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AUTHOR Hodgkinson, Harold L.; Outtz, Janice HamiltonTITLE Hispanic Americans: A Look Back, A Look Ahead

(Hispanic Americanos: Una Mirada Hacia Atras, UnaMirada Hacia Adelante).

INSTITUTION Institute for Educational Leadership, Washington,D.C.

REPORT NO ISBN-0-937846-36-8PUB DATE Mar 96NOTE 50p.

AVAILABLE FROM Publications Department, Institute for EducationalLeadership, Inc., 1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.,Suite 310, Washington, DC 20036 ($15).

PUB TYPE Reports Evaluative/Feasibility (142)

EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

ABSTRACT

MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage.Access to Education; Census Figures; *CulturalDifferences; *Demography; *Educational Attainment;*Equal Opportunities (Jc.bs); Ethnic Groups; *FamilyCharacteristics; Futures (of Society) ; *HispanicAmericans; Immigrants; Income; Poverty; Profiles;Social Class

Hispanic Americans are diverse, but researchers areoften limited by available data that do not highlight theirdiversity. This report presents information about the total HispanicAmerican population, along with data on the largest subgroups thatTake up that total. Good and bad news about Hispanics is presentedusing ata from the U.S. Bureau of the Census to describe them interms of origins, families, access to jobs and education, populationdiversity, immigration, geographical distributions, and otherdemographic characteristics. Also included are data on the states andcities in which Hispanics live and information about how the Hispanicpopulation has changed demographically. The report concludes with adiscussion of the major issues facing Hispanic Americans, includingfamily changes, undereducation, employment, income disparity andpoverty, migrant groups, the rise of the Hispanic middle class, andvoting patterns. Appendixes present four tables of demographicprofile information, and four figures charting supplementary data.(Contains 4 text tables, 3 text figures, and 32 references.) (SLD)

*

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HISPANICAMERICANS:

A Look Back,A Look Ahead

HISPANICAMERICANOS:

Una Mirada liacia Mica' sUna Mirada llacia Adèlaflte ,

tozu,*tr rar

byHarold L. HodgkinsonandJanice Hamilton Outtz

with the assistance ofAnita Massey Obaralipor

U.$ . DEPARTMENT Of EtA)CATIONOffice ol Educabonae RrCh and lope:fitment

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER kERIOI

pas domantant has been teLgoduced escetved from the fArlb011 Of Oicltetfioll

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3741--i INSTITUTE FOR EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, INC. / CENTER FOR DEMOGRAPHIC POLICY ILA*2-

HISPANICAMERICANS:


byHarold L. Hodgkinson

andJanice Hamilton Outtz

with the assistancc ofAnita Massey Obarakpor

Whtvelfa

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are deeply indebted to many who helped produced this publication.At the Institute for Educational Leadership, our gratitude is extended toMichael Usdan, President of the Institute, Elizabeth Hale, Vice President,Louise Clarke, Chief Administrative Officer, Sara Gee, Christina Foley,Donna Cuesta, Mary Marshall and Marty Blank. Your thoroughness, asalways, help to keep us on our toes. We are also deeply grateful to ArturoMadrid, Jorge Chapa, Rafael Valdivieso, Mildred Garcia, Alfredo deLosSantos and Bob Ibarra for their very thoughtful comments and suggestions.Finally, our deepest appreciation is extended to Jane Prancan, U.S. WestFoundation, Edward F. Ahnert, Exxon Education Fund and Reatha ClarkKing, General Mills Foundation for their continued financial support andpatience. We thank you all.

The interpretations, views and conclusions contained in this report,however, are those of the authors. They should not be ascribed to theInstitute, our funders or any of our reviewers.

Harold L. HodgkinsonJanice Hamilton Outtz

1996, The Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc., Center for Demographic PolicyISBN 0-937846-36-8

Copies are available by writing:

Publications DepartmentThe Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc.1001 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.Suite 310Washington, D.C. 20036Price: $15.00

Phone: (202) 822-8405FAX: (202) 872-4050

ieMel.org11N :3629

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS inside front cover

INTRODUCTION 1

PERSONS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN - WHO ARE THEY9 2

PERSONS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN IN THE UNITED STATES 5Where Do Hispanic Americans Live? 8Income, Poverty and Home Ownership 10Labor Force Participation and Occupation 11

SELECTED HISPANIC ISSUES 12Immigration and Immigrants 12The Hispanic Family 13The Language Issue 15Migrant Workers - A Special Population 16Hispanics and the Education System 18

SUMMARY AND NEXT STEPS 22

SELECTED BIBLIOGPAPHY 27

APPENDIX A. 31Table A: HISPANIC DIVERSITY, 1990 33Table B: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE:

PERSONS OF MEXICAN ORIGINAND THE TOTAL U.S. POPULATIONCOMPARED 34

Table C: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE:PERSONS OF PUERTO RICAN AND CUBANORIGIN 36

Table D: DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE:PERSONS OF CENTRAL ANDSOUTH AMERICAN ORIGIN AND "OTHER"HISPANIC ORIGIN

APPENDIX B. 41FIGURE 1: POPULATION BY SELECTEL AGE

GROUPS BY TYPE OF HISPANIC ORIGIN . . /12

FIGURE 2:

FIGURE 3:

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTBY TYPE OF HISPANIC ORIGIN 43AVERAGE EARNINGS BY TYPE OFHISPANIC ORIGIN 44

i v

MS.

HISPANICAMERICANS:


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INTRODUCTIONThe United States is now in themiddle of the largest immigrationof non-Europeans in our nation's

history. While Asians comprise many of'these new immigrants, the vast majorityare from Mexico, the Caribbean andCentral and South America. These newimmigrants are called "Hispanics,""Latinos," "Hispanos," among many otherlabels. Representing more than twentynations, Hispanic Americans areextremely difficult to lump togetherunder one rubric -- including language.More than 10 percent of Hispanics inCalifornia do not speak Spanish. Anyattempt to present all IIispanics asbelonging to any one category is doomedto fhilure. Hispanic Americans arediverse, yet, researchers are often limit edby available data that would highlightthe diversity.

Many Hispanic Americans have doneexceptionally well in the United Statesand have made significant contributionsto our nation. Others have beenhopelessly submerged in inescapablepoverty.

The good news is that in terms ofhome ownership, job access, the ability tolearn English and pursue highereducation, Hispanic Americans are doingas well as European immigrants didyears ago. A Mexican boy born in theUnited States today, for example. willtake about as long to learn English as ittook an Italian boy born in the UnitedStates in 1910. The sad news is that fartoo many Hispanic Americans are fallingthrough the cracks.

Given the current size of the Ilispinicpopulation. plus the declines in thegrowth rates of Whit es and AfricanAmericans, Asian and Hispanicimmigration will, to a considerable

HISPANIC AMERICANS

degree, define changes in the populationof the United States frcm now to 2010when the number of African Americansand Hispanics becomes about equal. By2030, half of all of the youth (ages 0 to18 years) in the United States will benonwhite.

Information about the total HispanicAmerican population will be presented inthis report as well as data on the largestsubgroups that make the total Hispanicpopulation so rich and complex. ThisNation needs to celebrate theachievements of Hispanic Americans andremain concerned about the factors thathave held some back.

This report will investigate the goodand bad news expressed through thecomplexity of the wide variety ofnationalities that comprise the HispanicAmerican population. Using data fromthe U.S. Bureau of the Census and othersources, the population now called"Hispanic" is described in terms oforigins, families, access to jobs andeducation, population diversity,immigration, geography, and otherdemographic characteristics. This reportalso examines the complex issuessurrounding the definition of "Hispanics"and includes detailed information on thelargest Hispanic subgroups: Mexican,Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central and SouthAmerican, and "Other" ifispanics (seeAppendix A).

Also included in the report are dataon the states and cities in which mostHispanics live, population growth rates,and how the Hispanic population haschanged denlographically. The reportconcludes with a discussion of the majorissues facing the Hispanic communityincluding family changes, under-education, employment, income disparity011(1 poverty, migrant groups (especiallyfarm workers), the rise of the 11kpanicmiddle and III mg isitterie,

PERSONS OFHISPANIC ORIGINWHO ARE THEY?

The U.S. Bureau of the Census,through the Office ofManagement and Budget (OMB)

Directive 15, lists four "racial" categories:American Indian/Alaskan Native,Asian/Pacific Islander, Black and White,and one "ethnic" group Hispanic. (The1990 census form did not use the term"African American.") On the 1990 censusform, respondents were asked to selectthe one racial category "that the personconsiders himself/herself" and thenanswer the question "Is this person ofSpanish/Hispanic origin?" (See TechnicalNote, next page.) The race and ethnicityconcepts are not intended to reflect anybiological or anthropological definition,but simply show how people identifythemselves or are .)erceived by others.However, the results are often presentedwithout proper cautions, leading generalreaders to assume that racial/ethniccategories have scientific validity.

The 1990 census form also contained ablank space for persons to select "otherrace" and En in the race that bestrepresents the individual. There is (sofar) no way for people to say hat theyare multiracial. Persons completing thecensus form must identify with only oneracial category; no mixing is acceptableon the form.

In 1990, one of 11 persons in theUnited States said they were of Hispanicorigin. Persons of Hispanic originidentify with many different racesWhite, Black (African American),American Indian, Asian or PacificIslander, but, ethnically 1111 are Hispanic.In 1990, however, the Census Bureauclassified 91 percent of all "Hispanics- 1:4

White. w(re most likely toidentify theirelves ;is "White- iiid

HISPANIC AMERICANS 3

Mexican Americans were least likely.)Five percent of all persons who selectedHispanic origin as their ethnicityselected "Black" as their race; fourpercent selected "other" as their race.

Several suggestions for changing howrace and ethnicity data are collected byfederal agencies are under considerationby OMB. (A decision on the suggestedchanges for the 2000 census will not bemade until mid-1997.) One key issueunder consideration is related to thedefinition of Hispanics. There isconsiderable political pressure to redefine"Hispanic" in the 2000 census to includeHispanic as a racial designat:_on(combining race and ethnicity into asingle category). Doing so would still notdenote any clear-cut scientific definitionof biological stock and according to manycritics would only further confuse thequestion of race and ethnicity.

Since 1930, some segment of theHispanic population has been counted inthe census of the United States. In 1930,according to the Census Bureau, 1.`.1million "Mexicans" were reported. In1950, 2.3 million "persons of Spanishsurname" were reported and in 1970, 9.1million persons of "Spanish" origin werereported. The 1980 census was the firsttime the term "Hispanic" appeared onthe census form. In 1990, the CensusBureau tabulated information for over 30Hispanic origin subgroups (see AppendixTable A for a detailed listing of thesubgroups and the 1990 population ofeach subgroup). "Hispanic" is also theidentifier used in the Census Bureau'smonthly Current Population Survey, theprimary source of information on thepopulation between census years and thesource of much of the data included inthis report.

