A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe

The Blackwell Companions to Anthropology offer a series of comprehensive syntheses of the traditional subdisciplines, primary subjects, and geographic areas of inquiry for the field. Taken together, the series represents both a contemporary survey of anthro-pology and a cutting edge guide to the emerging research and intellectual trends in the field as a whole.

1. A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology edited by Alessandro Duranti2. A Companion to the Anthropology of Politics edited by David Nugent and Joan

Vincent3. A Companion to the Anthropology of American Indians edited by Thomas Biolsi4. A Companion to Psychological Anthropology edited by Conerly Casey and Robert

B. Edgerton5. A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan edited by Jennifer Robertson6. A Companion to Latin American Anthropology edited by Deborah Poole7. A Companion to Biological Anthropology edited by Clark Larsen (hardback only)8. A Companion to the Anthropology of India edited by Isabelle Clark-Decès9. A Companion to Medical Anthropology edited by Merrill Singer and Pamela I.

Erickson10. A Companion to Cognitive Anthropology edited by David B. Kronenfeld, Gio-

vanni Bennardo, Victor de Munck, and Michael D. Fischer11. A Companion to Cultural Resource Management edited by Thomas King12. A Companion to the Anthropology of Education edited by Bradley A. U. Levinson

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E. Mascia-Lees14. A Companion to Paleopathology edited by Anne L. Grauer15. A Companion to Folklore edited by Regina F. Bendix and Galit Hasan-Rokem16. A Companion to Forensic Anthropology edited by Dennis Dirkmaat17. A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe edited by Ullrich Kockel, Máiréad

Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman

Forthcoming

A Companion to Paleoanthropology, edited by David BegunA Companion to Chinese Archaeology, edited by Anne UnderhillA Companion to Border Studies, edited by Thomas M. Wilson and Hastings Donnan

A Companion to the Anthropology of EuropeEdited by Ullrich Kockel, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

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A companion to the anthropology of Europe / edited by Ullrich Kockel, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-9073-2 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Anthropology—Europe. 2. Ethnology—Europe. 3. Ethnic groups—Europe. I. Kockel, Ullrich. II. Nic Craith, Máiréad. III. Frykman, Jonas, 1942– GN17.3.E85C66 2012 301.094—dc23 2011038090

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10 on 12.5 pt Galliard by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

1 2012

Notes on Contributors viii

1 Introduction:TheFrontiersofEuropeandEuropeanEthnology 1Ullrich Kockel, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman

Part I Europe’s Cardinal Directions 11

2 TheAnthropologyofMediterraneanSocieties 13Christian Giordano

3 NordicReflectionsonNorthernSocialResearch 32Hugh Beach

4 MulticulturalisminNorthAmericaandEurope 51Reginald Byron

5 AnthropologyinPostsocialistEurope 68Michał Buchowski

6 EuropeinEurasia 88Chris Hann

7 MitteleuropeanEthnologyinTransition 103Gabriela Kiliánová

Part II European Integration 123

8 AnthropologicalStudiesofEuropeanIdentityConstruction 125Lisanne Wilken

9 Memory,Citizenship,andConsumerCultureinPostsocialistEurope 145Ksenija Vidmar Horvat

10 TheEuropeofRegionsandBorderlands 163Thomas M. Wilson

11 Citizenship(s)inEuropeanContexts 181Catherine Neveu and Elena Filippova

Contents

vi CONTENTS

12 LocalPracticesofEuropeanIdentityontheNewEasternBordersoftheEU 199Justyna Straczuk

13 EuropeanPolitics,Policies,andInstitutions 212Marion Demossier

Part III European Heritages 231

14 PresencingEurope’sPasts 233Sharon Macdonald

15 AnAnthropologyofWarandRecovery:LivedWarExperiences 253Maja Povrzanovic Frykman

16 EuropeanReligiousFragmentationandtheRiseofCivilReligion 275Peter Jan Margry

17 StudyingMuslimsofEurope 295Gabriele Marranci

18 RomaandSinti:The“Other”withinEurope 310Sabrina Kopf

19 Landscape,LandscapeHistory,andLandscapeTheory 322Norbert Fischer

Part IV Cultural Practice 337

20 EuropeanTourism 339Orvar Löfgren

21 TheDiversityofEuropeanFoodCultures 355Gisela Welz

22 Language,Power,andPoliticsinEurope 373Máiréad Nic Craith

23 EuropeattheCrossroadsofRightsandCulture(s) 389Valdimar Tr. Hafstein and Martin Skrydstrup

24 CorporateSocialResponsibilityandCulturalPracticesonGlobalizingMarkets 407Christina Garsten

25 ExtremeNeo-nationalistMusicScenesattheHeartofEurope 425David Murphy

26 AnthropologicalPerspectivesontheEuropeanUrbanLandscape 440Christiane Schwab

Part V Disciplinary Boundary Crossings 457

27 MedicalAnthropologyandAnthropologicalStudiesofScience 459Maryon McDonald

28 UsesoftheInternetinEuropeanEthnographicResearch 480Elisenda Ardévol and Adolfo Estalella

29 VisualCulture,Ethnography,andInteractiveMedia 497Terence Wright

CONTENTS vii

30 HybridWorldsofEurope:TheoreticalandPracticalAspects 519Elka Tschernokoshewa

31 AnAnthropologicalPerspectiveonLiteraryArtsinIreland 537Helena Wulff

32 TowardanEthnoecologyofPlaceandDisplacement 551Ullrich Kockel

***

33 ATaleofTwoDisciplines:EuropeanEthnologyandtheAnthropologyofEurope 572Jonas Frykman

Index 590

Notes on Contributors

Elisenda Ardévol is a senior lecturer in the Arts and Humanities Department at the Open University of Catalonia. She also collaborates with the Autonomous University of Barcelona. Her doctoral dissertation focused on visual anthropology and ethno-graphic cinema. During her career, she has taught courses and seminars in different Spanish universities and cultural institutions, and she also has been visiting scholar at the Center for Visual Anthropology, at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles. She carried out fieldwork among the gypsy community of Granada, in Afro-American religious communities of Los Angeles, and in the Courts of Justice in Barcelona. She is currently doing research about the Internet, new media, online sociability, and digital cultures. Elisenda is also involved in the Master of Creative Documentary program at the University of Barcelona. She has a strong publishing record.

