a brief investigation of old testament precursors

7/29/2019 A Brief Investigation of Old Testament Precursors

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Introduction

The example o purposeul cultural adaptation that Paul wrote about

in I Corinthians 9:19-23 is invariably a source o extreme challenge

and ascination or missionaries. It calls them to an almost unlimitedwillingness to leave that which is natural and comortable, learn what is new

and unamiliar, and do all o this without violating the supra-cultural boundar-

ies o Christs commands (c. vs. 21). At the grassroots level, some have ques-

tioned the need or such adaptation. They have argued that any such endeavor

will either inherently involve some kind o syncretistic compromise or perhaps

be increasingly unnecessary in this era o ever-widening globalization. And yet,

while acknowledging these concerns, this call to do whatever cultural adjusting

it takes to communicate eectively still maintains a hold on many o those who

are passionately committed to the completion o the task.Paul gave several examples o how this approach might be applied. For example,

to reach Jews or Christ, Paul voluntarily lived under the Jewish laws (vs. 20 ; c.

Acts 21:24). To reach non-Jews with the gospel, Paul lived outside o these

same Jewish laws, conorming himsel to Gentile cultural expectations, in

order to reach these non-Jews (vs. 20; c. Galatians 2:14). He willingly adapted

his liestyle and cultural practices in order to communicate and relate success-

ully to his target audience. However, regardless o the cultural group he was

addressing, he never compromised his commitment to obey the laws o the

Lord Jesus Christ. There would always be limits to the extent o ones culturaladaptation, even or the sake o the gospel. Paul stated it clearly: To those not

having the law I became like one not having the law (though I am not ree rom

Gods law but am under Christs law) . . . (vs. 20)

Its much easier to talk about Pauls model o adaptation and communication in

a purely theoretical way than it is to actually apply it to a given cultural group.

However, the more we see how it had already been applied in the Bible used by

the early church, the Old Testament, the more we can condently allow the

by Brian K. Petersen

A Brief Investigation of Old Testament Precursorsto the Pauline Missiological Model ofCultural Adaptation

International Journal of Frontier Missiology

Brian has lived and worked in Asiasince the late 1980s. He has conductedintercultural training seminars,directed projects utilizing various artorms or enhanced communication(music, visual art, poetry, flm),presented papers at RethinkingForums and other venues in SouthAsia as well as North America.


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A Brief Investigation of Old Testament Precursors to the Pauline Missiological Model of Cultural Adaptation118

Holy Spirit to guide us in our owncontexts requiring cross-cultural com-munication today.

Over the last couple o years, theauthor has sought to nd biblicalexamples o this imperative or culturaladjustment ound in Pauls statementsin I Corinthians. Many have writtenabout the ways in which Paul workedout this principle in several o his ser-mons in the book o Acts. He adaptedhis approaches with monotheistic Jewsin Pisidian Antioch (Acts 13:13-43),polytheistic Gentile armers in Lystra(Acts 14:8-20), and intellectual Greeksin Athens (Acts 17:16-34).1

However, this present paper willconcentrate on some o the clear-est examples o the Pauline model

that are ound in the pages o theOld Testament. Just as a study o the

varied statements o Gods purposeor the nations in the Old Testament(e.g., Gen. 12:1-3) can enhance onescommitment to and understanding othe Great Commission statements othe gospels, an analysis o exampleso cultural adaptation among the rstthirty-nine books o the Bible can alsoraise our commitment to and insightsinto the Pauline model o becoming

all things to all people.This brie overview o several OldTestament passages will in no way beexhaustive. It only makes the pointthat God has consistently done what-ever it took to communicate divinetruth eectively to his target audi-ences. Others must continue diggingor similar Old (and New) Testamentexamples that can be added to thosepresented here. Indeed, the authors ownresearch was enhanced in this process

when he obtained a copy o John R.Davis insightul book last year, Poles

Apart: Contextualizing the Gospel in Asia(revised edition, 1998).2 This very sug-gestive book, especially its ninth chapteron Biblical Precedents or the Concepto Contextualization, conrmed manythings already discovered, as well asproviding direction or the pursuit oother case studies o cultural adaptationin the Old Testament.

The Question of Pagan CulturalForms within the Old Testament

The overall issue, which will beaddressed in analyzing several OT pas-sages, will be the existence o AncientNear Eastern (i.e., pagan) culturalorms that ound their way into the

pages o Holy Scripture. Scholarlydebate surrounding this topic has gener-ally ocused on the question o culturalborrowing. In essence, theologicalconservatives (such as the author) havemost oten been motivated by a concernto protect the ully divine nature oScripture by arguing against any reli-

ance o the biblical authors or charactersupon the pagan cultures o the nations

surrounding Israel. Those o a more lib-eral persuasion have been more attractedto postulating how particular Old

Testament accounts stand in a depen-dent relationship to earlier non-biblicalmaterial. They have thus hoped to dem-onstrate the more essentially human andnon-exceptional nature o the Bible.

Although a number o the instanceso supposed borrowing will not beresolved or even mentioned in theseew pages, it is the authors contention

that the inclusion o pagan culturalorms within Gods inerrant Word issomething that is actually purposeul, astrategic decision o the Holy Spirit in

working through the human authors oScripture. Formshave been recruited,as it were, in order to serve the divine

purposeo truth communication. Inother words, the use o suchormshavehelped make the meaningo the divinetruths all the more clear to the original

audiences in question. Thus, rather thanbecoming a challenge to the verac-ity o Scripture, such pagan elementsinstead serve to show the divine creativ-ity and communicative excellence inrevealing eternal truth to culture-boundhuman beings o the Ancient Near East(hereater ANE).

The ollowing case studies serve toemphasize the importance o culturaladaptation to eective cross-culturalcommunication. I it was crucial toPauls missionary strategy, i it waspreviously modeled in the pages o theOld Testament, then it must also orman integral part o our contemporaryapproach to the evangelization oall peoples.

Gods Covenant with Abram(Genesis 15:7-18)

The basic issue recounted in thispassage is the doubt that existed in

Abrams mind regarding whether ornot he would indeed inherit all theland o Canaan. He was still onlyliving in a tent and was surrounded bya multitude o peoples who were ullyentrenched in their cities and towns.In light o this unlikely context ora quick transer o land titles to himand his promised descendants, Abramasked the Lord, How can I know thatI will gain possession o [this land]?(Gen. 15:8) This question soundsstrikingly similar to the inappropri-ate inquiry made by Zechariah in thetemple, when told by the angel Gabrielo Gods intention to give him and hiselderly wie Elizabeth a son (John theBaptist). Feeling a bit uncertain aboutGods ability to do the seeming impos-sible, Zechariah likewise asked, Howcan I be sure o this? However, incontrast to Gods immediate censure inthis instance (i.e., nine months withoutthe ability to speak), God acted withgraciousness and deep insight with

Abram. God realized his need to havegreater condence in His promiseregarding land and communicated

with Abram in such a clear way that henever again questioned Gods intentionto come through with the real estate.

