a comparison of parent training techniques in child behavior modification

1. B&w. Thu. i&p. Psychtat. Vol. 8. pp. 261-268. Pergamon Press. 1977. Printed !n Grcar Britain.

A COMPARISON OF PARENT TRAINING TECHNIQUES IN CHILD BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION

STAN O’DELL*, JOHN FLYNN and LINDA BENLOLO Nova University

Summary-Forty persons participated in a workshop designed to teach the basic performance skills necessary to carry out a child behavior modification project. Before the workshop, each participant underwent one of three types of experiences: (a) didactic pretraining in basic behavior modification principles, (b) placebo pretraining. or (c) no pretraining. Approximately 30 outcome measures fell into five categories: (a) participants’ ability to perform the behavior modification skills taught in the workshop, (b) their involvement in the training, (c) whether or not they implemented their skills with their child, (d) attitudes toward the training and their child, and (e) self- reported use of skills after training. Results showed that the groups receiving behavioral principles pretraining did not demonstrate superior performance on any of the outcome measures when compared with the other groups. Differences which did occur were primarily in the home implementation measures and tended to be in favor of the briefer training, which focused only on behavioral performance skills.

The use of nonprofessionals in dealing with mental health problems has greatly increased over the past decade (Guerney, 1969). A focal point of research in this area has dealt with training parents to apply social learning principles to their children’s problems (O’Dell, 1974).

One cf the pervasive issues encountered in the parent training literature involves the extent to which the addition of didactic training in general behavioral principles assists in the

tacquisition of performance skills needed to modify a targeted child behavior. The majority of studies have incorporated varying amounts of didactic training in behavior principles (Hirsch and Walder, 1969; Johnson .and Brown, 1969; Mathis, 1971; Patterson, Cobb and Ray, 1972; Peine, 1972; Ray; t Rose, 1969; Saltinger, Feldman and Portnoy, 1970; and Walder, Cohen, Breiter, Daston, Hirsch, 1969).

Reasons for including general principles training include the following assumptions: (a) such training is parsimonious in terms of time

and effort (Johnson and Brown, 1969; Patter- son et al., 1972). (b) parents need a theoretical framework which is provided by such a set 01 principles (Salzinger et al., 1970; Tharp and Wetzel, 1969). (c) such training will produce a

general increase in the magnitude of treatment effects (Patterson et al., 1972).

Other authors have reported successful results with little or no direct training in behavioral principles (Bernal, Williams, Miller and Reagor, 1972; Franks and Susskind, 1968 Johnson, 1971; Mira, 1970; Nelson, 1969; Salzinger ef ol., 1970; Terdal and Buell, 1969).

The current study is an experimental in- vestigation of this issue. Its purpose is to assess the efficacy of behavioral principles training as a precursor to training groups of persons to carry out behavior modification projects.

METHOD Subjecrs

Parents of exceptional children were recruited as par-

ticipants through agency referral, newspaper advertise- ment, and personal referral. A SS fee was required for

*Requests for reprints should be addressed to Stan O’Dell, Department of Psychology, University of Mississippi, University, Mississippi 38677, U.S.A.

tRay. R.‘S. (1969). Parents and teachers as therapeutic agents in behavior modification. Paper presented at Seconc Annual Meeting Alabama Behavior Modification Institute. Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1969.

261

262 STAN O’DELL. JOHN FLYNN and LINDA BENLOLO

attendance. Each of the 45 applicants self-selected into one of three groups being offered at that time. After the groups began, participants were eliminated if their pretest scores on the Knowledge of Behavioral Principles as Applied to Children (KBPAC) (O’Dell*) instrument indicated they were already knowledgeable about behavior principles (N = I). Participants in Condition I (see experimental design) who did not increase by 20% of the total possible score on the KBPAC subsequent to training were eliminated (N = 2). Persons in Conditions I and 2 who did not attend two of the three pretraining sessions were eliminated (N = 2).

(2) these participants were trained similarly to Condition I except that the content of the training did not increase their knowledge of behavior principles (“placebo” pretreatment) (N = 13).

(3) participants in this condition received no pretraining and entered the behavioral skills workshop without training in behavioral principles or placebo treatment (N = 13).