Hugh Beach studied anthropology at Harvard College and as a young man partici-pated in a year of study and travel with Gregory Bateson. He has lived among Sámi reindeer herders for many years in Sweden, Norway, and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. In Swedish Sápmi, he has studied changes in reindeer herding practices and also the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. He has worked as a reindeer herder in Alaska with the Inuit NANA Regional Corporation herd, and is specialized in the study of indigenous circumpolar peoples. He has been Chairman of the Swedish Minority Rights Group and expert adviser on Sámi affairs to Sweden’s first two ombudsmen against ethnic discrimination. He is now Professor of Cultural Anthropology at Uppsala University, Sweden. He has led and been engaged in a number of interdis-ciplinary and international research projects. Currently he is principal investigator for the American NSF funded IPY project Dynamics of Circumpolar Land Use and Ethnicity (CLUE): Social Impacts of Policy and Climate Change.

Michał Buchowski is Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Poznań and Professor of Comparative Central European Studies at European University Viadrina in Frankfurt (Oder). He also lectured as a visiting professor at Rutgers University and Columbia University. His scientific interest is in anthropological

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS    ix

theories and in Central European postsocialist cultural and social transformations. He has published several articles in reviewed journals and edited volumes as well as books, among them in English Reluctant  Capitalists (1997), The  Rational  Other (1997), Rethinking Transformation (2001), and in Polish, To Understand the Other (2004). He is also the coeditor of Poland Beyond Communism (with Eduard Conte and Carole Nagengast, 2001) and The Making of the Other in Central Europe (with Bożena Chołuj, 2001). He currently serves as a head of the Department of Ethnol-ogy and Cultural Anthropology in Poznań and was president of the European Asso-ciation of Social Anthropologists in 2009 and 2010.

Reginald Byron, born in 1944, is University of Wales Professor Emeritus of Sociol-ogy and Anthropology and Research Professor of Anthropology at Union College, Schenectady, New York. He is the author, editor, or coeditor of 12 books on eco-nomic, political, social, and cultural anthropology including Irish America (1999), Music,  Culture,  and  Experience (1995), Retrenchment  and  Regeneration  in  Rural Newfoundland (2003), Migration and Marriage (with Barbara Waldis, 2006), and Negotiating Culture (with Ullrich Kockel, 2006).

Marion Demossier is Professor of Anthropology and French Studies at the Univer-sity of Southampton. Her research focuses on how global forces and policies impact on specific groups and “communities” in French and European societies, and she has just published a monograph entitled Wine and National Identity: Drinking Culture in France with the University of Wales Press. She has also published extensively on rural societies (terroir), and European and French politics.

Adolfo Estalella is a researcher working in the field of science and technology studies with an anthropological perspective. He has been working on the topic of technologi-cal hopes and expectations around the Internet and on the intersection of art, science, and technology. His theoretical approach is based on actor-network theory with an ethnographic orientation. His research topics are cyberculture, digital method for social science research, and ethics of Internet research.

Elena Filippova is an anthropologist and senior researcher in the Institute of Ethnol-ogy and Anthropology at the Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow). She earned her Diploma in History and PhD in Ethnology and Anthropology from Lomonossoff Moscow State University. Elena publishes on migration and identity issues, with a particular interest in French society. Her research topics include cross-national com-parison of ethnic and racial classification practices on censuses worldwide, scientific concepts of ethnicity, nationality, and citizenship.

Norbert Fischer holds an MA in cultural anthropology from the University of Hamburg, and has a PhD in social history. He completed his habilitation in 2008. He was appointed as an associate professor at University of Hamburg. His research interests include landscape history and theory, regional studies, spatial change, and urbanization processes in the twentieth century, the history of death, and the development of the cemetery and funeral culture. His many publications include

x    NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Inszenierungen der Küste (2007, ed., with B. Schmidt-Lauber and S. Müller-Wuster-witz), Vom Hamburger Umland zur Metropolregion (2008), and Landschaft als kul-turwissenschaftliche Kategorie (2008).

Jonas Frykman is Professor of European Ethnology at Lund University. His publica-tions include Identities in Pain (with Nadia Seremitakis, 1997), Articulating Europe: Local Perspectives (with Peter Niedermüller, 2003), and Sense of Community: Trust Hope and Worries in the Welfare State (with Bo Rothstein et al., 2009).

Christina Garsten is Professor of Social Anthropology in the Department of Social Anthropology, Stockholm University. Her research interests are oriented toward the anthropology of organizations, with focus on the globalization of corporations and markets and on emerging forms of governance in transnational trade. In this vein of research, she has studied the perspectives of corporate managers in Sweden and in the United States on accountability and ethics as well as the models for social account-ability that are expressed in codes of conduct, soft law, policies, and other voluntary forms of regulation. Her current research engagement is focused on the study of the role of international think tanks in the fashioning of global markets.

Christian Giordano holds a doctorate in sociology from the University of Heidel-berg. His habilitation in anthropology was completed at the University of Frankfurt am Main. Christian is Full Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland and holds many other honors and positions. These include a Dr Honoris Causa from the University of Timisoara: a permanent guest professorship at the Universities of Bucharest, Murcia, and Bydgoszcz; and guest lectureships at the Universities of Naples, Asuncion, Berlin (Humboldt University), Moscow (Russian State University for Humanities), Torun, Zürich and Kuala Lumpur (University of Malaya). His main research interests include political anthropology, economic anthro-pology, historical anthropology and his geographical foci include Southeast Europe, Mediterranean societies, and Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Singapore).

