A BRIEF HISTORY OF WITCHCRAFTPresented by Greg Caggiano

For Brookdale Community College

Introduction

Causes/Effects of Witch Hysteria

The witch hysteria hit home in many places: Physical Psychological Sociological Religion/Superstition Cultural

“A World Lit Only by Fire”

Author William Manchester paints a portrait of life in the Middle Ages as one lit only by fire

Religion, superstition, and fear helped to create a hysteria which served as the basis for witch-hunts

It was an age without enlightenment or forward thinking

People genuinely had a fear of the dark and all the evil forces that came with the setting of the sun

Modern Analytical Viewpoint

Witchcraft and witches (obviously) do not exist, therefore the entire subject becomes tainted

Modern ways of looking at it: “They were stupid” “They were backwards” “They didn’t know any better”

However, these people did believe witches exist, and therefore, it has to be looked at as if witches are indeed real

Brian Levack’s Stance

Author of The Witch-Hunt in Early Modern Europe: “Witchcraft is often referred to, at least by

skeptics, as an imagined crime, an elaborate fantasy that has no foundation in reality. Those who were tried as witches, therefore, are viewed as innocent victims in a deluded judiciary and an oppressive legal system. Are these assumptions valid? Did the European witch-hunt produce thousands of criminals who had not committed any crimes, or did witches actually perform some of the deeds which they were prosecuted?”

Separating Belief from Activity

Levack continued: “In addressing these questions, we need not

determine whether magic works or the Devil actually exists, for such problems lie outside the realm of historical investigation. But historians can and must ask whether those persons accused of witchcraft did in fact engage in any of the activities for which they were prosecuted. The answer to this historical question inevitably affects the answer to the related question of the witches legal guilt, since guilt is determined at least to some extent by the historical reality of the alleged crime.”

A Complicated View

Though magic spells have no power, trying to cast one is illegal

Though it is impossible to summon the Devil, trying to is illegal

Common misconception: witches were only female (while the majority of witches were female, many men were accused as well)

Problems with This

Many people accused of witchcraft did not practice any related activities

People accused those who they did not like as witches. In some cases, the prosecuting clergy would requisition the lands and properties of accused if found guilty

“If witches did not in fact perform various deeds of which they were accused, and if they did not actually attempt to perform them, then they could not be guilty as charged.”

Malefecium and Diabolism

Malefecium: casting of spells and practicing of magic, sorcery, white and black magic, inscribing curses, using dolls as the physical representation of a victim

Diabolism: worshipping the Devil, making a pact with the Devil, accomplishing impossible feats such as flying through the air on a broom

There is no record of a single accuser actually witnessing diabolism in the entire history of the witch hunt

The Size of the Hunt

Various data estimates the amount of witches prosecuted a over 110,000 between the early 1500’s and 1700’s. 60,000 of them were executed.

Examples of execution rate: Fribourg (1607-83): 53 of 162 (33%) Neuchatel (1568-1677): 214 of 341 (63%) Pays de Vaud (1537-130): 90 of 102 (90%)

The rate could have been much higher; officially brought about an end to the hunt when many accused witches were still awaiting trial

Intellectual Foundations

“Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.”- Exodus 22:18

1231: Pope Gregory IX begins Inquisition

1484: Witchcraft officially declared to be heresy

The Devil

Also known as Lucifer, Satan, Prince of Darkness, Prince of this World, and The Demon

The main adversary of God, and therefore, the Christian world

Creator of illusions, possessor of unlimited power and ability, defied the laws of nature, corrupts the innocent, and has demons that roam the earth as minions doing his deeds

The Pact with the Devil

A pact with the Devil is central to understanding witchcraft

Provided legal basis for trial/execution, and bridged the gap between simple magic and actual defilement of God

There was believed to be a “Black Book” where the names of Satan’s followers were inscribed

Many accusers and accused recall see names in this book, and such statements provided legal foundations for prosecution even though it could never be proven

Entering the Pact

Could happen in any number of ways: Signing your name in Satan’s book Summoning him to request unlimited power Offering your soul to him Having sex with Satan or his demons Receiving a mark from him Killing and/or eating of infants Celebrating the “Sabbath”

