a brief history of mental therapy

A BRIEF HISTORY OF MENTAL THERAPYRobert Meinsma

The chronology which follows is not intended to be exhaustive, but was designed to point out some early developments and key alterations in philosophical thinking and highlight certain subsequent events that contributed to the evolution of psychology and psychiatry. It also offers an outline of the abusive history of these practices to demonstrate how far afield from compassion and a true intention to help a profession or ideology can stray due to a lack of an actual science of mental healing.

At the earliest point of recorded history, the study of life and the physical universe was approached more or less as a single, albeit multifaceted, enigma. As time went on, ideas and opinions were compartmentalized and given different labels, such as "physics," "religion," "psychology," etc., which better organized research and the development of ideas. However, this also caused an individuation of concepts and the fruits of discovery in one field would often not enhance the development of data in another. Consequently, great strides were eventually made in the area of the physical sciences but very little progress was realized in the field of the humanities. C. P. Snow (190580), for example, viewed the humanities and sciences as polar opposites.

The earlier one tries to reach back into history, the harder it becomes to get reliable data, as historical events are often embellished, changed or deleted for any number of reasons, including sociopolitical ones or merely due to the translation from one language to another. (Voltaire called history "the Mississippi of lies.) With this caveat, the 6th century BC is taken as a starting point. This period is marked by philosophers who made inquiries into the nature of the spirit and reality. One of the first things that becomes apparent on this line of inquiry is the commonly accepted view has philosophy essentially beginning in ancient Greece, with the thinking and writing occurring earlier in the East being somehow disconnected or exotic. On the contrary, wisdom from the earliest times was freely disseminated along trade routes.

During the 6th century lived great thinkers: Zoroaster (660-583 BC) in Persia; Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) 563-483 BC in India; Lao Tse (604-531 BC) in India and Confucius (551-479 BC) in China. From this point forward, into the classical period of Greece from 450-300 BC, philosophy underwent a change, becoming extracted from a strictly religious context. The idea was considered that perhaps there was no omnipotent being, or allness to the universe, but rather that change was the only true reality and that the view of oneself as a spirit was an illusion; a mechanical view of reality seemed to provide the most efficient way of answering questions.

As time went on, investigation into the tangible, physical world gained credibility, as it became apparent that the universe of matter, energy, space and time surrendered its secrets under an ordered scientific scrutiny. This successful method of inquiry was extended to thought and the mind, but not in a spiritual context. The idea that man was, in the deepest and most profound sense, different than the physical universe and had to be studied with different parameters was overlooked. Life and thought began to be seen as part of the physical universe, with

man being viewed as the result of physical processes, i.e., the result of phenomena dependent on, or the result of, matter and energy existing in space through time.

A split between philosophy and science gradually ensued, as Philosophy came to be viewed as neither practical nor applicable to changing immediate conditions in a tangible sense, and Science was seen to be concerned only with the physical universe, which is viewed in many philosophical fields as illusory and not the correct arena in which to address the larger, more fundamental questions.

This bifurcation is ultimately the result of no reliable investigation into the mind or the spirit that would yield a way to answer fundamental questions and accomplish two things: One, clarify the philosophical concepts that comprise the underpinnings of the physical universe; and, two, solve the problem of madness, which is the ultimate barrier to realizing the original goals and purposes of what is loosely called "religion". Thus, instead of great thinkers who sought knowledge regardless of its source, the bifurcation produced either "scientists who also philosophized" or "philosophers who were scientific".

The lack of research into the mind and spirit from a traditional religious/philosophical approach resulted in a vacuum of data, exemplified by the fact that mind was never defined nor identified as something that could be studied, only its manifestations. This vacuum was readily filled with "scientific" ideas that were logical and fit within an ordered, tangible world; what could be seen, tasted and measured was considered valid. If it was not tangible, evidence of its existence was looked for in the physical universe. This is an approach of dubious value when dealing with spiritual matters. What is the physical manifestation of love? Such matters tend to be viewed as interesting, perhaps, but not "practical" or "scientific.î (The word "philosophical" is to many people today synonymous with a sort of vague, theoretical way of thinking.) The strides made in the physical sciences caused the thinkers of the day to overlook the fact that the actualization of any benefits from advance in the physical sciences was dependent upon the sanity and intentions of those putting the data to use (e.g., the use of the datum E=MC2).

Because associative thought is widely acknowledged as being "the way intelligent people think,î one runs into the odd circumstance of the most intelligent people rejecting what they think of as religion because of its ìillogicî and because of the factors introduced into it which have made it a useful control operation throughout the centuries. This rejection includes rejection of the most important ideas there are. Spiritual concepts are actually as practical and fundamental as the so-called scientific methodology to which the intelligentsia cling so desperately.

Truths tend to be ignored to the extent they are no longer apparent but merely part of the scenery. The most fundamental and powerful concepts, particularly when the origins of the words are studied - the so-called "roots" - are manifested right in the language. "Religion," "person," "being,î""personification" "godhead" - these concepts are an example of how fundamental philosophic

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<h3>BioSpace News: Cervical cancer</h3>



<ul>

<li><B><A HREF="/b2/company_profile.cfm?CompanyID=2864"><FONT COLOR="999966">Watson Pharmaceuticals</FONT></A></B> (<A HREF="http://investor.biospace.com/quote.asp?Symbol=WPI" TARGET="_top">WPI</A>) Adds PapSure To Women's Health Product Portfolio; New Cervical Cancer Screening Technology Available In First Quarter 2002<br>



<font color="#666666" size="2">

CORONA, Calif., Jan. 29 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ -- Watson Pharmaceuticals,Inc., (NYSE: WPI) today announced the acquisition of United States productrights to PapSure and Speculite(R), a visual cervical <A XGLS='(59304)'>screening</A XGLS> exam anddevice, from the Trylon Corporation. Financial terms have not been disclosed.