Valdimar Tr. Hafstein is Associate Professor of Folkloristics/Ethnology in the School of Social Sciences at the University of Iceland, and also teaches occasionally at the University of California, Berkeley, at Georg-August University, Göttingen, and at Tartu University, as well as in the Icelandic Academy of the Arts. His publications from recent years focus on cultural heritage as a concept, category, and social dynamic, and on intellectual property in traditional expression. His book on the making of intangible cultural heritage in UNESCO is forthcoming from the Univer-sity of Illinois Press and he is presently involved in a European collaborative research project, Copyrighting Creativity.

Chris Hann is a founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropol-ogy, Halle, Germany, where his research group has recently concluded a large-scale project on religion after socialism (www.eth.mpg.de). He is coeditor of Eastern Christians in Anthropological Perspective (with Hermann Goltz, 2010). Other research foci include theories of ethnicity and nationalism, and economic anthropology. His

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS    xi

publications include Economic  Anthropology:  History,  Ethnography,  Critique (with Keith Hart, 2011).

Gabriela Kiliánová, PhD CSc, is a senior research fellow and the director of the Institute of Ethnology of Slovak Academy of Sciences. Her main research interests involve collective identity and memory, oral traditions, modernization processes, burial rituals, and history of ethnology. She has conducted field work in Slovakia and Central Europe (Hungary, Austria). Along with E. Krekovicová and E. Kowalská, she recently (2009) published My  a  tí  druhí  v  modernej  spolocnosti:  Konštrukcie  a transformácie kolektívnych identít [Us and the others in modern society: Construc-tions and transformations of collective identities].

Ullrich Kockel was appointed Professor of Ethnology at the University of Ulster in 2005, having been Professor of European Studies at the University of the West of England, Bristol, since 2000. In the 1980s and 1990s, following an earlier career in industry, he held research and teaching appointments in Germany, Ireland, England, and Scotland, including at the University of Liverpool’s Institute of Irish Studies and University College Cork’s Department of Geography. The author and editor of more than 10 books and an Academician of the UK’s Academy of Social Sciences, he is currently editor of the Anthropological Journal of European Cultures and President of the Société Internationale d’Ethnologie et de Folklore.

Sabrina Kopf is a doctoral student and lecturer at the University of Vienna, Depart-ment of Social and Cultural Anthropology. She has studied EU projects and their impact on local Roma communities in Slovakia. Currently, she is working on her doctoral thesis on democracy assistance projects and socio-cultural negotiations of “civil society” and “good governance” in social networks in Serbia, especially Vojvodina.

Orvar Löfgren is Professor Emeritus of European Ethnology at Lund University. His main field is the cultural analysis of everyday life. He has worked with studies of media and consumption, tourism and travel, as well as studies of national identities and transnational processes. Among his recent books are Magic, Culture and Economy (ed., with Robert Willim, 2005), Off the Edge: Experiments in Cultural Analysis (ed., with Richard Wilk, 2006), and The Secret World of Doing Nothing (with Billy Ehn, 2010).

Sharon Macdonald is Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Man-chester, England. She has carried out anthropological fieldwork in Scotland, England, and Germany, and worked on topics including museums, heritage, science, and identity. Her publications include Inside European Identities (ed., 1993); Reimagin-ing Culture: Histories, Identities and the Gaelic Renaissance (1997); Behind the Scenes at  the  Science  Museum (2002);  A  Companion  to  Museum  Studies (ed., 2006); and Difficult Heritage: Negotiating the Nazi Past in Nuremberg and Beyond (2009). Her next book is entitled Memorylands: Heritage and Identity Complexes in Europe.

xii    NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Peter Jan Margry is an ethnologist. He studied history at the University of Amster-dam, and was awarded his PhD by the University of Tilburg (2000) for his disserta-tion on the religious culture war in nineteenth-century Netherlands. He is a senior research fellow at the Meertens Institute, a research center on the culture and lan-guage of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in Amsterdam. He is also guest professor of Religious Studies at the University of Leuven. His work focuses on contemporary religious cultures, on rituals and on cultural memory. Recent books are Shrines  and  Pilgrimage  in  the  Modern  World:  New  Itineraries  into  the  Sacred (2008) and Grassroots  Memorials:  The  Politics  of  Memorializing  Traumatic  Death (with Cristina Sánchez-Carretero, 2011).

Gabriele Marranci is a visiting senior fellow at the National University of Singapore, Department of Sociology as well as honorary professor at the Centre for the Study of Islam in the United Kingdom, University of Cardiff. He is an anthropologist by training, working on Muslim societies. His main research interests concern youth identity, religion, extremism, fundamentalism, political Islam, secularization proc-esses. He is the author of four monographs: Jihad Beyond Islam (2006); The Anthro-pology of Islam (2008); Understanding Muslim Identity: Rethinking Fundamentalism (2009); and Faith, Ideology and Fear: Muslim Identities Within and Beyond Prisons (2009). He is the founding editor of the journal Islam: Dynamics of Muslim Life, and the book series Muslims in Global Societies.

Maryon McDonald is Fellow in Social Anthropology at Robinson College, Cam-bridge, and has long engaged with the anthropology of Europe. She has both studied and advised the European Commission. In Cambridge, she has run courses on Euro-pean Anthropology, Medical Anthropology, and Science and Society, and is a member of the Royal Anthropological Institute’s Medical Anthropology Committee in the United Kingdom and of the European ELPAT group (Ethical, Legal, and Psycho-social aspects of Organ Transplantation). Along with Marilyn Strathern, she founded and ran a research group on Comparative Issues in Biotechnology and Accounta-bility (CBA) from 2002–2008, and is just completing a Leverhulme-funded research project examining changing understandings of the human body.

David Murphy is a part-time lecturer and tutor with the Department of Anthropol-ogy at NUI Maynooth, Ireland. In 2005 he was awarded the John Hume Scholarship for his PhD research into the Serbian and wider Slavic black metal music scene. His research interests include the Balkans, anthropology of the body, new social move-ments, neo-paganism, neo-nationalism, musicology, and contemporary sovereignty. David is currently a board member of the Centre for the Study of Wider Europe, and public relations officer with the Anthropological Association of Ireland.