TECHNICAL NOTE --(The Census Bureau'sOfficial Definition): Persons of Hispanic/Spanish origin are those who classifiedthemselves in one of the specific Hispanic origincategories listed on the census questionnaireMexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, or "Other"Hispanic/ Spanish origin. Persons of "Other"Hispanic/ Spanish origin are those whoseorigins are from Spain, the Spanish-speakingcountries of Central or South America, or theDominican Republic, or they are persons ofHispanic origin identifYing themselvesgenerally as Spanish, Spanish-American,Hispanic, iIispano, Latino, etc.

Origin can be viewed as the ancestry,nationality group, lineage or country of birth ofthe person or the person's parents or ancestorsbefore their arrival in the United States.Hispanic/Spanish origin is not a racial category.Therefore, persons of Hispanic origin may be of'any race.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the ('ensus, 19!)0

011,4ri..; Prqnthl ion (mil Ihmsing, 1992.

Although the term "Hispanic" hasbeen used frequently in censusstudies since 1980, it is notuniversally accepted. Individuals donot readily self-identify as"Hispanic" or "Latino" writes RafaelValdivieso and Siobhan Nicolau(Look Me in the Eye, 1994). "Thevast majority generally think ofthemselves in relation to the countryfrom which their ancestors came."In a well-known television interview,reporter Bill Moyers asked ErnieCortez, a MacArthur Foundation"genius" award winner andcommunity organizer, what it waslike being a Hispanic in the UnitedStates. Cortez replied that hc didnot know, as he had been a MexicanAmerican all his life, but had onlybeen a "Hispanic" for a few years!Because Hispanic as an ethniccategory only exists in the UnitedStates, a Cuban would have toimmigrate to the United States tobecome a "Hispanic." The t ern) wascoinett 1Cderal f lti!-:tici;lin:;

HISPANIC AMERICANS

catchall category to cover many nationaland regional groups for purposes ofcounting and classifying this segment ofthe U.S. population. Like the term"Asian," the term Hispanic may mask asmuch diversity as it reveals.

The term "Hispanic" is used far moreoften in the Eastern part of the UnitedStates. In California, the preferred termis often "Latino" or "Chicano." (Othersprefer "La Raza" which often meanspeople from Mexico and some fromCentral America.) Latinos feel that"Hispanic" emphasizes the Spanish rootof their culture without paying enoughattention to the great cultural traditionsof Latin America. This is especially trueof the "Mestizo" mix of Amerindian andSpanish White cultures or the "Mulatto"mix of African and Spanish Whitecultures. Supporters of the term"Hispanic" often feel that a broadcategory is needed that will simplify aconfusing situation and will allow amaximum of interests and cultures to beunder the same umbrella. Each of theselabels is offensive to some members.

It is not likely that there will ever bea consensus about what name is moreappropriate. The use of the termHispanic in this report follows the lead ofthe Census Bureau, the primary sourceof data. Because of the limitations ofdemographic data from federal sourcesfor Hispanic subgroups, data users areoften locked into sources which aggregateall subgroups. When this is done, it mayappear that Hispanics are believed to hea homogenous group. They are not.Iispanics are divided by geography,

country of origin, race, class, groupdifferences and the time andcircumstances of their entry into the'nit ed States (Lord,' Me in flu. Eye, V)ft1 ).

With all of the contUsion ofterminology, there are, however, somecommon aspects Ilispanic cult urc:

Western hemisphere Hispanics are acultural blend resulting from theexpansion of the Spanish empire in the15th and 16th centuries. Their diverseorigins include New World civilizationsfrom the Aztecs and Incas to the Apachesand Zapotecs, African slaves, Spanishexplorers, governors, soldiers, servantsand to the English and French whocompeted with the Spanish for a part ofthe New World. (Handsome Dividends,1994.)

Some ancestors of Hispanics came tothe American continent in the late 1400s.The Spanish were in Puerto Rico and theAmerican Southwest long before the NewEngland settlers arrived, while otherHispanics are more recent arrivals.

Some Hispanics are completelyassimilated to U.S. culture while others(especially in New Mexico and southernColorado) have been here a long time butretain most of their original culture.Spanish surnames are anglicized throughtime, are lost through marriage, or areconfused with Portuguese (Brazil'slanguage) and Italian surnames. Eventhe Catholic liturgy in Hispanic churchesis different from that of Irish Catholicservices or African American Catholicservices in the United States.

While race has been frequently usedas an organizing theme for AfricanAmericans, Hispanics have no suchrallying point. Hispanics in the UnitedStates are somewhat united by acommon Spanish language and aheritage that contains aspects of Indian,African and Spanish cultures andreligious values. But the ability to speakSpanish is, after all, learned hyt housands of high school and collegestudents each year, most of whom haveno connection to "Hispanic" culture andwould never consider telling the censusdata collectors that they were 1 1 ispanic.Amerimn Dcm();;rapliirs (Juno, 1!)93)

HISPANIC AMERICANSIIIIMMEMMEN!

5

suggests that 30 percent of the Hispanicsin the United States do not speakSpanish as their primary language athome.

In 2010, the Census Bureau projectsthat there will be 40.4 million AfricanAmericans in the United States and 39.3million Hispanics. Shortly thereafter, by2015, Hispanics will outnumber AfricanAmericans (44.0 million and 43.1 million,respectively), making Hispanics thelargest minority, group in the UnitedStates. How this will affect politicalorganizations, social programs and evenattitudes will have to be seen.

PERSONS OFHISPANIC ORIGIN INTHE UNITED STATES

ispanics are a very young andF.1 rapidly increasing populationwith a median age of 26.7 in1993. Between 1980 and 1990,

the Hispanic population grew over seventimes as fast as the rest of the nation'spopulation, increasing 53 percent. In1980, Hispanics totaled 14.6 million andby 1990, the Hispanic population in theUnited States was 21.9 million. Between1990 and 1993, the Hispanic populationincreased an additional 4 percent to 22.8million (see Table 1, next page).

Several factors contributed to theincrease in the IIispanic population.Among them are a higher birth ratecompared to other U.S. populationgroups and substantial immigration overthe past several decades. In 1993, thebirth rate (the number of births per1.000 women) for Hispanics was 26,0compared to a rate of 20.8 for AfricanAmericans and 12.9 for non-HispanicWhites. Ahout one-third of the Hispanichuhohtion ton.h. lnro. ,h"t bill

came to the United States before 1980and the other half after 1980.

By 2015, persons of Hispanicorigin will outnumber AfricanAmericans (44.0 million and43.1 million, respectively).

Persons from Mexico make up themajority of the Hispanic population inthe United States. In 1993, 64 percent ofall Hispanics (14.6 million) were fromMexico, followed by Central/SouthAmerica (13 percent, 3.1 million), andPuerto Rico (11 percent, 2.4 million).Other Hispanics (7 percent, 1.6 million),and persons from Cuba (5 percent, 1.1million) round out the total. Thediversity within the Hispanic populationis great and can be seen in terms ofdemographic characteristics such asgrowth rates, educational attainment,income and labor force status. (SeeAppendix Tables B and C fordemographic profiles of the largestHispanic subgroups and also thecomparison charts in Appendix B.)

Mexican Americans, sometimes calledChicanos, Mexicanos, Latin Americans orSpanish, are probably the most difficultto categorize because of the size of thegroup and the diverse history ofsettlement and immigration. Each labeldenotes contextual factors such aslanguage, setting, history and geography.according to Quality Education forMinorities (QEM, June 1990). MexicanAmericans are the fastest-growing singleIIispanic group, increasing 53 percentbetween 1980 and 1990. By 1992,Mexican Americans totaled 14.6 million.The U.S. Hispanics of Mexican ancest ryincludes the highest percentage ofindividuals who arc native horn and were

thr Unitcd Statcs, accordin!! In

1.(nd; ,11c thr Evc, 199,11 Mexican

DEST COPY AVARAPLE

6 HISPANIC AMERICANSM E MI I

Table 1DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE

PERSONS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN(NOTE: Data are for 1993 unless otherwiseli=:INI

--

indicateci.)

POPULATION Number Pereent/Rate

Total Population, 1993 22,752,000 100.0

Total Population, 1990 21,900,089 100.0

Change, 1990-1993 851,089 3.9

Projected Population, 2000/Percent change 1993-2000 31,166,000 37.0

Number/Percent of total population under age 5 2,525,472 11.1

Number/Percent of total population < age 18 (est.) 7,940,448 34.9

Number/Percent of total population age 65 and over 1,228,608 5.4

Median Age 26.7

Number/Percent of the population who are foreignborn, 1990

7,841,650 35.8

Arrived 1980 to 1990/as a percent of totalforeign born

3,974,980 50.7

Arrived before 1980/as a percent of totalforeign born

3,866,670 49.3

Number/Percent of population who do not speakEnglish "very well," 1990/as a percent of totalpopulation age 5 and over

7,716,795 39.4

ORIGIN (most populous groups)

Mexican/as a percent -f total Hispanic population 14,628,000 64.3

Puerto Rican/as a percent of total Hispanic population 2,402,000 10.6

Cuban/as a percent of total Hispanic population 1,071,000 4.7

Central and South American/as a percent of totalHispanic population

3,052,000 13.4

Other Hispanic origin/as a percent of total Hispanicpopulation

1,598,000 7.0

NOTE: Seti Appendix MI& 11 for cornririson (lid ii lir I ot:d 1 .nit ed 51iit es.Swim- 11.8. Bureau of the Census, Current Popuhit ion Reports. Tlw Hispanic 1'1)1)1110ton intlic (Tatted State: March MU: Population halecttaas far States, 13. Ago, el Race andHoTanic Oripla 199.'? fa 2020: ;mil 199() rciams af Population: Persato; af Hispanti (Irwin in111c ( :nitcd State,:, Wiishinri on, 1) (' Government Print 1111: I Mico'

HISPANIC AMERICANS

Americans are heavily concentrated intwo states: California and Texas.

The second largest Hispanicsubgroup, Puerto Ricans, increased 35percent between 1980 and 1990, andtotaled 2.4 million by 1993. One of themost difficult issues for Puerto Ricanyouth on the mainland, according toQEM (1990), is the classification ofrecently arrived youth into racial groups(primarily Black and White) and thestigmatization of those identified asBlack. The largest concentration ofPuerto Ricans is in the state of NewYork.