The inclusion o

pagan cultural ormswithin Gods inerrantWord is something thatis actually purposeul.


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It is interesting to note that the divineresponse came in the orm o a simple

yet seemingly strange command:Bring me a heier, a goat and a ram,each three years old, along with adove and a young pigeon. (vs. 9)

That is all that the Lord said. He gaveno urther instructions. He did not tell

Abram what to do with these animalsor why He wanted them to be broughtto Him. (Remember that the Lord hasnot yet given the detailed descriptionso the various sacricial oerings that

would eventually be revealed to Moses.That event was still hundreds o yearsin the uture.)

The important thing to note is thatAbram immediately acted on Godsrequest. In act, he not only broughtthe animals, he also killed andarranged the carcasses in a special-ized way. Its as i he knew what Godexpected him to do. The animals wereslaughtered, split in hal, and placed intwo parallel rows, the halves orming apathway down the middle (vs. 10).

Later, when Abram woke up rom hissleep, he observed a startling sight:there were two objects, a smoking re-pot and a blazing torch, moving backand orth between the halves o the

animals. At this juncture, God declaredthat He has thereby made a covenantwith Abram regarding turning over thedeed to the entire Promised Land. Its asthough the arrangement o the animals

with the levitation o the two objectsbetween the two rows had solemnizedsuch an agreement.3

What are our western minds to do withsuch a bizarre scene? The Lord certainlyknew, and Abram seemed to be aware o

what was happening; but or those o us

who are not amiliar with ANE culture,this ritualistic behavior appears veryperplexing, even a bit extreme.

We can gain some insight into commonANE cultural practices regarding thesolemnizing o covenants by reading

Jeremiah 34:18-20. How would theLord treat covenant breakers? He wouldtreat them just like the animal that hadbeen killed and cut in two and through

It would be ullled. God adaptedhimsel to Abram, an ancient neareasterner, relating His eternal truth toa cultural practice that would makesense to Abram in his context. Robert I.Bradshaw has observed, regarding therelationship o ANE covenants to theOld Testament, that

it is generally recognized that the

concept of covenant represents a

supreme example of Gods accommo-

dation in His revelation to mankind. In

expressing Himself through the cov-

enant God has taken something that

is already understood as the starting

point of a relationship. This concept isthen developed and changed as rev-

elation continued.5

The Use of Hittite CovenantFormulas in the Pentateuch

The covenant which God initiallyenacted with the children o Israel atMount Sinai also had links to cul-tural orms which existed prior to thatmoment in salvation history. Researchhas identied the basic structure o

this covenant as very similar to Hittitetreaties ca. 1344-1271 bc, during thereigns o Shuppiluliuma I, Murshili II,and Muwatalli II.6 It was the Hittites

who standardized the suzerain-vassaltreatyorm in the ANE context, mostexamples containing at least six sec-tions: introduction o the parties; thehistorical background o the relation-ship o these treaty partners; the termsor stipulations o this particular agree-ment itsel; a listing o witnesses; the

detailing o blessings and curses; anda statement regarding the use o thedocument itsel.7 There was also some

variation in the order o these elementso this type o treaty. In addition, sucha covenant was undertaken between asuperior political power and one that

was subordinate to the ormer.8

The essential ormat o these Hittitetreaties can be observed in at least

whose halves they had walked. In theANE context, some covenants wereratied between two parties by their

walking down the aisle created by thehalves o animals. As the two parties

walked, they pronounced upon them-selves a curse, asking God to treat themas they had treated the animals itheyailed to ulll their covenant obliga-tions. This was commonly reerred to asa royal land grant covenant.4

Evidently Abram did not need anyinstruction rom the Lord about thisritual. He had grown up among (and as

ully part o) the peoples o the ANEand was, thus, totally amiliar with thismethod o ratiying a covenant, espe-cially regarding a land grant transac-tion. The Hebrew word or making acovenant, interestingly enough, meansliterally to cut a covenant, a possiblereerence to this common practice.

The strange thing about this particularuse o the ritual is that it was only oneo the parties (the Lord) who walkedbetween the pieces o the animals.

Abram saw two items passing betweenthe animal halves: a smoking torch anda blazing torch. Within the think-ing o ANE cultures, these two items(re and smoke) represented the divinepresence. But Abram was not asked to

walk alongside them through the halves.Only the Lord is seen pronouncing, asit were, a curse upon Himsel, sayingthat He Himsel should be split in two,should He go back on His promiseto give the land to Abram. This is a

staggering, unbelievable way or Godto communicate His truth! Abram, asa result, never again had any questionor doubts concerning Gods promise togive his descendants the land o Canaan.

In summary, the Lord had chosen anANE culturalorm and had trans-ormed its common, temporal mean-ingby using it to conrm the absolutecertainty o His promise to Abram.

God adapted himself to Abram, relating Hiseternal truth to a cultural practice that wouldmake sense to Abram in his context.


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ship, He utilized culturalormsthatwere already in existence, combiningboth continuity and discontinuity incultural adaptation. Theorm was notnew; thepurposeor which it was used,its meaning, was unparalleled.

The Ritual of Circumcision

(Genesis 17:9-14)Who was it that originally came upwith the idea o circumcision? The

three locations in the Pentateuch: thecovenant code (Exodus 20, 25), theholiness code in Leviticus (Leviticus1-26), and the deuteronomic codein Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 13,1227, 3132).9 It can also be oundin Joshua 8, 24.10 However, it is mostclearly seen in portions o the book o

Exodus (20:1-23:33) and in the entirebook o Deuteronomy.11

Here ollows an analysis o thisANE orm in the light o the book oDeuteronomy, built upon some obser-

vations made by John H. Walton12(see table below).

The relationship between Israel andYahweh, as described in the OldTestament, was unique among thenations o the ANE. However, whenGod ormalized this special relation-

Treaty Element Reference Brief Description

1. Introduction

of Speaker

Deuteronomy1:6-3:29

Yahweh is the author and initiator o the covenant, the suzerain who has theright to make certain demands;He has promised the land o Canaan to the people o Israel, requiring them togo into it and conquer it; He will give them success i they do so.

2. Historical

Prologue

1:6-3:29 The history o the missed opportunity o the last generation o Israelitesis reviewed;They reused to go into the land and conquer it out o ear and distrust oGods commitment to empower them;As a consequence, they wandered in the desert or 40 years, until thatdisobedient generation died;Now, the next generation has the same opportunity being laid beore them.

3. Stipulations Chps. 1226 Summaryethical & religious behavior as the conditions o the covenant:Appropriate place o worship;Prohibition o loyalty to any other gods;Purity in eating habits;Honoring God with rst ruits and tithes;Humane treatment o slaves & indentured servants;Celebration o prescribed estivals o remembrance;Appropriate means o dealing with violent crimes;Approach to warare;Relationships with potential spouses, ospring, captive women, etc.Private property rights;Appropriate types o textiles and clothing;The perimeters o being clean or unclean;Various other laws regarding ethical behavior.