A collective worship of the Devil through prayers, praise, sex, blasphemy of the Christian God, and in some cases, sacrifice of animals or children

Engravings from Compendium Malifecarum (1608)

The Witches’ Mark

A birth mark or defect of the skin Would be pierced with a needle

If bleeding ensued or pain/discomfort felt, the mark was natural and the person was not a witch

If no pain or bleeding, mark was unnatural, and therefore the person was a witch

Mark compared to a teat used to suckle demons and minions of the Devil

Pact Continued

“Every culture has been known to generate myths about persons, sometimes possessing peculiar powers or physical characteristics, who invert the moral and religious norms of that society and who therefore present a threat to the very fabric of that society. It can be argued that a belief in the existence of these individuals are needed to establish what those norms are, or at least to reinforce what is generally accepted.”

Easy and common targets: Jews, un-married women, those who did not attend church

Other Traits

Flight: The ability to stay as a human and use a

broom or object to fly, or even transform into a bird or owl

Metamorphosis: The ability to change shape, either into an

animal or object Both of these aligned with illusion an

trickery, which are common attributes of the Devil/demons

The First Major Belief

Started in the 1420’s in parts of France and Switzerland

Groups who met in secret were accused of being up to no good, including “worshipping the Devil in large, nocturnal, orgiastic rites, devouring their infants, and flying to such ceremonies”.

Both groups who met in secret and those who were believed to be magicians were seen as a threat to the status quo and had to be dealt with

The belief in entering a pact with the Devil and receiving a mark from him did not exist until the 1500s

General fear of rebellion

The Legal Foundations

Malleus Maleficarum (1487)

Three sections: 1) the philosophy of witchcraft, 2) the power of witches and how they recruit others 3) how to prosecute and execute a witch

Major theme: witchcraft is real because the Devil is real

Publication widespread due to the printing press

Criticized at first, but soon became a “best-seller” and go-to handbook

Quotes

“They say that there are three things in the world, the Tongue, an Ecclesiastic, and a Woman, which know no moderation in goodness or vice; and when they exceed the bounds of their condition they reach the greatest heights and the lowest degrees of goodness and vice. When they are governed by a good spirit, they are most excellent; but when they are governed by an evil spirit, they become the most wicked. “

“More such reasons could be brought forward, but to the understanding it is sufficiently clear that it is no matter for wonder that there are more women than men found infected with the heresy of Witchcraft.”

“Here it is to be noted that the Devil is more eager and intent upon tempting the good rather than the wicked, although in actual practice he tempts the wicked more than the good, because more aptitude for being tempted is found in the wicked than in the good. “

Criminal Procedures

Before the breakout of the witch hunts, crimes were difficult to prosecute

Once accused and arguments were made, the accused would have to go through a test to see if they were guilty, such as carrying a hot iron a certain distance and then revealing that their hand had been miraculously cured by God within a certain number of days

Prosecution was extremely difficult No “lawyers”

Witchcraft seen as both ecclesiastical AND secular crime Secular courts called it treason because turning one’s back

on God was turning their back on the King

Changes to Procedures

Courts became more ecclesiastical than secular

Trials took the shape of actual trials that we know today

The courts would be blessed before trial began

Accusations could be made against someone who was “harmed” by their witchcraft

Heresy also a major crime, committed and carried out by reputation only, not by harmful acts

Use of Torture

Types of torture in the middle ages: Retributive

Punishment for a heinous crime, usually inflicted before execution

Punitive The torture would serve as the punishment for a

less severe crime Interrogatory and Judicial

Torture inflicted to gain a confession or information for the prosecution

Torture had reemerged into the judicial system after centuries of absence, because it made prosecuting more effective

First “new” case of torture recorded in 1288 in Verona, Italy

Secular courts too would find use, and of course, it would be a mainstay during the witch hunts

Tainted Admission

As we know today, torture does not help to gain truthful information. The information learned during torture sessions is tainted because most times, the victim will say whatever the torturer wants them to say

