a brief history of ophthalmic publications in america

A Brief History of Ophthalmic Publications in America DANIEL M. ALBERT, MD*

Abstract: The recent establishment of a rare book collection as part of the American Academy of Ophthalmology Foundation Museum gives Academy members additional access to an important facet of our ophthalmic heritage. Many 17th and 18th century works, such as those of Cotton Mather and Philip Syng Physick, long remained in manuscript form. Published works on ophthalmology first appeared as chapters in surgical texts. Ophthalmology texts authored by Americans followed the important texts from England and the Continent, and the works of Frick (1823) and Littell (1837) deserve special mention. Other works, including the memoirs of Elisha North, the founder of the first American eye infirmary, and the transcript of the trial of George McClellan following failed cataract surgery, give vivid insights into our country's ophthalmic beginnings. [Key words: history, ophthalmology.) Ophthalmology 93:699-708, 1986

THE "UNPUBLISHED" AUTHOR IN THE 17TH CENTURY

There are times when it becomes increasingly attractive to escape the late 20th century. There is no better way for an ophthalmologist to effect such an escape than to take refuge in the old books of the art.

If you go all the way back to colonial America, you will find that there were few American medical books and fewer formally trained physicians. Practical medical knowledge was considered fundamental to education. In 1693 William Salmon, the well-known English practitioner whose travels extended to New England, wrote in the introduction of his book The Complete English Physician, on behalf of practitioners without "benefit of degree": "Why should not a private man, who possibly may have abilities for such an undertaking, be hurt, because he wears no titles of Honour and Grandure?" 1

A prototype of such an enlightened early American is Cotton Mather (1663-1728). Although his reputation was

From the David G. Cogan Eye Pathology Laboratory, Harvard Medical School, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Boston, and the Foundation of the American Academy of Ophthalmology, San Francisco.

Presented at an Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Ophthalmology.

Reprint requests to Daniel M. Albert, MD, David G. Cogan Eye Pathology Laboratory, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114.

tarnished by his belief in witchcraft and his defense of the judges at the Salem witch trials, he was renowned as a preacher, man of letters, scientist, and scholar in many fields. He authored more than 450 books on a multitude of subjects. Among his writings is a detailed manuscript compiling all the medical knowledge available in the colonies. Chapter 32 is devoted to the eye and contains a discussion of the nature of vision, the use of spectacles, and "preservatives of the eyesight," including numerous remedies, eye drops and "poultis's," as well as a discussion ofblindness including the contributions of the blind. This fascinating manuscript entitled The Angel of Bethesda included Mather's early support of vaccination as a preventative of smallpox, and insight into psychotherapy and the psychosomatic theory of illness, recommendations for the use of new drugs such as "quinquine" and the "ipecacuanha." He also proposed an "animalacular" theory of epidemics, perhaps drawn from this early use of the microscope. This material, however, was relegated to the obscurity of the archives until edited by Gordon W. Jones, MD, and published by the American Antiquarian Society and Barre Publishers in 1972.2 The book is still in print.

THE INCLUSION OF OPHTHALMOLOGY IN BOOKS ON SURGERY

Philip Syng Physick, the great Philadelphia surgeon of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, has been called by some medical historians the "Father of American Ophthalmology"Y After receiving his degree from the Uni-

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OPHTHALMOLOGY • MAY 1986 • VOLUME 93 • NUMBER 5

Fig I. Lecture notes on cataract surgery handwritten by Philip Syng Physick.

versity of Pennsylvania, Physick studied with Dr. John Hunter in London. On his return to Philadelphia, Physick, like the other surgeons of his day, treated yellow fever, smallpox, cholera and another infectious diseases. He reduced and splinted fractures, incised breasts, impostumated livers, scarified "mortifying" feet, amputated legs, tapped chests and abdomens, and attended difficult confinements. In addition, he became interested in the surgery of the eye, particularly for cataract. According to his son-in-law, Dr. Jacob Randolph, this operation, and his operation for stones in the bladder were foremost in establishing his reputation as a surgeon. Physick was an outstanding teacher and had considerable impact on the students. He began to lecture to the classes at the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in 1800, and in 1805 he became a Professor of Surgery. It was Physick's practice to rise at 4 a.m., light the fire, and write out his lectures in full, before beginning the day's rounds. He read his lectures to the class, stopping occasionally to interject a pertinent case history.

A set of lecture notes in Physick's own hand (Fig 1), as well as the notes taken by dozens of his students, are in the possession of The College of Physicians of Philadelphia. These discuss in detail Physick's operation for cataract, as well as his treatment for other eye diseases. Physick, however, forbade the publication of his lectures, his papers, or his case records, even after his death. The medical texts of the day were filled with theory, doctrine, philosophy, and speculation. Physick's lecture notes never

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went beyond the bounds of observable fact and his own experience. This factor, together with his great diffidence, probably contributed to his distaste for publications.