Catherine Neveu is Director of Research at the IIAC-LAIOS (Institut Interdisci-plinaire d’Anthropologie du Contemporain, Laboratoire d’Anthropologie des Insti-tutions et des Organisations Sociales), CNRS-EHESS, Paris. She studies citizenship processes in different contexts in Europe. Her main research topics are political sub-

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS    xiii

jectivation, cultural dimensions of citizenship, and relationships between citizenship(s), space(s) and sites.

Máiréad Nic Craith is Professor of European Culture and Society at the University of Ulster. As the author or editor of 14 books, she was joint winner of the 2004 Ruth Michaelis-Jena Ratcliff research prize for folklife. In 2006, she was awarded a Senior Distinguished Research Fellowship at the University of Ulster, and in 2009 she was elected to the Royal Irish Academy. She served as a panel member for the 2008 Research Assessment Exercise in the United Kingdom and is again involved in the 2013 Research Excellence Framework audit. In 2011, she was invited by the United Nations as an expert on heritage and human rights.

Maja Povrzanovic Frykman is an associate professor at the Department of Global Political Studies, Malmö University. Her dissertation in Ethnology, Culture and Fear: Wartime  Everyday  Life  in  Croatia  1991–1992 was defended at the University of Zagreb. Her main areas of research include concepts and practices within the semantic domains of diaspora and transnationalism, relations between place and identity, labor- and refugee-migrants in Sweden, experiences of war and exile, and war-related iden-tification processes. Her major publications include the edited volumes War, Exile, Everyday  Life:  Cultural  Perspectives (with Renata Jambrešc Kirin, 1996), Beyond Integration: Challenges of Belonging in Diaspora and Exile (2001), and Transnational Spaces: Disciplinary Perspectives (2004).

Christiane Schwab is currently a research assistant and PhD candidate at the Depart-ment of European Ethnology at the Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich. She holds an MA in European Ethnology from the Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich and has worked as a visiting scholar at the University of California at Ber-keley. Her research interests center on urban anthropology, Spanish cultural history, and historical anthropology.

Martin Skrydstrup holds a PhD in cultural anthropology from Columbia University and is currently a postdoctoral research fellow at the Waterworlds project, Depart-ment of Anthropology, University of Copenhagen. In his doctoral research, Martin sought to understand repatriation claims by way of intersecting exchange theory and postcolonial theory. Most generally, his publications address the relationships between culture and property departing from various repatriation claims set in Greenland, Hawaii, Ghana, and Iceland with their various postcolonial and postimperial entanglements.

Justyna Straczuk is an assistant professor at the Polish Academy of Science in Warsaw. She has conducted long-term fieldwork in the borderland of Poland, Belarus, and Lithuania, and has produced many publications on the region, including two books: Jezyk  i  tozsamosd  człowieka  w  warunkach  społecznej  wielojezycznosci: Pogranicze  polsko-litewsko-białoruskie [Language and identity in multilingual com-munities: Polish-Lithuanian-Belarusian borderland] (1999) and Cmentarz  i  stół: Pogranicze  prawosławno-katolickie w Polsce  i na Białorusi [A cemetery and a table:

xiv    NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Catholic-Orthodox borderland in Poland and Belarus] (2006). Her current research interests are border issues, Eastern Christian spirituality, and anthropology of emotions.

Elka Tschernokoshewa is head of the Department of Empirical Cultural Studies and Anthropology at the Sorbian Institute, Bautzen, Germany. She was born in Sofia, Bulgaria, and went on to study cultural studies and aesthetics in Berlin. She received her doctorate from Humboldt University Berlin and post-doctorate from Sofia. She has held a number of visiting professorships at the Universities of Bristol, Basel, Tübingen, Leipzig, Bremen, and Sofia. Elka is a founding member of the European Research Institute for Culture and the Arts (ERICarts) and a board member of the European Association of Cultural Researchers (ECURES). Her main research inter-ests are cultural diversity, minorities, gender and comparative studies, and Eastern–Western Europe. She is editor of the book series Hybride Welten.

Ksenija Vidmar Horvat completed her PhD in sociology at the University of Cali-fornia, Davis, USA and is currently associate professor and head of the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Her research interests include questions of cultural identity, social theory of Europe, cosmopolitanism, and multiculturalism. Most recent publications and articles include “Mitteleuropa and the European Heritage” (with Gerard Delanty, 2008); Maps of In-betweeness: Essays on European Culture and Identity After the End of the Cold War (2009), and “Multi-culturalism in Time of Terrorism: Re-imagining Europe Post-9/11” (2010).

Gisela Welz was appointed Professor and Chair of Cultural Anthropology and Euro-pean Ethnology at Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Germany in 1998. As a research fellow and visiting professor, she has taught at UCLA, NYU, the University of Cyprus, ISCTE Lisbon, and the University of Manchester. Most of her recent publications and research projects address Europeanization issues, with a focus on Cyprus as a case study. In 2006, she coedited, with Yiannis Papadakis and Nicos Peristianis, an anthology titled Divided Cyprus. Modernity, History, and an Island in Conflict. In 2009, she published the essay collection Projekte der Europäisierung in cooperation with Annina Lottermann.

Lisanne Wilken, DPhil is an anthropologist from Copenhagen University and associ-ate professor at the Department for European Studies at Århus University. She has conducted extensive research on cultural aspects of European integration including research on institutional support for linguistic minorities, minorities’ strategies toward integration in the EU, everyday life and food consumption in Europe, and on media representations of “other” Europeans. She is currently working on a project on exchange students and integration.

Thomas M. Wilson is Professor of Anthropology in the Department of Anthropol-ogy at Binghamton University, State University of New York. He has conducted ethnographic research in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Hungary, and Canada.

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS    xv

Among his most recent books are The Anthropology of Ireland (with Hastings Donnan, 2006), Drinking Cultures (ed., 2005), Europeanisation and Hibernicisation: Ireland and Europe (ed., with Cathal McCall, 2010), and The Blackwell Companion to Border Studies (ed., with Hastings Donnan, in press). In 2008–2010 he was President of the Society for the Anthropology of Europe.

