9.the islamic influence

8/13/2019 9.the Islamic Influence

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The Islamic Influence Though it had been the subject of marauding Muslim raidssince the 8th century A.D., it was not until 1192 A.D. that

Delhi got its first Muslim ruler - Qutb-ud-Din Aibak - thefounder of the so-called Slave or Mamluk dynasty. Acombination of superior tactics and weaponry and theinfighting amongst the region's Hindu princedomscombined to make the forces of Islam irresistible, muchlike in the rest of the civilized world. It is also acceptedthat raids for land or booty were later 'translated' into moreacceptable crusades for conversion of the infidel by manycontemporary writers - and this could be one reason forthe new Muslim rulers to feverishly start building activityas another sign of their missionary zeal. Thus the Muslimdominance in India starts with the Slave Dynasty (1192

A.D.) and goes on till the British achieved pre-eminence inthe early 19th century. In succession, this translates intothe following dynasties at Delhi: Slave (1192-1246 A.D.),Khilji (1290-1320 A.D.), Tughlaq (1320-1413 A.D.), Sayyid(1414-1444 A.D.), Lodi (1451-1557 A.D.) and finally thegreat Mughals.

Muslim building types Throughout, Muslim rule was marked by spectacular monuments, many of whichcount as among the finest in the world. Islamic building types may be divided into two

main categories:

a) religious and b) secular buildings.

Religious BuildingsTo use a quote: "The fundamental Islamic dogma is the unity of God (Allah) and thefinality of the prophethood of Muhammed - His chosen one who lived from c. 570-632. The essence of God is inapprehensible and knowledge of Him depends uponthe ninety-nine names which He gives Himself in His revelations. The supremerevelation is the Koran, dictated to Muhammed. As the book of Law, the Koran spellsout the conditions for submission (Islam) and the consequent moral obligations of thebeliever (Muslim), the Five Pillars of Islam: affirmation of the Creed, prayer 1, fasting,alms-giving and pilgrimage. 2 It is the pre-eminence of prayer that dominates much religious architecture in Islam.The Koran lays down a precise ritual wherein the prayer mat is on the axis (qibla)towards Mecca. Thus the principal public place of worship - the mosque or masjid -must provide for the considerable number of mats used as a community, especiallyat the Friday ( juma) noon prayers.From these constraints a mosque-form begins to evolve - a large rectangularenclosure on one end of which is a wall articulating the qibla by means of a centralrecession (mihrab). The principal vertical features are minarets or towers at corners(from which the faithful are called to prayer). A lecturn for the Koran and a pulpit(minbar ) to the right of the mihrab complete the basic furniture. The second major religious building type was the tomb, hitherto unknown in India.The tomb as a form made a modest beginning with small canopies over the graves of

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Sufi saints, and soon led to the erection of increasingly complex structuresculminating, in India, in the monumental mausoleums of the Mughal emperors.

Secular structures

Having conquered by war, the Muslims were very conscious of the need for strongfortifications - and these often reflect parallel developments in the West - influence

being derived from the Holy Land - the Middle East. Gradually these defensive fortsdeveloped into cities in which a large number of other structures were built - wells,palaces, stables and halls of audience.

A fusion of cultures - Indo-Islamic Architecture "Nothing could illustrate more graphically the religious and racial diversity, oremphasize more decisively the principles underlying the consciousness of eachcommunity, than the contrast between their respective places of worship, asrepresented by the mosque on the one hand, and the temple on theother…Compared with the clarity of the mosque, the temple is an abode of mystery;the courts of the former are open to light and air, with many doorways, invitingpublicity, the latter encloses 'a phantasma of massive darkness', having somberpassages leading to dim cells, jealously guarded and remote … architecturally the