His teachings on the treatment of eye diseases were summarized in sixty pages under l 0 chapter headings in Elements of Surgery (Fig 2), written by his nephew, Dr. John Syng Dorsey and first published in 1813.4 This book closely follows Physick's lecture notes both in organization and content, and the source was acknowledged by Dorsey in the preface. Elements of Surgery, which appeared ten years before the first American text on ophthalmology, was apparently the first American surgery text to contain a section on the eye. A review of the writing published during Physick's lifetime by 25 prominent American surgeons revealed one comparable discussion on ophthalmology. This was in William Gibson's Institutes and Practice of Surgery, the first edition of which appeared in 1825.5 This book also derived largely from Physick's teachings.

ALBERT • OPHTHALMIC PUBLICATIONS

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Fig 3. Left, George Frick. Right, face plate of the first American textbook on ophthalmology, A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, Including the Doctrines and Practice of the Most Eminent Modern Surgeons, and Particularly those of Professor Beer ( 1823).

Textbooks of general surgery remained the principal source of information on ophthalmology for the rest of the century. The two most influential texts of the second half of the nineteenth century were those by Samuel D. Gross (1859)6 and by David Hayes Agnew in 1883.7 This later work, however, foretold the future for the general surgeon in ophthalmology. The first line of the 145-page section on the eye stated "Ophthalmic surgery has become so amplified in the last 30 years that any attempt to treat the subject exhaustively in a work of general surgery would be out of place." And indeed by the end of the 19th century, an era had ended in American medicine: the surgeon who took out appendixes and gall bladders and operated for stones in the bladders would rarely touch his scalpel to the eye. The field of ophthalmology had become so extensive and exacting that only the specialist with the necessary training and skills could meet its demands.

BOOKS DEVOTED TO THE EYE

Although few books by American authors existed until the second half of the 19th century, such was not the case in England and on the Continent. English works on the

eye and English translations of French, German, and Italian works were increasingly common in the United States. These included the books of Porterfield (1759),8 Ware (1770),9 Rowley (1773), 10 Wathen (1785), 11 George Adams (1789), 12 Vetch (1807), 13 Wardrop (1808), 14

Saunders (1811 ), 15 William Adams (1812), 16 Stevenson (1813), 17 Travers (1820), 18 Mackenzie (1830), 19 Curtis (1833),20 Dalrymple (1834),21 Lawrence (1834)22 Middlemore (1835),23 and Tyrell (1840).24 The books by Travers, Mackenzie, and Lawrence had particular impact in the United States. Each of these was republished with an American physician as editor who added his own experience to that of the original author. The Travers was edited by Edward Delafield,25 the Mackenzie by Addinell Hewson, 26 and the Lawrence by Hays_27

In 1823, the first American textbook on ophthalmology was published under the authorship of Dr. George Frick (Fig 3): A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, Including the Doctrines and Practice of the Most Eminent Modern Surgeons, and Particularly Those of Professor Beer. 28 The work was dedicated to Frick's old professor, Dr. Philip Syng Physick.

George Frick was born in Baltimore in 1793. He graduated from the Medical Department of the University of

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Pennsylvania in 1815, and became one of the first American physicians to restrict his work almost entirely to ophthalmology. Following his graduation he toured the various eye hospitals abroad. Dr. Georg Joseph Beer of Vienna was the finest ophthalmologist of that day, heir to the surgical wizardry of Baron Wentzel and Joseph Barth. In 1817, Frick went to Vienna and attended Beer's lectures and worked in his clinic. Aware of the American physicians' ignorance of diseases of the eye, he considered translating into English Professor Beer's Lehre von den A ugenkrankeiten. 29

On his return to America, Frick opened an ophthalmic clinic at the Baltimore Dispensary and began a course of lectures on the eye at the University of Maryland. As his own experiences in treating the eye broadened, Frick decided to "select what is most valuable from Professor Beer's work" for his book and to add to it what he considered "most important from the experience and practice of others, together with such remarks as [my] own observations have supplied."

In the introduction to his Treatise Frick wrote:

The volume which is here offered to the public is little more than the abstract of a Course ofLectures, which the author had prepared upon the diseases of the Eye. Several years attendance at the various hospitals of Great Britain, and the Continent especially, afforded him ample means and facility of observation on the various diseases of this organ; and this opportunity has been considerably augmented since his return to his native country by his appointment to the Baltimore Dispensary for the Cure of Diseases of the Eye. It is a lamentable truth that the pathology of the Eye has not kept progress with the advanced state of the pathological science in general; and this is attributable no doubt to the circumstance that this branch of the healing art has been confined for so long a time to exclusive oculists. In this country especially, the diseases of the eye have hitherto obtained but a small share of the attention of the profession, and a comprehensive work upon this highly important department of medicine is a desideratum which still remains to be supplied.

Frick's book was an octavo volume of 340 pages. The author explained its design as follows:

The arrangement and plan of the work though not free from objections is perhaps the most simple and natural that could have been adopted. It is founded upon the variety of textures which enter into the structure or composition of the eye, and is comprehended under four general divisions. The first, includes the various forms of inflammation of the eye; the second, the effects on sequelae of this inflammation; the third, comprehends the various diseases of the appendages, and the fourth, such diseases as attack at the same time several or all of the tissues of the organ.