Cuban Americans are the thirdlargest Hispanic subgroup. Theyincreased 30 percent between 1980 and1990. By 1993, the population of CubanAmericans was 1.1 million according toCensus Bureau estimates. The historyof Cuban migration into the UnitedStates is unique because most Cubansentered the United States as refugees,not immigrants, according to Look Mein the Eye, (1994). Cuban Americansare oncentrated in four states: Florida,New Jersey, New York and California.

Until 1980, the Census Bureaulumped all Hispanics who were notidentified as Mexican, Puerto Rican orCuban into the single category "Other"Hispanics. The 1990 Census provideddata for Central and South Americansand "Other" Hispanics separately as didthe Census Bureau's 1993 CurrentPopulation Survey. In 1993, Centraland South Americans made up 13percent of all Hispanics in the UnitedStates (3.1 million). Included amongt he more tha n one million CentralAmericans are Salvadoreans (43percent), Guatemalans (20 percent) andNicaraguans (15 percent). Includedamong the more than one million SouthAmericans are Colombians (37 percent),Eucadorians (19 percent) and Peruvians

74ffilorann.ccsmsammamossraawa

(17 percent). Persons from theDominican Republic (over 500,000) werealso included 'n the Central and SouthAmerican subgroup.

Central and South Americans can befound in many areas of the country.For example, Dominicans are only twopercent of the total 1990 Hispanicpopulation, but are 15 percent ofHispanics in New York. The Colombianpopulation is centered on the east coast,from New York to Florida. CentralAmericans tend to cluster in thesouthwest. Salvadoreans are just threepercent of the total Hispanic population,but 25 percent of the Hispanicpopulation in Washington, D.C..Central and South Americans can bedivided into at least three very distinctgroups, according to the HispanicAlmanac, 1990: highly skilled LatinAmerican Immigrants, refugeeprofessional class and Central andSouth Americpn economic refugees.

The "Other" Hispanic subgroup(which includes Hispanos in theSouthwest, mixed Hispanics and theSpanish) increased 67 percent between1980 and 1990. Because of the variedcomposition of this group, it is difficultto consider as a single entity. However,persons in this census category aremore likely to be white-collar workersthan any other Hispanic subgroup andreflect the highest educationalattainment. The "Other" Hispanicsubgroup is concentrated in four states:California, New York, Florida andTexas.

Overall, Mexican Americans have theyoungest median age (24.6 years) wh;leCubans have the oldest (43.6 years).Compared to the largest Hispanicsubgroups, Mexican Americans have thesmallest adult population with collegedegrees, while Cubans have the larl;estOnly 47 percent of Puerto Rican

8 HISPANIC AMERIC'ANS0,111111111b .M=MiM!Mi=113. IMMO

American children lived with bothparents in 1993 compared to 71 percentof all Cuban children

Where Do HispanicAmericans Live?

Although persons of Hispanic originlive in every state, they areheavily concentrated in 10 states.

These 10 states (see Figure 1 below)contained almost 90 percent of the 22million Hispanics in the United Statesin 1990; four states had over a millionHispanic residents.

California was home to one of threeHispanics and Texas was home tonearly one of every five. Almost 40percent of New Mexico residents wereHispanic, however they representedonly 2.6 percent of all Hispanics, whileCalifornia and Texas combined,contained 53.8 percent of all Hispanics.

Hispanics are also highlyconcentrated in certain cities (seeFigure 2, next page).;'our of the 10 citieswith the largestHispanic populationswere in Texas and threeof the cities were inCalifornia, but NewYork city had as manyHispanic residents asthe three Californiacities put together (1.8million).

Large numbers ofI lispanic Americanslived in many of thelarger metropolitanareas in 1990. However,1 he rnimt importantlocation for Hispanicsmay hc t he :;uhurbs,

according to W. Frey and WilliamO'Hare (American Demographicsmagazine, April 1993). About 43percent of the Hispanic population in1990, or 8.7 million, lived in thesuburbs. While Hispanics have notfared well overall compared to non-Hispanics in the United States, homeownership in the suburbs is a reality forincreasing numbers of Hispanics, as itis for African Americans and AsianAmericans. The top suburbs forHispanics, however, are quite differentfrom the top cities (see Table 2, nextpage).

While five of the top 10 metro areaswith the largest surburban Hispanicpopulation are in California, only oneCalifornia metro area (Riverside-SanBernardino) is included among the topten in terms of the most rapidlygrowing areas for Hispanics. Two ofthese metro areas were in Texas (Dallasand Houston) and four were in Florida.Orlando led the Nation in Hispanicsuburban population growth with anincrease of 291 percent between 1980and 1990, according to Frey and O'Hare

Figure 1Top 10 States With LargestHispanic Population, 1990

(percent of all Hispanics)

All other States (13 )Massachusetts (1.3 \

Colorado (1.9 ) \New Mexico (2.6 )

Arizona (3.1 )Ness Jersey (3.3 )

Illinois (4 )

Honda (7 )

NOk Olk (9 9 )

-Caldorma (34 4 )

Texas (19 4 1

;-;outen. 17 S liuroan of Ihe (7ensus, 1900

14

HISPANIC AMERICANS

Figure 2Ten Cities With the LargestHispanic Population, 1990

(in thousands)

Ncw York, NY

Los Angcics, CA

Chicago, IL

San An' ;tin, TX

Houston, TX

El Paso, TX

San Dirge, CA

Miami, FL

Dallas, TX

San Jose, CA

546

520

450

230

n4

208

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census

Table 2Ten Metro Areas with the Largest Suburban

Hispanic Population1990

PM3

Metro Area

Hispanicresidents

in Suburbs

(1993). i? othersignificant growthareas in Floridawere FortLauderdale, WestPalm Beach, Tampaand Miami.

Of the wealthiestHispanic suburbs,the suburb outsideNewark, NJ led withthe highest percapita income,according toAmerican Demographicsmagazine, (1993)followed byWashington, D.C.,Bergen-Passaic, N,J,Oakland, CA, San

Jose, CA, Ft. Lauderdale,FL, Miami, FL, New York,NY, Philadelphia, PA, andSan Francisco, CA. Thesesuburban areas include aheavy concentration ofolder, elite neighborhoods.

Los Angeles-Long Beach, CA

Riverside-San Bernardino, CA

Miami-Hialeah, FL

Anaheim-Santa Ana, CA

San Diego, CA

I louston, TX

( )akland, CA

McAllen-Edinburg-Mission, TX

Chicago, IL

W;e:hingt 1)('-1\11) VA

1,733,796

563,011

521,449

289,690

255,882

242,269

207,290

184,576

174,996

108,140

Snurce 1)eniuwapli,(,, Apt il 100:!

10 HISPANIC AMERICANS

Income, Poverty andHome Ownership

Fjvon with many workers per family,median family income for HispanicAmericans was below the median

income for all families in the UnitedStates in 1992 ($25,064 and $36,811,respectively). The median familyincome for the largest Hispanicsubgroups was also lower than themedian for all families in the UnitedStates $23,714 for MexicanAmericans, $20,301 for Puerto RicanAmericans, $31,015 for CubanAmericans, $23,649 for Central andSouth Americans, and $28,562 for"Other" Hispanics.

Hispanic Americans were more likelyto be living below the poverty level thanwere non-Hispanic Whites. In 1992,about 29 percent of all HispanicAmericans were poor compared to 9.6percent of non-Hispanic Whites.

There are also some strikingdifferences in terms of noverty amongthe Hispanic subgroups. While 30percent of all Mexican Americans livedin poverty in 1993, 49 percent of theirchildren did. For Puerto Ricans, thepoverty rate was 36 percent for allPuerto Rican Americans and 53 percentfor Puerto Rican children. Puerto RicanAmericans and Mexican Americans hadthe highest poverty rates among theHispanic subgroups and are the poorestof all Americans.

The subgroups with the lowestpoverty rates were Central and SouthAmericans and "Other" Hispanics. Thepercentage of all Central and SouthAmericans living below the povertylevel in 1993 was 26 percent and :38percent for Central and South Americi inchildren. The poverty rate for all"nt her" Hispanics was 23 percent and38 percent fiir their children. Bycomparison, the poverty rate for all

.111111=MICIIN616101£.119

persons in the United States in 1993was 14.5 percent and 21.9 percent forall children. Hispanic childrenrepresented 11.7 percent of all childrenin the United States, but represented21.3 percent of all children in poverty,according to data from the CensusBureau.

Proportionately, while 64.5 percent ofall Americans own their own homes, thefigures for Hispanics are lower, 44.2percent for Mexicans, 23.4 percent forPuerto Ricans, 53 percent for Cubans,25.6 percent for Central and SouthAmericans and 51.2 percent for "Other"Hispanics. In general, Hispanic homeownership is increasing rapidly andHispanics are home owners as often asother immigrants.

Interestingly, as Hispanics move upin wealth, education and influence, theytend to vote Republican even more thando African Americans. According toKosmin and Keysar (Ethnic and RacialStudies, August 1995), the over-whelming majority of Hispanics earningover $75,000 a year, and most of thoseearning between $40,000 and $75,000are Republicans. Yet, of all incomelevels, six of 10 Hispanic voters inFlorida (mostly Cuban and CentralAmericans who were more likely tohave been middle class in their countryof origin) are Republicans while two ofthree Hispanics in California (mainlyChicanos) vote Democratic. Many voteRepublican for the President andDemocratic on local elections. HispanicAmericans are certainly not amonolithic voting block.


Labor ForceParticipation an dOccupation

The Hispanic labor forceparticipation rate (the percentageof the population age 16 and over

who were working or looking for work)in 1993 was higher than the rate for theUnited States as a whole. The rate forHispanics was 67.5 percent while th,rate for the total United States was65.5. The labor force participation ratefor Hispanic women was 51.9 percent in1993, lower than the 57.2 percent for allwomen in the United States and evenlower than the rate for non-Hispanicwhite women (57.8 percent).

While all Hispanic subgroups havelabor force participation rates that areclose to the rate for the United States(65 percent), Hispanic workers,compared to non-Hispanic workers, areconsistently under-represented inmanagerial and professional occupationsand over-represented in "service"occupations (jobs which are heavilyminimum wage with few educationalprerequisites and few benefits). In1993, less than 12 percent of allHispanic male workers were employedin managerial and professionaloccupations compared to 28 percent ofall employed non-Hispanic males.Similarly, Hispanic females were alsounder-represented in managerial andprofessional occupations. In 1993, 30percent of all employed non-Hispanicwomen had jobs in managerial andprofessional occupations compared to 15percent of all employed Hispanic femalcworkers.