mosque is wholly visible and intelligible, while the temple is not infrequentlyintrospective, complex and indeterminate." 3 "On the one hand was the rhythmic mind of the Hindu, on the other the formal mindof the Musulman." 4 These quotes from a venerable early architectural historian serve to highlight theutter difference between Muslim and Hindu building types. There were othervariations apart from the merely formal: the presence of carving in Hindu templeswhich was forbidden in Islam, decorative lettering on mosques and tombs which wasunknown in Hindu art and architecture, the Hindu propensity for a single stone andthe Muslim penchant for inlay work.However in spite of this wide gulf, over the years a certain symbiosis did come intobeing between Muslim designers and master-builders and the Hindu craftsmen whocarried out their bidding. Both benefited from the other's knowledge and what slowlyevolved was a distinct new style of architecture - Persian in inspiration but veryIndian in execution. Long referred to as Saracenic, it is now more properly termedIndo-Islamic.We will trace the development of Indo-Islamic architecture from its crude beginningsin the early 12th century to its heyday. It is not just a story about architecture, it is awhole new civilization developing in the fertile plains of India which left an indeliblemark on its future.

1 My highlights2 Tadgell, Christopher The History of Architecture in India Penguin Books (India) Ltd., NewDelhi, 1990.3 Brown, Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt. Ltd.Bombay, 1975.4 ibid.











The Towers of God The Quwwatu'l Islam In 1192, fresh from his victory over the brave but futile resistance of the Rajputs1, Muhammed Ghori left as his viceroy in Delhi Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, who was to becomethe first Sultan in the Slave Dynasty.2 After the death of Ghori, Qutb-ud-Din lost notime in declaring himself the ruler and embarked upon a vigorous campaign to quelldissidence, both in his home cities in Afghanistan as well as in and around Delhi.Recognizing the strategic value of the city, Qutb-ud-Din is credited with being the firstto realize that 'he who holds Delhi rules India'.3 There were two ways of consolidatingpower - militarily and theocratically.Once the immediate military aims wereachieved, Qutb-ud-Din set about toestablish himself not just as amarauding invader, but a proselytizingmissionary. The first mosque in India,the Quwwatu'l Islam (The Might ofIslam) was constructed by destroying,in Qutb-ud-Din's own words, 27 Hinduand Jain temples in the region. Themosque originally consisted of a rectangular court 43.2 m by 33 m, enclosed bycolonnaded cloisters. This enclosure formed the heart of the mosque, delineating aspace where the faithful could kneel to pray. It is with a closer examination of the columns that the otherwise undistinguishedmosque begins to assume significance. Dismantled from temples, the columns stillbetray a riot of carving - human forms, gods and goddesses, flora and fauna, jewelryand other motifs - which was characteristically Hindu, but was expressly forbidden inIslamic architectural expression.4 The shortage of both time and money forced theMuslim ruler to reuse inherently sacrilegious elements.

A compromise was effected by knocking off the faces of the deities and other humanand animal forms. The result is a curious combination - a structure which isarchitectonically a mosque with apparently vandalized Hindu components. The riot ofdefaced carving is complemented with the difference in the columns - they camefrom not one, but several demolished temples. Above the cloisters rise imperfect

corbelled domes - the result of Hindu craftsmen striving to erect a form of which theyhad no prior experience.

With the cloisters complete, it was timeto define the qibla or the axis alongwhich lay Mecca. This was done byerecting a stone screen of five arches,the central one the highest at 16 m,flanked on each side by two smallerones. Ogee-shaped, the arches areagain imperfect as they are made bycorbelling stone rather than by wedge-shaped voussoirs. Carved in alternatingbands of inscriptions and arabesque


















ornamentation, the hand of the Hindu craftsman is again evident in the sinuouscarving as well as serpentine, floral motifs which sneak in every so often.

This mosque was later extended and enlarged by two subsequent rulers, Iltutmishand Ala-ud-Din Khilji, who between them nearly quadrupled the size of the original

enclosure.

The Qutb Minar The mosque and its ancillaries finished, Qutb-ud-Din laid the foundation of the world-famous Qutb Minar. Intended to serve a double function - both as a minaret for themosque as well as the most visible symbol of his growing power, the Qutb with aheight of 72.5 m is the highest stone tower in the world.

Repaired and added to numerous times by successiverulers, the Qutb today consists of five storeys, each distinct.The lowest has alternately circular and triangular fluting, thesecond circular, the third triangular, while the fourth and fifthare mostly plain. Each storey is articulated by a balcony,projecting on a system of stalactite pendentives - thisfeature appearing for the first time in India and no doubtimported from classical Islamic construction.