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The chapter on cataract covered sixty-eight pages and described in detail the methods of Wenzel, Richter, and Beer in cataract extraction. Twenty-one pages were devoted to the artificial pupil, and seventeen pages to amaurosis ( ". . . that species of blindness which is produced by some immediate affection of the optic nerve, or of its expansion into the retina"). The section on refraction, in contrast, was merely a three page definition of myopia and presbyopia. The book contained one illustration, which showed surgical instruments, including Beer's cataract knife, and David's double curve cataract scissors and curette. The book was well-written and carefully referenced. In 1826, an English edition was published with notes by Richard Welbank. 30

In 1830, Dr. J. F. Daniel Lobstein of New York published a 175-page volume entitled A Treatise upon the Semeiology of the Eye. 31 Lobstein, an Honorary Member of the Medical Society of Philadelphia, listed among the sponsors of his book Dr. William E. Homer, Dr. Thomas T. Hewson, and Doctor Samuel Jackson of the University of Pennsylvania, as well as Dr. Edward Delafield ofNew York. The book was largely based on "The Semeiology of the Eye for the Use of Physicians" published by Prof. Loebenstein of Jena in 1818,32 and contained, in addition, numerous references to Hippocrates and to various distinguished German physicians of the eighteenth century. The book sought to depict the appearance of the eye in a number of conditions, both medical and nonmedical. An example of the latter was the author's description of the eye and adjacent structures in cases of unhappy love:

The forehead of an unfortunate lover is the seat of a particular coldness; the eyebrows bend strongly toward the eye; sadness and the desire of seeing the beloved object renders them heavy; the eyelashes are in repose and turned downwards, as if they were interpreters of the sufferings of the soul. Want of hope and regrets are visible in the cornea of the eye and the conjunctiva. The iris of unfortunate lovers is rather contracted than extended, so that the eyebrows appear small rather than round and wide. The motions of the eye are slow and dejected.

Chastity, successful love, affliction and sadness, fear, anger, envy, genius and folly are considered in tum. Of more practical value to the physician, however, were descriptions of ocular findings with typhus, inflammation ofthe brain, liver disease, respiratory diseases, and various poisons. The book passed largely unnoticed and no references to it can be found in subsequent texts on the eye.

The third ophthalmology text from the pen of an American wasA Condensation ofMatteron the Anatomy, Surgical Operations and Treatment of Diseases ofthe Eye, Together with Remarks by John Mason Gibson of Baltimore. 33 It appeared in 1832, nine years after Dr. Frick's initial endeavor. The book was a quarto volume of two hundred and four pages, " ... embellished with twelve lithographic plates." The work opened with the pronouncement that "The organ of vision is divided into hard parts and soft parts; the former makes up the funnellike cavity that envelops about two-thirds of the eye-


ball." Of the text that followed, Dr. Alvin Hubbell wrote in 1908:34

As a contribution to ophthalmological literature it was practically a failure. It was badly written, illy arranged, in many cases incorrect as to facts, and the illustrations were very inferior. It is a book that is scarcely ever heard of and deserves oblivion.

Dr. Gibson himself must have had some inkling ofthe book's shortcomings, for at its conclusion he stated: "The Author hopes the readers will look over the imperfections ofthis work." He then made reference to" ... the printers' procrastination combined with non-attention and mismanagement." And in his final sentence, he wrote, "Tossed dangerously as the mariner is by the tempest over the bosom of the convulsed ocean, so many an author has had his book alike beset by unprosperous and repulsive gales."

In the first half of the 19th century one of the Americans best qualified to write a book on ophthalmology was Dr. Isaac Hays, surgeon to the Pennsylvania Infirmary for Diseases of the Eye and Ear and The Wills Hospital, as well as editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences. While Hays did not write such a text, he did edit and contribute to the American editions of two important British works. The first of these was Sir William Lawrence's Diseases of the Eye, an elaboration of a series of lectures on the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the eye delivered by the author at the London Ophthalmic Infirmary. The American edition was printed in 1834_27 The book was an elaborately arranged, extremely wellwritten volume of 730 pages. Hays' editing and revisions were skillfully done, and his notes-which became more profuse with succeeding editions-were valuable. Together with Travers' and Mackenzie's book, this remained a standard ophthalmology text for the American physician until the close of the 19th century.

In 1836, a New York oculist named William Clay Wallace brought out a little book with the impressive title: A Treatise on the Eye, Containing the Discoveries of the Cause of Near and Far-sightedness, and of the Affections of the Retina, with Remarks on the Use of Medicines as Substitutes for Spectacles. 35 The book was 88 pages long and contained superficial observations on the anatomy of the eyes of animals ranging from lobsters to rhinoceroses, as well as the human eye. Although cited by London's British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review as "an impressive and well written paper," the work was oflittle practical value to the physician.

The standard texts of the day gradually grew thicker with each succeeding edition: the works of Mackenzie and Lawrence approached 1000 pages. The need arose for a more concise book for the student and general practitioner. This need was met by A Manual of the Diseases of the Eye, by S. Littell, Jr., MD,36 "one of the surgeons of The Wills Hospital; Fellow of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, etc." published by John S. Littell, Philadelphia 1837.37 In his introduction Littell stated: "It has been the object of the author to present the points of chief importance in the symptoms, causes, and treatment of

each disease, with as much brevity and perspicuity, and at the same time with as much minuteness as the nature of the plan would permit."