The percent age of Hispanic worker,.with johs in the service occupationswere much highei than their percentagein managerial and professionaloccupations. In 1993, the percentage oflispanic males who were employed in

service occupations was 16 percentcompared to the comparable figure fornon-Hispanic males of 10 percent.Twenty-five percent of all employedHispanic females were in serviceoccupations compared to 17 percent ofall non-Hispanic females.

Hispanic workers have a surprisinglyArong presence in occupations that paywell when unionized: precisionproduction, craft, repair, laborers andoperators. With 37.9 percent of all U.S.males in occupations that paid wellwhen unionized, 50.4 percent ofMexicans, 42.4 percent of PuertoRicans, 44.4 percent of Cubans, 44.7percent of Central and South Americansand 43 percent of "Other" Hispanicmales were in these occupations in1993. It is likely that unionparticipation may be weaker in stateswith large Hispanic populations(California, Texas, Florida) than inheavily unionized states like Michiganand Ohio which may explain these highnumbers.

Hispanic females also have astronger presence than non-Hispanicfemales in blue-collar occupations suchas precision production, craft, operators,etc.. In 1993, 9 percent of all non-Hispanic employed women wereemployed in these occupationscompared to 18 per:ent of all employedMexican American females, 13 percentof all employed Puerto Rican females,13 percent of all employed Cubanfemales, 21 percent of all employedCentral and South American femalesand 14 percent of all employed OtherHispanic females. (See AppendixTables B and C.)


SELECTEDHISPANIC ISSUES

Immigration andImmigrants

High rates of immigration ai e avital component of the rapidexpansion of the Hispanic (andAsian) population in the United

States. In 1991, of the 1,827,167immigrants admitted to the UnitedStates, 1,277,400 were Hispanic and358,500 were Asian. Also in 1991. halfof all U.S. immigrants, came fromMexico (946,167), according to datafrom the Immigration andNaturalization Service (INS).Caribbeans totaled 140,100, CentralAmericans 111,100 and SouthAmericans 79,900. Not included are theapproximately 250,000 persons whoenter the United States illegally eachyear. These numbers also do notinclude the 200,000 foreign-bornpersons who die each year in the UnitedStates nor the 200,000 formerimmigrants who leave the country eachyear. The total number of illegalimmigrants in the United States isestimated at 3.2 million.

The number of illegal immigrantsentering each year is heavily inflated inthe media, due in part to the INSreports of one million apprehensionsoccurring each year at the U.S.-Mexicanborder. This may involve double andtriple counting of thc :;aine person,counting many persons whose stay inthe United States would have been afew days, and ignoring a largecounter-flow from the U.S. into Mexico.The inflated figures are often used tocalculate the cost to taxpayers of illegalimmigrants, and are a factor in thepopularity of Proposition 187 inCalifornia. The hill is now beingduplicated in some other statesalthough it was banned by U.S. Dist riot

Court Judge Mariana Pfaelzer, and thehigher education section was barred bySuperior Court Judge Stuart Pollack.Currently, increased penalties formaking, selling or using falseimmigration documents are the onlyenforceable sections of Proposition 187.

Hostility toward immigrants ingeneral, and illegal immigrants inparticular, seems to come duringperiods when the economy is notgenerating enough well-paying jobs forcurrent American citizens. This is acondition that describes the UnitedStates in the mid-1990s. Estimatesfrom various sources are that about halfof the illegal immigrants are fromMexico; more than half are male, andabout half live in California. The issuesof illegal Mexican immigrants arecomplex and include: the proximity ofthe border, the fact that much of theSouthwest and California used to beMexico, the profitable Maquiladorafactory system, and the irony that fordecades Californians enjoyed excellentfruit and vegetable products at low cost,largely because they were picked bymigrant workers (who were often illegaland worked for pitifully small wageswith no public outcry as to their lack ofcitizenship).

Another special category involvingimmigration concerns refugees (thosewho are admitted to the United Statesdue to persecution or the threat ofpersecution). The number of refugees isincreasing, and the special circum-stances of Cuba, Asia and the SovietUnion should increase the number ofappeals for U.S. asylum in the future,although the increasing number ofdemocratic governments in theAmericas suggests that the number ofHispanic reffigees may he reduced.

HISPANIC AMERICANS

The Hispanic FamilyAlthough there are exceptions,Hispanics are more likely to live infamilies and are less likely to live

alone or with nonrelatives than areother population groups in the UnitedStates. In 1993, 80 percent of allHispanic households were familyhouseholds. There are more children inHispanic families and more elderlyrelatives than there are on average inother United States families. Becauseof the multigenerational qua:ity ofIIispanic families and households andother reasons, the Hispanic elderly aremuch less likely to be institutionalizedthan non-Hispanic White or AfricanAmerican elderly.

Hispanic females tend to marryearlier, producing what appears to be adisproportionate number of teenagepregnancies. About one-fourth ofHispanic teenage females are married.Although the divorce rate for Hispanicsis increasing, in 1993, 66 percent of' allHispanic children ages zero to 18 wereliving with both parents. In 1993, theaverage number of children perHispanic household was 4.3, almosttwice thr average for the United States.(See Table 3, next page.)

It is very difficult to understand theeconom:c role of the Hispanic family ina nation that is so individualistic.Many people needing economic help,would usually apply through agovernment office. This is not the casefor many Hispanics. Latin Americansociety offers far fewer public andprivate institutional systems on whichits citizens can depend. Therefore,Hispanic individuals often look to theextended family for support.; IIispanicsrely more often on a web of personalrelationships to meet their needs.Jnaccustomed to dealing comfortably

w it h government or service agencies,Ilisp;inies are sometimes suspicimis

=i11142:=.1

them. The more aloof, objectiveapproach of the institutionalprofessionals is not always understood.(Handsome Dividends, 1994.)

When we read from the U.S. CensusBureau's reports that 29.3 percent of allHispanics were poor in 1992, or that39.9 percent of all Hispanic childrenunder the age of 18 were poor, thecontext of the family must beconsidered. If poor people in the UnitedStates need a loan, they go to a bank(where many, especially those who arenonwhite, will most likely be turneddown, according to recent studies onbanking practices). If a Hispanicperson needs a loan, it may benegotiated with a brother- in-law, orwith several cousins. Often, this meansthat some Hispanic families may notrealize the benefits they are entitled toas U.S. citizens in terms of assistanceprograms such as Aid to Families withDependenl; Children (AFDC), Women,Infants and Children (WIC), FoodStamps, Medicaid or SupplementalSecurity Income (SSD. Forty-ninepercent of all Hispanics below thepoverty level in 1989 received FoodStamps benefits, for example, comparedto 64 percent of all poor AfricanAmericans. (U.S. Hispanics, 1988.)

In some cases, the government maybe seen by Hispanics as the enemy withthe goal of deportation, even if' theHispanic is a full citizen. The "motorvoter" legislation is an example oflegislation that brought out fear thatsome Hispanics have of'governmentauthority.

Within a large Hispanic family, theremay be a diverse makeup of familymembers These members may inclune:elderly members who do not speakEnglish well and have not assimilatedinto U.S. culture, middle-aged parent s


Table 3HOUSEHOLD AND FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS--

PERSONS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN

(NOTE: Data are for 1993 unless otherwise indicated.)

BIIIIMEN Win

NumberPercent

of allHouseholds

Total Households 6,626,000 100.0

Total Family Households 5,318,000 80.3

Family households with own children under age 18/as a percent of all households

3,345,000 50.5

Married-couple, with own children under age 18 2,355,000 35.5

Percent of married-couple families with childrenunder age 18 and both parents are employed

44.7

Single mother with own children under age 18 830,000 12.5

Single father with own children un r age 18 160,000 2.4

Nonfamily Households/as a percent of all households 1,308,000 19.7

Percent of children under age 18 living with bothparents, 1990

66.0

Average number of own children per family 4.3

Median family income, 1990 $25,064

Total persons with incomes below poverty level/as a percent of all persons, 1992

1,949,920 29.3

Percent under age 18 in poverty/as a percent of allchildren under age 18, 1992

39.9

Percent of all persons age 16+ in labor fnrce, 1990 67.6

Female labor force participation rate, 1990 55.9

Families with two or more workers, 1990/as a percent of all families

2,750,051 57 6

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Tlu. Hispanic Population tnthe Unitril States: March 1993; and 1000 Census of Population, Persons of Hispanic Oripinin 11u. Unitea Stoles, Washinplon, D.0 1 Covernmeni Print inf; Office


who speakEnglish, are well-educatedand have well-paying jobs and whoremember and practice some culturaltraditions, and young children whospeak only English and arc (or will soonbe) totally assimilated into"mainstream" U.S. culture.

"Putting yourself forward," whichseems to be a religious effort for manyAmericans, is not universally valued byHispanics. Respect is to be shown forelders and authority figures which isrepresented by looking at the floor andbeing silent when in the presence ofteachers. This behavior is oftenmisunderstood by many non-HispanicWhite teachers: eye contact meanshonesty and directness, while for theHispanic child it may mean violatingculturaUfamily norms of behavior.

"The parents never come to school andthey don't teach respect in the home.Why, the children won't even look mein the eye when I talk to them,"

Texas Teacher

"Respect is the most important thing iswhat I tell my kids. Don't maketrouble, don't ask questions, and lookdown when the teacher talks to you."

Latino Parent

Look Me in the Eye: A HispanicCultural Perspective on School

Reform, 1994.

secular institutions, particularly as theyinterfere with church and family life.For many Hispanics, sending theirchildren to parochial elementary schoolis an important rite of passage unitingthe Hispanic family and the church.

The Language IssueIn 1990, there were 31.8 million U.S.residents who reported that theyspoke a language other than English

at home, according to census data. (Thefigure was 23.1 million in 1980.) Of thetotal in 1990, 17.3 million people, or 54percent of all non-English speakingpersons, spoke Spanish at home. Thisdoes not mean that they were unable tospeak English, only that they spokeSpanish at home. The remaining

languages spoken include decliningnumbers of some Europeanlanguages, such as German, Italianand Greek contrasted with increasingnumbers of Vietnamese, Hindi,Korean, Chinese and Tagalog, aFilipino language. Generally,declines were seen in languageswhose immigrant populations peakeddecades ago, while increases wereseen among nations whoseimmigration to the United States hasincreased in recent years.