</font><BR>

<a target="_blank" href="/news_story.cfm?StoryID=7729315&full=1">(See Story from BioSpace.com)</a>

<em><font color="#ff0000" size="-1">(1/30/02)</font></em><br>

<br></li>

<li><B><A HREF="/b2/company_profile.cfm?CompanyID=1358">Digene</A></B> (<A HREF="http://investor.biospace.com/quote.asp?Symbol=DIGE" TARGET="_top">DIGE</A>) Release: New National Cancer Institute Data Builds Case For HPV Testing In Management Of Borderline Pap Results<br>




HPV Testing Can Best Reduce Unnecessary Follow-Up Procedures

</font><BR>

<br></li>

<li><B>Experts Mull Inconclusive Pap Tests</B><br>




More than 2 million American women enter medical purgatory every year: Their <A XGLS='(1553)'>Pap</A XGLS> smears come back inconclusive. The laboratory found something abnormal but couldn't tell if it was an early sign of cervical <A XGLS='(798)'>cancer</A XGLS> or not.

</font><BR>




<font color="#433f69">(Story from Reuters expired)</font>


<br></li>

<li><B>HIV And Women Have Increased Risk Of Genital Cancer</B><br>




While <A XGLS='(41304)'>HIV</A XGLS>-positive women are known to be at higher risk of cervical <A XGLS='(798)'>cancer</A XGLS>, a new report suggests they are at risk of developing other types of cancer as well, including cancer of the vulva and anus.

</font><BR>




<font color="#433f69">(Story from Reuters expired)</font>


<br></li>

<li><B>Esoterix Molecular Genetics</B> Introduces New Early Detection Tool For HPV - A Cervical Cancer Precursor<br>

Esoterix Molecular <A XGLS='(878)'>Genetics</A XGLS> announced today the launch of a new two-step approach for the detection and identification of HPV (Human Papillomavirus). HPV is the most common sexually transmitted disease, with 24 million people in the United States currently infected and up to one million new infections occurring each year.

</font><BR>




<a target="_blank" href="/linkto.cfm?link=biz.yahoo.com/iw/020108/09036517_1.html">(See Story from Internet Wire)</a>


<br></li>

<li><b>National HPV And Cervical Cancer Campaign</b> Announces New Patient Guidelines Developed By The <B>American Medical Women's Association</B><br>

HPV Testing Recommended for Women With Inconclusive <A XGLS='(1553)'>Pap</A XGLS> Tests

</font><BR>






<br></li>

<li><B>Tracking The Movement Of Key Products Through Clinical Trials</B><br>




FDA APPROVED <BR><BR> Kos Pharmaceuticals' (<A XGLS='(1689)'>NASDAQ</A XGLS>: KOSP) Advicor, which combines the active cholesterol-lowering ingredient of Merck's (NYSE: MRK) Mevacor (lovastatin) and the nutrient niacin, was approved by the FDA. Kos said it would launch Advicor in the U.S. in February with a sales force of 450 representatives. The statin portion of Advicor is directed against the "bad" LDL cholesterol, whereas the niacin portion tends to raise "good" HDL cholesterol. Clinically, the combination's therapeutic effect benefits, when given to patients with good clinical follow up, outweigh

the modest <A XGLS='(47204)'>adverse effect</A XGLS> risks associated with niacin administration.

</font><BR>




<a target="_blank" href="/news_story.cfm?StoryID=7393815&full=1">(See Story from Btech Regulatory Radar)</a>

<em><font color="#ff000al concepts are found in common speech. Many languages on this planet, notably English, and Sanskrit, contain elaborate expression of philosophical concepts. These are largely ignored by western man, due to the inherent problem language has, that being the expressions are used so often that the literal truths are lost due to numbing overuse. Therefore, the concept "my mind,î which denotes ownership, a thing, gets lost and an individual will, in the next breath, state that he thinks of himself as a mind. Absurdities abound, such as ideas concerning "my spirit,î denoting ownership, instead of the idea of the person being him or herself a spirit.

The primary problem encountered when working in the arena of philosophy is communicating the concepts necessary for laying the foundation for understanding. Communication of philosophical ideas uses symbols and sounds to represent the experience of knowledge. In any field, particularly this one, direct observation - that is to say, experience - is the only route to true certainty. Data are only the gradient steps by which one arrives at a level of understanding sufficient to enable the process of knowing to occur.

Experience of laws and actions of the physical universe is relatively easy, as it involves the interaction and manipulation of matter (energy), experienceable objectively. The field of philosophy, on the other hand, contains concepts that deal with the universe of the mind and the spirit. These concepts do not exist in the same way. Thus, their communication must use associative thought, i.e., relating physical universe objects to the concepts in such a way so as to convey a hint of their meaning through association. Here we have metaphors, parables, allegory, etc.

The metaphors used to describe spiritual states and concepts will usually be taken literally by those unable to grasp the inherent spiritual concepts interpreted from a physical frame of reference. It tends to invalidate the realm of the spirit, which has seldom, if ever, been defined or described accurately. Most philosophers cannot make the

jump from logic-based consciousness to the clarity of observation necessary to proceed beyond the world of mechanics, so their philosophies tend to proceed in a mechanical fashion. Many "philosophies" on this planet describe the mind as a mechanism of the brain. The leap from logic-based consciousness to a higher level of knowing has traditionally been religiously-based, as it involves a change in consciousness. This is mistrusted by most investigators as too "subjective.î What becomes apparent, then, is a religious/philosophical lineage coming from the Vedas to India. It was promulgated through Buddhism and the Tao over to Christianity. It was interrupted along the way with an offshoot into Greece, which became at that point the historically agreed upon source of "western philosophy".