Thirty-four ot the participants worked with their own children, while six were teachers in child programs. There were 36 females and four males. The participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 56 yr with a mean of 35. Educational levels ranged from completion of high school to graduate training. The modal education level was completion of high school. Modal income fell in the SlO.OCO-Sl4,OOO per year range. Verbal IQ level ranged from 73 to 132 with a mean of 108.

This design allowed for participants from Condition 1, who underwent formal training in behavior modification principles, to be compared with participants from Condition 3, who did not have such training. Condition 2 was included to control for possible effects produced by the preworkshop experience other than training in behavioral principles.

The children with whom the participants worked con- sisted of 28 males and 12 females. Their ages ranged from I to I7 yr with a mean of 8.3. Virtually all of the children had been previously diagnosed as possessing intellectual functioning below the dull normal range. The most typical diagnoses in order of descending frequency were: mild retardation, brain damage, hyperactivity, severe retardation, behavior problem, and Down’s syndrome. Typical problems reported by participants of the children in order of descending frequency were: speech deficits, short attention span. excess activity, non-compliance, and lack of toilet training.

The experimenters very closely followed an outline which detailed all lecture materials and sequence of presentations. Sessions were audio recorded, and random samples of sessions were monitored by independent listeners whose evaluations showed the presentations to be very similar across groups.

Groups were compared on the variables of verbal IQ. KBPAC prescore, and education level. These were considered the most important dimensions where unwar- ranted group differences might occur. The variables were analyzed among the three groups using a multiple discriminate analysis. The results did not approach significance (P > 0.05). indicating similarity on these dimensions among participants in the three experimental conditions upon entering treatments.

Experimental design

Content and parameters of training sessions The most typical techniques used by other trainers who

have contributed to the literature were used as guidelines for both the pretraining and workshop phases to increase “typicalness” of training (O’Dell, 1974). Pretraining involved three 2%-hr sessions. and the workshop involved six 2’%-hr sessions. Sessions were held twice a week.

/‘retraining. Following guidelines of other studies, Condition l’s verbal pretraining utilized programmed texts, lectures, slide presentations, discussions, and commercially available films. Specific content was based upon O’Dell’s* categorization of 38 social learning principles derived from three popular parent training texts (Becker, 1971; Hall, 1971: and Patterson and Guillon. 1968). In teaching these principles, Experimenter A was careful not to “teach the test,” which was to be used in assessment. Three randomly chosen examples of the 38 principles are listed below:

5 Often, we are unaware of our environmental contingencies and learning takes place “accidentally”.

8 Satiation-usually it is desirable to use a variety of reinforcers.

Participants were involved in two separate training phases: (a) A pretreatment phase allowed implementation of the independent variable conditions. This phase produced groups which were and were not trained in behavior principles. (b) A workshop phase followed the pretraining during which all participants were trained to carry out a modification project with a child. Dependent variable measures were obtained during the workshop to allow comparison of the differentially pretreated groups. A total of six groups was conducted. Three groups were conducted during ttc same weekly time periods two months after the first three.

16 Some types of punishment may serve as a model for aggression.

Pretraining techniques for Condition 2 paralleled

Groups were randomly assigned to one of the three pretreatment conditions. The three pretraining conditions were:

(I) these participants were provided theoretical pretraining in behavioral principles (N = 14).

Condition I, except that the content of these sessions was derived from standard texts and didactic sources presenting information concerning issues of having an exceptional child. The presentations contained no behavior modification information. The formats of Conditions I and 2 were matched as closely as possible in terms of the activity (film, discussion, lecture, assignment, etc.), the length of time for each activity and sequencing of activities. The comparability of these two pretreatments is supported by nearly identical attitude evaluations by participants of each condition at the end of each session and by the respective group attendance of 100 and 97% during pretraining.

Two parallel forms (r = 0.93) of the KBPAC were

*O’Dell, S. L. (1973). An instrument to measure knowledge of behavior principles as applied to children. Unpublished.