4. Statements

regarding the

Document

27:2-3;31:10-13, 24-26

The tablets o the covenant were to be kept in the ark;The Law was to be read every seven years during the Feast o Booths;Stones were to be set up prior to hearing the reading o the blessings and curses.

5. DivineWitnesses

31:19-22, 26-28;32:39-43

A song was to be taught to Israel so that they could sing it as a witness eitheror or against them relative to their keeping o this covenant;The Law itsel is a witness;The heavens and earth are both witnesses;The song o Moses also mentions several witnesses, e.g., Gods oath to exactvengeance, should Israel be ound aithless.

6. Curses and

Blessings

28:1-68 Blessings or Obedience (1-14): children, crops, livestock, ood, victory overenemies, good reputation & impact among the peoples, rain, lending vs.having to borrow, being the top vs. bottom, head vs. tail: in a word, lie;Curses or Disobedience (15-68): the opposite o each o the above blessings;in summary: destruction.

Table 1: Treaty Elements in the Book of Deuteronomy


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evidence is airly clear that thisculturalorm was practiced in the

ANE by a number o people groups.The western Semitic peoples prac-ticed it, including the Arabians,Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites andEgyptians, along with the Hebrews(c. Jeremiah 9:25-26). However,

circumcision was not practiced by othercultures, including the Babylonians,

Assyrians, Canaanites and Philistines.

The original practice was most likelylimited to adolescent and young adultmales, having theunction o a rite oinitiation into adulthood, into the clanand/or into marriage. It is interest-ing to note the language concerningmarriage relationships: the Hebrew

words or bridegroom, ather-in-lawand son-in-law all come rom the sameroot word, hatan, which is Arabic orto circumcise. So, a son-in-law isliterally one who has been circum-cised and a ather-in-law is the one

who perorms the circumcision. Thiscertainly gives newmeaningregardingthe cost o wedding preparations orthe groom.

So, this particular practice is neithernew nor unique to the Hebrews. Theearliest reerence to circumcision

that we have comes rom Egypt inapproximately 2400 bc,13 well beorethe Lord commanded Abraham tobegin circumcising within his extendedamily in Genesis 17. However, Godtransormed the meaningandunc-tion o this practice o removing theoreskin in two ways: rst, by makingit something to be done primarily onnewborn inants (i.e., on the eighth dayater birth); and, secondly, by insistingon a distinctive symbolism or the act

(i.e., that it represented the special rela-tionship that Yahweh would have withall o His covenant people, includingeven those who could not yet choose toollow the Lord themselves.)

Thus, God has again taken a culturalorm amiliar to His chosen people,a ritual that already existed amongthe nations surrounding them, andtransormed it into a new, powerulmessageabout who He is and how He

acts. This minor surgical procedurenow declared, You belong to Me!I will always be your God, and you

will always be My people. The acto circumcisions permanent natureallowed or such newmeanings.

It is interesting to note that, as circum-cision was the physical sign o Godscovenant people in the Old Testament,in a similar (though not completelyparallel) way baptism became theoutward symbol o those who belongto the Lord Jesus Christ in the New

Testament. Baptism likewise is a reli-

gious ritual that was practiced by bothpagans and Jews many centuries priorto its practice by John the Baptist andlater by Jesus and His disciples.14

Basic Names Used for God(Genesis 14:18-22)

A common point o debate amongmissionary linguists and evangelistshas concerned the choice o words to beused to reer to God Himsel: are anyo the existing words or the supreme

deity acceptable or use regarding theone true God, or must new wordsbe borrowed rom other languages,

whether ancient biblical ones or romother contemporary cultures? Howcan one purge distorted connotationsrom a local word and avoid syncretisticunderstandings? On the other hand,how can one avoid the inherent or-eignness o using outsider words orGod that may produce equally unhelp-ul associations?

New terms were indeed introduced intothe revelational world o those earlyhuman objects o Gods communica-tion, the term YHWH (Yahweh)being the best example. However, Godthe Holy Spirit, as the superintendingauthor o Holy Scripture in cooperation

with the human writers (c. 2 Timothy3:16; 2 Peter 1:20-21), chose to usesome general words to genericallyreer to the supreme deity in the Old

Testament that are at least surprising.The most startling word choice hasto be the Semitic word el, especiallybecause o all o its contextual conno-tations in the ANE.

In contrast to the word Yahweh, elwasalready well known in the ANE.15 Ithad been used to reer to the highestgod in the Canaanite pantheon, oneseen primarily as creator and ather.

The dicult thing is that elin ANEliterature, while indeed reerring tothe supreme god, is described as adeity that is essentially dierent both

in character and power rom the Godwho revealed Himsel to Abram. Forexample, there is the description oels hunting and easting, and lovemak-ing to his two wives and the birth othe gods Dawn and Dusk.Elis seenin Canaanite writings as a vigorousand prodigiously lusty old man. 16Such understandings could not beurther rom an accurate picture o theone true God o the universe. We arelet to conclude that the Holy Spirit

was most concerned with taking animperect term that was widely knownand accepted as reerring to the high-est o all gods, and then pouring newmeaninginto that term, that previouslyexisting culturalorm.17 The whole Old

Testament repeatedly provides su-cient contrasts between God, as He is,and those so-called gods o the peoplesthat surrounded Israel. The biblical

writers accurately describe His nature,primarily through an extensive series

o narrative accounts o how He acts,in addition to theological commentswithin the text that clariy Godsnature and character.

The Holy Spirit could have relied exclu-sively upon brand new terms or God;He did not do so. He was willing tobuild newmeaninginto the base o pre-

viously existing terms ororms, howeverimperect they may have been in them-selves. The multiple revelations o God

How can one avoid the inherent foreignnessof using outsider words for God that mayproduce unhelpful associations?


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in the Scriptures sought to eliminatepotential syncretistic tendencies; the useo local terms or God helped minimizethe oreignness o the basic word orGod. This is the God you seek; youmust just know Him accurately, accord-ing to His revealed truth.

Its amazing to nd a similar approachto terms or the supreme God that wasused by the New Testament writers.18

The general Greek word or God (theos)had decidedly inaccurate connotationsin ancient Greek culture, including bothpolytheistic, anthropomorphic and alsomore philosophical, monistic con-ceptualizations. In addition, the term

which John chose to reer to the LordJesus Christ in his prologue (the logos)had long ago been wrapped in variedunderstandings that were unhelpul andrisked misunderstanding. However, theHoly Spirit evidently counted on theclarity o the total divine sel-revela-tion in Christ to hold o compromised,tarnished views o Christ and God.