The likelihood of falsification is greatest when: The person tortured is innocent of the alleged

crime or ignorant of the desired information The details are suggested to him during the

questioning The amount of torture is excessive

Why so many witches were condemned

“There is an abundance of evidence from both contemporary as well as historical sources to show that if torture is sufficiently painful, even the most tight-lipped, innocent person will perjure himself and confess to virtually anything his torturers wish him to say. The clearest historical evidence we have of this is the witch hunt itself, in which thousands of individuals, when subjected to torture, confessed to crimes they did not commit and which in fact they could not have committed.”- Brian Levack

Torture Refined

By the time of the witch-hunts, torture had become more of a refined legal process

While many were still unaware of how unreliable torture-induced confessions were, changes were made to the process Limits were placed on the severity and duration of torture

(torture could not result in the death of the victim) There had to be proof of a crime committed Once the judge acquired proof, they still had to appeal to a

higher court for approval However, proof was a lot different back then:

One eye witness, and one piece of circumstantial evidence Spectral evidence allowed

Because torture could not cause death, instruments were developed to inflict severe pain on the extremities

Torture still allowed to be increasingly gradual

Most instruments could stop the pain immediately once a confession was gained

Different kinds of torture could not be performed on the same day

Exempted from torture: pregnant women and children

The Rack

Thumb and Leg Screws

Head Clamp

Strappado

A pulley system which raised the victim off the floor by his arms

Cooperation determined the length and height of the session

Person could be jerked upward violently, increasing the pain

Squassation: the use of strappado where weights varying anywhere between 40 and 600 pounds could be strapped to the victims feet

Swimming a Witch

Dunked or tied up and thrown into the water

If guilty, the witch would float and be executed shortly after

If innocent, the body would sink, as if accepted into the bosom of God, therefore being holy

DOES ANYONE SEE A PROBLEM WITH THIS???

Evidence

The confession and any evidence taken during a torture session could not be used in court

The accused had to wait one day following the torture, where they could repeat their confession. That is what was used in court

To prevent returning to the chamber, the accused almost always agreed to what they had said under torture

Exploiting the System

The “strict” new rules were greatly relaxed, and often ignored

New laws could be enacted that made the other ones not applicable

Quote from a German hangman and torturer from 1631 when it was revealed he was abusing the law: “I do not take you for one, two, three, not for eight days,

nor for a few weeks, but for half a year, or a whole year, or for your whole life, until you confess. And if you do not confess, I shall torture you to death, and you shall be burned after all.”

The victim in question was a pregnant women accused of witchcraft. He tortured her 56 times.

Offences

Severe miscarriages of justice in Germany Women tortured to the point of losing their sight and hearing “His legs were crushed and beaten together as small as

might be, and the bones and flesh so bruised, that the blood and marrow spouted forth in great abundance.”

Use of the “Witches Chair”: metal chair heated from below Fingernails pulled out by metal pincers, filling nostrils with

lime and water, force-feeding large amount of water until the stomach burst, rolling a pin with dagger-points down a victim’s spine, gouging out eyes, chopping off ears, pressing of male genitals, and pouring of hot brandy or sulfur over the victim’s naked body Used exclusively in witchcraft cases and were severe because it was

believed that the accused would use sorcery to withstand pain

“Humane” Torture

Forced sleeplessness of 40 hours or more was thought to be humane and highly effective

According to one judge, only 2% of all put through it did not confess to the crime

Resulted in brainwashing and more tainted results

Rules Abandoned

As more and more witches were brought to trial, the rules were abandoned and judges used whatever means necessary to gain confessions

Roman Law which was used prior stated that a person could not be tortured to gain information about a crime committed by someone else. This was ignored to acquire names of witch accomplices

They had no idea that they were contributing to, not stopping, the spread of “witchcraft”

In England: Conviction rate with torture: 95% Conviction rate without: 50%

The Courts

Originally an ecclesiastical crime, witchcraft eventually became a secular crime

Local courts could also try witches without having to be under the authority of main, national courts (thus being free to treat accused witches however they wanted)

Local courts were less lenient, for fear of spread into their villages, and also because the accused would be known personally by judges and townspeople