Terence Wright is Professor of Visual Arts at the University of Ulster. His films include The Firemen of Dolní Roven (45 mins) 2006; Migrations, 2006 (gallery instal-lation); and The Interactive Village, 2007 (non-linear digital ethnography). For 10 years he worked for BBC Television News and Current Affairs, and Independent Television News (ITN). He has written widely on the subject of visual anthropology and is the author of Visual Impact: Culture and the Meaning of Images (2008) and The  Photography  Handbook (1999). Formerly he was senior research officer at the Refugee Studies Centre, University of Oxford where he ran the project Moving Images: The Media Representation of Refugees. He taught at the UK’s National Film and Television School from 1989–1997.

Helena Wulff is Professor of Social Anthropology at Stockholm University. Her current research engages with expressive cultural forms in a transnational perspective and questions of place, mobility, the emotions, visual culture, and recently of writing as process and form focusing on Irish contemporary writers. Her major publications include Ballet across Borders (1998) and Dancing at the Crossroads (2007). She was editor of The Emotions (2007) and coeditor of Youth Cultures (with Vered Amit-Talai, 1995), New Technologies at Work (with Christina Garsten, 2003), and Ethno-graphic Practice in the Present (with Marit Melhuus and Jon P. Mitchell, 2009).

A Companion to the Anthropology of Europe, First Edition. Edited by Ullrich Kockel, Máiréad Nic Craith and Jonas Frykman.© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Introduction:The Frontiers of Europe and European EthnologyUllrich Kockel, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman

This Companion to the Anthropology of Europe offers a survey of contemporary Euro-peanist anthropology and European ethnology, and a guide to emerging trends in this geographical field of research. Given the diversity of approaches within Europe to the anthropological study of Europe, the book is intended to provide a synthesis of the different traditions and contemporary approaches. Earlier surveys – whether in German (e.g. Dracklé and Kokot 1996), French (e.g. Jeggle and Chiva 1992), or English (e.g. Macdonald 1993; Goddard et al. 1996) – have approached the subject through regional ethnographic case studies, mostly concentrating on Western Europe, or focusing on specific aspects, such as European integration (e.g. Bellier and Wilson 2000); the present volume is different in that its approach is both thematic and fully cross-European.

Any reader picking up this book may well do so on the assumption that the terms that frame it, “Europe” and “anthropology,” are reasonably straightforward and that their meaning is more or less clear. This must surely be why such a volume has been produced: to summarize and reflect on the engagement of an agreed discipline with its (more or less) self-evident subject matter. As editors, we have approached this project in a different spirit, considering that neither “anthropology” (or its cousin, European ethnology) nor “Europe” are intellectual terrae firmae – historically and conceptually, both can be described as “moving targets”: in a constant process of transformation since their first inception – and perhaps, as some would argue, so elusive that it is doubtful whether they have any reality at all outside the imagination.

The idea that “Europe” may be elusive or indeed nonexistent might strike the unsuspecting reader as rather strange. Are the origins of Europe not located in Greek mythology (Tsoukalas 2002)? Is this not the Continent that lays claim to having been the cradle of (at least Western) civilization? From where the major global empires were built and administered, and where two world wars originated? And are we not

CHAPTER 1

2 U. KOCKEL, M. NIC CRAITH, AND J. FRYKMAN

witnessing, in our own lifetime, the coming together of diverse European nations to build a peaceful European Union (EU), aspiring to be a major global economic power? Is not this list of stereotypes, for all its brevity, full of questionable assumptions?

Anthropologists have looked critically at these and other themes for some time, and have even engaged in debates about them with other disciplines. “Europe” as a sociocultural construct has increasingly come under the magnifying glass and one cannot help the impression that the keener the gaze, the deeper the subject recedes into a haze. Part of the problem with the definition of – the drawing of boundaries around – Europe is that its frontiers to the south and east are rather fuzzy. Is Russia part of Europe, or where does Europe’s eastern boundary run? Both Turkey and Israel regularly compete in the Eurovision Song Contest, as do various former Soviet Republics whose geographical Europeanness depends rather on where one draws an arbitrary line on the map and whose cultural Europeanness is every bit as debatable, from the hegemonic point of view, as that of Turkey, nevertheless a long time can-didate for membership of the EU. Turkey is also a long-standing member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), which has been an important compo-nent of Europe’s defenses. But are matters any clearer in the north and west? And what about those who argue that geographically Europe is not a continent at all but merely a component in a landmass more accurately named as Eurasia? (See Hann, Chapter 6 in this volume.)

For most of the latter half of the twentieth century, “Europe” was usually conflated with “Western Europe,” while “Eastern Europe” was at best considered a debatable land. With the decline of Communism we have witnessed the fragmentation of Eastern Europe, and that concept has become increasingly fuzzy. It now appears that there could be a threefold division between East Central Europe, the Balkans, and Eastern Europe “proper” (i.e. Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia; see Burgess 1997:23).

It has always been problematic to delineate the spatial boundaries of Europe pre-cisely, perhaps because Europe is more a conceptual than a geographical entity. Even before the emergence of Benedict Anderson’s (1983) notion of “imagined commu-nity,” it had become customary to think about Europe in terms of an “imagined space” (Said 1978), and ideas of Europe have varied considerably between different geographical locations (Malmborg and Stråth 2002; Nic Craith 2006).

And yet, in much of western and northern Europe, “Europe” is considered to be somewhere else. Looking “over one of their cultural shoulders,” Russians have always perceived Europe as on their doorstep, while the German and French perspective on Europe has been tempered by centuries of bloody conflict – for them “Europe could be just about anywhere they could live peacefully alongside one another” (Kockel 2003:53). From the traditional Danish perspective, Europe was located between their southern border and the Dolomites, and Danes crossing the German border are “going to Europe,” as do English people crossing the Channel. Irish people used to snigger at this as a typically English idiosyncrasy until they discovered, following the IMF bailout in 2010, that they never belonged to Europe either. And even the center of the Continent is hard to locate.