It would be neat and easy to say religious philosophy was coherent with its data intact until the Greeks came along, alienated spiritual aspects of philosophy by focusing on the physical universe and took a detour. While there is truth in this, the fact is that the idea of man being essentially physical had its roots in the very same early writings that contained the concepts of man as a spirit. In fact, the idea of the divine nature of man and the ultimate truth of thought, life and the universe were altered and obfuscated practically at their inception. With no orderly mode of investigation into these mysteries, the knowledge became alloyed and mixed in with false data, wrong turns and misconceptions.

Due to a subverted religious/philosophical frame of reference, man's nature became regarded as ultimately physical by those regarded as the "experts.î Any data, or thought on spirituality was increasingly relegated to the sphere of "religion" or "philosophy.î The distinction between philosophy/religion and science grew more apparent, with no attempt to use scientific methodology to investigate the realm of the spirit. For example, the traditional view was of the body as a product or function of consciousness. This changed into the view of the brain as being an organ that contained consciousness. Many now adhere to the notion that the brain produces consciousness.

Addressing suffering and the travail of the spirit moved away from its original religious context (Patanjali, a legendary sage, defined Yoga as î...the intentional stopping of the spontaneous activity of the mind stuff.") Thus, the viewpoint changed from the individual taking responsibility for dealing with his mental suffering through a spiritual\religious context to technologies of a somatic nature which eventually resulted in drugs, shock, imprisonment, outright torture and murder, to ultimately the wholesale and methodical slaughter of millions in the early 20th century; in a word, psychiatry.

Psychiatry and psychology are belief systems, not sciences, and are not based and built on proven data as are true sciences, such as chemistry. Psychiatry is the only group operating under the guise of a "science,î masquerading as members of the medical profession, that utilizes the police powers of the state to confine and force "treatments." Psychiatry and psychology provide an exchange with society that is twofold: 1) They provide answers to questions about the mind and behavior. The mind is an unanswered puzzle and man is hungry for answers that, even when false, serve to fill this vacuum. Most people consider it better to have an explanation, any explanation, as to why someone would fire a weapon in a crowded shopping mall than no explanation at all. 2)

They take people who are annoying to society at large, to certain individuals or to themselves and make them quiet with drugs, closed-head injuries (shock), institutionalization or through the intentional destruction of healthy brain tissue (psychosurgery).

When one encounters a body of data, claiming the status of "science" as does psychiatry, which contains methodologies which shift in an out of favor over time by its practitioners, one is observing something other than a science. Diseases, treatment modalities, even categories of people suddenly spring up, only to be discredited, falling from favor by subsequent "researchers.î Later, the same ideas are resurrected, renamed and reapplied. Then, when the original inherent fallacies are (re)"discovered,î they are abandoned again. Both the rediscovery and reabandonment are heralded as "breakthroughs." The ongoing cry of "flawed earlier studies" wears thin after a few centuries of this cyclical activity. Eventually, one must confront the fact that one is dealing with, not a science, but a belief system. A true science establishes maxims that are based on universal laws.

"Certain atoms, combined, produce an element" is an example of a scientific maxim.

"Sometimes, when we cause a closed-head injury by running electricity through a person's brain, in a very small number of cases, although suffering irreversible memory loss, he gets better for a while. We don't know why this is." is not an example of a scientific statement, nor is "If we bury a person's personality under heavy tranquilizing drugs, making him dependent on chemicals so he carries his institutionalization around with him, his mental disorder will not be so apparent."

Yet "studies" justifying these actions by institutional practitioners are published in the most respected "scientific" journals. Meanwhile, other researchers demonstrate the falsity of the above claims and publish studies showing these somatic treatment modalities to be dangerous and damaging.

The debate rages down through the years. Practitioners of a true science do not debate the underlying scientific facts; they do so only in the theoretical arena. In the fields of psychiatry and psychology, it is mostly debate, with very little agreement on what is objectively true. There is no actual agreement on what a "mind" is in the first place, let alone objective analysis or proof. How can one expect to deal with something, uncertain of its very existence, for which one has no definition? Psychology meanp://go.msn.com/bql/HMCal2058.asp" class="swnub"><font class="swnub">Calendario</font></a></td></tr><tr><td style="border-top:solid 1px #8C84A5" bgcolor="#104A7B"><font class="sbd" color=#FFCE00>Servicios de Hotmail</font></td></tr><tr><td valign=top><a href="http://64.4.18.23/l/redirlog/wclink?url=http%3a%2f%2flw12fd%2elaw12%2ehotmail%2emsn%2ecom%2fcgi%2dbin%2fwc_maint%3fcurmbox

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</tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td align="center" width=85 bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid;font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td align="center" width=85 bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid;font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr><td style="padding:2px;"><font class="Wf"> Su mensaje se ha <b>enviado</b> a los siguientes destinatarios:<br></font></td><td align=center width=85 bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='font-size:11px;border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid; border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid;'><font class="s" color="#104A7B"><b> </b></font> </td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid; font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid; font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid; font-size: 10px;'>

<input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid; font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgcolor="#EFF7FF" style='border-left:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-right:1px #8CA5B5 solid;border-bottom:1px #8CA5B5 solid; font-size: 10px;'><input type="checkbox" name="[email protected]" value="[email protected]"></td></tr><tr> <td height=20 align="right" style='border-bottom: solid #8CA5B5 1px;'><font class="Wf"> [email protected] </font></td><td width=85 align=center bgs "study of the spirit." Psychiatry means "healing the spirit.î These "doctors" do neither.