A COMPARISON OF PARENT TRAINING TECHNIQUES IN CHILD BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION 263

administered before and after pretraining. Participants in Condition 1 significantly (P ~0.05) increased from a mean score of 48.4 to 84.4% correct during pretraining. Condition 2 had a nonsignificant increase (P>O.OS) from 37.6 to 40.4% correct. Condition 3’s mean prescore was 43.2% correct. This evidence indicated that the desired independent variable conditions were in effect as the workshop began. The first form of this instrument was also administered again after all training was completed.

Workshop fruining. During the workshop, each skill was developed through successive approximations (Mathis, 1971). The skills trained were defining, recording, graphing, differential attention, and breaking complex behaviors into smaller chainable units. Each of the first five workshop sessions covered one of these five skills in the order listed. The sixth session provided a summary session. Each skill was briefly described, modeled by the trainer, and then rehearsed by the participants in increasingly difficult stages. Their final skill level was tested in class through a variety of techniques (see measurements section below).

After each skill was taught in class, the participant was asked to implement that step in the natural setting with the child with whom he was working-one problem at a time. Records of their attempts were brought to class and discussed at each session. Examples of child behaviors which the participants chose to attempt to modify included vocabulary range, enuresis, coming on command, cussing, nail biting, time spent walking, imitating words, finger manipulation, eating with utensils, head banging, increasing attention span and using toilet paper.

Contingencies were used to encourage attendance. They included a printed certificate for 66% cumulative attendance, return of the $5 participation fee for 83% cumulative attendance, and a free child management text for 100% attendance. Participants were invited to sign a contract to do each phase of the home implementation. They received coffee and donuts and a variety of personal contacts, telephone calls, and social-verbal reinforcers.

Measuremenl Seven categories of data were collected: Verbal intelligence. The vocabulary subtest of the WAIS

was administered. Knowledge of behavior principles. Knowledge of

Behavior Principles as Applied to Children (KBPAC), developed by O’Dell’, is a general measure of knowledge of behavioral principles applied to child problems. It consists of 50 multiple-choice items based on the 38 behavioral principles previously mentioned. The test stresses practical application and does not require behavioral vocabulary. O’Dell reported a Kuder-Richardson reliability coefficient of 0.93, an odd-even split-half correlation of 0.93. and a standard error of 2. The instrument correlated 0.68 with persons’ (N = 250) self reports of their behavior modification experience.

Behavior modification skills. The ideal measure of participants’ behavior modification skills would. of course. consist of long-term in-home unobtrusive observation of their interaction with their children. Aside from the expense

of such data collection procedures with groups of 40, there are also problems with the variability of the types of problems which participants select for modification. This variability makes valid comparisons of skills across parents difficult. Therefore, it was considered an advantage to provide each participant with precisely the same test situation to allow for a more controlled assessment of variation across groups.

A set of direct measures for each of the five basic skills taught during the workshop was developed for admini- stration during class. Thus, each participant had to demonstrate competence on the same task. It must not be assumed that these skill assessments are the same as or precisely represent the specific skills participants used with their child. However, it is assumed that the skills measured in the class procedures are a reasonably representative sample of the types of skills which make up the larger population of behavior modification skills. The behavioral skills of participants were assessed through a variety of replicable techniques and filmed simulations (O’Dell’). Although the following descriptions do not reflect the extent of the development of these replicable measures, each is described briefly.

The final assessment of defining skills required participants to view a variety of filmed scenes of normal and atypical children. Participants were instructed to define the desirable and undesirable target behaviors they viewed in the films. Responses were scored by the three raters who were unaware of treatment assignment. They evaluated the responses according to predetermined criteria for behavioral definitions. Mean scorer reliabilities fell at 0.93.

Final assessment of counting and recording skills required participants to view a film of an individual child’s behavior over several minutes and apply their counting and recording skills with a target behavior. Measures of frequency and interval recording were taken separately. The most difficult film in each category was used for final assessment. Scores were based on their reliabilities with four experienced predoctoral students who had previously counted and recorded the behaviors in the films and achieved respective mean reliabilities of 0.86 and 0.83.

The participant was required to view a film of a child and simulate ignoring. Scores were represented by their per cent behavior by holding down a silent button of an event recor- der when reinforcement should be given and releasing to simulate ignoring. Scores were represented by their percent of on-off agreement with experts. Agreement by three of the four experts for any portion of the film constituted the criteria.

