is used to preparea warm appetizer that is part of the 5-course meal (dominantly realistic-participation).During culinary knowledge, the underlying theory of pastry making is dealt with(constructed-acquisition). Throughout the curriculum in action, the different role models

Fig. 6 Four quadrants implemented curriculum at the micro level: ‘culinary knowledge’

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(teachers and senior students) share their explicit practical knowledge and experience(dominantly realistic-acquisition).

Discussion

This article proposed a model for the design of a hybrid VET curriculum across theschool-work boundary. It was argued that the model, as it goes beyond the classicschool-work dichotomy, allows for a better understanding and utilization of the poten-tial hybrid nature of VET curricula. As we better understand the hybridity of acurriculum, we can deliberately design learning arrangements in accordance with thishybrid nature.

An in-depth case study was carried out to monitor the deliberate design of such ahybrid VET curriculum. The results show what an exemplary intended and implement-ed hybrid curriculum at the micro level looks like in practice. From the results it can beconcluded that in the intended curriculum three of the four quadrants were deliberatelydesigned. Interestingly, in the implemented curriculum all four quadrants were presentsimultaneously. Although not intentionally designed the curriculum-in-action shows ahigh level of hybridity as the fourth quadrant was present in action, even though it wasabsent in the intended curriculum. Critics might question the need for deliberate designhere: why put time and effort in designing a situation that occurs spontaneously as well.In this case the presence of the fourth quadrant is due to the spontaneous action of theteachers observed. In other words the level of hybridity, then, is a matter of coincidence.

Fig. 7 Professional artefact to connect the four quadrants

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In the introduction it was argued that a well-designed VET curriculum should be hybridin nature. It is a core characteristic of vocational education. We think that such a corecharacteristic should not be left to coincidental action, but should be the outcome ofdeliberate design that aims at evoking hybridity as a recurrent pattern in a curriculum.

A related result is that in the implemented curriculum the four quadrants are notdisjoined, instead, they are positioned along the two dimensions. The resulting gradualcharacter is mostly found in the recursive repetition of quadrants embedded in onedominant quadrant. Such embedded phenomenon is also known as a ‘fractal’. One ofthe lessons that can be learned from this in-depth case study is that a design using avariety of arrangements, each with a specific orientation towards one the four quadrantscan be consistently designed in relation to each other, by adding elements within thosearrangements that are oriented towards the other quadrants. The model of a HybridVET curriculum can be strengthened by the explicit awareness of this fractal characterof a consistent design.

In the observed curriculum the four quadrants are logically designed in relation toeach other, since consistency between the quadrants is designed for by means of aprofessional artefact, in this case the restaurant menu. The menu can be also consideredas a ‘whole task’ (Van Merriënboer and Kirschner 2012) and helped to tie the foursettings gradually and logically together.

As made transparent in the method-section, finding suitable cases was a difficultprocess and developing a version of a hybrid curriculum at the micro level, even withfunding in the form of a subsidy, took nearly three years. The focus in this research wason the intended and implemented curriculum, future research is necessary to gaininsights into the attained curriculum, into the learning processes and learning outcomesof this type of learning arrangements. PhD-research into the learning processes hasbeen started (i.e., Heusdens et al. 2015), while research into the learning outcomes isstill on the agenda. It can be concluded that practice-based research about this type ofeducational settings takes close and intensive collaboration with practice and requires along term view.

It should be noted, that a hybrid curriculum at the micro level as brought to the forein this study, is not meant to prescribe the one-and-only, ideal learning arrangement inVET. Different hybrid curricula emerge in educational innovation and in research withthe aim to broaden and strengthen the current VET-curriculum-repertoire. Such in-between practices can help to make the transition learners are required to make fromschool to the workplace more logical and gradual. Since intentionally designed hybridcurriculum elements cross the boundary between two practices, school and work, theycould also help to explicate differences between these practices and help practitioners tolearn something new about their own and others’ practices (Akkerman and Bakker2011). Future research is needed to determine how VET-curricula should be configuredand how the level of hybridity should be balanced across a curriculum at the meso andmacro level.

In this study, the hybrid curriculum at the micro level is situated at school grounds(‘work at school’). The other way around is also possible (‘school at work’) byspecifically designing learning and working arrangements to embed in a company(Guile and Okumoto 2008). Besides these ‘work at school’ and ‘school at work’, threemore modalities of learning settings at the intersection of school and work can beidentified, namely, learning settings as entirely new entities situated neither in school,

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nor the workplace; learning settings that are organised around temporary projects; andsector-initiated learning settings (Smulders et al. 2012). Future research is needed tofurther operationalise such cross-boundary modalities, systematically compare themand find out which conditions are favourable for each of these modalities.

Though the presented results are promising, cross-boundary curricula have to beconsidered carefully. Wheelahan (2008) states that attempts to collapse the boundarybetween abstract, theoretical knowledge of formal, school-based learning and everydayknowledge available at the workplace Bin the interests of making it more ‘authentic’ or‘relevant’ robs students of the capacity to recognise the boundaries between differentkinds of knowledge and to successfully navigate them^ (p. 206). By taking a designperspective we laid down a basis of what happens when a curriculum at the school-work boundary is in action. The lessons of the presented case study help to strengthenour initial model on two points, that is including the fractal character and to identify aprofessional artefact to create consistency between the quadrants. This improved modelforms a sound base for systematic development of other hybrid curricula (intended andimplemented) in the near future. Such developments will lead to a broader empiricalbase to address pressing research issues considering the attained hybrid curriculum,specifically to determine whether an intentionally designed hybrid curriculumfacilitates students to successfully navigate the school-work boundary.

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Dr Ilya Zitter, MSc MTD is associate professor of the vocational education research group of the HUUniversity of Applied Sciences Utrecht in the the Netherlands. Her research theme is designing learningenvironments and curricula at the school-work boundary in vocational and professional education.

Ir Aimée Hoeve is senior researcher at the Research Centre Quality of Learning of the HAN University ofApplied Sciences in the Netherlands. Her research interests focus on workplace learning, vocational expertise,design of hybrid learning environments and co-makership VET and business partners.

Prof Dr Elly de Bruijn is Professor at the HU University of Applied Sciences Utrecht in the Netherlands. Herresearch focuses on professional expertise development, learning processes, teaching strategies, pedagogicsand vocational education.

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