Many books have been written on the abuses of psychiatry and psychology. This chronology merely serves to show key points in their history and that few activities of man have a history so full of contempt for and abuse of the human condition. Psychiatry as a body has neglected to isolate those treatment modalities that got results without ruining the person and forward those into a benign, caring methodology that relieved suffering. The claimed ìresultsî are largely due to the use of drugs. Drugs are created and sold by the drug companies and promoted through studies, many of which are paid by these same companies. A person suffering mental trauma will experience some relief from taking an anti-depressant, an opiate, Valium, perhaps even alcohol. The fact that a drug brings some relief from mental or spiritual pain does not make a science of mental healing.

Ultimately, for want of a science of the mind and spirit, the benefits from study of the physical universe only serve to affect (in some instances detract from) the physical aspects of a society that is stunted in an ethical and spiritual sense.

It should be said that there are people within the professions of psychiatry and psychology who are kind and who abhor the rampant abuse; who truly wish to help. However, as you look over the chronology, ask yourself where was the hue and cry from these people within the profession against the abuses? Their silence is a loud one indeed. One would be hard put to find a better example of a science gone mad due to its failure to be rooted in an ethical and spiritual context.

Many people who are commonly labeled "insane" or "mentally ill" are neither. People who babble to themselves or hallucinate are usually exhausted; driven to irrational behavior due to the attrition of suffering vivid exaggerations of otherwise normal functions of the mind. This may seem to be mere semantics, but it is not. True insanity involves the intention to harm and destroy. Who, then, would be insane under this definition? The screaming patient straining and protesting against his confinement, or the "doctor" administering shock or forcing drugs? If this sounds extreme, please read on.

? BC Vedic hymns stress the link between immortality and gold. Elixirs made from herbs and metals (mercury) are used.

4000 -3000 BC PreAryan religion. Animism and dynamism practiced by the occupants of the Iranian plateau and elsewhere.

2850 BC Egyptian healer Imhotep uses "incubation sleep" as therapy, which influences Greek Aesculapian priests. Knowledge of the brain is recorded for the first time during this period. Egyptian physicians are subject to malpractice laws. Patients are encouraged to partake in recreational therapy. Hygienic measures are expanded upon by the Hebrews. (Imhotep is later deified in 525 BC.)

2750-2150 BC Babylonian physicians called Assipu priests (later called Asu) deal with internal and particularly mental ailments. Drugs and incantations used. The chief deity of physicians is a god who has the symbol of a serpent. They describe many diseases correctly on cuneiform tablets. Babylonian physicians have their own code of ethics and are frequently called into Egypt for consultations.

c 2000 BC Aryans enter Iran and from there enter into India. Two main tribes settle in Iran: Amadai (Medes) and Parsua (Persians). Dominance eventually falls to the Persians. A route runs from Mesopotamia to the Caspian plateau through the land of the Medes. (Greek historian Herodotus, 484425 BC, recorded facts about the Aryan culture.)

1500-1000 BC Rgveda written (other vedas slightly later).

1550 BC Egyptians believe in "hysteria,î the misplacement of the uterus in females, as one reason for mental disturbances. This idea continues through to the end of the 19th century.

1400 BC Hindu physicians on record as treating certain forms of madness with "kindness and consideration." Vedic priests purge "angry demons" to cure patients. Disease is seen as an imbalance in the body of the three vital "problems" (dosas usually translated as humours): wind, bile phlegm.

1140 BC Chinese institutions for the insane.

THE GREEKS

The Greek culture basically took philosophy from a strictly religious context and entered in the idea that phenomena, whether perceived as the physical universe or the universe of thought, have natural, rather than strictly spiritual or "supernatural" explanations. This trend of "rationalism" (as some later called it) began around 700-

600 BC. For example, Anaxagoras explained the interaction of basic elements from reason (nous) which he described as a fine "thought substance" (material). At first this merely influenced the studies of philosophy/psychology indeed, what would be called "psychology" began as a study of the soul. Though perverted, e.g., witch hunts and ignorance in the "Dark Ages," the idea of addressing the spirit to heal the person nevertheless persisted. The idea of man representing merely the result of experience or accumulation of physical processes continued to obfuscate the field of the mind/spirit and reached full fruition thousands of years later with people like Wilhelm Wundt and Karl Marx.

1000 BC Poems by Homer referring to Aesculapius as a mortal. (Aesculapius is later deified.) Homer refers to his two sons, Machaeoin and Pidalirius, as surgeons. Hundreds of Aesculapian temples are built, most of them in Greece. Patients are screened before being admitted; not all cases are accepted. Once admitted, the patient is instructed in cleanliness and diet. Most importantly, a form of "sleep therapy" is used, whereby the person sleeps (either naturally or from drugs) during which the priest visits him and gives suggestions. The Greeks believe the snake is a symbol of power; the symbol of Aesculapius is a snake around a staff, still the symbol of the medical profession today. (Homer makes reference to peoples in the vicinity of India. Trade between India and Europe occurring during this time. Ideas travel from India on trade routes.)

c 1000 BC The Etruscans, on the Italian peninsula, share the mythologies of Greece and Egypt and believe deities are responsible for health and illness.

c 950 BC Hebrew doctor/priests supervise dietary laws and enforce rules of social hygiene.