This battle was never won once andor all; it was a continual pursuit o theearly apostles, as evidenced by the veryexistence o the many heresy-addressingepistles that we have. But, at the core,there was a desire, once again, to buildon the known terms, those that werenot oreign but local. Yes, newmeaningsmust be poured into these terms, butthey must bepouredinto the old, well-known terms and not merely into new

words that are totally unamiliar to thetarget audience.

Alleged Borrowing fromAncient Near Eastern PoeticLiterature (Psalms & Proverbs)Much has been said about the possiblerelationship between some o the psalmso Israel (e.g., Psalms 29 and 104) withthose o both Ugaritic and Egyptianderivation.19 However, condenceregarding any direct dependency or bor-rowing is not as clear and unequivocalas it is concerning certain sections o thebook o Proverbs. Most scholars, includ-ing evangelicals, more universally agreethat Proverbs has antecedents in other

ANE wisdom literature. Thereore,

ocus here will be comprised solely oa brie analysis o Solomons proverbial

writings and their relationship to similarworks in ancient Egypt and elsewhere.

As was already stated, it is widelybelieved that some portions o thebook o Proverbs were taken rom the

pool o common human wisdom thatexisted in the ancient world. Some othese ancient traditions most certainly

were already being written, read, andpassed on to others beore the time oSolomon. The literaryormsthat areound in the book o Proverbs werecommon throughout ANE cultures.

They were especially used as instruc-tion ormats to the young and/or as

guidelines or those serving in a royalcourt as administrators. The wordso the wise that were consolidatedinto books are closer to the style oteaching manuals than to a string ounrelated olk wisdom. There seems tobe a deliberate reerence to a particularprototype o these literary orms inProverbs 22:20-21: Have I not writtenthirty sayingsor you, sayings o counseland knowledge, teaching you true andreliable words, so that you can give

sound answers to him who sent you?[italics mine] This is paralleled in theearlier and well-known Instruction o

Amenemope, who instructed his sonin proper conduct. This work, writ-ten prior to the book o Proverbs, hasmany themes in common with the seto sayings ound in Pr. 22:1724:22.It also begins by addressing the reader

with this statement: Mark or yourselthese thirty chapters: they please, they

instruct, they are the oremost o allbooks. (27, 7) [italics mine]

Noted Old Testament scholar James B.Pritchard made this comment regard-ing Amenemopes collection: Amen-em-Opet diers rom earlier Egyptianbooks o wisdom in its humbler, more

resigned, and less materialistic out-look.20 The table on the ollowing pagecontains some other examples o theparallels that can be observed betweenthis noteworthy yet non-inspiredInstruction o Amenemope 21 and thedivinely inspired book o Proverbs.22

Note that, despite these many simi-larities, there are many verses in thisportion o Proverbs that have no paral-lels in the Egyptian wisdom literature.In addition, the majority o the whole

book o Proverbs has no close parallelin other ANE literature.

However, having said that, one muststill admit that many laws, proverbs,songs, poetic couplets and otherculturalormswere borrowed in thenal creating o this OT book by theinspired authors. To say that the Bibleis ul ly inspired by the Holy Spiritdoes not preclude the selective inclu-sion o some non-Israelite materials aspart o the nal God-given product.

All truth is Gods truth, wherever itmay be ound. These portions are thenreinterpreted and given authority andmeaningby the biblical authors, allunder divine direction.

The uniqueness o Proverbs amongsimilar types o literature in the ANEis, rst and oremost, its insistenceon linking the success o all human

wisdom to a reverential relationshipwith the one true God, revealed spe-

cially to Israel and his people. So, anyoutside material had to conorm to thisoverall perspective or be transormedsuch that it ully incorporated thebiblical view o the world.

The Bible is most certainly Godsunique revelation o Himsel to humanbeings, given through the instru-mentality o Israel and the apostles.However, this does not mean thatevery sentence o Scripture had to

Many laws,proverbs, and other

cultural orms wereborrowed in the fnalcreating o this OTbook by the inspired

authors.


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Book of Proverbs Instruction of Amenemope

12:22 The Lord detests lying lips, but Hedelights in men who are truthul.

10th Chap. Do not talk with a man alselythe abomination o thegod. Do not cut o the heart rom thy tongue, that all thy aairs maybe successul. Be sincere in the presence o the common people, orone is sae in the hand o the god. God hates him who alsies words;

his great abomination is the contentious o belly.

12:23 A prudent man keeps his knowledge tohimsel, but the heart o ools blurts out olly.

21stChap. Better is a man whose talk (remains) in his belly than hewho speaks it out injuriously.

15:16 Better a little with the ear o the Lordthan great wealth with turmoil.15:17Better a meal o vegetables where there islove than a attened cal with hatred.

6 th Chap. Better is poverty in the hand o god than riches in a storehouse;better is bread when the heart is happy, than riches with sorrow.

16:8Better a little with righteousness thanmuch gain with injustice.

13th Chap. Better is bread, when the heart is happy, than richeswith sorrow.

17:5He who mocks the poor shows contempt

or their Maker; whoever gloats over disasterwill not go unpunished.

23rdChap. Do not laugh at a blind man nor tease a dwar nor injure the

aairs o the lame. Do not tease a man who is in the hand o the god,nor be erce o ace against him i he errs.

19:21 Many are the plans in a mans heart but itis the Lords purpose that prevails.

18th Chap. One thing are the words which men say, another is thatwhich the god does.

20:9 Who can say, I have kept my heart pure; Iam clean and without sin?

18th Chap. Say not, I have no wrongdoing, nor (yet) strain toseek quarreling.

20:22 Do not say, Ill pay you back or thiswrong! Wait or the Lord, and he will deliveryou. (c. 27:1)

21stChap. Do not say: I have ound a strong superior, or a man in thycity has injured me. Do not say: I have ound a patron, or one whohates me has injured me. For surely thou knowest not the plans ogod, and thy silence will cast them down.

20:23 The Lord detests diering weights, anddishonest scales do not please Him.

16th Chap. Do not lean on the scales nor alsiy the weights, nordamage the ractions o the measure . . .Make not or thysel weightswhich are decient; they abound in grie through the will o god.

22:17Pay attention and listen to the sayings othe wise; apply your heart to what I teach22:18. . . or it is pleasing when you keep themin your heart and have all o them ready onyour lips22:19 . . .so that your trust may be in the Lord, Iteach you today, even you.

1stChap. Give thy ears, hear what is said, give thy heart to understandthem. To them in thy heart is worthwhile, (but) it is damaging to him whoneglects them. Let them rest in the casket o thy belly, that they may be akey in thy heart. At a time when there is a whirlwind o words, they shallbe a mooring-stake or thy tongue. I thou spendest thy time while this isin thy heart, thou wilt nd success; thou wilt nd my words a treasure olie, and thy body will prosper upon earth.

22:20Have I not written thirty sayings or you,

sayings o counsel and knowledge?