A large number of places, as far apart as the German Rhineland and the Lithuanian-Belarusian frontier, are laying claim to the honor, and definitions of “Central Europe”

FRONTIERS OF EUROPE AND EUROPEAN ETHNOLOGY 3

range from “the German-speaking former Prussian and Habsburg lands” to a group of contemporary states that do not even include any of the latter. Part of that particu-lar discrepancy lies, of course, in the way language prevalence is defined – whether it is measured according to the official language of state administration or the lan-guage spoken by the majority of the population in their everyday lives.

At the turn of the twenty-first century, the concept of Europe has frequently become confused with that of the EU, and the term “Europe” is often used as shorthand when journalists make references to EU administrative and political decision-making bodies (Phillipson 2003:29). Yet the two are not coterminous. Many states, such as Switzerland and Norway, form part of historical, geographical Europe but have no representation in the European parliament.

All of this makes interesting study for anthropologists and others concerned with aspects of culture, history, and society, and so the vagueness of Europe as a concept and cultural actuality can be intriguing and inspiring rather than being an obstacle to rigorous research. However, for a book such as this, vagueness of its subject matter constitutes a certain quandary – which regions to include or exclude, whether to focus on the common perception that equates Europe and the EU, and so on. It is important to recognize that Europe is not a fixed entity, and as an analytical category it remains in historical flux.

Similarly, the discipline of anthropology, perhaps marginally more so than other fields, remains in flux. A generation ago, it was claimed (Kosuth 1991) that anthro-pologists were not suited to the scientific study of their own society – at a time when anthropologists were increasingly getting ready to “come home” from colonial and otherwise exotic outposts and do just that. The anthropology of Europe has, nevertheless, remained very much “in the shadow of a more proper anthropology elsewhere,” as Nigel Rapport (2002:4) put it with reference to the anthropology of Britain. Most European regions have at some stage developed the study of their own culture, usually in association with the respective project of “nation-building.” Regional and national differences have led to a proliferation of labels for these approaches, and while the designation “European ethnology” has been extensively used since it was proposed by Sigurd Erixson in the 1930s, practice in this field remains firmly focused on the local and regional, with quite limited references to any wider “Europe” of sorts. In one sense, this is a good thing because its acute aware-ness of the “Local” is a key strength of European ethnology; in another sense, the lack of a decidedly European perspective has made the designation a bit of a misnomer that causes confusion outside the immediate field (and often enough within it). Many of the departments and institutes of European ethnology have since the 1970s aligned themselves thematically, theoretically, and methodologically with cultural anthropol-ogy. Many of the authors in this volume would be Grenzgänger, scholars who cross the boundaries between an anthropology “proper” and those other approaches gath-ered under the label of “European ethnology.”

Rather than providing a simple, straightforward answer to the question of how “Europe” should be delineated for the purpose of this book, we have chosen a some-what shamanic approach, beginning this exploration of the anthropology of Europe with journeys toward Europe’s cardinal directions. The chapters in the first section seek to locate Europe with reference to its various – real or imagined – geographical

4 U. KOCKEL, M. NIC CRAITH, AND J. FRYKMAN

frontiers. Christian Giordano reviews the original regional field of Europeanist anthropology from a perspective encompassing the Mediterranean region as a whole, identifying current issues and future research directions. He highlights the fluidity of Europe’s borders by exploring the idea of the Mediterranean space as historical region which spans over three continents. This critiques some Eurocentric visions concern-ing both the external and internal boundaries of Europe. In a contribution on circumpolar anthropology, Hugh Beach addresses social science issues and deals with indigenous peoples and their relations to the environment.

Reginald Byron looks westward across the Atlantic, contrasting American and European perspectives. He argues against “neat tidy categories” such as multicultural-ism, which are useful for the purposes of control but which can result in cultural boundaries that are unhelpful for society at large. Major issues and controversies relating to the transformations in the ethnoanthropological study of Eastern Europe since 1989 are discussed by Michał Buchowski, who explores disciplinary boundaries in the work of scholars in postsocialist Europe. This contribution reviews the achieve-ments of academics in the fields of ethnology and anthropology with a view to bridging the gap between one group and the other and breaking down an inappro-priate hierarchical division in favor of more egalitarian area studies. Chris Hann also attempts to break down geographical and conceptual boundaries. Traveling further east, he ponders the boundaries of geographical Europe as well as its cultures and society. He considers the case for a wider geocultural perspective in the context of debates about the Eurocentric nature of much of anthropology.

The concept of Mitteleuropa or Central Europe has proved fascinating for scholars in many disciplines (for example: Ash 1989, Bauman 1989, Kundera 1984, Miłosz 1989, Schöpflin 1989, Schwarz 1989). In the final contribution in this section, Gabriela Kiliánová compares and contrasts the polycentric discipline of European ethnology with social/cultural anthropological approaches originating from or study-ing Central Europe. She concludes that contemporary ethnology in Central Europe finds itself on the frontiers between the historical and social disciplines. Although ethnologists in Central Europe draw on different methodological approaches, they remain strongly orientated toward cultural anthropology and the social sciences.

Following this conceptual triangulation of an anthropology and ethnology of Europe, the remainder of the volume is organized according to thematic rather than regional foci. Because the political project of European integration continues to attract a relatively large amount of anthropological research on Europe, we begin with a thematic section reviewing key aspects of EU policy, practice, and everyday lived experience. Lisanne Wilken opens the section, considering how a specific “European” identity is being constructed by European, national, regional, and local agencies. She explores three different anthropological approaches to questions of culture and identity in relation to EU integration and suggests that all three contrib-ute to our understanding of the idea of European integration and its implications for identity construction.

Since borders are a major issue for European integration, this aspect is addressed by several of the contributors. Ksenija Vidmar Horvat examines how consumer culture affects processes of European integration especially since the EU enlargements in 2004 and 2007. Locating her enquiry in postsocialist regions, she asks how we

FRONTIERS OF EUROPE AND EUROPEAN ETHNOLOGY 5

will envison a post–Cold War, post-Western and post-national Europe. She believes that the postsocialist experience has central relevance for any understanding of Europe and argues that the problem of Eurocentrism will not be dismantled until the col-lective perceptions of Europe in postsocialist countries are fully appreciated.