900 BC First Upanishads. Upani - "close in"; - shad "to sit.î (In the manner of a teacher and student.)

721-705 BC Deioces is the founder of the Royal dynasty of the Medes on the Iranian plane. He is succeeded by his son, Fravartish, called Phraortes by the Greeks.

700 BC The Leader of the Persians is Hakhamanish (or Achaemenes). Cyrus the Great follows c 559-530 BC) and extends the Persian empire. Darius the Great (522-486 BC) extends the empire further to Egypt and Macedonia and to Southern Russia and the Indus Valley. After Darius, some of the rulers were Xerxes (486-465 BC), Artaxerxes I Lomgimanus (465-423 BC), Darius II (423-404 BC), Artaxerxes II Mnemon (404-359 BC), etc., until Darius III (335 331 BC), at which time the Persian empire is conquered by Alexander the Great in 331 BC.

650-450 BC The focus of Greek philosophers is almost entirely cosmological. From 450-400 BC they focus more on man himself.

650?580 BC Thales regards water as the ultimate manifestation of reality. Aristotle later calls him the first to try to establish a "physical beginning" to the cosmos, as opposed to religious/spiritual explanations.

611-547 BC Anaximander regards the "boundless" or "infinite" as the true nature of reality. He writes "On Nature."

604-531 BC Lao Tse.

600? BC Anaximandros is generally acknowledged to be the first on record to articulate a theory of evolution.

588-524 BC Anaximenes claims air is the true basic substance of reality.

572-497 BC Pythagoras posits the concept of number (mathematics) as the ultimate principal of reality. He teaches a distinction between body and mind and the immortality of the soul. (Believed to have coined the word "philosophy.î) He spends time in Egypt, absorbing ideas about past lives. His ideas are heavily influenced by Eastern religion and are passed on to Plato. He is also believed to stress the idea that the brain is the physical organ of man's intellect and location of mental illness. His pupils dissect animal brains. He also considers geometry, arithmetic and music as the most fundamental types of knowledge. He is one of the first philosophers on record to devise categories of knowledge.

563-483 BC Siddhartha Gautama ("Buddha") develops a means of meditation and ethical conduct whereby an individual confronts his past and purges himself of suffering and evil in this and previous lives.

551-479 BC Confucius.

536-470 BC Heraclitus considers fire to be the fundamental element of the universe and that change (becoming) is the true reality.

530 BC Xenophanes considers that earth, fire, water and air, combined, comprise the fundamental element of the universe.

500 BC Alcmacon of Crotona is probably the first Greek to experiment with the brains of animals. He believes the brain is a gland that secretes thought and houses the soul and that the brain is the seat of sensation, perception, thought, intellect, feeling and behavior, each sensation having its specific location in the brain. He theorizes that bodily secretions are involved with illness. This is a forerunner to Hippocrates' idea of the balance of bodily fluids being crucial to well being, which was in turn predated by the Hindu idea of three elements (air, fire and water) which are important to health. These three elements relate to the body as bile, phlegm and wind and were referred to by the Hindus as dosas, usually translated as "humors.î

c 500 BC Persian philosophy, written in the Venidad, describes 99,999 diseases, all of which are caused by demons, and handled by spiritual healers. This text states, "When physicians compete, knife doctor, herb doctor and word doctor, then shall the believer go to him who heals by the holy word for he is a healer of healers and benefits the soul also."

500 BC Zeno (the Stoic) believes one has to endure what fate has to offer and is responsible his attitude is toward life's circumstances. He uses the word "physis" (root of "physics") meaning the essential element of all things. He teaches about motion using certain mental exercises or paradoxes.

500-428 BC Anaxagoras states that mind/reason is necessary to explain the structure of the universe. One of the first to discourse on the actual

concept of mind, he calls it "nous,î seeing it as being part of all living things and the source of motion.

495-435 BC Belief in the existence of four cosmic elements: fire, water, air and earth. Love (good) is believed to bind them together; hate (evil) tearing them apart. Objects are believed to radiate, these emanations being absorbed into the blood through the pores of the body where they can then be perceived.

490-430 BC Empedocles explains evolution through survival of the fittest.

480-411 BC Protagoras distinguishes between the reality of a thing and one's viewpoint of the thing. He says "Man is the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, and of things that are not that they are not." He coins the word "epistemology" (G. episteme, knowledge + logos, study of) and concludes that man's ability to know the world is limited. He shifts emphasis from observation of the physical universe to study of the observer. With stress on the concept of point of view, questions of objective and subjective reality and ethical and aesthetic judgement are brought into view (Sophist school). Observation is seen as an interaction between the observer and the object observed and depends on not only the nature of the object but on the nature of the observer. This helps brings about the theory that the act of perceiving is both a psychological and a physiological phenomena. This theory is used to support the idea that man is in essence a physical entity, with thought being somehow the result of physical processes, as opposed to the view of man as a spirit, divine and deathless.

469-399 BC Socrates employs a teaching method of systematic questioning. He believes ignorance is at the root of all evil and that selfknowledge is of utmost importance. He holds with Protagoras that man's ability to know the world and cosmos is limited. (He is said to have met with Indian philosophers.)

460(?)BC Leucippus introduces idea of numerous ultimate realities (material in nature) which he calls "atoms,î moving in a void.

460-370 BC Democritus expands on the theory of "atoms" and is a principal founder of the western idea that all reality is matter and can be reduced to mechanics. Writes a book about the soul called On the Soul.