30th Chap. Mark or yoursel these thirty chapters: they please, they

instruct, they are the oremost o all books.

22:22 Do not exploit the poor because they arepoor and do not crush the needy in court,22:23 . . . or the Lord will take up their caseand will plunder those who plunder them.

2nd Chap. Guard thysel against robbing the oppressed and againstoverbearing the disabled.28th Chap. God desires respect or the poor more than the honoring othe exalted.

22:24Do not make riends with a hot-tempered man, do not associate with oneeasily angered.

9 th Chap. Do not associate to thysel the heated man, nor visit himor conversation.

(cont. on next page)

Table 2: Parallels between the Book of Proverbs and the Instruction of Amenemope


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represent previously unknown insights.

We have conclusive evidence that somethings that God chose to make a parto His divine revelation existed priorto its writing. This demonstrates thatGod consistently used certain elementsorormso the non-Israelite cultures,transorming them in theirpurposeandmeaning. He became, as it were, anancient near easterner in communi-cating eectively to those people, mostespecially (but not exclusively) theHebrew tribes.

However, the Holy Spirits decision tosometimes contextualize the truths othe Bible also undoubtedly acilitatedIsraels cross-cultural communicationo true religion to the surroundingnations. Gary Brantley has observedin his article, Pagan Mythology andthe Bible, that amiliar gures andliterary style would acilitate Gentilenations understanding o the truth.

Consistent with this observation,

Alexander Heidel argued that

since the Old Testament was intended

also for the Gentile world, it is but

natural that the biblical authors

availed themselves of gures of

speech and imagery with which also

Israels neighbors were familiar, or

which were at least easily understand-

able to them.23

John Davis, in the previously men-tioned bookPoles Apart(1998), has

made a number o astute observationsregarding these issues. Here are severalinsights that are so well stated as to

warrant inclusion in this paper:

The Old Testament reects an inter-

action between the surrounding

nations, Hebrew culture and the

revealed Word of God. When

Yahweh chose Israel (Ex. 19:6-7) in a

special way to be My people, He at

the same time transformed many of

the existing pagan rituals and cultural

forms and utilized them for perpetual

implementation by His people. Of

course, these outward cultural forms

were reinterpreted with new inner

meaning, but there is no doubt that

they were already there before

Yahweh chose the people of Israel.

Few scholars deny now that many of

the rituals Israel adopted had pagan

origins.24 [italics by Davis]

. . .there is a difference betweenthe concept of borrowing (from

surrounding nations) and rev-elation where God gives direct

instructions to the Prophets, yet

even the borrowing by Israel from

its pagan surroundings was directly

under the control of Yahweh and cer-

tainly was not indiscriminate.25

Israel understood the risk of syncre-

tism but continued to adopt, adapt,

transform and re-invest anything

22:28Do not move an ancient boundary stoneset up by your oreathers. (c. 23:10-11)

6th Chap. Guard against encroaching upon the boundaries o the elds,lest a terror carry thee o.

23:1 When you sit to dine with a ruler, notewell what is beore you,23:2 . . .and put a knie to your throat i you aregiven to gluttony.

23:3 Do not crave his delicacies, or that ood isdeceptive.

23rdChap. Do not eat bread beore a noble, nor lay on thy mouth atrst. I thou art satised with alse chewings, they are a pastime or thyspittle. Look at the cup which is beore thee, and let it serve thy needs.

23:4Do not wear yoursel out to get rich; havethe wisdom to show restraint.23:5Cast but a glance at riches, and they are gone,or they will surely sprout wings and fy o to thesky like an eagle.

7th Chap. I riches are brought to thee by robbery, they will not spend thenight with thee; at daybreak they are not in thy house: their places may beseen, but they are not. The ground has opened its mouth . . . that it mightswallow them up, and might sink them in to the underworld. (Or) theyhave made themselves a great breach o their (own) size and are sunkendown in the storehouse. (Or) they have made themselves wings likegeese and are fown away to the heavens. Rejoice not thysel (over) riches(gained) by robbery, nor mourn because o poverty.

23:10Do not move an ancient boundary stone

or encroach on the elds o the atherless23:11 . . . or their Deender is strong; he willtake up their case against you.

6th Chap. Guard against encroaching upon the boundaries o the elds,

lest a terror carry thee o. One satises god with the will o the Lord,who determines the boundaries o the arable land.

25:21 I your enemy is hungry, give him ood toeat; i he is thirsty, give him water to drink.25:22 In doing this, you will heap burning coalson his head and the Lord will reward you.

2nd Chap. So steer that we may bring the wicked man across, or weshall not act like himlit him up, give him thy hand; leave him (in)the arms o the god; ll his belly with bread o thine, so that he may besated and may be ashamed.

27:1 Do not boast about tomorrow, or you donot know what a day may bring orth.

18th Chap. Do not spend the night earul o the morrow. At daybreakwhat is the morrow like? Man knows not what the morrow is like.


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from the surrounding cultures and

make it uniquely its own.26

Here we see clearly the principle of

continuity and discontinuity operat-

ing hand in hand. The story is, on

the one hand, a progressive de-cul-

turalization of undesirable elements,

such as idolatry, sexual immorality,

corrupt economic and political prac-tices, and on the other hand, it is an

extension of other elements from

the previous cultural norms or reli-

gious forms.27

If Israel could borrow from OTHER

SURROUNDING CULTURES which

were familiar to them, why is it

wrong for Asia Christians to borrow

from THEIR OWN CULTURES? 28 [cap-

italization by Davis]

Daniels Service in the Courtsof Non-Israelite Rulers(Daniel 1-6)

The book o Daniel is most usuallyutilized within the church as a sourceo interesting stories or childrenand/or as important material or thoseseeking insights into biblical prophecy.However, it is an extremely insightulcase study in how to speak and liveeectively as Gods servant in a cross-cultural setting.

It is invaluable to learn rom thechoices that Daniel and his Hebrewcompanions in Babylon made. WhichBabylonian cultural orms could beadapted and used without concernabout compromise? Which had to beresisted resolutely in order to avoidsyncretism? In reading Daniel 1-6, onesees how these our Israelites sought tomaintain their moral and theologicalintegrity as servants o Yahweh and

yet also tried to interact with the royalcourts o Babylon and Persia in a rel-evant, culturally sensitive way.

1. In-depth study o non-Israelite religionand culture (1:3-21)Daniel and his riends were approvedor entering an intensive three-yeartraining program, a Masters o Artsand Science in Babylonian Studies i

you will, in order to prepare them-selves or possible selection to serve in

the court o King Nebuchadnezzar.They could have reused this honor,though it might have had dire con-sequences or them. But, its obviousthat Daniel and his companions werecompletely willing to give up theirlives in order to not do somethingthey believed to be a compromiseo their allegiance to the one-trueGod, Yahweh. Thus, its clear thatcompleting this in-depth study othe language and literature o theBabylonians (1:4) to gain under-standing o all kinds o literature andlearning (1:17) was something that

Daniel and company believed wasGods will or them.