The concept of a “Europe of the Regions,” from the perspective of the lived experience of internal and external border regions in particular, is discussed by Thomas M. Wilson. Pointing to the significance of these border regions for the European Commission itself, as well as for national and subnational governments, he argues that a “regional Europe” is thriving both in the cores and peripheries of every country on the European continent. Catherine Neveu and Elena Filippova reflect on issues of mobility and security in the context of the Schengen acquis and the question of a European citizenship. Drawing on their own research in France and Russia, these contributors focus on the need to distinguish between different conceptions of citi-zenship across the continent and in particular of its specific connections with issues of (national) identities.

Turning a spotlight on what may well be the geographical center of Europe but is currently the Eastern frontier of the EU, Justyna Straczuk discusses issues at the interface of identity and policy. Suggesting that the new eastern border of the EU may well be a very strong symbolic sign of a divided Europe, Straczuk examines the implications of a sealed political border in a particular region which traditionally enjoyed an open borderland mentality. The chapter explores the contradictions and full implications of a political border which orientalizes and excludes near neighbors while promoting the idea of a “unified Europe” which can appear very illusory. Marion Demossier concludes this section with a discussion of how EU policies are experienced, negotiated, and sometimes subverted at the grass roots level. This chapter highlights the contribution that anthropology can make to an understanding of social and cultural processes in Europe and argues for anthropological expertise at the core of debates on the relationship between culture and politics in the EU.

In years to come, readers might expect to find in this part of the book a discussion of anthropological perspectives on the Eurozone crisis. That crisis escalated at a time when this volume was almost ready (these lines are written as the cancellation of the Greek referendum on the latest EU bailout of the Greek economy is being announced on the radio), and so has become one of the inevitable lacunae that occur when events overtake analysis and publication schedules; a subsequent edition may well take up this topic, perhaps in the context of a broader evaluation of the cultural foundations of European social economy and its post-Capitalist transformations.

Culture and identity have always been difficult issues for the EU and the concept of EU cultural identity usually refers to the sum total of national icons and identities. The Preamble to the Charter of Fundamental Rights (European Convention 2003:75) suggests that the Union “contributes to the preservation and to the development of these common values while respecting the diversity of the cultures and traditions of the peoples of Europe as well as the national identities of the Member States.” Inevitably, there are difficulties associated with this process. Cultural elements such as memory, shared heritage, and history, which unify identities at the national level tend to divide them at European level (Shore 2000:18). The overarching principle of unity in diversity has proved very difficult to carry through. “Diversity is a wild

6 U. KOCKEL, M. NIC CRAITH, AND J. FRYKMAN

and chameleonic animal with thousands of heads that can hardly be kept imprisoned in the case of one legal principle” (Toggenburg 2004:18). The motto “unity in diversity” could be construed in many different ways. Obviously, it could be regarded as an acknowledgment and affirmation of the diverse range of European (national) identities and cultures, as well as including the various regional and minority cultures. However, it could also be viewed as an appropriation of power and symbolism to the center – as if “Europe’s ‘mosaic of cultures’ was but a multiplicity of smaller units in a greater European design.” From that viewpoint, European culture is characterized as the “over-arching, encapsulating and transcendent composite of national cultures; a whole greater than the sum of its discordant parts” (Shore 2000:54).

Chapters in the third section of this volume focus on whether there is such a thing as a single European heritage or collective identity. Sharon Macdonald, looking at how Europeans have been dealing with their past, both publicly and privately, introduces the concept of past presencing to avoid the problematic categorization of “history” versus “memory.” Taking the breakup of Yugoslavia as a case study, Maja Povrzanovic Frykman considers aspects of conflict and recovery on the continent. She argues for the importance of fieldwork as a basis for an anthropology of “state-building” that can draw on the anthropology of “transition,” the anthropology of state, and the anthro-pology of violence and recovery. Peter Jan Margry reviews the significance of belief systems in Europe, past and present, with particular reference to popular religion today. Significantly, he explores the relationship between changes in the history of Europe and the way in which individual and collective developments have been inspired by Europe’s (Christian) past. Continuing with the theme of religion and its political aspects, Gabriele Marranci reviews the study of Muslims in Europe and the challenges that anthropologists face in engaging with such issues, not least of which are questions of definition, especially how one defines Muslims in Europe. With this, Marranci is highlighting a critical aspect of European ethnic ascription. Challenging conventional definitions of “European,” Sabrina Kopf takes up the theme of “other-ing” in her study of Roma and Sinti, who represent the largest ethnic minority within the EU, with an estimated population of 10–12 million. Finally, Norbert Fischer examines if and how a specific European sense of place may be founded in visions of landscape. People have always invested landscapes with meaning and the idea of a European perspective on landscape is not necessarily new. However, the definition of the concept of landscape has changed and there is greater recognition of its dynamic and fluid nature as well as its significance for understanding people and society.

Identity and heritage are inextricably linked to cultural practice, but not all such practice is explicitly aimed at establishing identity and defining heritage. In the fourth section, contributors offer ethnoanthropological perspectives on key aspects of cul-tural practice in European everyday life. Orvar Löfgren deals with tourism as a specific form of mobility and its potential contribution to European integration “from below.” Exploring the institutionalization of travel and the routines of holiday making, Löfgren examines the ways in which the tourist Europeanizes Europe. This exploration is not confined to the continent itself but also to the way European models of tourism have been exported to other regions of the globe.

In a contribution that takes up threads from the second and third sections, Gisela Welz discusses aspects of diversity, regulation, and heritage production in relation to

FRONTIERS OF EUROPE AND EUROPEAN ETHNOLOGY 7

European food cultures. Since European Union policies impact directly on food products and on the process of production, it follows that that European consump-tion habits are strongly shaped by such policies. Welz introduces the concept of “foodscape” and explores the impact of sometimes contradictory EU policies on what we eat and drink at the beginning of the new century.