The Qutb and its associated structures today is the mostvisible and famous landmark of Delhi, at par with Taj Mahal.Thousands of tourists, both Indian and foreign, swarmingthe site each day testify to its appeal. However, perhapsmore important, in the evolution of the history of Indian

architecture, it holds a unique place. This was the first timethat Hindu craftsmen and Muslim builders allied together. Itcould be asserted that the result was forms and detailsconfused and hesitant, structurally incompetent and formallysubject to a myriad of influences. Yet at no time does theQutb complex lose its magnificence, and we see in this firststumbling step the beginnings of a long associationbetween the two contrary cultures of Islam and Hinduism.This was to result in an architecture which was undoubtedly Islamic but distinctly sub-continental - a true fusion between Muslim sensibilities and Hindu capabilities.

And ever in the future, there was the Qutb, a lofty symbol of God's will, enclosing

between itself and its counterpar t5 the 'entire paradise of God's world'.6 1. This was the famous battle against Prithviraj Chauhan, the apparently magnanimous rulerof Delhi, who had defeated Ghori twice earlier, but in a display of incredible ignorance, let himgo free each time.2. The word 'slave' here has no demeaning connotations as capable servants were highlyvalued and often rose to positions of great responsibility, especially in military service.3. Brown, Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt.Ltd. Bombay, 1975.54. It is to be noted that in 'classical' Islamic architecture in Persia, decoration took the form ofvery geometric carving - arabesque - in intricate patterns, as well as verses from the Koran.The depiction of living form - human or not - was strictly prohibited.5. A similar Islamic tower in Spain6. Brown, Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt.Ltd. Bombay, 1975.











Consolidation and Continuation

The Beginnings of An Indo-Islamic Culture

The Qutb was the first monumental stamp of Islamic architecture in India and wasthe start of a long relationship between indigenous craftsmen and their Mamlukmasters. The grandiosity of its concept encouraged several rulers to continue addingto the structure and adding further stages.

The Arhai-din-ka Jhompra Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (A.D. 1211-1236),succeeding to the throne after Qutb-ud-Din's deathin a freak polo accident, was an energetic builder.

The first of his notable works was the addition of afacade to the Arhai-din ka Jhompra (literally, hut oftwo-and-a-half days) mosque built by hispredecessor at the military encampment of Ajmerin Rajasthan. Built on the same principles as theQuwwatu'l Islam at Delhi, this mosque at Ajmer islarger. The façade is similar to the one at theQutb, but here the similarity ends. The central archat Ajmer is straighter - Tudor Gothic - and the sidearches are multifoil and cusped, a common featurein other Islamic work outside India. The mainstylistic difference is evident in the It was not long,

however, before several other additions andalterations were made on the same site. The firstof these was by Iltutmish, who doubled the size ofthe original enclosure of the Quwwatu'l Islammosque, and added another screen of five archesto define the qibla (the axis towards Mecca). This

screen, though superficially the same as in the original mosque, has better stood theravages of time. The main differences are in the detail, with the carving using a purerIslamic vocabulary, though here too, in the sinous curves, the hand of the indigenouscraftsman is seen. The floriform low relief at the Qutb gives way to a far moregeometric, rigid style. This is by no means an advance over the Qutb mosque. Thearches seem almost a regression to a purer, stricter form of Islam with theirmonolithic and sombre appearance. Two broken minarets over the main archresemble the Qutb in their flutings.

The tombs of Iltutmish and Sultan Ghari With these two works, there appeared for the first time in India a strange and novelway of laying the dead to eternal rest - burying them with a tomb as a monumentalcenotaph. Iltutmish constructed his own tomb as well as that of his son Nasir-ud-dinMohammed - the so-called Sultan Ghari or 'Sultan of the Cave'. This is probably dueto the subterranean tomb chamber. The octagonal platform above was probablyintended to support a pillared pavilion, the whole of which has disappeared or was

never built. This platform was surrounded by a square masonry arcade on a highplinth, and according to Percy Brown, it has "such a grim and martial appearance

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that one of its more remote purposes may have been to serve as some kind ofadvanced outwork to the mainfortress of the capital".* The second main contribution of

Iltutmish was his own tomb, alittle to the north-west of theenlarged mosque at the Qutb,built a little before A.D. 1235.