The assessment of graphing skill required the participant to fill in basic information on a graph. to plot raw data points, note what and when consequences were employed, and decide if consequences were effective by judging the slope of the graph. Responses were scored according to predetermined criteria weighted toward more important graphing issues, such as plotting data points and making correct decisions about consequences.

The final assessment of breaking complex behavior into smaller components required the participant to view the

* O’Dell. S. L. (1974). Replicable stimuli for training defining and recording skills. (Ten sound-on-film movies of child behaviors.) Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.

264 STAN O’DELL, JOHN FLYNN and LINDA BENLOLO

trainer’s repeated shoe tying and list as many components of the behavior chain as possible. The score equalled the number of components listed.

Since the assessment process also had a large inherent training component, it would have confounded the dependent variable measures to pretest the participants on the skills. In order to determine whether the participants’ training did actually result in increasing their skill level, each measure was administered to an untrained group from a graduate learning class who were matched for intelligence. Trained and untrained groups could be significantly dif- ferentiated (P <0.05 to <O.OOl) on each of the six univariate measures and as a multivariate domain. Inspec- tions of distributions of each measure showed they were not skewed with participants tending to reach ceiling levels. This evidence supports the validity of these measures in reflecting participants’ increased skill levels as a result of training.

Level o/ involvement. This aspect was measured by keeping records of attendance, minutes late or early, attrition, contracts signed, and contracts completed. As each skill was learned, the participants were instructed to implement that skill with their child. They were also invited to sign a brief contract stating they would carry out the skill before the next session.

Atrirudes. Attitudes toward training were assessed at the end of each session with three Likert-type questions which assessed overall satisfaction, helpfulness, and probable future use of information or skills. Overall attitudes toward the various components of the training were assessed at the end of the workshop with 20 Likert-type questions. Pre- and post-training measures of attitudes toward the children worked with were assessed using the Becker Adjective Checklist-Patterson Revised (BAC) (Patterson er 01.. 1972). which yields five factor scores of child behavior.

Home implementation. It was necessary to rely on participants’ own data from the home implementation of their projects. There are obviously unknown effects of demand characteristics in such reports. However, honesty of reports was consistently emphasized, and keeping records and con- tracting were entirely at the option of the individual.

The experimenter recorded information on all participants as they related their projects. He also unobtrusively kept track of which individuals showed direct written or graphed evidence of having implemented their skills with the child. Tallies were kept of which participants brought written definitions of problem behaviors, brought recorded baseline data, graphed their data, and maintained records during the intervention phase. The decision of whether or not participants tried implementing consequences to alter the behavior was subjectively based on the detail with which they answered questions about their project. “Success” of each project was determined from the participant’s personal evaluation. At the last session, they checked a box on each graph about :vhether or not they felt the project had been successfu: up to that point. Subjectively, it was the opinion of the experimenter that it was not difficult to dif- ferentiate those who were putting effort into projects from those who were not. However, the obvious limitations of this data must be noted.

Follow-up. One month after completion of the workshop, participants were sent a l6-item questionnaire

conststing of specific behavioral statements of skills learned in the workshop. They were asked to report whether or not they had engaged in that specific behavior during the in- terim period. For example, a question asked was, “Have you spent more than IO minutes explaining the workshop to someone other than a family member?” These questions fell into four categories: use of verbal information, use of defining and recording skills, use of consequences, and number and success of additional projects. They were also requested and strongly encouraged to forward, in the return stamped envelopes sent out, any records or graphs reflecting work attempted after the workshop.

Data analysis The six behavioral skill variables were conceptualized as

a domain of related skills. They were analyzed using a multivariate nested hierarchical analysis of variance procedure (Weiner. 1962). A nested procedure was used because groups rather than individuals were randomly assigned to treatment. This analysis helps control for fac- tors such as particular types of persons or friends self- selecting into the same group. The five factor score variables from the BAC were also analyzed both pre- and post-training using a multivariate nested hierarchical procedure.

Interaction effects of verbal IQ were tested as part of the hierarchical analyses, using IQ as a third factor. Participan- ts in each condition were divided into three categories of high, medium, and low IQ, with each covering approximately one standard deviation of I5 points (range 85- 136). Each condition had at least four persons in each of these three IQ categories.