In his manual, Littell devoted 220 pages to his discussion of the diseases of the eye. This was followed by 13-page formulary and 29-page "vocabulary section" in which he dealt with the "nonmenclaturing mania" of the ophthalmologists.

His book was well received both in this country and in Great Britain. Dr. William Gibson in his Institutes of Surgery wrote: "An excellent little work and well deserving of the attention of the American student." 5 The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review reported: "It is replete with information, yet so terse in style-compressed in bulk as at once to repay perusual." They assured their readers that "The language is free from any tinge of Americanisms, the descriptions are short but comprehensive." And finally: "It is no small triumph to Dr. Littel to be able to say that he embraced almost all that is valuable and necessary to the students within a compass of two hundred and fifty-five pages, and we would deliberately recommend our young friends to read this work before encountering the voluminous treatises of Lawrence, Travers, Mackenzie, Middlemore, etc."

The following year, 1838, Hugh Houston, a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of London, published a revised and enlarged British edition ofLittell's manual.37

Also in this year Littell published in Philadelphia a small brochure entitled Tumors of the Brain as a Cause of Amaurosis.

BOOKS FOR THE LAYMAN

This genre of books appears also to have started in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. The earliest such book by an American author would appear to be Hints to Students on the Use of the Eyes by Edward Reynolds ofBoston.38 Reynolds, who with John Jeffries founded the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, was a graduate of Harvard College and had spent a four year preceptorship under John Collins Warren.39 Reynolds studied in London at Guy's Hospital and the St. Thomas's Hospital, as well as at the London Eye Infirmary under Travers, Lawrence, Farre, Astley, Paston, Cooper and others. By 1835 he was well-recognized as one of B.oston's leading surgeons, with particular knowledge and skill in the treatment of diseases of the eyes. His book for students was prompted by an inquiry from Professor Robinson of Andover, who was concerned about the frequency with which the studies of young men in colleges were interrupted by complaints relating to eyes. Robinson was so impressed with the advice he received on the subject from Reynolds that he succeeded in convincing the latter "to commit his thoughts to paper for the benefit of the public and especially those immediately concerned-the students in our Colleges and in our Theological and other Seminaries." The result was a lucid and highly readable book translating into lay terms both the knowledge and ignorance of the day concerning the eye. A description of

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Fig 4. Silas Weir Mitchell, pioneer in experimental ophthalmology.

the eye itself, the adjustment oflight, good and bad habits concerning the eyes, and use of spectacles are considered in turn. Contrary to popular belief, Reynolds did not consider the study of Greek or Hebrew harmful to the eyes, but cautioned:

Let the student expend his money wisely, in the purchase of such textbooks as are printed a clear handsome type, and he will not be compelled to suspend his studies for want of sight, and obliged to repeat to himself in bitterness of heart, as he looks over his miserable, closely crowded volumes, the old maxim, 'Penny wise and pound foolish'.

On the other hand, he did note, "Much use of the eyes immediately after a full meal, is injurious, and should be avoided by all students, especially those whose eyes are not remarkably strong."

RESEARCH ON THE EYE

Experimental ophthalmology probably had its start in America in a one-room laboratory on Chant Street, near the University of Pennsylvania. Here, between the years

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1853 and 1860, Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell (Fig 4), then a general practitioner, did experiments in physiology and toxicology with dogs, cats, frogs, copperheads, water moccasins, and rattlesnakes.4 In the course of his investigations Mitchell noted that the injection of a lethal concentration of sugar solution into the dorsal subcutaneous sac of a frog caused cataract formation before death. In a paper in 1860, Mitchell attempted to explain this phenomenon in terms of osmosis and exosmosis, concluding that the cataracts were ". . . due to mechanical disturbances of the form and relative position of the component tubes of the lens." He recognized the relationship of these lens changes to diabetic cataracts and wrote, ". . . it is possible the long continued presence of even small amounts of sugar in the blood may cause in the crystalline lens osmotic changes productive of opacity." This work was published in the American Journal of Medical Sciences in 1860.41 (Four years later, in 1864, while stationed at the Union Army Hospital, Mitchell published a clear description of what is now called Horner's syndrome, which he noted in soldiers with wounds in their neck.42

Horner's article appeared in the Monatsblatter in 1869).43

ON THE FIRST EYE HOSPITAL IN AMERICA

The history of the founding of the various successful and enduring eye hospitals in the United States is welldocumented.44 A pioneer in the United States was prominent Connecticut physician Dr. Elisha North (Fig 5) whose example and efforts in New London, while only transiently successful, were a model for subsequent efforts in other cities.45 North is best remembered as the author of the first book ever written on epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis. Later, in 1829, he published the book entitled, Outlines of the Science of Life which treats Physiologically of both Body and Mind; Designed only for Philosophers, and other Candid Persons. To which are Added, Essays and other Subjects.46 On the title page North signed himself "Conductor of an Eye Infirmary," and this curious work touches on his experience in this regard. The book, a delightful recitation of fact and fancy, summarizes North's ophthalmic experiences and even includes a description of the ocular speculum. North wrote with considerable pride: "Our success or exertions probably hastened in this country the establishment oflarger and better eye infirmaries." Moreover, the book gives a good insight into the state of medicine of the day, replete with references to the works of Harvey, Darwin, John Hunter, William Mackenzie and Soemmering, as well as Sir William Blackstone, Washington Irving, and Pope.