An important aspect of Hispanicfamily life is the Catholic religion, stillthe religion of choice among mostHispanics. The Catholic church isgenerally supportive of large families,and teaches respect for authority,obedience to the church's moral andethical teaching, and t suspicion of

BEST cnn' AVAILARLE

It is in this context that Spanish,the language spoken by half of thosewho speak a language other thanEnglish at home, should be analyzed.It is the language spoken by one ofthe most rapidly increasingimmigrant groups in the United

States. At the turn of the cen'ury, thatdistinction would have been shared byspeakers of German, Italian andFrench. Similar questions were raised,particularly regarding southernEuropeans, about how long it wouldtake them to learn English.Suggestions of delmrtation for

61 I


those who had not learned English, and"English only" demonstrations havebeen a common part of the American.andscape for a long time.

This historical sense is important inunderstanding the current hostilitytoward immigrants, particularly thosewho have not yet learned English andinsist on speaking Spanish, and thebelief that some are deliberatelypreventing their children from learningEnglish. The facts are otherwise. After10 to 15 years in the United States, 75percent of all Hispanic immigrants arespeaking English regularly, and nearlyall their children will speak English.Seventy percent of immigrant childrenage five to nine speak English regularly;after 14 years in the U.S., 70 percenthave abandoned the use of Spanish as adaily language. (ERIC Digest, May1991).

The continuous arrival of newimmigrants is causing the increase inSpanish speakers in the United States.This was true of earlier immigrationwaves of immigrants who spoke Italian,German and French. The amount ofEnglish learned and used byimmigrants is related to how long theyhave been in the United States and howold they were when they arrived. Theyounger the immigrant's age on arrival,the more complete the language shift toEnglish. The English language is nomore endangered by today's use ofSpanish-speaking immigrants than itwas by earlier immigrants who spokeItalian, German, or other languages.As the number of Hispanic immigrantsdecline, the number of Spanish speakers,ilso will decline.

Unfortuna1_ely, just as the need forbilingual instruction is increasing,public resistance is increasing andfunding for bilingual education isdeclining. Educational research shows

conclusively that bilingual instruction(teaching Hispanic children intensiveEnglish and simultaneously developingbasic reading and computational skillsin Spanish) is the best way to increasesubject matter competence and Englishfluency. The academic gains bystudents in bilingual education reducesthe factor that contributes the most toboth the high rate of Hispanic dropoutsand retention (ERIC Digest, op. cit.).

Migrant Workers - ASpecial Population

hile there is no completelyreliable data system at present

wfiich shows the number orcharacteristics of migrant farm workers,surveys over the last decade suggestthat there are about 800,000 migrantfarm workers in the United States.These workers have about 409,000children traveling with them as they dofarm work. As of 1989, the NationalAgricultural Workees Survey (NAWS)found that of the two million cropworkers in the United States, about840,000 of them have the followingcharacteristics. According to PhilipMartin (ERIC Digest, November 1994),crop workers were:

U primarily Hispanic (94 percent),and born in Mexico (80 percent);married with children (52percent);

U doing farm work in the U.S.without their families (59percent);

ri mostly men (82 percent) andmostly unauthorized (67 percent).

(It should be noted that although theHispanic migrimt worker is a big part ofpublic perception of Hispanics in theUnited States, the estimated number ofHispanic migrant workers is a very


small percentage of the total number ofHispanics in the United Stat--,.)

While many might assume that cropharvesting is becoming increasinglymechanical, the reverse is true. Thevalue of four of the hand-harvestedcrops - oranges, grapes, apples andlettuce exceeds the value of the U.S.wheat crop. The value of hand-pickedcommodities, from fruits, nuts,vegetables, melons, flowers andmushrooms, was $30 billion in 1991. Ifpeople want vine-ripened tomatoes, ahuman being will have to pick them.Martin estimates that the averagemigrant worker makes about $5,000yearly, with no employee benefitprograms. This would be a reasonablewage in Mexico although not in theUnited States. Few U.S. citizens wouldwork so hard for $5,000 a year, a figurethat is far below the poverty level foreven the smallest size family.

The estimated 400,000 migrantchildren pose a complex problem. Someof these children follow their parentsfrom farm to farm and state to state.Some children of Hispanic migrantworkers are shuttled from a home inMexico to another home in the UnitedStates each year, with the workers(some of them children) commuting tothe fields each day. Some childrentravel with their families and do not dofarm work; a smaller number ofchildren travel with their families anddo farm work, and over 100,000children travel at least 75 miles to dofarm work without their parents,according to the NAWS survey. Thislast group seems to be exceptionally atrisk of school fidhire.

Partially because schooh,controlled, American education hasnever faced the reality of rapidgeographical mobility in the nation.More than 100 million Americans lived

I

in a different house in 1990 than theyoccupied in 1985, although 80 millionwere still in the same state, and 30million were in the same county,according to the U.S. Census Bureau(1993). Such rates of populationmovement are unheard of elsewhere, atleast among industrialized nations.Although police can now trace driverslicenses across states and cities, astudent basically disappears from thesending school's records, although thereceiving school may be within the samecounty. While moving is usuallydifficult for everyone, it is most difficultfor children of migrant workers. Thesechildren suffer the largest number ofmoves, live in poverty and are subjectedto hostility both because of theirminority and unauthorized statuses.Because migrant workers shuttle backand forth from place to place they alsolive in several cultures that speak atleast two different languages.

Migrant students have the lowestgi aduation rate of any population groupin the U.S. public schools. Five timesas many migrant students are enrolledin the second grade as are enrolled inthe 12th grade. Dropout rates areusually calculated using the enrollmentof students who are in grades 9 through12 grade. Many migrant children haveleft school before or shortly after the6th grade and are therefore notincluded in the already high dropoutrates for all Hispanic children.

School attendance is an economichardship for some migrant families,who need the income from the child'swork for survival. This idea isinconceivable to most Americans.Because the parents of migrant childrenare usually not well-educal ed, theyoften feel that the education of theirchildren should he left to the schools.Therefore, any parental interest in theschools would he seen as interference.

, j)

05.1-1711NI,

HISPANIC AMERICANSAMIN!

However, studies of high achievingmigrant students show that theirparents, although they do not help withhomework, have positive ideas aboutthe school, and spend time talking withtheir children about positive educationalexperiences. As is usually true, parentsof low-achieving students regardless ofrace or ethnicity, spend little or no timetalking about positive educationalexperiences with their children.

Life is not likely to get easier formigrant students. The life expectancyof migrant farm workers was 49 yearsin 1990, compared to an average of 75years for the U.S. populati. Farmingis the one of the most dangerousoccupations in the nation, according to astudy from the General AccountingOffice (GAO). For migrant workers, theusual farming dangers are increased byregular contact with pesticides in thefields breathing the air, drinking thewater, eating the food, touching theresidues on the plants - as well asunsanitary conditions involvingdrinking and washing water and lack oftoilets in the fields. Migrant childrenregularly report working in fields wetwith pesticides, and many have beensprayed while in the fields. Theseconditions are in addition topoverty-related health problems such aspoor nutrition and diet, intestinalparasites, respiratory diseases, seriousfood shortages during the year(although their work provides food (orothers), complications during childbirth,and severe dental problems.

Even with the U.S. Supreme Court'sdecision that states cannot useresidency requirements to denyundocumented children the right to atuition-free public school education(P/y/er P. Doe, 1982), public sentimentin 1995 is hostile to immigrants of anysort. Undocr ,nented migrant workersaml their children, while they clearly

lower fruit and vogetable costs forAmerican consumers, perform work thatvirtually no one else will do at such lowwages, and are unlikely to be givenmuch sympathy. As 1995 comes to anend, Proposition 187, while unenforce-able, seems to carry political credibility.One problem is that any major effort toimprove the lives of children of migrantworkers would almost inevitablyincrease the cost of fruit and vegetables.

Hispanics and theEducation System

As we consider the data on schoolachievement for Hispanics, aparadoxical conclusion leaps out.

Although great strides have been madein Hispanic educational attainment, thegap is not narrowing significantlybetween Hispanic and non-Hispanicgroups. Hispanic adults possessing ahigh school diploma increased from 45.7percent in 1983 to 53.1 percent in 1993.For non-Hispanics, the increase wa,from 73.4 percent of the population age25 and over in 1983 to 82.4 percent in1993 (see Figure 3, next page).

The percentage of Hispanics studentsin the United States is increasing. Asof 1990, there were more than fivemillion Hispanic students enrolled inpreprimary through high schoolnationally. Another 1.5 millionHispanic students were enrolled incollege (see Table 4, on page 20). Ninepercent of Hispanic Americans age 25and over had completed a Bachelor's0.egree or higher in 1993 compared toalmost 2:3 percent of the non-Hispanicpopulation.

Public school enrollment is expectedto rise to almost 44 million by 2000, andnearly all the increase will be inminority especially Hispanicenrollment . Even 1.vit ii I lie pmrress

HISPANIC AMERICANS1+521.179)1M.

19

100

Figure 3

Educational Attainment: High School Completion or MorePersons of Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Origin

80 747 75.5 76.5 77.3 77.9 78.8 79 6 80 5 81.5 82 4

c-4

73.4

1r) Non-Hispanic Origin

cz 60

45.7 46.5 47.9 48.5 5(1.951 50.9 50.8 51.3 52.6 53.1

2. 40 Hispanic Origin0

G.)

C.) 20

01983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Source: U.S. Census Bureau

noted in the educational achievement ofHispanic students, several factirsremain disturbing. According to dataIrom the U.S. Bureau of the Census:

1#1 Forty percent of White andAfrican American children age 3and 4 years were enrolled innursery sclol and kindergartencompared to 27 percent ofHispanic children.

rel Hispanic children have beenretained at leas', one flrade more

I

often than non-Hispanic children.Being held back a year greatlyincreases the possibility that achild w ill drop out of school.Hispanics have the highest highschool dropout rate (33 percent ofyoung adults aged 18 to 24 in1993) of any racial or ethnicg-roup. Sixteen percent ofAiricanAmericans in this age group werehigh school dropouts in 1993compared to 12 percent of Whit es.

NI The rate of bilingual educationservices has been il;,clining ev

20BAUM,

HISPANIC AMERICANS

as demand for the services hasincreased and research has shownbilingual programs to besuccessful in helping studentsachieve. A 114;h percentage (31 8)of Limited English Proficient

(LEP) 8th grade Hispanic childrenhave repeated at least one grade.In 1990, 43 percent of all LEPstudents were immigrants.

Hispanic students are unlikely tohave Hispanic teachers who canserve as mentors. Hispanicsrepresent only 2.9 percent ofpublic school teacher- and 2.8percent of private school teachers.