460-377 BC Life of Hippocrates, the father of medicine. He writes On the Sacred Disease (epilepsy) and debunks the idea of the divine origin of this disease. He puts forth a theory on illness, physical and mental, based on whether four "humours" (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm and blood) are in the correct proportions. He describes mental conditions like euphoria, depression, senile dementia and hysteria (ala Egyptian idea regarding dislocation of uterus) and argues against the idea that demonic possession causes mental illness. Receives education from his father, Heracleides, who was probably a member of the Aesculapian group. Uses bloodletting and purgatives, but only after methods such as diet, bathing, exercise, etc., fail. He states, î...wherefore, I assert that the brain is the interpreter of consciousness." He stresses eliciting a life history from the patient and the importance of the doctor/patient relationship and appears as an expert witness at the trial of an insane person.

c 400 BC Evidence of brain surgery in Peru and Bolivia. Some skulls are found from this time period with as many as 7 holes cut in them, which later healed, in apparent attempts to treat migraines and seizures.

427-347 BC Plato divides madness into 3 categories: melancholia, mania and dementia. Distinguishing between the body and mind, he believes in the immortality of the soul and that the soul is located in the brain. He explains knowledge with the idea that the soul remembers a previous existence. In Timaeus, he says, "The only thing one can do for another is reintroduce him to those forms of the spirit, the memory of which was lost at birth." Deriving much of his philosophy from Pythagoras, the basis for his philosophy is the conflict between the lower appetites and desires of the body and the higher aspirations of the spirit. He states in Politeia "(race hygiene) is not a science at all but a Phoenician myth ..it is a fraud of which it is necessary to make use in order to dominate the masses and it must remain an occult doctrine.î

c 450 BC The first important codification of Roman law, into the "Twelve Tables.î In the first mention of insanity in Roman law, Law Seven states, "When no guardian has been appointed for an insane person, or a spendthrift, his nearest agnates (closest male relatives on the father's side of the family), or if there are none, his other relatives, must take charge of his property."

c 460 BC Diogenes of Appolonia conceives air to have the quality of rationality, which he feels helps explain the construction of living organisms.

384-322 BC Aristotle writes about the soul in On the Soul. He decides knowledge is derived from experience and is the first to articulate the concept of association to explain memory. He believes the soul is located in the heart and puts forth the idea that there is a purpose to nature, as opposed to the mechanistic view of the atomists. He writes, "We have no evidence as yet about the mind or the power to think; it seems to be a widely different kind of soul, differentiating what is eternal from what is perishable; it alone is capable of existence in isolation from all other physical powers." He presents human behavior and experience in definite terms regarding memory, emotion, interpersonal relations, etc. He describes imagination as calling up a mental image in the absence of the actual physical object and sees thinking as an activity leading to the attainment of pleasure or avoidance of pain. He states that reason is of divine origin and is absolute. He also feels that there are certain people who are destined from birth to be slaves, as others are destined to be their masters. He seeks to organize knowledge into (a) the theoretical sciences (physics and philosophy); (b) the practical sciences (ethics and politics); (c) the poetic sciences (aesthetics). He uses rational terminology to make reference to that which heretofore was described through spiritual metaphors and concepts of the older Eastern tradition. His works are later used to support and emphasize rationalism and de-emphasize transcendence of rationalism.

371-287 BC Theophrasius outlines 30 types of personalities or character types.

356-323 BC Life of Alexander the Great, who conquers most of the known world, spreading Greek culture and ideas throughout. He enters India,

causing upheaval and promotes a heavy Greek influence. The city of Alexandria is formed (323 BC), serving as a conduit for Greek culture into Rome as well.

342-270 BC Epicurus subscribes to a kind of hedonistic ethics that puts the pleasures of the mind over those of the flesh.

c 340 BC Herophilus, Aristotle's grandson, learns about the brain through dissection. Thessalus and Draco, sons of Hippocrates, found the Dogmatist sect, stressing that medical research should cease because Hippocrates has already done the relevant work.

c 330 BC Aesculapian priests dominate Roman medicine.

304-50 BC Erasistratus is the first to distinguish between sensory nerves and the motor nerves of the spinal cord.

300 BC Soranus of Ephesus is probably the first to study the mentally ill. He opposes opiates and restraints and encourages reading, entertainment, sea voyages, etc., as therapy.

250 BC Ashoka is first Buddhist emperor in India. He sends Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon, Macedonia, Cyprus and Egypt. Around this time, neo-Platonic philosophy arrives. Thus what could loosely be called "Eastern" and "Western" philosophies influence each other to a greater degree.

200 BC Buddhism disseminated in Palestine. Essene & Nazarene sects influenced by it. Essenes are interested in magic, the occult and believe in the immortality of the soul.

ROMAN PERIOD

246-146 BC Greek culture is transmitted to Rome via Alexandria, with Greek medicine also being assimilated. Archagathus, Greek physician, comes to Rome to practice medicine in 219 BC.

c 124 BC Asclepiades, Greek, teaches rhetoric in Rome. He reintroduces the theory of "atoms,î basing the treatment of illness on alignment of these atoms. This "solidity" theory gains approval because it runs counter to other Greek, specifically Hippocratic, theories which are unpopular in Rome at this time. He prescribes pleasurable physical therapy (baths, wine) that raise the morale of the patient, a treatment modality that is quite popular.

106-43 BC Cicero, a philosopher, asks "Why for the care and maintenance of the body there has been devised an art...whilst on the other hand the need of an art of healing for the soul has not been felt so deeply...nor has it been studied so closely." He states that bodily ailments could be psychosomatic. He also says "The cure of grief, and of other disorders, is one and the same, in that they are all voluntary, and founded on opinion; we take them on ourselves because it seems right so to do. Philosophy undertakes to eradicate this error as the root of all our evils.."