A square 42 feet in side andwith a height of almost 30 feet,its plain and unadornedexteriors belie its interior - thewhole of which is covered from

top to bottom on all four sides by rich carvings almost rivaling Hindu temple sculptureon the sandstone-clad walls. The cenotaph and the three arches of the mehrab

towards the west(marking the direction of Mecca) are both in marble, again a riot ofinscriptions from the Quran.

Architecturally speaking, Iltutmish's tomb is interesting as it reveals quite clearly thefirst attempt in India to solve the 'dome on a square' problem - or in other words, howdo you support a circular shape on a square base? In this case, a 'squinch' wasemployed - a half-arch/dome spanning across the corners of the square base andmaking the square an octagon.

This can be repeated to transform the octagon into a sixteen-sided figure on whichthe base of the dome may rest. That the dome, if ever fully built, subsequentlycollapsed was a testimony to the fact that the it was imperfectly constructed -however an important start had been made and future attempts in this direction wereto grow ever more confident.

Balban's Tomb After the death of Iltutmish, there is little to be seen architecturally from the earlyyears of the Delhi Sultanate. The main reason for this were the squabblingsuccessors of the Sultan ruling for too short a time for any effective architecturalpatronage. There was thus an interregnum of 60 years - with one exception. This isthe tomb of Sultan Balban of the extremely short-lived 'House of Balban' (A.D. 1266-1287). Now a ruined and totally unremarkable structure in the extreme south of Delhi,

this tomb is notable because it introduced for the first time in India the principle of thetrue arch with radiating voussoirs.

This is not only a significant structural advance, but also a socio-cultural one. For itindicated that slowly but surely the Muslim rulers were ceasing to regard North Indiaas invaded territory. Delhi was becoming a city of repute attracting men of art andlearning, craftsmen, poets and historians. The early steps of creating a distinct Indo-Islamic culture were being taken.

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The Megalomania of Ala-ud-Din Khilji

After Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish, the Delhi Sultanate was marked by a long period ofbrief rules and frequent internecine warfare. This interregnum was to last for almostsixty years before any stable government could be re-established. Not surprisingly,there was little in the way of building achievement except for a few scattered tombsat Multan. The wars of succession and coronation left little scope to devote time orenergy to artistic and architectural patronage.

Some fifty years after Iltutmish, the Khiljis, a dynasty of Afghanized Turks fromGhazni, seized power in Delhi. With the third in the line, Ala-ud-Din (A.D. 1296-1316)a stable government was at last installed in Delhi. Ala-ud-Din was a prodigiousbuilder whose appetite for building was matched by his prowess in war. His mostnotable efforts, apart from shifting his capital from Lal Kot to Siri, were again to be

found at the site of the Qutb Minar - which by its very magnificence had become overthe years both an inspiration as well as a challenge to do better.

The Great Alai Minar Ala-ud-Din, true to form, felt compelled to increase even further the size of theQuwwatu'l Islam mosque. His scheme called for increasing the size of the enclosurefour times, providing ceremonial entrance gateways on each side, and a great minar ,twice the size of the Qutb - the Alai Minar . It would have been clear to anyone less megalomanic - 'with a vision less obscured

by self-exaltation1 - that such a grandiose project would be impossible in the Sultan'slifetime. Indeed, the Alai Minar today is a stump (albeit a magnificent one - we canwell imagine the proportions of the tower had it ever been finished), its rubble coreclearly showing as it rises up to one story.

The Alai Darwaza The only part of Ala-ud-Din's schemewhich was completed was the southernceremonial entrance - named the AlaiDarwaza after its builder. It is clear from

its appearance and construction that afresh new influence was at work - this isa piece of Muslim architecture hithertounknown in India. Historians havetraced its genealogy to the architecturefound in Asia Minor under the rule of theSeljuks in the early centuries of thesecond millennium. The breakup of the

Seljuk empire under the weight of Mongol invasions caused craftsmen and buildersto be scattered far and wide, and among the places offering sanctuary was the DelhiSultanate. Because of its revolutionary construction, the Alai Darwaza served as amodel for many of its successors.