10 Successes in educationalattainment are not uniformamong Hispanic subgm-ps.Among the 25 to 34 year-olds,only 53 percent of MexicanAmericans had completed highschool in 1993, compared to 68percent of Central and SouthAmericans, 74 percent of PuertoRicans, 84 percent of Cubans and81 percent of "Other" Hispanics.For non-Hispanics in this agegroup, it was 90 percent.

Increas:s in Hispanic enrollment inhigher education are limited toincreases in the K-12 "pipeline." Wehave already seen that increases inHispanic enrollment in higher educationhave not gained much ground comparedto gains by non-Hispanics.

By 1990, llispanic students were 5.5percent of the total college enrollmentin the United States, which sounds fineexcept that Hispanics were 12 percentof the 18 to 24 year-old cohort. Thismeans tlmt the percentage of ITispanichigh school graduates going on tocollege dropped froin 30.1 percent in

irci in in 1991, :,icnnlin.

to the ERIC Digest (March 1993)Non-Hispanic White high schoolgraduates increased their collegeattendance from 31 percent in 1975 +o41 percent in 1991. Hispanics have notparticipateC in higher education to theextent that their proportional represen-tation in the general population wouldsuggest.

Overall, the percentage of Hispanicadults (age 25 and over) with abachelor's degree was significantlylower than the figure for non-Hispanics.In 1992, 9 percent of all Hispanics age25 and over had a bachelor's degreecompared to 22.9 percent of all non-Hispanics in this age group. Also, thedifferences among the largest Hispanicsubgroups are evident, although none ofthe subgroups had a rate that was ashigh as the rate for non-Hispanics. Sixpercent of all Mexican Americans had abachelor's degree in 1993 compared to 8percent of all Puerto Rican Americans,16 percent of all Cuban American, 15percent of all Central and SouthAmericans and 15 percent of all OtherHispanics.

In 1990, Hispanic students wereenrolled in two-year higher educationprograms about twice as often as infour-year degree programs. This meansthat the increases in the number ofIlispanic students in grad uatc) andprofessional degree programs wereproportionately limited. If elementary,-;chool faculty encouraged Hispanics tohigh levels of educational achievementat an early age, that cohort would MONT

through the pipAine, eventuallyproducing an icrease in the number ofIIispanic p-anuate and profession:dschool enrollments. Tf the seed is notplanted early, it is ksti likely thatHispanic students will continue tocollege.


Table 4EDUCATION CHARACTERISTICS--PERSONS OF HISPANIC ORIGIN

ENROLLMENT Number Percent/Rate

Persons age 3 and over enrolled in preprimarythrough high school, 1990

5,653,702 100.0

In Public School/as a percent of total enrolled 5,173,078 91.5

Number of persons enrolled in college,1990/percent of total enrollment 1,493,364 5.5

Persons age 5-17 in linguistically isolatedhcuseholds, 1990/as a percent of all persons 5years and over in households

1,150,203 6.0

Number/Percent of population age 16-19who are not in school, not employed, not highschool graduate and not in armed forces, 1990

178,507 12.3

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Total population age 25 and over, 1990 11,226,793,

100.0

High School graduate only/as a percentof population age 25+

2,419,632 21.6

Bachelors degree or higher/as a percent ofpopulation age 25+

1,027,759 9.2

EARNINGS BY EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT

Median Earnings for all full-time, year-roundpersons age 18 and over, 1993

$22,307

High School Graduate Only, 1993 $19,091

Bachelor's Degree Only, 1993 $29,828

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports. Educational Attainment inthe United States: March 1993 and 1992 and 1990 Census of Population: Persons of HispanicOrigin in the United States, and Social and Economic Characteristics, Washington, D.C.:Government Printing Office.

The problem with the Hispanicpipeline is the need to work

on what conies into it the youngestchildren. If more Hispanic childrencome to school with confidence in theirability and encounter teachers whoexpect great things from them, the

entire educational pipeline willeventually enlarge fbr Hispanicstudents, all the way to graduate andprofessional schools. The process ofbroadening the pipelive to increaseIIispanic high school grmluation ;atestakes 12 years or more (counting


preschool). However, few politicianswill wait that long.

Broadening the Hispanic pipelinealso means that Hispanic parents mustbecome more involved with theirchildren's education and get involvedwith activities such as: attendingconferences with teachers, joining thePTA and running for the school board.This will be difficult for parents whoseown educational level may be low andfor parents who think of teachers asauthorities and experts in theirchildren's education, and that they (theparents) will only be "in the way." Thismay also be difficult for teachers who donot understand the culture of theHispanic students in their classroom.The idea of school achievement cannotbe developed by teachers in totalabsence of the child's family. Bothparties must contribute.

One optimistic development amongHispanic Americans is the rapidlyincreasing number of successfulIIispanic suburbanites. From thisdevelopment will come more successmodels for Hispanic children in theircommunities, more evidence thatworking hard in school will pay off foryou AND your family.

One problem, however, is that theHispanic middle class, like the AfricanAmerican middle class, is dividing thecommunity into haves and have nots.While more nonwhite middle-classsuburbanites are thriving, validatingthe "American Dream," many Hispanicchildren living in the inner city (andsome suburban areas as well) are livingin poverty, joining gangs and, asProfessor Gary Orfield (IIarvardUniversity) has said, are going toschools that are more segregated thanthose that African American inner citychildren attend. The desegregationprinciples of Brown v. Board of

Education have seldom been applied toHispanic children, and it seems evenless likely in the next decade thatequality of educational opportunity willagain become a rousing cry for action inthe United States on behalf of anygroup.

There is an irony to the fact thatHispanics are now owning their ownhomes in rapidly increasing numbers.Over 50 percent of Hispanics in NewMexico, Texas, Arizona, Colorado andFlorida own their homes while 21.4percent of Hispanic loan applicationswere turned down in 1990. Thesecontradictory trends may cause theHispanic community to be set apart,based on differences in educational andeconomic status. It is an era of "theagony of rising expectations." Onlyimproved education for all Hispanics,from kindergarten through graduateschool, can begin to break this culturallodam. As with African Americans,Native Americans and AsianAmericans, Hispanic Americans mustbe able to . 3ach the "American Dream"while maintaining at least a part oftheir "Hispanidad."

SUMMARY ANDNEXT STEPS

The census giveth; the censustaketh away. Just as the CensusBureau, through the Office ofManagement and Budget,

created the "Hispanic" category, thecensus of 2000 could eliminate it.Proposals under consideration now willlikely change how federal data collectorscategorize the U.S. population. Onesuch proposal is to create a newcategory that would allow people to saythat they were "of mixed race." Thiscould become the category of choiee for

HISPANIC AMERICANS1111iMMINNII1

2341,11

80 percent of all Americans, accordingto some authorities. (See Hodgkinson,October 1995.) Another proposal underconsideration is to change the concept of"Hispanic" from an ethnic g-roup to aracial group.

While this "labeling" may seem atrivial classification issue to some, it isa matter of enormous political andeconomic importance to others. As aresult, the Hispanic population couldplummet from 22.7 million to threemillion if there is a "mixed race" boxadded to the census form. The lives ofmillions of people could be changed, asstate and federal funds are reduced,congressional districts are realigned,antipoverty programs are adjusted tothe new categories, etc. It also maymean that the opportunity to help manywho are in need may not be takenbecause we are no longer able toidentify groups. It may be time toargue that poor children, no matterwhat their racial or ethnic background,are at risk of failure in school and lifethrough no fault of their own andtherefore should be offered assistancebecause of their poverty status and notbecause of their race or ethnicity.

More than 85 percent of the Hispanicpopulation in the United States lives in10 states, but if one analyzes thepopulation data at the county level, adifferent perspective emerges. HispanicAmericans are spread across morecounties than are African Americans.Almost twice as many counties havebetween one-half of one percent to ninepercent of the population beingHispanic as have a comparablepercentage of African Americanresidents. Although these counties donot contain a majority of Hispanicresidents, the small percentages ofHispanics are already more importantin many county and small townelections in the Nation than are African

Americans. While African Americanand Hispanic populations are projectedto be about equal in 2010 with about 40million each, by 2015, Hispanics willoutnumber African Americans.Hispanic political power (and theresponsibility that goes with it) hasalready become the dominant nonwhitepower in many U.S. counties.

The differences between Hispanicsubgroups in terms of wealth,education, age and numbers of childrenin poverty, are very large indeed. Thisis especially true of the differencesbetween Puerto Rican Americans,Mexican Americans and CubanAmericans. The question remains: howdo we reduce the differences betweenHispanic subgroups by improvingopportunities for all Hispanicsubgroups?

Constant and high levels of Hispanicimmigration to the United States areassumed by the Census Bureau'spopulation projections. This is in partbecause of the higher income/purchasing power levels in the UnitedStates. But, there is an increase ofhouseholds in South and CentralAmerican countries with purchasingpower of over $20,000 U.S. dollars peryear. This could slow Hispanicimmigration to the United States ifthese economies improve.

j

According to American Demographics(September 1995), the increase ofhouseholds with high levels ofpurchasing power in U.S. dollarsincluded at least 17 million householdsin 1993; this number increases everyday. At least 40 percent of thehouseholds in Argentina, Brazil, Chile,Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay.Peru, I Truguay and Venezuela may nowhe considered middle- to upper-class interms of purchasing power. The133,800 wealthiest households in Sao


Paulo, Brazil, average $143,000 inpurchasing power, while the upper classof Mexico City has $261,000 to spendper household, establishing at least alarge market for luxury and"top-of-the-line" goods and services. Themiddle-income markets are growingrapidly, attracting companies likeWalMart.

This economic development mayeither reduce the amount of Hispanicimmigration, increase the number ofHispanic immigrants who return totheir home country, or both. If historyis any judge, U.S. hostility towai:dimmigrants will continue until thecurrent shortage of well-paying jobs inthe United States is over.

It is likely that the United Stateswill continue to have a sizeable group ofillegal immigrants for a number ofreasons. Included are: thepermeability of U.S. border, the numberof children born in the United States toillegal immigrants the children areU.S. citizens although the mother maybe in the United States illegally, anddeportation will never be applied on alarge scale (you have to know whereillegal immigrants are to deport them).In addition, given that we all benefitfrom having many illegal immigrantspicking our fruit and vegetables at lowwages, it would probably be wise tocompare the cost of educating thechildren of undocumented parents withthe cost of NOT educating them; noteducating the children of undocumentedworkers will be much higher in the end.(See Hodgkinson and Obarakpor, AsianImmigration to America.)