PUBLISHED REPORTS OF LITIGATION

The surgeon of the mid-19th century may have been deprived of the advantages of asepis and anesthesia, but he did share with the modern surgeon the disadvantages

ALBERT • OPHTHALMIC PUBUCATIONS

of litigation. Probably one of the earliest "malpractice suits" brought against a surgeon for an operation on the eye was that served in 1828, to Dr. George McClellan, founder of the Jefferson Medical College and Philadelphia's old Institution for the Diseases of the Eye and Ear. This colorful account of the affair was recorded by Dr. Samuel D. Gross.47

April26, 1883-I dined with Mr. George W. Biddle this evening at Augustin's. About 30, chiefly judges and members of the Pennsylvania Bar, sat down at the broad table, decorated with flowers . . . Before we sat down at table ex-Judge Sharswood and I had a chat about our early Philadelphia reminiscences. Among other things he asked, "Do you recollect a trial which took place in 1828, in which Dr. George McClellan was defendant in a suit for malpractice on account of alleged want of skill in a case of cataract?" "Certainly", I said: for I was one of the witnesses. "Did you hear Dr. Physick's testimony?" "I did not." "Well it was curious. A cranky old judge insisted that he should take a seat with him on the bench, which accordingly he did. 'Dr. Physick', he asked, 'you must have a large experience in diseases of the eye?' 'I have,' was the answer. 'Will you be kind enough to state what your experience is in operation for cataract?' 'I have performed many operations of this kind, and have occasionally lost an eye; but I have not been quite so unlucky as Baron Wenzel, a German oculist, who declared that he had lost a hatful of eyes before he became an expert.' 'Sit down, great man, sit down! That will do great man,' added the judge." Dr. Joseph Parrish was another witness in this famous trial, but he showed little familiarity with ophthalmic surgery. He wore, I recollect, his Quaker costume, with his legs encased in high boots with buff colored tops. One of McClellan's counsel, a young man of great promise as a lawyer, afterwards became a forger and fled to Europe whence he never returned. A verdict of five hundred dollars was rendered in favor of the plaintiff. The suit, as most frequently happens, was instigated by professional enemies of McClellan.

This account while entertaining is not quite accurate. The actual trial was one of libel in which Dr. George McClellan was the plaintiff and Dr. Francis S. Bettiey, Professor of Obstetrics and the Diseases of Women and Children at the Jefferson Medical College was the defendant. The trial excited so much interest that an account was published by "an eyewitness". The anonymous editor wrote:

The compiler of this publication is not a medical man, nor has he ill will towards any of the profession. In the censures which he has, without awe or anger, embodied in the notes of the following pages, he gives vent no uncharitableness of any kind. He has been

Fig 5. Elisha North, founder of the first eye infirmary in the United States.

induced, by a very different sentiment, to warn the members of an elevated and honorable profession against the evils of secret associations, uncandid dealing, blind submission to the tyranny of opinion, and other offenses against medical ethics-the existence of which in our community were made manifest by the developments of this trial; and which can perhaps be safely pointed out only by an observer whose disinterestedness cannot reasonably be questioned.

The 78 pages of tine print which followed give an apparent transcript of the trial and constitute one of the most fascinating documents of nineteenth century ophthalmology. Here are presumably verbatim descriptions from patients as to what they faced when entering a hospital for cataract surgery. The reader discovers that blindness was almost the expected result. The testimony of the physicians, the finest eye surgeons in the Philadelphia area having been called to the trial, ranged from amazing ignorance of even the contemporary literature, as shown for example by Doctor Parrish, to surprising erudition and understanding. This thin volume gives a uniquely candid insight into the beginnings of our profession in the United States.

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JOURNALS

There were no ophthalmic journals in English to supplement the texts published in the first half of the nineteenth century. As early as 1801, however, the physician who understood German could thumb through the Ophthalmologische Bibliothek. Founded by Carl Himly and J ohannn Adam Schmidt, this was the first ophthalmic journal in any language. The Journal fur Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde commenced publication in 1820, under the editorship of Carl Ferdinand von Graefe and Philip von Walther, and continued until1840. And in 1838, the Annates d'Oculistique, edited by Cunier of Brussels was founded.

But in America, ophthalmology was an inseparable part of general surgery and medicine, and the general medical periodicals of the early nineteenth century were aware to varying extents of the importance of reporting on eye diseases.

Two Philadelphia journals were prominent sources of ophthalmic material: the American Medical Recorder, and the American Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences. Here were to be found reports of rare diseases of the eyes, observations by travelers on the advances in ophthalmology being made in Europe, and reviews and discussions of ophthalmic subjects.

For several years prior to the publication of his Treatise on Diseases of the Eye (1823),28 Dr. George Frick of Baltimore contributed articles to the American Medical Recorder, which summarized what was known at that time regarding conjunctivitis, cataract and its surgical cure, and methods of operating for artificial pupil.