The first innovation in the gateway was the system of walling, alternating betweenone course of stretchers - stone laid with its longer ends facing outward - and onecourse of headers - stone laid with its longer end going deep into the wall. Theheader course enabled the walling to penetrate into the rubble core and thus makethe wall as a whole stronger. This method of walling was to continue and was atypical characteristic of Mughal building.

The second innovation was the true arch2. This importedarcuated tradition was to play an important role as it wasto provide the prototype for successive Sultanate tombs.

In form the Alai Darwaza is a rectangular building on highplinth into which steps have been cut to access theinterior. The three outer faces are very similar with a tallarch over the steps. The plinth is carved in bands, andthe wall surface above is divided into two stories, eachfurther subdivided into rectangular panels. The lower of

these panels have a recessed arch while the upper onesinto smaller rectangles. At each point, the articulation ismarked by a mixture of sandstone and marble arabesqueand decorative carving.

However, by far the most imposing feature of thesefacades is the central arch, rising to nearly the whole height of the structure. In shapeit is rare - a horse-shoe or keel arch. Around its outer rim is a band of inscribed whitemarble. The intrados or the inner rim of the arch shows its most distinctive feature - afringe of lotus-bud carving.3

The inner façade, facing the mosque andQutb Minar, is different. For one, the openingis not a keel arch but a true semi-circular one,and for another it is clear that in its sensualand plastic decoration the indigenouscraftsman was given a much freer hand.

The interior of the structure is no lessremarkable for its technological innovation. First started in the tomb of Iltutmish (seeprevious article), the weight of the dome is transferred to the square base by thesame mechanism - the squinch. In this case, the squinch consists of five recessedarches gracefully transforming the square into the octagon, and the octagon into a

sixteen sided figure. Among the other architectural work of Ala-ud-Din, little remains except fragmentaryand crumbling structures. And though the work of the Khiljis was not entirely confinedto the capital city of Delhi, the influence of local workmen in the provinces and theeventual decline of the Khilji dynasty meant that these were never as remarkable norof as high a standard as the Alai Darwaza at the Qutb.

1. Brown, Percy Indian Architecture (Islamic Period) D.B. Taraporevala Sons and Co. Pvt.Ltd. Bombay, 1975, p.162. This was not the first time that a true arch had been used in India - it had been used inBalban's tomb before -

but this time it was employed in a far more influential building.3. This was originally thought to be a fringe of spear-heads but now are generally acceptedas lotus buds.










The Tughlaq Years

It was a time of elation. It was a time of rediscovery. From the corners of the landthey came, the master builders, for a new Sultan had taken his seat. And in his old

years, he had seen history. Seen empires rise and fall. And was laying the foundationof what he hoped would be an empire that would last far beyond his approachingdeath.

Of the three rulers of the Tughlaq dynasty,the first, Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325 A.D.) was already aged when he becameSultan, and ruled for barely five years. Thewarlike conditions prevailing throughout hisreign are best exemplified by hisarchitecture, which though secular orreligious, always has strong military

overtones, being able to be adapted for aspirited defence if necessary.

The major efforts of this man were concentrated on the building of his citadel, the cityof Tughlaqabad, one of the historical seven cities of Delhi. Today a neglected butmagnificent ruin. According to Percy Brown, “all that remains of this great enterpriseis a haunting scene of savage splendor...Nothing resembling this picture (oftreasures and palaces) can now be seen in the huge masses of broken masonry, theunadorned nature of which suggests that the project took more the form of a sternand practical stronghold, than a work of architectural significance.”

The citadel integrates outer defence with the inner city buildings, though little remainsof the latter but scattered ruins. The massive outer walls were sloping, followingapproximately the topography of the land, sited on a high outcrop of the southernDelhi ridge. At close intervals are semi-circular bastions with eyelets for archers tolook down and shoot at the enemy.