Execution in Europe

Matthew Hopkins

Impact of the Reformation

New fear of the Devil with increased knowledge in Demonology

Increase in personal sanctity and guilt Greater condemnation of magic and

paganism Religion conflict between sects

Social Context

Gender of accused witches: S.W Germany (1562-1684): 238 male, 1050 female Bisphoric of Basel (1571-1670): 9 male, 181 female Hungary (1520-1777): 160 male, 1482 female

Age of accused witches: Geneva (1537-1662): 95 witches of known age,

75% over 50 Essex County, England (1645): 15 witches of known

age, 87% over 50 Salem, Massachusetts (1692-1693): 118 witches of

known age, 42% over 50

Decline

Most countries experienced a decline in witch hunts by the late 1600’s and early 1700’s Norway continued until 1725, Hungary until

1777 There was a newfound skepticism in

witches, and witchcraft. Many began to doubt the abilities of witches and magic

Salem Witch Trials

Nearing the End of an Era

Witch hunts were actually on the way out by the time of the Salem Witch Trials

However a Puritan lifestyle and a bizarre, perfect storm of factors created the conditions needed for such trials to take place

Belief in the Devil still very real First witch trials in the colonies occurred

in 1648, in Charleston, Massachusetts

Conditions

Salem town was a thriving seaport, Salem village was located six miles inland, and considered to be wilderness

Villagers lived in constant fear of surrounding woods, which could conceal Indian attacks and supernatural forces

Political instability over a charter, east vs. west Rigid Puritan practices of endlessly striving with no

reward, believed in predetermined fate, and constantly looked for signs that they would be one of God’s chosen people

You were what your neighbors said about you Women lived oppressed lives

Beginnings

500 surviving documents (warrants, depositions, etc) yet not actual trial transcript

Hysteria started in the home of Samuel Parris

Daughter Elizabeth and cousin Abigail Williams left in the care of Caribbean slave Tituba, who told them stories to pass the time

Group expanded to six girls

Signs of the Devil

Girls began having convulsions and fits, hallucinations, and screamed in agony when prayers recited

Dr. William Griggs examined them and declared no physical ailment and that they were in the grip of the Devil

Claimed their convulsions were not witchcraft, but rather a fighting reaction towards it

Accusations

Tituba blamed, which was expected, but also Sarah Good and Sarah Osbourne Both women were of low status, and neither went

to church. Both were old and mean-spirited Courts of Inquiry assembled and decision was

made to allow spectral evidence People soon came forward to say Good’s

specter appeared to them, trying to force them to sign Satan’s book

Whenever she denied it, the girls in the court cried out in agony and fell to the floor in seizures

Confessions

Tituba confesses immediately, and is allowed to speak for three days in court, telling stories and spinning tales

“The Devil came to me and bid me serve him.”

Says he appeared to her as a tall man from Boston, and made her sign the Devil’s book

She saw nine names, including her own, Good’s, and Osbourne’s but could not read other six

The mass hysteria begins here

Rebecca Nurse accused, which sent shockwaves because she was upstanding and churchgoing 39 people sign petition attesting to her character

Children confessed to be with mothers in jail Confession = jail time, penance Denial = trial and execution Bridgette Bishop first to be executed (hanged),

was accused of witchcraft in the past Giles Corey pressed to death for refusing to

enter a plea

The Trials Come to an End

19 people hanged, 1 person pressed to death, and 11-13 more died in prison

Trials came to an end when moved from local to superior courts Spectral evidence not allowed 49 of 52 remaining accused released “It would be better that 10 witches escape than

one innocent person hang.”- Increase Mather Day of fasting to ask God’s forgiveness for the

execution of so many people Each of the jurors sign a petition seeking

forgiveness

Aftermath

1702: John Hales writes an inquiry and apology on the Salem Witch Trials

1706: Anne Putnam blames the Devil for deluding her into lies, and apologizes

1706: Commonwealth pays $600 restitution to each survivor or family member of victim and restores the names/reputation of 22 out of the 31 victims

1957: last 9 victims restored Salem Witch Trials marked a change in the

justice system in America. No more would it be “guilty until proven innocent”