46 BC After the fashionable success of Asclepiades, Julius Caesar grants Roman citizenship to Greek physicians. This puts Greek philosophy on the extensive communication channels of Rome.

30 AD Aurelius Celsus treats mental disorder with flogging, chains, starvation and isolation in total darkness. He develops the concept that frightening the patient can result in a cure.

47? Scribonius Largeus writes in Compositionis Medicamentorum that the torpedo fish is used by some Roman citizens to cure headaches (the torpedo fish generates an electric current of around 25 to 30 volts).

c 50 Aretaeus of Cappadocia observes mentally ill people and does careful followup studies on them. He finds lucid periods exist between periods of insanity and emphasizes the course of the illness and its prognosis and outcome. He points out that mental disorder does not necessarily result in intellectual deterioration.

100 A student of Soranus of Ephesus writes On Acute Disease and on Chronic Disease, describing Soranus' humane methods of dealing with patients with "phrenitis" (diseases of the mind). Soranus shuns the use of restraints and emphasizes making the patient comfortable and talking with them to ease their discomfort. He believes that theory is secondary to handling the individual patient according to his/her needs and favors non-somatic treatments.

c 161 Claudius Galenus ("The Physician") sums up previous medical knowledge since Hippocrates and decides epilepsy, migraine, deliriums, amnesia, etc., are disorders of the spirit. His influence continues in medicine for centuries afterward. He dissects animals and distinguishes between sensory and motor nerves and shows that the arteries contain blood. He proposes the theory that the nerves relay impulses from the brain.

c 200 Domitius Ulplanus, Roman jurist, states that an insane person is not responsible for a criminal act.

205-270 Plotinus attempts to align the teachings of Plato and Aristotle with Eastern religion (reality is an emanation from the One; individual souls are on a journey to rejoin the One). Posits the idea of selfconsciousness.

354-430 Life of Aurelius Augustinus (St. Augustine) of the Roman Catholic Church, regarded by many as the first "modern psychologist" because of his tendency toward introspection and selfanalysis. He studies Persian doctrine of Manichaeanism at Carthage but leaves and pursues other studies. He eventually joins the Church and writes Confessions, vivid descriptions of inner thoughts and turmoil, regarded as one of the first recorded introspective psychological selfexaminations.

MEDIEVAL PERIOD

c 400-1000 Dark ages begin. During this period, European medicine is basically replaced regarding mental disorders, at least with the ideas of demon possession, physical punishments and food and sleep deprivation. Attacks from barbaric tribes, famine and major plagues speed the fall of the Roman empire. People turn to religion for solace/explanations. The

Church becomes a point of stability in difficult times and Constantine makes Christianity the official religion. Pope Leo III is supported by Charlemagne, who in turn is made emperor of the new empire, now called the Holy Roman Empire, with the Church as focal and philosophical point. Laws are based on Roman law and hierarchy is similar to that of original Roman empire. This rigidity of organization helps preserve culture but not spur its development. Although ideas from Greeks and Alexandria are preserved in monasteries, (and by the Arabs) they are not enhanced, as there is little room for ideas other than those based in Christian theology. Medieval treatment of mentally ill was originally through monastic medicine. Later, it became based mostly on the Persian doctrine of Manichaeanism (based on Zoroasterism) emphasizing purging of evil spirits. These Eastern ideas, brought back from the Crusades to the Holy Lands, go handinhand with certain Christian ideas. Essentially, through the 13th and 14th centuries, when the mentally ill were cared for by lay (nonmedical) people, the care was often humane. Care of the mentally unsound was considered the domain of clerical scholars, who tended not to use intrusive "treatment.î The hospitals in the Arab world were also noted for their humane care, because the Arabs felt the insane were somehow divinely inspired. Later, two Dominican Monks, Johann Sprenger and Heinrich Kraemer, professed that the devil was the cause of mental illness, promoting witch hunts. The "insane" eventually become considered witches and are persecuted.

c 440 Nestorius receives a Christian education in Syria. He is banished to Arabia from Constantinople for disagreeing with certain doctrines. He becomes a religious leader and his followers preach in Asia, Syria, China and India. They found medical schools in Mesopotamia and Persia and some travel to Salerno, establishing contact with a European medical school. Educated in Greek, they translate Greek philosophy into Arabic. (Arabs also contribute Algebra and the concept of zero).

490 A hospital is established in Jerusalem solely for treatment of the mentally ill.

c 500 St. Benedict of Nursia establishes monastic medicine. He emphasizes the benign care of the mentally ill.

c 500 Cassiodorus, philosopher, physician and Benedictine monk, stresses care of the sick and education of the physician/priest.

c 550 Aetius of Amida compiles works by Greek philosophers (Aristotle, Soranus, etc.) and describes three types of mental illness, distinguishing them by their location in the brain.

542 A hospital is constructed in Europe (Lyons).

652 A hospital is built in Paris.

700 A mental hospital is founded in Arabic world at Fez, followed by Baghdad (705), Cairo (800), Damascus (1270). Treatments are chess, storytelling, music.

705 Arabs build a hospital for the mentally ill in Baghdad.

800 A hospital is built for the mentally ill in Cairo.

898 The first Italian hospital is built.

1000-1450 Middle ages. Church fathers rediscover and promote Aristotle in an attempt to lend credibility to church dogma.

1100s Councils of Clermont and Lateran forbid monks to leave monasteries to practice medicine, thus restricting monastic medicine and causing the development of medicine outside the Church, particularly at the University of Salerno.