Little can be identified within these walls, but it is clear that there was some kind ofroyal palace with its accompanying residences, rooms for the women, halls ofaudience as well as a connecting passageway to themonument just opposite, Ghiyas-ud-Din’s tomb. The Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din In stark contrast to the dilapidated condition of thefortress, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din is almostperfectly preserved. This originally stood in themiddle of an artificial lake, and the arched causewaywhich connected it to the citadel has now beenreplaced, with the drying up of the water body, by anoffshoot of Mathura Road leading to the Qutb. Thetomb itself is almost like a miniature fortress, withsloping crenellated outer walls, complete with eyeletsfor archery. It is almost like a rallying point for a last,hopeless defence, much in the manner of SultanGhari’s tomb.



The Tughlaq Years - 2 The plan of this fortress-tomb is an irregular pentagon, with a bastion at each angleof its outer walls. The tomb walls are clad for the most part with red sandstone and

the dome with marble. Themost distinctive feature,however, are its sloping walls,about which much excitedscholarly discussion has takenplace. The commonlyaccepted view is that the tombis an offshoot, or adescendant, of a similarcontemporaneous tomb atMultan (in modern Pakistan)of Shah Rukn-i-Alam.

(Picture on Right >>>). In the latter, the use of sun-dried brick made slopingwalls a structural necessity, much like Egyptiantemple pylons, but this feature was transferredunchanged to the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din, wherestone was used for the walls.

The tomb continues the lotus-bud fringes found inthe arch of the Alai Darwaza, and there are many

other stylistic similarities. Another interesting featureis the presence of a structurally redundant lintel overthe arched gateways. It is almost as if theindigenous craftsmen, still not trusting the true archas a means of support, were being safe byintroducing a lintel. That this lintel also introduces anelement of style was incidental.

It is in this tomb that we first begin to get a hint ofwhat would follow in the coming centuries. There isthe same vocabulary - begun in the Alai Darwaza - of red sandstone cladding andwhite marble. The massive outer walls, made for defence, could be easily toned

down to graceful perimeter guards. Today, the tomb is overrun by monkeys,hundreds of them at a time, bereft of tourists unlike the nearby Qutb, yet itsimportance cannot be denied, the last stand of a Sultan who was destined to die atthe hands of his son. The site of Tughlaqabad is desolate, ruined and magnificent -very much like the history of the Sultanate which set the base for Muslim rule in India.



The Tughlaq Years - 3 The Bara-Khamba

Barakhamba Road in modern Delhi is one of the major entrances to ConnaughtPlace, and its high buildings with corporate offices and banks contributes mainly to

the city’s burgeoningskyline. It is also famousfor Modern School(Barakhamba Road)which has makes aregular contribution to theranks of India’s rich andfamous every year.

However, the name Bara-khamba or Twelve Pillarsderives from the house ofa nobleman originallyerected there, of whichlittle remains. Thesurviving evidence is ofinterest because this isone of the few caseswhen secular architecture

- as opposed to religious or military - has been found in any degree of preservation

this far back in time. A reconstruction of the house would show it enclosed in a highperimeter wall containing an open courtyard with rooms around, a roof terrace, ancourt with a chabootra or platform for sitting in the open, as well as a quirky three-story high tower, probably used for looking at the city.

Sultan Mohammed Tughlaq (1325-1351 A.D.) in whose reign this was built, was notknown for much else except his wacky, ill-timed policy decisions which, visionarythough they may have been, lacked the authority and persistence of the Sultan tomake them really work. Among these were the shifting of the Capital to Daulatabad inthe Deccan (to administer the empire from a central location). One side effect of thiswas the undoing of all the good work of the previous generations in Delhi, whichbecame for a time desolate and abandoned. A significant proportion of the population

died en route to Daulatabad, and another percentage on the way back, some yearslater, when it was apparent that the scheme had failed. The introduction of tokenmoney instead of precious metals also had similar results, with confusion and evenchaos resulting for a time.

The throne of Delhi, emasculated by years of incessant warfare in the Deccan andthe profligacies of Muhammed bin Tughlaq, had its coffers nearly empty by the timeFiroz Shah (1351-1388 A.D.) came to power. This ruler leaves behind a wealth ofarchitectural evidence that is a testimony both to the age in which they were built, aswell as to his propensity for architecture. Today, Firoz Shah Kotla and Hauz Khas aremore famous, respectively, as a cricket ground and the feeding grounds of Delhi’shoi-polloi, but they stand as mute witnesses to the dying flickers of the Sultanate.