The remaining data, including involvement, attitude, implementation, and follow-up measures, were analyzed descriptively by direct comparisons of means, percentages, etc.

RESULTS

Table I represents mean scores for each treatment condition for each of the behavioral skills assessed. The results of the multivariate nested hierarchical analysis of variance using the six behavior modification skills variables were nonsignificant, F (12, 52) = 0.60, P>O.OS. The results suggest that, based on these measures, participants in the three conditions were not significantly different in their acquisition of the behavioral skills.

The attendance of the participants in the

three conditions was 98, 99 and 9570, respectively. Attrition percentages were 0, 0 and 6%. ivlean arrival times (early) were 0.5, 2.0 and 5.0 min. Mean per cent of partrcipants in each of the conditions who signed all four contracts was 82, 100 and 90%. Of those persons who


Table I. Range, mean, and standard deviation of behavioral skills scores for each treatment condition

Behavioral skill Condition* Range Mean SD

Defining

Frequency Recording

Interval recording

Consequating

Graphing

Breaking complex

1 0.5 l-O.95 0.78 0.15

2 0.08-0.96 0.69 0.24

3 0.55-0.99 0.80 0.12

l,2,&3 0.08-0.99 0.16 0.18

I 0.71-0.99 0.85 0.09

2 0.58-0.99 0.81 0.14

3 0.51-0.94 0.79 0.10

1,2.&3 0.51-0.99 0.81 0.12

I

2

3

1.2.&3

0.50-0.90

0.50-0.90

0.454.95

0.45-0.95

0.73

0.75

0.17

0.75

0.14

0.11

0.12

0.13

I 0.75-0.94 0.86 0.06

2 0.76-0.90 0.84 0.04

3 0.78-0.89 0.81 0.05

l,2.&3 0.75-0.94 0.84 0.05

I 6-443 34. I 8.3 2 26-40 34.5 4.1

3 2640 34.5 5.1

1,2,&3 640 34.3 6.2

I 7-13 10.6 1.7

2 3-15 9.5 3.7

3 7-15 9.1 2.7

1,2,&3 3-15 9.9 2.8

*Condition 1 = Participants received behavioral principles pretraining. Condition 2 = Participants received placebo pretraining. Condition 3 = Participants received no pretraining.

signed the contracts, the percentages of persons fulfilling the contracts were 68, 54 and 92% for each respective condition.

Possible mean condition scores on each of the workshop attitude questions could range from 1 to 7 points, based on the assigned Likert-scale values. On none of the individual session attitude questions or overall workshop attitude questions did the conditions’ means differ by more than 0.6 units. Means on all questions were 6.0 or above out of a possible 7.0 (except attitude toward signing contracts which had a mean of 5.6).

The results of the multivariate nested hierar-

chical analysis of variance using the pretraining factor scores of child attitudes from the BAC were nonsignificant, F (10, 54) = 1.18, P>O.O5. The same post-training variables were also nonsignificant, F(10.48) = 1.15, P>O.OS.

The results of the attitudinal data suggest the differential treatment did not produce differences among the conditions in attitudes toward either the training or the child with whom they worked.

Table 2 summarizes the per cent of participants in each condition who showed eviden-


Table 2. Per cent of participants in each treatment condition completing each home implementation step

Condition Task I z 3

Wrote a description of a problem behavior to be 6-t 54 92 modified

Obtained a baseline record of the behavior

Applied consequences to alter the behavior

Produced a graph of the modification project

Completed one full modification project during workshop

6-t 54 87

6-I 54 87

Gt 5-l 87

6-t 54 87

Completed two or more full modification projects

21 08 23

(Per cent of projects attempted which were “successful” by the end of the workshop)

(83) (loo) (75)

ce of having completed each step of the in- home implementation of their skills and the per cent of the participants who considered their

projects successful. These percentages are based on only 13 or 14 participants per condition and must be interpreted cautiously. The trend is in favor of participants of Condition 3 who had no pretraining and tends to suggest that time spent in didactic pretraining may reduce the probability of their carrying out projects in the normal setting.