1214-1294 Franciscan Friar Roger Bacon advocates the use of observation and inductive reasoning instead of relying on authorities. He holds that mental diseases are the result of natural (i.e., nonspiritual) processes. This view causes him to be censored by the Church and condemned by Oxford, where he taught. He classifies knowledge into the categories of (a) philosophy (knowledge of things by causes); (b) history (knowledge of things as facts); (c) poetry (feigned knowledge).

1225-1274 St. Thomas Aquinas argues for the acceptance of Aristotle by the Church, aligning Aristotle's teachings with Christian principals. He stresses the idea that the soul directs the body, can exist independently of the body and holds that rational powers do not depend on the brain or body in any way. He is incarcerated at the end of his life because of the radical nature of his ideas.

1247 St. Dymphora of Gheel is canonized. Her shrine, dating back to 6th century, attracts mentally ill from all over Europe. Retarded and insane children are boarded out and adopted by people in the immediate vicinity.

c 1268 Henry de Bracton, English jurist, holds that a madman is not responsible for his acts.

c 1275 Arnold of Villanova in Spain describes hallucinations and epilepsy.

1275 Brother Bartholomew publishes On the Nature of Things, including sensible directions for care of mentally ill people.

1400 Bethlehem Hospital in England begins accepting mental patients. At first noted for humanitarian care of the insane, it later degenerates to become the famous "snake pit" and becomes known as "Bedlam" (a name now synonymous with chaotic conditions).

1408 Valencia is the first asylum founded exclusively for the insane in Europe. It is followed by Seville (1409), Saragosssa (1410), Barcelona (1412), Toledo (1483). Valencia is widely credited with being one of the first, if not the first hospital to eventually strike chains from the inmates.

1453 A colony of Greek scholars flee when the Turks invade Constantinople. Entering Western countries, they disseminate ancient philosophy.

1487 Malleus Maleficarius (Hammer of Witches) is published in Germany by two Dominican Monks, subverting the Christian humanitarian approach, and legitimizing and fueling the witchhunt craze. The Pope, the King of Rome and the University of Colgne all approve the text. Many thousands are

burned and otherwise executed throughout Europe as mentally ill and other undesirables are accused of being under the influence of the devil.

1431 Joan of Arc is burned as a witch.

1488 Spanish Inquisition begins.

1492-1540 Jean Vives in France is given credit for improving the care of the insane and paupers in France dramatically. Vives insists on usefulness of a person as the test of knowledge. His thoughts on conditioning predate Pavlov. Says, "When an animal enjoys something at the sound of a tone, then when the tone is heard, it will expect the object it enjoyed previously."

1497-1560 Philip Melanchthon who worked with Martin Luther, uses term the "psychologia" (probably for the first time) in his lectures on Latin at the University of Wittenberg in Germany.

1500s Heinrich Agrippa and Johann Weyer successfully defend many "witches,î explaining their confessions to be due to duress or mental illness. (More frequent acquittals in 1600s; isolated cases of witchcraft until end of 1700s.)

1500s Police codes in various cities (London, Paris, New Orleans) read "If a dangerous madman has no relative he shall be placed in prison.î Conditions in prisons are comparable to those of institutions, although without the intrusive "therapy.î

1600s1700s Abuses are rampant in mental hospitals, with the exception of some in Spain where ideas of humane treatment from Roman physicians have persisted.

16th Century Electric eels are used to expel spirits from the body in Ethiopia.

1526 Phillipus Paracelsus of Switzerland is a physician who asserts that all illness, physical or mental, can be cured by administering the proper drug. He speaks out loudly against witch hunting and rejects demonic possession as a cause of insanity. He publishes Diseases Which Lead to the Loss of Reason which helps pave the way for modern theories of mental illness.

1563 Johann Weyer of Holland publishes a book on witches advocating that they be treated by doctors as being mentally ill.

1566 First new world mental hospital in Mexico City.

1576-1660 St. Vincent de Paul founds institutions famous for humane care of mentally ill.

1584-1659 The life of Paolo Zacchia, considered to be one of the first forensic psychiatrists.

1590 Rudolf Goeckel first uses term "psychologia" in print in the book Psychology This is on the Perfection of Man.

c 1600 Felix Plater attempts to classify mental diseases. He visits Swedish dungeons studying mentally ill people.

1596-1650 Rene Descartes identifies the soul with consciousness. He decides that the ability to think indicates the self's existence "cognito, ergo sum" (I think therefore I am). He agrees with Plato regarding the innate ability of the mind to know things (God, self, physical universe) for which actual experience provides the occasion to actualize this intuition into knowledge. Positing a dualistic bodymind theory, he states that the soul interacts with the body through the pineal gland. One of the first philosophers to articulate the concept of reflex. He also has definite ideas about emotions, reducing man's feelings down to basic emotions such as fear, joy, sadness, etc.

1620 Francis Bacon publishes The New Organon of the Sciences, affirming the concept of experimentation and induction as opposed to metaphysical analysis and deduction.

1632 Richard Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy published, an anthology of classical quotes on the subject. It is very popular and goes through many printings.

1632-1677 Spinoza argues that there is only one substance, and that substance is God. He says the body/mind duality theory really reflects parallel aspects of the same thing, physiology and psychology being simply two different ways of describing it. Bodily processes are seen to cause thoughts, desires, etc. He feels there is no free or absolute will, all effects being the result of a prior cause, which is the result of a prior cause, ad infinitum.

1632-1704 John Locke says man is tabula rasa (blank state) at birth, and that all knowledge comes from the senses.

1641 Massachusetts adopts its first legal code, containing references to "distracted" persons and idiots and the legal transfer of their property.

1642-1727 Sir Issac Newton anchors the s

a brief history of mental therapy

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