These, and more, in the next column.



Firoz Shah and After After the capricious reignof Muhammed binTughlaq, his cousin, thedevout (and evenbigoted!) Firoz ShahTughlaq (1351-1388 A.D.) became Sultan.Firoz Shah inherited,thanks largely to thedisastrous policies of hispredecessor, nearly

empty coffers and adisintegrating empire. This did not stop him from embarking on a vigorous campaignof building, and in the words of a contemporary historian he was eventuallyresponsible for “1200 gardens around Delhi...200 towns, 40 mosques, 30 villages, 30reservoirs, 50 dams, 100 hospitals, 100 public baths and 150 bridges.” These claimsare no doubt exaggerated but underscore his interest in architecture. In his ownwords “...among the Gifts that God has bestowed on me...is a desire to erect publicbuildings.” * The architecture of Firoz Shah is stern, utilitarian, almost tragic - at times hauntinglylovely (Hauz Khas Madrasa by night), at times warningly forbidding. This is due in no

small measure to its rough exposed finish (the glazed tiles having come off a longtime ago) as well as the lack of skilled masons and sufficient capital. The unfortunateand appalling state of neglect of the monuments today does nothing to amelioratethis perception.

A new Capital Firoz Shah built a new capital city on the banks of the Yamuna, called Firoz ShahKotla, thereby abandoning the old fort-city of Tughlaqabad. Apart from the desire ofthe new Sultan to make his mark, this decision could also have been prompted by anincreasingly irregular water supply at Tughlaqabad.

The fort itself was fairly straightforward, using common-sense building principlesused the world over for buildings of a similar type.



The king’s quarters as well as those of his wives and concubines were situated alongthe river-front. Within the perimeter walls of the fort were structures serving asbarracks, armouries, rooms for servants, halls for audience, an imposing mosque, aswell as public and private baths, a stepped well or baoli, and an Ashokan pillar

removed from Ambalaand mounted on top of apyramidal three-tieredconstruction.Symbolically, this was anicon of the Sultan’ssupremacy in North India,very much like the GuptaIron Pillar in the Q’uwwat-ul-Islam mosque at theQutb.

Of Firoz Shah’s numerous

mosques, the chief onesare the Kali masjid, theBegumpuri masjid, Kalanmasjid and Khirki masjid

at Jahanpanah. This last is interesting not only for its cruciform plan, but alsobecause it is one of the few examples of covered mosques in India. Thecongregational nature of worship in Islam has generally resulted in mosques having alarge common open space in which to pray. But the roofing of the Khirki masjid anddividing of the interior spaces into various small courtyards - perhaps to avoid thescorching heat of North India in the summer - effectively broke up the congregationinto small groups. Whatever the reason for this unusual masjid, it was apparently notvery successful as a building type and was not repeated.

Today the Khirki masjid has its own village - Khirki village - in Delhi, near modernSaket. Indeed, from the road, the mosque can barely be glimpsed. The narrow pathsof the village twist and turn until suddenly you are face to face with an imposingstructure mounted on an impressively high plinth. The village chokes the mosque,encroaches on its space - but perhaps the very unexpectedness of the building is thereason for its powerful solemnity. A failure as a building type, the Khirki Masjid todayis an architectural gem tucked away in a forgotten corner of one of India’s largestmetropolises



The End of the Delhi Sultanate The invasion of Timurlane (see previous article) left Delhi sacked and in ruins. The

once mighty city of the Delhi Sultanate, home to kings and dynasties, was left ashattered wreck. It took more than a century for the city to regain a semblance of itsformer prestige, first under the Sayyids and then under the Lodis. This was, as itwould eventually turn out, a mere pause, for the death knell of the Sultanate had longbeen sounded, and it only remained for Babur to invade India to lay the foundation ofthat mightiest of dynasties in India – the great Mughals.