The number of projects judged by parents as successful was highest in Condition 2 (placebo) with 100% reporting success. However, participants in this condition tried the fewest projects. Reports of per cent success were similar in Conditions 1 and 3 with 83 and 75% respectively. Interpretation of this result remains unclear. Condition 2’s superiority is not reflected in other measures taken.

Fifty-eight percent of the follow-up questionnaires were returned. Of the 16 follow- up behaviors which were assessed, only those behaviors representing recording and graphing skills appeared, from inspection of the percentages, to show any differences among conditions. Percentages of persons in each of the three conditions who reported using recording and graphing techniques were approximately

35, 17 and 66% respectively. However, when raw dichotomous scores representing these recording graphing behaviors were analyzed using a multiple discriminant analysis, the conditions could not be significantly discriminated among (P>O.OS).

Three participants in Condition 1 returned records or graphs showing work on a total of six projects after the workshop. One participant in Condition 2 returned evidence of two projects. Only one participant in Condition 3 (where two-thirds of the participants claimed to have used recording and graphing skills) returned evidence of three projects.

The test of interaction between IQ and behavioral skills scores in the hierarchical analysis was nonsignificant, F (24, 92) = 1.2, P>O.O5. The test of interaction with post- training child attitudinal scores was nonsignificant, F (20, 80) = 12, P>O.O5. Hence, based on these measures, persons with different verbal ability levels were not differentially af- fected by the different types of pretraining.

DISCUSSION

Theresultsof each outcomemeasureconsisten- tly failed to reflect advantages of the longer behavioral principles pretraining. This finding was firmly supported by the more controlled

measures of behavior modification skills, in-

volvement in training, and attitudes. Likewise, the less controlled measures of in-home use and follow-up produced a similar finding.

Interpretation of the results is limited by the need for varied replication, the need for measures which unobtrusively tap actual long- term use of techniques, and the need for measures of the “creative” applications to new problems. Also, the dimensions of specificity and extensiveness of verbal training require fur- ther consideration.

Given such limitations, one must be careful

not to overgeneralize from an investigatory study of such a complex issue. However, there appear to be two rather firmly supported conclusions. First, didactic training in behavioral principles at this level of sophistication, when used as an addition to the basic training, did not appear to assist the acquisition of specific behavioral skills. Second, contrary to much popular belief, the participants were not “tur- ned off” in their reported attitudes toward training by being quickly submerged in rather “mechanistic” and scientific defining, counting, and recording of behaviors. They appeared to enjoy the training and assessment aspects which involved performance and receiving feedback rather than verbal discussion of the skills.

principles pretraining to have maintained their gains with a mean of 82% correct. However, those without behavioral principles pretraining increased to a mean of 70% correct on the KB- PAC. Fifth, the goal of recording and graphing skills, which is a major focus of this type of training, should be reassessed due to the ap- parent fact that very few persons use these skills after training. The follow-up questionnaire and voluntary return of project material are relatively weak measures of maintenance. However, the fact that the participants who reported, with rare exception admitted not using these skills, suggests the finding would seem valid. Sixth, there was no evidence that more verbally intelligent persons were significantly helped by such principles or that less verbally intelligent persons performed bet- ter with only direct skills training.

The null hypothesis has not been asserted. However, the results, even at this stage, seem to have possible important practical implications. It appears that verbal principles training does not necessarily produce some sort of very general increase in the magnitude of treatment effects as has been hypothesized. Also, it may be that such training is not the most efficient use of time, and parents may need only minimal theoretical rationale, if any.

Several other conclusions seem tentatively supported. Third, there was some evidence that verbal theoretical pretraining may hinder implementation of skills in the natural setting. A verbal pretraining experience may make participants more likely to theorize or talk about solving problems and less likely actually to use their skills. Also, they may lose enthusiasm during the extra time spent in such pretraining. Integration of general principles training with the skills training might reduce such an effect. Fourth, even though verbal principles training was not formally provided in Conditions 2 and 3, participants acquired a knowledge of many of the behavioral principles. Comparing knowledge of behavioral principles at the end of all trainine showed those with behavioral

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a comparison of parent training techniques in child behavior modification

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