Migrant workers and their children,although a very small proportion of allHispanics, remain an almost impossibleproblem. Part of the difficulty comesfrom our previous point of the costs andbenefits of low-wage worken Most

people in the United States benefit fromthe work of undocumented migrantworkers. These benefits include pickingthe food, assembling clothing in"sweatshops" in New York andelectronic subassemblies in SouthernCalifornia as well as the Maquiladora.Migrants, especially those that areundocumented, cannot by definitionform a political pressure group. Evenstrikes among migrant workers areunlikely. The cycle of ignorance, lack ofself-respect, menial job skills, poormedical care, poverty, and early andunplanned pregnancy repeats itself withpainful regularity. Any broad attack onthis problem would create massivehostility and resistance within largesegments of the U.S. citizenry. Nopolitician could run for election on sucha program and win. However, smallvictories might include: easy access toeducation and health care records onchildren of migrant workers fromsending school district to receivingdistrict, school scholarships (donated bythe growers) for the children of migrantworkers, early health examinations andvaccinations for the children (arrangedthrough local Chambers of Commerceand/or grower's associations), and moretelevision programs encouraging thechildren of migrant workers to do wellin school.

Interestingly, the Hispanic familyseems to look increasingly like the"typical" American family, with moredivorce, more single parents households,more unmarried pregnancies, more kidsinvolved in gangs, etc. These develop-ments make the Hispanic family morevulnerable, less able to protect andprovide for its members and more inneed of government programs. Yet,Ilispanics generally do not have faith inU.S. government bureaucracies. Indeedtoday, there is an increase in Hispanicsolidarity with more people speakingSpanish and celebrating the old


traditions. The question remains: howdoes the "declaration of independence"square with the increasingly dependentIIispanic family?

There is a large irony in bilingualprograms these days. The existingresearch is clear that these programswork well and the demand is increasingrapidly, yet human and fiscal resourcesfor these programs are drying up. Thisis an area where state governmentleadership need to be encouraged.

The Hispanic educational "pipeline"is unusual in that it is partially closedat the bottom, where the youngestchildren enter. Partly because ofimmigTation and partly because of lowfamily income and lack of parenteducation, it is crucial that Hispanicyoungsters come to school in goodhealth, stay in school, hav(3 supportivehome environments, and are ready tolearn. We cannot increase the numberof Hispanic students in graduate andprofessional schools unless many more"success stories" enter the pipeline inpreschool and kindergarten. Fullfunding of Head Start eligible childrenwould broaden the Hispanic pipelinemore than any other single act, yetseems unlikely.

The United States is increasinglydivided into two sectors: a wealthy,technologically sophisticated suburban

group and the "working poo:.." Theworking poor are usually severalworkers earning part-time minimumwage with no employee benefits, such ashealth care and littleadvancededucation. Karl Marx, if alivetoday, would probably not title his book"Das Kapital" but would call it "DieWissenschaft" access to knowledgethat is increasingly the dividing linebetween social classes in the UnitedStates.

We can all take pleasure in theachievements of a young Hispanic cadrethat has done well in school and work,has maintained a wonderful tradition ofa healthy, extended family, speaks bothEnglish and Spanish, and is raisingchildren who will carry on the familytradition and even extend it. But wealso should be concerned by the factthat this group of successful HispanicAmericans is not increasing as ra,idlyas Hispanics in the general population.Despite a lengthy and increasingpresence in the United States, becauseof language problems, culturaldifferences, educational disadvantages,and opportunities that are nonexistentfor many Hispanics, the reality iscomplex, with many successes andmany failures. Much remains to bedone before Hispanic Americans cantruly be in position to fulfill theirpotential.

IIISPANIC AMERICANS 274111

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aponte, R. and M. Silos, Latinos in the Heartland: The Browning of the Midwest. EastLansing, Michigan: Julian Samora Research Institute, Michigan State University,Report No. 5, November 1994.

Constable, Pamela, "The Garcias in America," The Washington Post Magazine, October30, 1994.

Day, Jennifer Cheeseman, "Population Projections of the United States, by Age, Sex,Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1992 to 2050," U.S. Bureau of the Census, CurrentPopulation Reports, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, November 1992.

Education That Works An Action Plan for Minorities, Washington, D.C.: QualityEducation for Minorilies Project, June 1990.

Fix, Michael and Jeffrey Passel. Immigration and Immigrants: Setting the RecordStraight. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute, May 1994.

Frey, W. and William O'Hare, "Vivan los Suhurbios!" American Demographics, April1993, 30-37.

Garcia, E., "Bilingualism and the Academic Performance of Mexican-American Children:The Evolving Debate," Eric Digest, EDO-90-9, September 1990.

Haub, C. and J. Willette, U.S. Hispanics: Changing the Face of America. Washington,D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, Vol. 38, No. 3, June 1983.

Hispanic Policy Development Project, Make Something Happen: Hispanics and UrbanHigh School Reform. New York and Washington, D.C.: Hispanic Policy DevelopmentProject, Vol. II, 1984.

Hodgkinson, Harold L. and Anita Obarakpor, Immigration to America: The AsianExperience, Washington, D.C.: The Institute for Educational Leadership, Center forDemographic Policy, September 1994.

Hodgkinson, Harold L. "What Shall We Call People? Race. Class, The Census for 2000,"Phi Delta Kappan, October 1995.

Limited English Proficiency: A Growing and Costly Educational Challenge Facing ManySchool Districts. Washington, D.C.: General Accounting Office, January 1994.

Lott, uanita Tamayo, 'The Limit at ions of Directive 15," Pocerty and Rcec,Vol 4, No.1,January/Fehriiary 1995.

Martin, P., "Migrant Farm Workers and their Children," Eric Digest, EDO-RC-94-7,November 1 994.


Nicolau, S., J. Oppenheimer, and J. Pacheco, Handsome Dividends: A Handbook toDemystify the US Hispanic Markets. New York and Washington: The Hispanic PolicyDevelopment Project, 1994.

Office of Management and Budget, "Standards for the Classification of Federal Data onRace and Ethnicity; Notice," Federal Register, Monday, August 28, 1995.

O'Hare, William, "The Rise of Hispanic Affluence," American Demographics, August1990, 40-43.

Santiestevan, S., "Use of the Spanish Language in the United States: Trmds,Challenges, and Opportunities," Eric Digest, EDO-RC-91-2, May 1991.

The IIispanic Almanac, New York and Washington: IIispanic Policy DevelopmentProject, 1990

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Hispanic America Today,Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1993.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, The Hispanic Population in theUnited States: March 1993, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1994.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population, Persons of Hispanic Origin inthe United States, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Educational Attainment in tlzeUnited States: March 1993 (Ind 1992, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1994.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1994. Washington,D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1994.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, "We Asked-You Told Us: Ancestry," Census QuestionnaireContent, February 1995.

U.S. Bureau of the Census, Celebrating Our Nation's Diversity, Washington, T).C.:Government Printing Office, 1995.

Valdivieso, Rafael and Carey Davis, U.S. Hispanics: Challenging Issues for the 1990s,Washington, D.C.: Population Reference Bureau, 1988.

Valdivieso, Rafael and Siobhan Nicolau, "Look Me in the Eye: A Hispanic CulturalPerspective on School Reform," Schools and Students at Risk: Context and Frameworkfor Positive Change, Robert J. Rossi (ed.). New York: Columbia University TeachersCollege, 1994.

Walker, Chip, "Thu Global Middle Class,- American Demographics, September 1995,40-46.

M Anwrican Demographics, February 199,1,


Yzaguirre, R. and S. Perez, "Accurate 1A.,cialfEthnic Data Should Drive CategoryReview," Porerty and Race, Vol. .4, No.1, January/February 1995.

"Oueruiew on the Health Problems of Hispanics," Office of Minority Health, U.S.Department of Health and Human Services, March 20, 1995.

IIISTANIC AMERICANS 31

APPENDIX A:

Table A: Hispanic Diversity, Populationby Hispanic Origin Subgroup, 1990

Table Demographic Profile --Persons of Mexican Originand the United States Compared

Table C: Demographic Profile --Persons of Puerto Rican andCuban Origin

Table D: Demographic Profile --Persons of Central and SouthAmerican Origin and"Other" Hispanic Origin

Table AHISPANIC DIVERSITY, 1990

Population Percent of total

Total Hispanic 21,900,089 100.0

Mexican 13,393,208 61.2

Puerto Rican 2,651,815 12.1

Cuban 1,053,197 4.8

Other Hispanic* 4,801,869 21.9

Dominican (Dominican Republic) 520,151 2.4

Central American 1,323,830 6.0

Costa Rican 57,223 0.3

Guatemalan 268,779 1.2

Honduran 131,066 0.6

Nicaraguan 202,658 0.9

Panamanian 92,013 0.4

Salvadoran 565,081 2.6

South American 1,035,602 4.7

Argentinean 100,921 0.5

Bolivian 38,073 0.2

Chilean 68,799 0.3

Columbian 378,726 1.7

Ecuadorian 191,198 0.9

Paraguayan 6,662 0.03

Peruvian 175,035 0.8

Uruguayan 21,996 0.1

Venezuelan 47,997 0.2

Spaniard 519,136 2.4

Spanish 444,896 2.0

Spanish American 93,320 0.4

*Includes other groups not shown separately.Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990 Census of Population, l'ersons of Hispanic Origin in theUnited States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Table BDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE:

PERSONS OF MEXICAN ORIGINAND THE TOTAL U.S. POPULATION COMPARED

(NOTE: Data are thr 1993 unless otherwise irdicated.)