Its also obvious that they partici-pated in this program o study withdiligence and enthusiasm since theseour young Jews ended up at the topo their class. They were ten timesbetter than all the magicians andenchanters in [the] whole kingdom.(1:20) Its important to note that thesestudies would necessarily include a

vast array o religious subjects, includ-ing the Sumerian religious base uponwhich Babylonian religious under-standings had been built.

These acts about Daniel and hisriends are quite signicant. Theyseem to provide a basis or the seri-ous study o non-Christian religiousculture, such that one might evenbecome an expert in the eld. As

will be shown in the story o Daniel,excelling in such an endeavor can

create the kind o credibility, as a truecultural insider, that can result insignicant impact being made uponthe top infuencers o a culture, andeven beyond.29

2. Names associated with alse religion(1:6-7; 4:8-9)Right at the beginning o their courseo study, the our Jewish students

were given new names, undoubt-

edly without anyone asking thempermission to do so. Each o thesenames were distinctly associated

with the name o a Babylonian god.Daniel became Belteshazzar, aterthe name o Nebuchadnezzars god(4:8-9). Hananiah became Shadrach,meaning The Command o Aku,a Sumerian or Elamite moon-god.Mishael was assigned the Babylonianequivalent Meshach, again reer-ring to the moon-god Aku. Lastly,

Azariah was called Abednego, mean-ing the servant o the god Nego. 30

Did these Jewish trainees take a standto reject these Babylonian names,especially owing to their association

with alse gods? Did they reuse toanswer to them? No, they did not. But,remember that these are our youngmen who were ully loyal to the Godo Abraham, at least according toeverything written about them in HolyScripture. More than once they wereto prove that they were willing to doanything, even dying a horrible, violent

death, in order to maintain their integ-rity as exclusive devotees o the MostHigh God without compromise.

It is instructive to note that theApostle Paul greeted various brothersand sisters in the Lord by their origi-nal names, ones taken straight romthe mythologies o ancient Greek andRoman religion. Nothing whatsoever

was communicated that implied thenecessity o their changing his or hername in order to be a more commit-

ted disciple o Christ.31

3. Seeking exceptions rom those inauthority (1:8-16)

The biblical narrative states thatDaniel was determined not to eatthe kings ood, presumably becauseit would have inevitably includeditems that were orbidden by theMosaic Law. It may have all beenoered to idols, it may have simply

However, [the book of Daniel] is an extremelyinsightful case study in how to speak and liveeffectively as Gods servant in a cross-cultural setting.


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been orbidden meats, or it may havebeen prepared in a non-kosher way.However, it is interesting to noteDaniels attitude with regard to thisissue. He did not treat this as he later

would the issue o reusing to bow toan idol or pray to another god. In act,he never gave any kind o ultimatum

to the Babylonians at all, declar-ing that he reused to eat the oodprovided by his royal patron. Instead,he lived resolutely according to bibli-cal principles and, at the same time,also sought to live under the authorityo those whom God had sovereignlyplaced over him. He did not want tohave to disobey his human masters ihe could avoid doing so.

Daniels solution was thus to appeal to

their supervisor or the reedom to eata dierent diet, as long as it did not getthis ocial in trouble. Daniel proposeda creative solution whereby his supervi-sor could see that God was honoringDaniels determination not to eat thekings menu, that he and his riends

would actually become healthier byliving on a strictly vegetarian diet. Godsubsequently honored Daniels submis-sive spirit and his commitment to theMosaic Law. He enabled Daniel and

his companions to look healthier andbetter nourished than any o the otherstudents at the Royal Academy.

4. Discerning acceptable meaning despitea seemingly unacceptable orm (2:46-49)Daniel was able to interpretNebuchadnezzars dream. In response,the text says that the king ell pros-trate beore Daniel and ordered thatoerings and incense be oered. Mosto us would have probably quicklyurged the king to stop such an idola-

trous act because its against our reli-gion. Peters response to Corneliusreverential bow would probably havebeen on our minds: Stand up. I amonly a man mysel. (Acts 10:25-26)However, Daniel perceived correctlythat the king was merely intendingto honor, not his chie wise man, butrather that wise mans God, the onetrue God who had enabled him tocorrectly ascertain the kings dream

and its interpretation. And, indeed, asthe king was bowing and having theincense lit, he declared,

Surely your God is the God of gods

and the Lord of kings and a revealer

of mysteries, for you were able to

reveal this mystery. (Daniel 2:47)

Daniel thus treated this act o wor-ship in the spirit in which it wasgiven: as worship to Daniels God andnot to Daniel himsel.32

As a consequence, this incidentproved to be the rst step in Danielultimately having evangelistic impact

on the entire kingdom o Babylon,through King Nebuchadnezzar as

his disciple, as will be noted inchapter our.

5. Bowing beore idols (3:1-12, 26-30)It is clear that believers should neverbow beore idols, regardless o howacceptable such a practice is within agiven culture. Daniels three riends

were thrown into the ery urnaceor reusing to do so. As was the case

with the Apostle Paul, these men werealso unwilling to disobey Gods lawin order to adapt to another culture at

every point (c. I Corinthians 9:21).

On the other hand, there may bean important distinction betweenactive participation in pagan worshipand merely being present in a pagantemple due to obligatory social roles(e.g., the expectation o attending aestival celebration with ones amily).Such might have been the case inthe encounter between Naaman, the

military general rom Aram, and theprophet Elisha.33

6. Patriotic eelings toward non-Israeliterulers (4:19)Even though they were worshipperso alse gods and did not ollow GodsLaw, Daniel was totally committed to

aithully serving all o the rulers inwhose courts he worked or so manyyears. Thus, Daniel was completelyat a loss emotionally when the Lordtold him how much Nebuchadnezzar

would have to suer (i.e., becomingand living like an animal) because othe extreme pride that had developedin his character. Daniel wished thatsuch a judgment could be reservedor the kings enemies rather than begiven to the king o Babylon himsel.(Remember that the Jews had beenenemies o Nebuchadnezzar, one ohis subject peoples!)

Theres just no question whatsoeverthat Daniel had ully adapted himselto his adopted culture; his identi-cation was emotionally real, authenticand deep, and not merely a strategyor making converts.

7. Results o Daniels commitment to anapproach o balanced cultural adaptation(4:32, 34, 37)

As a result o Daniels ministry, over aperiod o years, the king o the great-est empire o that time came to proessthe greatness o the one true God andgive Him honor above all others. It

was an incredible tribute to Danielsaithulness as a witness or Yahweh

when King Nebuchadnezzar, as themost powerul monarch o this day,made the ollowing statement:

At the same time that my sanity was

restored, my honor and splendor

were returned to me for the glory of

my kingdom. My advisors and nobles

sought me out, and I was restored to

my throne and became even greater

than before. Now I, Nebuchadnezzar,

praise and exalt and glorify the King

of heaven, because everything He

does is right and all his ways are just.