In this same period ( 1820), Isaac Hays joined the staff of the Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences and with his appointment this journal was assured of an active role in advancing the knowledge of ophthalmology in this country. Hays himself contributed many long and well-written clinical articles, abstracts, and discussions. In 1834, Hays became editor of the American Journal of the Medical Sciences, successor to both the American Medical Recorder and the Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences. Here he featured at quarterly intervals a section reviewing the latest advances in ophthalmology made throughout the world. In addition, the early staff of The Wills Hospital presented their experiences in ophthalmology primarily in the pages of Hays' journal, the articles of Dr. Littell being of particular significance.

During these years, several medical periodicals were started in Boston and New York, which found room in their pages for articles of ophthalmologic interest. The New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery was prominent among them, carrying frequent discussions and case reports of eye diseases. One of the very few startling developments in ophthalmology during the first half of the 19th century was Dieffenbach's operation for strabismus.49 The American journals gave much attention to this subject and were important in disseminating information regarding its details.

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Medical journals had not yet become specialized; they were, however, regional. From west of the Allegheny Mountains came the Western Medical and Physical Journal, founded by Dr. Guy Wright and Dr. Daniel Drake. The well-known Drake, who had graduated from the Medical Department of the University of Pennsylvania in 1816, contributed 11 articles on ophthalmology. He described to the rough-hewn doctors of the West advantages and disadvantages of "Mr. Guthrie's Double Cataract Knife"50 (Western Medical and Physical Journal 1828; 11:231-240) and told how he had cured chronic "scrofulous ophthalmia" in a 6-year-old child with the instillation of iodine.

But the sum total of all such reports and discussion gleaned in the course of a month or two from the medical journals of America was insufficient material to fill one issue of an ophthalmology journal. It was some years before the need for such a journal existed in America. Progress in the treatment of eye diseases was slow. The few advances which did occur and the occasional interesting ophthalmic case reports were well covered by the existing general medical periodicals. For the first seventy years of the nineteenth century, this is where the general practitioners and surgeons who treated diseases of the eye looked for the latest information on ophthalmology.

The first American eye journal, The American Journal of Ophthalmology, appeared in 1862, edited by the eccentric Dr. Julius Hornberger. (There is no connection between this journal and the present journal bearing the same name.) It was comprised, for the most part, of translations of articles by von Graefe and other German writers. Unfortunately, the principal advertiser was the editor himself. His cover advertisement read:

CLINICAL EYE INFIRMARY: The undersigned is prepared to receive at his private surgical home a limited number of patients requiring the performance of operations on the eye. Address J. Hornberger, MD; 39 West 23rd St., NY.

Contents such as this angered the readers, and the journal ceased publication in 1866. Of far greater importance, however, was the Archives of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology founded by Hermann Knapp in 1869. The selectivity and skillful editing by this transplanted Heidelberg professor set the high standards that this journal continues to follow.

The current American Journal of Ophthalmology began in 1884 under the editorship of Adolf Alt. A facsimile copy of the first issue was published by the American Journal of Ophthalmology in 1984 to celebrate the 1 OOth anniversary of the Journal.

NEW CLASSICS

In Ecclesiastes XII, 12, it is written, "Of making many books there is no end; and much study is a weariness of the flesh." How well ophthalmologists are aware of this! But which of our modem books, one wonders, will be-


come classics to be read, cherished, and collected by some future generation. My own personal choices would include Frank B. Walsh's Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology, 51 Algernon Reese's Tumors of the eye52

, Hogan and Zimmerman's Ophthalmic Pathology, 53 and David Cogan's Neurology of Ocular Musc/es 54 and Neurology of the Visual of the System. 55 In particular, save the first editions of these books for your grandchildren.

FURTHER READING

How does one know more about the history of ophthalmology books, American and otherwise? There are two general sources: histories of ophthalmology and catalogues of collections of ophthalmology-related books. Among the histories, Burton Chances's Ophthalmology, published in hard cover in 1939 and reprinted in paperback in 1962, is generally the "old standby." 56•

57 Thomas Hall Shastid's fine review comprising volume eleven of Casey Wood's The American Encyclopedia of Ophthalmology is readable and accurate.44 More recently, George Gorin's history of ophthalmology has provided a good alternative. 58 A brief and charming review of the history of American ophthalmology and American ophthalmology publications is to be found in Alvin Hubbell's old book The Development of Ophthalmology in America, 1800 to 1817. 34 For the more scholarly and more ambitious, Frederick C. Blodi's outstanding translation of Julius Hirschberg's The History of Ophthalmology is required reading. 59

An extensive collection of works dealing with ophthalmology was published by the British Optical Association in 193260 with supplements published in 193561 and 1950.62 An extremely discriminating, well-illustrated and expertly edited catalog presently available in a second edition is The Catalog of Bernard Becker, M.D. Collection in Ophthalmology, compiled by Christopher Hoolihan and Mark F. Weimer. 63

REFERENCES

1. Salmon W. Seplasium. The Compleat English Physician: or, the Drug

gist's Shop Opened. London: Matthew Gilliflower, 1693.

2. Mather C. The Angel of Bethesda, edited with an introduction and

notes by GW Jones. Barre MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1972.