Still, this event was some years away. Building work in Delhi continued after afashion, yet the prodigious output of the previous dynasties in terms of capitals,fortresses and civil work was replaced by a more somber, funerary architecture oftombs and mosques. In the words of Percy Brown, “Scores of large tombs thereforearose within its (Delhi’s) neighborhood, so much so that in the course of time the

country around the capital was converted into a large necropolis.*”

The Sultans and the Nobles A closer examination shows that we canclassify the tombs built during this period(15th and 16th centuries) into two typesbased on their plan. The first, based onan octagonal plan, were derivations fromthe original of Khan-i-Jahan Telegani (seeprevious article). The main features

common to all tombs of this type may besummed up as : an octagonal plan with averandah with an arched colonnade on allsides, a projecting eave and a height ofone storey. This building would have adome on top, of varying height, andsometimes kiosks or chhattris on the roof.

With minor modifications such as raising the height of the dome to make it morevisible, these tombs carried on with little major modification. The culmination wouldprobably be Sher Shah’s magnificent tomb in Sasaram, Bihar, which will bediscussed in a later column. One notable addition in the tomb of Sikander Lodi (died

1517 A.D.) was the introduction of a double dome, for the first time in India. A doubledome consists of an inner and outer shell, andthis innovation becomes necessary when theheight of the dome is increased to create a moreimposing elevation. Unfortunately, the height ofthe inner chamber also increases, making it allout of proportion to the inner spaces. To preventthis, an inner, lower shell is added to the dome. The other type of tomb of tomb was square inplan, without a verandah, and going up to three

stories in height, or rather, the illusion of stories,as this effect was mostly given by lines of stonesand arches as decorative elements, to make the














exterior proportion acceptable, whereas the interior in reality was a double or tripleheight space. The façade had a central rectangle articulated by an arched doorway,and the roof, as in the octagonal type, had a dome.

It seems clear enough that the octagonal tombs were reserved for the royal line, i.e.

the sultans (examples being those of Mubarak Sayyid, Muhammed Sayyid, andSikander Lodi), whereas the square tombs were for high-ranking nobles. However,while the octagonal tombs are all identifiable, the square ones are known merely bytheir common names and it is not known any longer who lies buried in them.

The End of the Delhi Sultanate – 2 Mosques

The experiment with covered-court mosques having being hastily jettisoned after the

Khirki Masjid, a more conventional mosque form was resorted to in the Lodi period. Apart from the mosques attached to tombs, one large, independent structure whichwas to be the forerunner of a whole series of mosques was constructed during thereign of Sikander Lodi – the Moth-ki-Masjid. The complete series, chronologically, is(i) the mosque attached to the Bara Gumbad, 1494, (ii) Moth-ki-Masjid c.1505 (iii)Jamala Mosque or Jamali-Kamali, 1536, (iv) Qila-I-Kuhna Masjid c.1550. The lastwas built as Sher Shah’s private chapel and is a gem, the culmination of this mosquetype.

A look at the first in the series, the mosque with theBara Gumbad, shows the genesis of the form, withfive arches receding arches in the façade and domes

on top. However, the faulty proportions as well asclumsy handling of the arches with their weak curvesindicate the hesitancy of the designers in building anew typology.

The next mosque in the series, the Moth-ki-Masjid, shows the rapid crystallization of theearlier concept. Firstly, it is considerablylarger than its predecessor. Secondly, the

articulation of the recessed arches is farmore adept. Thirdly, embellishment has beendone using elegant niches on the columnsabutting the arches. Another important

feature is the use of better material andcolor, as if the masons were trying forsomething more permanent and forceful.

The third of the examples of this type oftomb, and the last to be discussed here, is agem of a structure originally called the

Jamala tomb, but now popularly calledJamali-Kamali. But the story of Jamali-



Kamali lies elsewhere, for before it was finished, a cataclysmic event had taken place – the third battle of Panipat in 1526 A.D., when a small but well-led force of cavalryand artillery led by Babur defeated the fractious Afghan nobles led by the last LodiSultan.

And so passed into history the Delhi Sultanate. It had a long history, starting from theearly days of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak, passing through numerous dynasties, sultans,intrigues, wars and defeats. The Delhi Sultanate was dead, but it had left behind itslegacies. Delhi would forever be the most important city in the north, the master ofwhom would rule India. The city itself was dotted with symbols of kings fallen andrisen again, of victories and triumphs, of despair, and in its silent tombs, of eventualdeath.

9.the islamic influence

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