Different cultural perspectives and traditions are an ongoing issue for the EU, and one of its most difficult challenges is the management of the range of languages and dialects spoken on the Continent. The changing role of languages in the context of intercultural identity politics and the challenges that this diversity poses for Europe are assessed in a contribution by Máiréad Nic Craith. The treatment of cultural rights by various agencies is a difficult issue, and one of direct relevance for states that query the right of women to wear a burqa or the right, for example, of Somali migrants to circumcise their female children according to traditional customs. Valdimar Hafstein and Martin Skrydstrup explore different ways of telling stories of cultural rights and the different appeals to tradition or human dignity which can be used to support such claims. Christina Garsten compares and contrasts different approaches to cor-porate social responsibility (CSR), assessing their relevance for contemporary Europe. Arguing that CSR is a concept which impacts on larger issues such as globalization, Garsten proposes that it has relevance for the relativity or universality of human rights and values. David Murphy takes us into the dark heart of Europe with his examina-tion of the Far Right music scene as an aspect of cultural identity. Murphy’s argument is that in some instances music scenes have offered an alternative avenue of belonging for young people who are not particularly interested in ideals of nationalism. Finally in this section, Christiane Schwab takes a critical look at urban life through an anthro-pological lens. In 2005, more than half of the world’s population lived in urban environments, and this proportion is on the increase. Schwab’s contribution explores relationships between anthropologists and cities and the theoretical and methodologi-cal responses to urban issues.

The fifth and final section deals with areas where disciplinary boundaries are explic-itly and deliberately being crossed. This may seem a strange notion, given our earlier pointer toward the blurred disciplinary boundaries of anthropology. It may be said with some justification that many anthropologists are less concerned with the maintenance of canonical disciplinary purity than some of their academic peers in disciplinary ivory towers, and that this willingness to engage is perhaps a result of the anthropologists’ greater experience of cross-cultural perspectives. There is, of course, also the “four fields” view of anthropology – physical, cultural (or ethnological), linguistics, and archaeology – especially in the US-American tradition, which in itself constitutes a multiple boundary-crossing.

The chapters in this section raise issues in interdisciplinary developments with reference to key areas of cross-disciplinary collaboration, beginning with Maryon McDonald’s discussion of the role of anthropology in relation to medicine and science, both as a contributor to and a critical perspective on these disciplines, which to some extent connects with that “four fields” tradition. Elisenda Ardévol and Aldofo Estalella examine the growing uses of the Internet in ethnographic research. They draw an important distinction between the Internet as a tool of research versus the Internet as an object of study, which illustrates the complexities of conceptions

8 U. KOCKEL, M. NIC CRAITH, AND J. FRYKMAN

of the Internet for anthropological research and the challenges and opportunities it poses for fieldwork.

The rise of interactive media and its implications for ethnography is explored by Terence Wright from the perspective of visual culture. Traditionally, the relationship between anthropology and the visual arts has not been easy, but in highlighting the significance of the visual in contemporary culture, Wright emphasizes the pertinence of visual culture and visual representations of culture for anthropologists. Elka Tscher-nokoshewa reviews theoretical and practical implications of the increasing realization that cultural worlds are hybrid rather than pure. Citing Ina-Maria Greverus (2002:26), she suggests that anthropologists themselves are becoming more and more hybrid. The hermeneutic value of creative writing for anthropological inquiry is evaluated by Helena Wulff with reference to an Irish case study. Engaging with texts is not a new practice for anthropologists. In 1973, Clifford Geertz proposed the notion of culture as text. He suggested that the “culture of a people is an ensemble of texts, themselves ensembles, which the anthropologist strains to read over the shoulders of those to whom they properly belong” (Geertz 1977[1973]:452). He compared the process of doing ethnography with “trying to read (in the sense of ‘construct a reading of’) a manuscript.” Wulff notes that anthropologists have become more reflexive regard-ing their own writing, and she raises the provocative question: Can writing be taught?

Ullrich Kockel concludes this section with an ethnoecological meditation on issues of place and displacement, opening up critical viewpoints for an ethnotopology that has to grapple with the contentious politics of belonging.

In the concluding essay to this companion, Jonas Frykman takes stock of European ethnology and the anthropology of Europe at this historical juncture, and locates European ethnology in the wider field of anthropology, especially the anthropology of Europe, at the beginning of the twenty-first century.

It is inevitable with a project of this scope that one has to be selective with regard to issues and aspects to be included. There are gaps in the coverage of regions and themes. Moreover, some of the topics we had originally hoped to cover in the volume could not be included for various reasons. A different editorial team may well have chosen a different set of foci and approached the treatment of the overall theme dif-ferently. In the context of a discipline and subject matter in considerable flux, that can only be a good thing, engendering debate and further development of the field. With this in mind, we invited contributions to this volume from both well-established scholars and emerging researchers, who are, after all, the future of the discipline, and who will be shaping the agenda for such debate and development. Although this is a European volume, we did not confine ourselves to scholars located on that continent, but aimed instead to present a list of contributors who are experts in Europeanist anthropology/ethnology – regardless of their location. Moreover, we have encouraged contributors not to confine themselves to English-language material and resources, instead taking a broad perspective which would embrace the multilin-gual nature of the European experience. Our aim with this collection has been to be comprehensive, but not exhaustive, explorative but not definitive. In due course, we hope to complement this volume with a reader that will cover some of the topics that could not be included here and provide further food for thought on those that could.

FRONTIERS OF EUROPE AND EUROPEAN ETHNOLOGY 9

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the contributors for making this volume possible. As well as providing a synthesis of current scholarship and scholarly debates, each of them was invited to present his or her own research. All contributions were subject to peer review, and we are grateful to the many colleagues from different traditions of Euro-peanist anthropology and European ethnology who engaged with that vital review process. Our institutions, the University of Ulster and the University of Lund, sup-ported this project in various ways. Last but by no means least, we are grateful to the editorial staff at Wiley-Blackwell, especially to Rosalie Roberston for commission-ing and enthusiastically supporting the project, Julia Kirk who patiently coordinated the whole process, and Annabelle Mundy and Alec McAulay who dealt with copy-editing issues during the final, hectic months.

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Europe’s Cardinal DirectionsPART I