3. Chance B. A sketch of the early days of ophthalmology in Philadelphia.

Arch Ophthalmol1937; 18:23-45.

4. Dorsey JS. Elements of Surgery for the Use of Students: 3a ·ed. Phil

adelphia: Edward Parker, 1823.

5. Gibson W. Institutes and Practice of Surgery, Being the Outlines of a

Course of Lectures. Philadelphia: Edward Parker, 1824-5, 2 vols.

6. Gross SO. A System of Surgery; Pathological, Diagnostic, Therapeu

tique, and Operative. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1859.

7. Agnew DH. The Principles and Practice of Surgery, Being a Treatise

on Surgical Diseases and Injuries. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott, 1878;

Volume 1. 8. Porterfield W. A Treatise on the Eye, the Manner and Phaenomena

of Vision. Edinburgh: A. Miller (London) and G. Hamilton and J. Balfour

(Edinburgh), 1759, 2 vols.

9. Ware J. Remarks on the Ophthalmy, Psorophthalmy, and Purulent

Eye, with Methods of Cure Considerably Different from Those Com

monly Used; and Cases, Annexed in Proof of their Utility. London:

Charles Dilly, 1780.

10. Rowley W. A Treatise on the Principal Diseases of the Eyes; Containing

a Critical and Candid Examination of the Ancient and Modern Methods

of Cure, of the Present Defective Modes of Practice, with an Account

of New, Mild, and Successful Methods for the Cure of Diseases of

this Organ. London: F. Newbery, 1773.

11. Wathen J. A Dissertation on the Theory and Cure of the Cataract: In

Which the Practice of Extraction is Supported; and That Operation,

In Its Present Improved State, Is Particularly Described. London: T.

Cadell and C. Dilly, 1785.

12. Adams G. An Essay on Vision, Briefly Explaining the Fabric of the

Eye, and the Nature of Vision: Intended for the Service of Those

Whose Eyes Are Weak or Impaired: Enabling Them to Form an Ac

curate Idea of the True State of Their Sight, the Means of Preserving

It, Together with the Proper Rules for Ascertaining when Spectacles

are Necessary, and How to Choose Them Without Injuring the Sight.

London: R. Hindmarsh, 1789.

13. Vetch J. An Account of the Ophthalmia Which Has Occurred in England

Since the Return of the British Army from Egypt. London: Longman,

Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1807.

14. Wardrop J. Essays on the Morbid Anatomy of the Human Eye. Edin

burgh: George Ramsay and Co., for Archibald Constable and Co.,

1808.

15. Saunders JC. A Treatise on Some Practical Points Relating to the

Diseases of the Eye ... To Which Is Added, a Short Account of the

Author's Life, and His Method of Curing the Congenital Cataract, by

His Friend and Colleague, J. R. Farre. London: (J. McCreery) for

Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1811.

16. Adams W. Practical Observations on Ectropium, or Eversion of the

. Eye-Lids, with the Description of a New Operation for the Cure of

That Disease; On the Modes of Forming an Artificial Pupil, and on

Cataract. London: (J. Brettell for) J. Callow, 1812.

17. Stevenson J. A Practical Treatise on Cataract. London: (W. Thorne)

for Highley and Son and Longmans, 1813.

18. Travers B. A Synopsis of the Diseases of the Eye, and Their Treatment;

To Which are Prefixed, a Short Anatomical Description and a Sketch

of the Physiology of That Organ. London: (G. Woodfall) for Longman,

Rees, Orme, Brown, & Green, 1820.

19. Mackenzie W. A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye. London:

(E. Khull and Son (Glasgow) for) Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, &

Green, 1830.

20. Curtis JH. A Treatise on the Physiology and Diseases of the Eye:

Containing a New Mode of Curing Cataract without an Operation;

Experiments and Observations on Vision, also on the Inflection, Re

flection, and Colours of Light; together with Remarks on the Preser

vation of Sight, and on Spectacles, Reading-Glasses, etc. London:

(J. Moyes for) Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longman,

1833.

21. Dalrymple J. The Anatomy of the Human Eye. London: (F. Warr for)

Longmans, 1834. ·

22. Lawrence W. A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye. Washington DC:

Stereotyped by Duff Green, for the Register and Library of Medical

and Chirurgical Science, 1834.

23. Middlemore R. A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye and Its Ap

pendages. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green, and

Longman, 1835, 2 vols.

24. Tyrrell F. A Practical Work on the Diseases of the Eye, and Their

Treatment, Medically, Topically, and by Operation. London: (Metcalf

for) J Churchill, 1840.

25. Travers B. A Synopsis of the Diseases of the Eye, and Their Treatment:

to Which are Prefixed a Short Anatomical Description and a Sketch

of the Physiology of that Organ. With Notes and additions by Edward

707


Delafield, 1st American from the 3d London ed. New York: E Bliss and E White, 1825.

26. Mackenzie W. A Practical Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, To which is Prefixed an Anatomical Introduction of a Horizontal Section of the Human Eyeball by Thomas Wharton Jones. From the 4th Revised and Enlarged London Edition, with Notes and Additions by Addinnell Hewson. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1855.