MEXICANTOTAL

UNITED STATES

Number Percent/Rate

Number Percent/Rate

POPULATION

Total Population 14,628,00 100.0 254,241,00 100.0

As a percent of total Hispanic popu ation 64.3

Percent under age 5 12.2 7.8

Percent age 65 and over 4.2 12.1

Median Age 24.6 33.6

Percent of population age 5 and over that donot speak English "very well," 1990 38.9 6.1


Total population age 25+ 7,198,000 100.0 162,826 100.0

Percent High School Graduateor more

46.2 80.2

Percent Bachelor's degreeor more

5.9 21.9

FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN Under Age 18 BY TYPE, 1990

Married Couples with children/as apercent of all families 51.4 37.2

Mother-only with children/as a percent of allfamilies

12.2 9.0

Percent of population <age 18 living with bothparents

69.8 73.0

LABOR FORCE STATUS/OCCUPATION

Total population age 16+ 9,616,000 100.0 192,955,00 100.0

Percent in labor force 66.6 65.5

Percent unemployed 11.7 7.4

Total Employed Males age 16+ :3,486,000 100.0 92,301 100.0

MEXICANTOTAL

UNITED STATES

.-ePercent/Rate

Number Percent/Rate

Number

Percent Managerial &Professional Specialty

8.7 26.5

Percent ServiceOccupations

15.2 10.6

Percent PrecisionProduction, Craft, Repair,Laborers and Operators

50.4 37.9

Total Employed Femalesage 16+

2,168,000 100.0 53,997,000 100.0


13.6 28.8

Percent ServiceOccupations

24.9 18.0

Percent PrecisionProduction, Craft, Repair,Laborers and Operators

18.0 9.6

INCOME/HOME OWNERSHIP

Average Earnings, Males, 1992(year-round, full-time workers) $22,355 $35,711

Average Earnings, Females, 1992(year-round, full-time workers) $18,880 $24,009

Median family income, 1992 $23,714 $36,811,

Percent of household heads thatown their own home

44.2 64.5

POVERTY

Percent of total populationw/incomes below poverty

30.1 14.5

Population under age 18 inpoverty/as a percent of allpersons below poverty

49.1 39.6

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, The HispanicPopulation in the United States: March 1993 and 1990 Census of Population: Personsof Hispanic Origin in the United States, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

r,.1 0

Table CDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE:

PERSONS OF PUERTO RICAN AND CUBAN ORIGIN


PUERTO RICAN CUBAN

ImmommEmolNumber Percent/

RateNumber Percent/

Rate

POPULATION


As a percent of total Hispanic population 10.6 4.7

Percent under age 5 10.4 4.5



Percent of population age 5 and over that do notspeak English "very well," 1990 33.5 48.5


Total population age 25 and over 1,280,000 100.0 818,000 100.0

Percent High School Graduateor more

59.8 62.1

Percent Bachelor's degree or more 8.0 16.5

FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER AGE 18 BY TYPE, 1990

Married Couples with children/as apercent of all families

34.7 33.1

Mother-only with children/as apercent of all families

26.7 6.8

Percent of population under age 18 living withboth parents

46.8 71.5


Total population age 16 and over 1,587,000 100.0 927,000 100.0



Total Employed Males age 16 400,000 100.0 278,000 100.0


15.5 20.3

Percent Service Orcupal ion 22 4 12 5

PUERTO RICAN CUBAN

Number Percent/Rate

Number Percent/Rate

Percent Precision Production,Craft, Repair, Laborers andOperators

42.4 44.4

Total Employed Fer iales age 16+ 363,000 100.0 216,000 100.0


18.5 18.4

Percent Service Occupation 19.9 20.1


13.2 12.6


Average Earnings, Males, 1992(year-round, full-time workers)

$27,293 $32,151

Average Earnings, Females, 1992(year-round, full-time workers)

$21,891 $21,565

Median family income, 1992 $20,301 $31,015

Percent of household heads that owntheir own home

23.4

POVERTY


36.5 18.1

Population under age 18 inpoverty/as a percent of all personsbelow poverty

52.9 19.2

Source: U.S. Bi -iu of the Census, Current Population Reports, The HispanicPopulation in the United States: March 19.9.7 and 1990 Census of Population: Per-sonsof Hispanic Origin in the United States, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

Table DDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE: PERSONS OF CENTRAL

AND SOUTH AMERICAN ORIGIN AND "OTHER"HISPANIC ORIGIN COMPARED


CENTRAL ANDSOUTH

AMERICAN"OTHER"

HISPANIC

Number Percent/Rate

NumberAmmon.=

Percent/Rate

POPULATION


As a percent of total Hispanic population 13.4 7.0

P2rcent under age 5 9.9 8.3



Percent of population age 5 and over that do notspeak English "very well," 1990

55.1 30.2


Total population age 25 and over 1,776,000 100.0 1,029,000 100.0

l'ercent High School Graduate ormore

62.9 68.9

Percent Bachelor's degree or more 15.2 15.1

FAMILIES WITH CHILDREN UNDER AGE 18 BY TYPE, 1990

Married Couples with children/as apercent of all families

47.2 37.9

Mother-only with children/as apercent of all families

12.4 16.6

Percent of population under age 18living with both parents

68.2 64.7


Total population age 16 and over 2,248,000 100.0 1,208,000 100.0



Total Employed Males age 16+ 822,000 100.0 388,000 100.0

4 1

IIMIIIMEIONIMMOIN

CENTRAL ANDSOUTH

AMERICAN"OTHER"

HISPANIC

IIMIIIPercent/Rate

EL

Number Percent/Rate

Number


15.3 19.5

Percent Service Occupations 17.8 15.4


44.7 43.0

Total Employed Females age 16+ 552,000 100.0 319,000 100.0


15.7 22.2

Percent Service Occupations 31.6 19.1


21.0 14.1


Average Earnings, Males, 1992(year-round, full-time workers)

$24,892 $30,331

Averr.ge Earnings, Females, 1992(year-round, full-time workers)

$18,734 $21,446

Median family income, 1992 $23,649 $28,562

Percent of household heads that owntheir own home

25.6 51.2

POVERTY


26.7 23.1

Population under age 18 inpoverty/as a percent of all personsbelow poverty

38.5 38.5

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, The HispanicPopulation in the United States: March 1993 and 1990 Census of Population: Personsof Hispanic Origin in the United States, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

FIGURE 1:

APPENDIX B:

POPULATION BY SELECTED AGEGROUPS BY TYPE OF HISPANICORIGIN

FIGURE 2: EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTBY TYPE OF HISPANIC ORIGIN

FIGURE 3: AVERAGE EARNINGS BYTYPE OF HISPANIC ORIGIN

FIGURE 4: MEDIAN FAMILY INCOME,HISPANIC ORIGIN ANDNON-HISPANIC ORIGIN COMPARED

4

MM.

a.

50% --

+

40% 38 0%

30%

20%

10%

Figure 1

Hispanic Population by Selected AgeGroups by Type of Hispanic Origin 1993

5.4%

41.2%

4.2%

40.7%

1

5.8%

20.4%18.0%

32.1%

3.9%

28.4%

1

8.5%

Hispanic Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Central/South OtherAmerican Hispanic

1 0-19 ii 65 and over


Figure 2

Educational Attainment,*by Type of Origin

Total Hispanic

Mexican

Puerto Rican

Cuban

Central/South American

Other Hispanic

9.0%

*.XV

5.9%

53.1%

46.2%

8.0%z

4',40/P4/4>

4 16.5%,,';4;r/

-'/

15.2%

15.1%

High School or more

59.8%

62.1 %

62 9%

7.7/. 68.9%

III Bachelor's Degree or higher

*Percent of Population 25 years and over


$35,000

$30,000

$25,000

$20,000

$15,000

$10,000

$5,000

$0

$22,355

Figure 3

Average Earnings*, 1993by Type of Origin

$27,293

$32,151

$30,331

$24,892

$21 891 $21,565 $21,446

$18,880 $18,734

Mexican

NM WI

Puerto Rican Cuban Central/So. OtherAmerican Hispanic

Average Earnings, Males 1111 Average Earnings, Females*Year-round, full-time


4 f;

Figure 4

Median Family Income, 1982 to 1992$40,000 7

$35,000

Hispanic and Non-Hispanic Compared$38,015

$37,013$36,334 --123-

$35,183-ci

$33,142 Non-Hispanic$31,610

$30,231

$30,000 171

$28,473

$26,951121

$25,142$25,000

ra $23,446X

$23,431$23884 $23912

X$21,769

Hispanic

$20,000 $18 833 $19,027

vo,onr $20,306J" XX

X1 $16,907$16,129. X

I X$15,000 L *. f

1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993


The Institute for Educational Leadership, Inc.SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

The Institute for Educational Leadership (IEL) is a nonpartisan organizationthat seeks to improve educational opportunities and results for children, youth andfamilies by developing and supporting leaders who work together. Through anational publications program, TEL disseminates information about emerging trendsand issues.

Bringing Tomorrow Into Focus: Demographic Insights for the Future, byHarold L. Hodgkinson

This brief paper is for the diverse individuals in business, government and non-profitorganizations -- policy makers as well as practitioners - who want to see how thepresent leads into future. Almost any strategic planning activity will benefit from aconsideration of the eight trends which form the basis of this paper.1996 14 pp. $15.00

A Demographic Look At Tomorrow, by Harold L. Hodgkinson

Using recent data from the 1990 census, the author provides a terse butcomprehensive look at what the U.S. population will look like in the years to come.He examines national trends and their relation to changes in regions and states andlooks at "the most obvious inequities between the inner city and the surroundingsuburbs." 1992 18 pp. $12.00

CDP Demographics for Decision Makers Newsletter, by Janice Hamilton Outtz

This quarterly newsletter uses the most recent demographic data to identifydemographic trends that make evident the need for collaboration among diverseorganizations in both the public and private sectors. $250 annually to organizationsor $75 to individuals

The Demographics of American Families, by Janice Hamilton Outtz

"Families aren't what they used to be, but they are still families." Most Americanslive in some type of "family" living arrangements. Ozzie and Harriet, TheWaltons,and the Cleavers in Leave it to Beaver, have been replaced by The Cosbys, MurphyBrown, and The Tanner's in Full House. Using the most recent demographic andeconomic data, this report shows how diverse families in the United States are.1993 24 pp. $12.00

The Invisible Poor: Rural Youth In America by Harold L. Hodgkinson with theassistance of Anita Massey Obarakpor

This comprehensive report tells us what is known about rural populations in theUnited States and discusses a variety of issues such as family structure, jobavailability, education and health care, that are relevant to rural youth poverty. Themain point of the report is to stress that "rural poverty is not urban poverty in arural setting." It has a different face than that of urban poverty and it is harder toescape. 1994 75pp. $12.00

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Against Their Wills: Children Born Affected by Drugs by Harold L. Hodgkinsonand Janice Hamilton Outtz

Damaged by the drugs their mothers took during pregnancy, hundreds of thousandsof children are making up a generation of American children and it is costing millionsof dollars to help them. The authors of a new report on children born affected bydrugs, particularly crack cocaine, tell us "what is known and not known" about thisgrowing population. 1993 2Opp $10.00

Shattering Stereotypes: A Demographic Look At The Fr cts About ChildrenIn The United States by Janice Hamilton Outtz

This report examines a few of the commonly held stereotypes and myths aboutchildren in the United States. A comprehensive look at what the facts aresurrounding children issues in the United States is presented. According to Outtz,"we talk a lot about children growing up in the United States in the nineties and howdifferent things are today than they were 20 years or even 10 years ago. What weactually know about children--how they live, where they live and the conditions underwhich they live--is very different for each one of us." 1994 52 pp. $12.00

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