And those who walk in pride he is

able to humble. (Daniel 4:36-37)

This incidentproved to be

the frst step in Danielultimately having

evangelistic impact onthe entire kingdom

o Babylon.


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What an incredible impact this musthave made on all those advisorsand nobles that were coming to theking or his guidance and sovereigndecisions over the empire! Rememberthat previously, ater the incident oDaniels riends and the ery urnace,this same king had decreed that

the people of any nation or language

who say anything against the God of

Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego

be cut into pieces and their houses be

turned into rubble, for no other god

can save in this way. (Daniel 3:29)

The decisions o Daniel and hisriends, applying a balanced culturaladaptation, had resulted in honoror the one true God throughout theBabylonian empire!

8. Maintaining ones exclusive devotionto the one true God (6:3-16, 22, 25-28)

The most amous o all the stories inthe book o Daniel concerns the inci-dent regarding the lions den. Suceit to say that it again demonstratesDaniels willingness to pay any pricein order to maintain his ethical andtheological integrity (i.e., not disobey-ing Gods laws). There must alwaysbe limits to ones cultural adaptation,regardless o the culture and ones

desire to be sensitive.

Concluding RemarksIt is hoped that these ew case studiesoutlining divinely initiated culturaladaptation will provide challenge andencouragement or contemporary cross-cultural workers to do the same withintheir specic contexts. For many whoread this article, it will be an instanceo preaching to the choir. Thisperspective is neither new nor origi-

nal. However, the present author hasdiscovered that the study o such bibli-cal examples can be a helpul tool intraining nationals, especially in situa-tions where local churches and missionorganizations have become culturallyinsulated and less willing to continuepursuing appropriate approaches tobalanced cultural adaptation. (Indeed,the subject o contextualizationis oten met with deep suspicion or

immediate denunciation. Focusinginitially on the Scriptures themselvesor implications regarding this topicseems a better choice.) Thereore, ithese pages serve such an eventuallyreproductive training purpose, thissmall endeavor will have been well

worth the eort.

The author is also extremely interestedin gathering more examples concern-ing how God, in essence, became anancient near easterner to communi-cate His eternal truth.I the reader isaware o other specifc instances in either

the Old or New Testament, i she or hecould be so kind as to email the authorregarding what has been discovered,along with any relevant documentation.Please use the ollowing email address:[email protected]. IJFM

Endnotes1 Roy Joslin, Urban Harvest(Welwyn,

Hertordshire, England: Evangelical Press,1982), 156-190. Also see comments on

Joslins analysis in John R. Davis, PolesApart: Contextualizing the Gospel in Asia,

revised edition (Bangalore, India: Theo-logical Book Trust, 1998), 228-232.

2 Davis, John R., 213-235. Davis workocuses on the application o these conceptsregarding contextualization in the Bud-dhist, especially Thai, context.

3 Gerald R. McDermott, CanEvangelicals Learn rom World Religions?(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press,2000), 82.

4 Philip J. King and Lawrence E.Stager, Lie in Biblical Israel(Louisville:

Westminster John Knox Press, 2001), 44;John H. Walton, Victor H. Matthews and

Mark W. Chavalas, The IVP BackgroundCommentary: Old Testament(DownersGrove, IL, 2000), 48, 668; Rick Ritchie,We Shall Also Reign with Him,ModernReormation. Vol. 3, No. 3. May/June 1994:10-13. See also J.W. Marshall, Decaloguein Dictionary o the Old Testament: Penta-teuch, T. Desmond Alexander and David

W. Baker, editors (Downers Grove, IL:InterVarsity Press, 2003), 173-174.

5 Robert I. Bradshaw, Covenant: 2.2,(www.biblicalstudies.org.uk: An Internet

Resource or Studying the Bible, 1998) athttp://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_covenant.html, December 29, 2003; and

Walton, Matthews and Chavalas, 48. Seealso Footnote 3 or Chapter 34 o Jeremiah,

New American Bible(www.usccb.org: UnitedStates Conerence o Catholic Bishops,2002, Conraternity o Christian Doctrine,Inc., Washington, D.C.) at http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/jeremiah/jeremiah34.htm#v18, December 29, 2003.

6 See Harry A. Honer, Jr., Hittites,in Peoples o the Old Testament World, editedby Alred J. Hoerth, Gerald L. Mattingly,and Edwin M. Yamauchi (Grand Rapids,MI: Baker Books, 1994).

7 Victor H. Matthews and Don C.

Benjamin. Old Testament Parallels: Lawand Stories rom the Ancient Near East, FullyRevised and Expanded Second Edition(New York: Paulist Press, 1997), 86-90.See also John H. Walton,Ancient IsraeliteLiterature in Its Cultural Context: A Surveyo Parallels Between Biblical and Ancient

Near Eastern Texts(Grand Rapids, MI:Zondervan, 1989), 101-105; and JamesB. Pritchard,Ancient Near Eastern TextsRelating to the Old Testament(Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press, 1950), 199-206.

8 Marshall, Decalogue, 173-174.9 Matthews and Benjamin, Old Testa-

ment Parallels, 87.10 Walton,Ancient Israelite Literature

in Its Cultural Context, 105.11Walton, Matthews and Chavalas,

172. See also Catalina Emerson, CriticalMethods and the Old Testament: FormCriticism, an English translation o theStudy Notes o the Biblia Plenitud(Edito-rial Caribe, Inc., 1994), published on theMy Redeemer (Redentor Mio) website athttp://www.angelre.com/sc3/wedigmon-tana/Pentateuch.html, December 29, 2003.

12 Walton,Ancient Israelite Literature

in Its Cultural Context, 101-105.13 It is recorded in The Oering oUha that over 100 men were circumcised.See D. Dunham,Naga-ed-Der Stelae othe First Intermediate Period(London,1917), 102-104, quoted in theInternet

Ancient History Sourcebook: Egyptby PaulHallsal l (Fordham University, 1999).

There are bas-relies that show that thisEgyptian practice dates back to the thirdmillennium. See King and Stagers sectionon the practice o circumcision in the

ANE, 43-45.

There must always be limits to ones culturaladaptation, regardless of the culture and onesdesire to be sensitive.