27. Lawrence W. A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye. A New Edition. Edited, with Numerous Additions and one hundred and seventy-six illustrations, by Isaac Hays. Philadelphia: (TK and PG Collins for) Lea and Blanchard, 1847.

28. Frick G. A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, Including the Doctrines and Practice of the Most Eminant Surgeons, and Particularly those of Professor Beer. Baltimore: Fielding Lucas, 1823.

29. Beer GJ. Lehre von den Augenkrankheiten, als Leitfaden zu seinen offentlichen Vorlesungen engworfen. Vienna: (A Strauss for) Camesina, Heubner& Volke, 1813-17,2 vols.

30. Frick G. A Treatise on the Diseases of the Eye, Including the Doctrines and Practice of the Most Eminant Surgeons, and Particularly those of Professor Beer. A New Edition with Notes by Richard Welbank. London: J. Anderson, 1826.

31. Lobstein JFD. A Treatise upon the Semiology of the Eye for the Use of Physicians; and of the Countenance for Criminal Jurisprudence. New York: CS Francis, 1830.

32. Loebenstein-Loebel EL. Grundrisse der Semiology des Auges flir Aerzte. Jena: Croker, 1817.

33. Gibson JM. A Condensation of Matter upon the Anatomy, Surgical Operations and Treatment of Diseases of the Eye, Together with Remarks. Baltimore: WR Lucas, 1832.

34. Hubbell AA. The Development of Ophthalmology in America, 1800-1870; A Contribution to Ophthalmologic History and Biography. Chicago: WT Keener, 1908.

35. Wallace WC: The Structure of the Eye, with Reference to Natural Theology. New York: Wiley & Long, 1836.

36. Littell S. A Manual of the Disease of the Eye. Philadelphia: (J Van Court for) John S. Littell, 1837.

37. Littell S. A Manual of the Diseases of the Eye, Or, Treatise on Ophthalmology. Revised and Enlarged by Hugh Houston. London: J. Churchill, 1838.

38. Reynolds E. Hints to Students on the Use of the Eyes. Edinburgh: T. Clark, 1835.

39. Snyder C. Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary; Studies on Its History. Boston: Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, 1984.

40. Snyder C. Our Ophthalmic Heritage. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967. 41. Mitchell SW. Observations on poisoning with rattlesnake venom; with

microscopical notes by JG Richardson. Am J Med Sci 1870; 59:317-23.

708

42. Mitchell SW, Morehouse GR, Keen WW Jr. Circular No. 6, SurgeonGeneral's Office, March 10, 1864. Reflex paralysis, the result of gunshot wounds, founded chiefly upon cases observed in the United States General Hospital, Christian Street, Philadelphia. Washington DC: Surgeon General's Office, 1864.

43. Horner F: Ueber eine Form von Ptosis. Klin Monatsbl Augenheilkd 1869; 7:193-8.

44. Shastid TH. In: Wood, CA. The American Encyclopedia of Ophthalmology. Chicago: Cleveland Press, 1917; Volume 11:8890-8.

45. Albert OM, Sears ML. Dr. Elisha North and the first eye infirmary in the United States. Am J Ophthalmol 1971; 71 :578-87.

46. North E. Outlines of the Science of Life; which Treats Physiologically both Body and Mind. Designed Only for Philosophers and Other Candid Persons. New York: Collins and Co, 1829.

47. Gross SO. Autobiography of Samuel D. Gross, M.D. with Sketches of his Contemporaries, edited by his sons. Philadelphia: George Barrie, 1887; 2 vols.

48. Anonymous. A Report of the Trial of an Action for Libel in which Dr. George McClellan was Plaintiff and Dr. Francis S. Beattie was Defendant. Philadelphia PA: 1829.

49. Dieffenbach E. Ueber die Heilung des angebornen Schielens mittelst Durchschneidung des inhern geraden Augenmuskels. Preuss Med Ztg (Berlin) 1839; 8:227.

50. Drake D. Observations on Mr. Guthrie's double cataract knife. West Med Phys J 1828; 2:231-40.

51. Walsh FB. Clinical Neuro-Ophthalmology. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1947.

52. Reese AB. Tumors of the Eye. New York: Hoeber, 1951.

53. Hogan MJ, Zimmerman LE. Ophthalmic Pathology; an Atlas and Textbook. Philadelphia: WB Saunders, 1962.

54. Cogan DG. Neurology of the Ocular Muscles. Springfield IL: Thomas, 1948.

55. Cogan DG. Neurology of the Visual System. Springfield IL: Thomas, 1966.

56. Chance B. Ophthalmology. New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1939.

57. Chance B. Ophthalmology. New York: Hafner, 1962.

58. Gorin G. History of Ophthalmology. Wilmington DE: Publish or Perish, 1982.

59. Hirschberg J. History of Ophthalmology; Eleven volumes translated by FC Blodi. Bonn: JP Wayenborgh, 1982-1986.

60. British Optical Association. Catalog. London: Cliffords Inn Library, 1930.



63. Hoolihan C, Weimer MF. Catalog of the Bernard Becker, M.D. Collection in Ophthalmology, 2d ed. StLouis: Washington University School of Medicine Library, 1983.

a brief history of ophthalmic publications in america

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