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14This is easily documented. SeeMichael J. Wilkins, Matthew, in theZondervan Illustrated Bible BackgroundsCommentary, vol. I (Grand Rapids, MI:Zondervan, 2002) 24; and Craig S.Keener, The IVP Bible Background Com-mentary: New Testament(Downers Grove,IL: InterVarsity, 1993), 823. Here are sev-eral internet reerences that can be reerred

to: Ian A. Fair, Excursus on Baptism(www.centerce.org: The Center or ChristEnrichment) at http://ww w.centerce.org/BAPTISM/Advanced.htm, December29, 2003; and Claudia Setzer, Tertullianstheology and Jewish Baptism, Manhat-tan College, rom the Interdisciplinary

Working Group or the Study o Christi-anity in Roman Arica during the Secondthrough Seventh Centuries (http://divin-ity.library.vanderbilt.edu: Vanderbilt Uni-

versity website at http://people.vanderbilt.edu/%7Ejames.p.burns/chroma/baptism/setzbapt.html; and Baptism: A Pre-Christian History, Ed Barnes in LoudonChurch o Christ News and Notes, Vol.5. No 9 (www.korrnet.org/lcoc: Loudon,

TN: March 5, 2000), at http://www.kor-rnet.org/lcoc/news/00n0509.htm.

15 See Jack Finegan,Myth and Mystery:An Introduction to the Pagan Religions o theBiblical World(Grand Rapids, MI: BakerBooks, 1989), 138-139.

16G. Johannes Botterweck and HelmerRinggren, editors, translated by John T.

Willis, Theological Dictionary o the Old Testa-ment(Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974),

242-261. Also see McDermott, Can Evan-gelicals Learn rom World Religions?, 77-78.17Arthur F. Glasser, Old Testa-

ment Contextualization: Revelation andIts Environment in The Word Among Us:Contextualizing Theology or Mission Today,edited by Dean S. Gilliland. (Dallas, TX:

Word Publishing, 1989), 36.18See article on Theosby J. Schneider,

New Testament Dictionary o New Testa-ment Theology, Vol. II, edited by ColinBrown (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan,1975-1978), 66-67. Also see the article onLogosby T.G. Donner,New Dictionary o

Theology, edited by Sinclair B. Fergusonand David F. Wright (Downers Grove, IL:InterVarsity Press, 1988).

19See Matthews and Benjamin, OldTestament Parallels, 257-261,372-373 and

Walton,Ancient Israelite Literature in ItsCultural Context, 163-166.

20 Pritchard,Ancient Near EasternTexts, 421.

21 Translation used rom Pritchard,421-424. See also Walton,Ancient IsraeliteLiterature in its Cultural Context, 192-197

and Matthews and Benjamin, Old Testa-ment Parallels, 274-282,374-375.

22 See especially Table 15.1 Proverbsand the Instruction o Amenemope,ound at the web address http://www.hope.edu/bandstra/RTOT/CH15/CH15_TB1.HTM, 2001. Also seeMartin Luther King, Jr., Light on theOld Testament rom the Ancient Near

East (Stanord University, King Papers,Vol. 1, 1948) at web address http://www.stanord.edu/group/King/mlkpapers,2001; and see also Walton, Matthews andChavalas, 493-494,560,567.

23 Gary K. Brantley, Pagan Mythol-ogy and the Bible (ApologeticsPress.org,1993), http://www.apologeticspress.org/dedocs/rr1993/r&r9307a.htm, December29, 2003. See also Walton, Matthews andChavalas, 7-8.

24 Davis, Poles Apart, 214.25 ibid., 218.26 ibid., 22127 ibid., 21528 ibid., 222.29 See Daniel: Character Counts

Leaders Guide (Campus Crusade orChrist), p. 1-3, accessed at http://www.thecitadel.org/studies/Training/Character%20Studies/05-Daniel%20L.pd, December 29, 2003. See also Walton,Matthews and Chavalas, 730-732.

30 Gleason L. Archer, Jr. Daniel inThe Expositors Bible Commentary, Vol. 7(Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1985), 34.

31Here are some o those individuals

who had been given this kind o name (theollowing are all Greek names): Phoebe:Rom. 16:1the goddess o the moonin Greek mythology;Narcissus: Rom.16:11Found in a Greek mythologicalstory about a handsome young man who seeshis ace mirrored on the surace o a pond.He alls in love with his own refection andstares at it so long that he eventually turnsinto a fower at the edge o the pond. Fromthis story we get our word narcissistic,reerring to a person who shares the egotisti-cal sel-absorbed qualities o Narcissus;Hermes: Rom. 16:14 Hermes was the

messenger or the gods in Greek mythol-ogy; it was a name oten given to slaves.Known as Mercury in the Roman myths,he is always pictured with wings on his eet;Olympas: Rom. 16:15Olympas was thename o one o the Greek goddesses;Apollos:

Acts 18:24A name associated with theGreek god Apollo. The question that mustthereore be asked is: why didnt they changetheir names and rid themselves o any asso-ciation with these alse gods, goddesses, andother mythological gures? Must not even

the hint o syncretism be resisted at everyjuncture? Quite clearly neither they nor theapostle Paul elt that there was any reason todo so. It actually gave them an ongoing link

with their birth communities, hopeully con-tributing to their witness or Christ amongtheir relatives, neighbors and others.

32 See Jeremy M. Thomas, Daniel:His Lie, Emotional Makeup, Patience, and

Spiritual Attitude, ound at http://www.geocities.com/jeremyandrobin/bookodan-ielessay.html, December 29, 2003. See also

Walton, Matthews and Chavalas, p. 734.33There is an anonymous paper that has

been circulated in some circles, written by anindividual working in India among Hindus,

which pulls potential principles rom IIKings 5:1-19 or new believers seeking tolive without compromise within their Hinducommunities. It is entitled, Go in Peace?Naaman Healed, and deals with the contex-tual implications o Naamans encounter withthe prophet Elisha. The essence revolves

around Elishas response o Go in peace! toNamaans question o whether his very pres-ence with the king o Aram in the templeo the god Himmon would compromise hisnewound aith in the one true God.

BibliographyChapter 34 o Jeremiah: Footnote 3.

New American Bible.www.usccb.org: United States Conerenceo Catholic Bishops, 2002,Conraternity o ChristianDoctrine, Inc., Washington,D.C. http://www.usccb.org/

nab/bible/jeremiah/jeremiah34.htm#v18, December 29, 2003.Critical Methods and the Old

Testament: Form Criticism.Study Notes o the BibliaPlenitud. Editorial Caribe, Inc.,1994. Translated by CatalinaEmerson. Published on the MyRedeemer (Redentor Mio) web-site. http://www.angelre.com/sc3/wedigmontana/Pentateuch.html, December 29, 2003.

Daniel: Character CountsLeadersGuide. Campus Crusadeor Christ: http://www.the-

citadel.org/studies/Training/Character%20Studies/05-Daniel%20L.pd,December 29, 2003.

Table 15.1 Proverbs and theInstruction o Amenemope.http://www.hope.edu/bands-tra/RTOT/CH15/CH15_TB1.HTM, 2001.

Archer, Gleason L., Jr.1985 Daniel. The Expositors Bible

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to the Pagan Religions o theBiblical World. Grand Rapids, MI:Baker Books.

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a brief investigation of old testament precursors

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