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HOC OPUS PROFESSORIRADU MANOLESCU

A MEMBRIS SOCIETATIS

0!JV1cS']J{fLfcSDEDICATUM EST

Profesorul ROOu Manolescu 0 moreat, prin modul sdu de a expune istottaevului mediu, peste 20 de promp!ii de studen,i. Autor nu numai a

numeroase lucriJri de specialitate dar,i cursuri universitare,profes()rul ROOu Mimolescu nu a ocolit nici domeniul

importantal stiin!elor ausiliare. paleografialatinll fiind una dinma~ile tratase cu ceo

mat mate aigenta. De/apt profesorul,RaJu Manolescu va continua sd

predea prin fostii siii student;, ,ajlatiazi la casedra.,

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o PRECIZARE PRIVIND RAPORTURILEDINTRE TARA ROMANEASCA ~I UNGARIA

iNSECOLULAL IV-LEA

OvidibCRISTEA

lurimAntui de vasalitate'depUs de NicolaeAle~ fn faFt lui Ludovic deAl\iou~~ dlnlle celeDtaicomrpversate mcmeere are raportUtilor dintreTara ~QD'!IDea'Clfl UD8aDiI. tn secolul atXIV-lea. apu;odul tn disctJ!ie este revelalde crOnica lui lOBO de'I1.rnaveJn -fclu1 uimltor: "Cum autem esset in partibus

.meamratis quidaJi:{princeps seu bam potentissimus, Alexander, Waywoda'I'ran-.lpinus. ditionieiusdem subiecrus, qui tempore quondam Carol! regis, patrissui; a via fideUtatis divertendo rebellaverer et par mulla tempore in rebellionepennaIlenserat. audita pietatis ac etiam potestatis eiusdem Ludovici regis fama adipsum sponte, personaliter venlens. circa confinia ipsorum partium, ad pedes regiemajestptjs bnmoten1JS estprostratuset ad obedienliam ac fidelitatem debitamreductus;et integratus. sotenaia munera, xenia et clednoia praestando er suum dominium acsanctam coronamrecognoscendo, cumgaudioet laeritla, ad propriaremeavir, ab iliatemporefidelitatemconservavit "(I). ("Cuminsiexistii in pirfileamintite un principesan baron preaputemic, Alexandru voievodul transalpin, SUpUS st1i.pii.nirii aeesuia,care io timpul riposatului Carol.lalil sau. se indepirtase de calea fidelitijii ~i ramasesevreme iodelungat! in stare de rebeliuoe, auzind despre faima pieWii si a puterii, .acestui rege Ludovic, vcoind Ia el de bun! voie, to persoani, la botarele acelor p!rfi,

, s-a posternat la plmint Ia picioarele majestl~ii regale, revenind la ascultarea Iifidelitatea datorat:I; s-a reintegrat <in ascultare> prestandofrande solemne, daruripodoare ri recuno~ stlpAnirea acestuia si smnlacorcang, s-a inapoiat cu bucuriesi veselie Ia ale sale <si> din vremea acw: a pllstrat ndelttarea '').. . , ,

Pasajul de mai sus aridicatdouA probleme strAns legate illtre e1e: veridicilateaepisodului fidatareasa. Dificultatea escnfial1constI in fapeul ci la inceputul domnieilui Ludovic - c4nd arhidiaconul de TArnave plaseazi prestarea omagiului - domn inJam. RomAoeascll. era Basarab I, nicidecum fiul sill; ,i atunct se poate pune pe dreptcovAnt intreba:rea: cum soar putea Inchipui un jurlmll.nt de vasalilate allui NicolaeAlexandru inainte de 1352 ? (2).

SesizAnd nepotrivirea istoncii au rncercet sa propunli sOluJii diferire; astfelEmil Uzlrescu, fIrI a oega veridicitatea depunerii omagiului, coosiderll. ea acestatrebuie sa se fi petrecut iotte 1152-1355, mai exact in 1353 sau 1354 (3).

In replicA. Zenovie Pacusanu arata eli solutia propus1i este nesanstacaoere, ,3

alat pentru di penrru iutervalul [342- [352 datele eronlcii sunr foarte precise cat ~i

deoarece tmre 1352 si 1354 regele nu s-a aflat in Transilvania, prezeuta sa fiind. , .'atestau aici in 1344. Mai depone episodul era explicat prin faptul eil lu acea dalaNicolae Alexandru era asoclat la domnie tatalui sau (4).

Aeest punet de vedere nu a fost insa unanim acceptat. Maria Holban eonsideradi am fi In fUfa unei duble imposibilimli: nu putea fi valabil omagiul asociatului ladomnie lara adeziunea domnului, ~i dadi at fi exister 0 astfel de adeznme eronicarulnu ar fi scapat prilejul de a 0 eonsemna (5). Autoarea conatdera ca juram1intul nu aavut loe si eli arhidiaeonul deT1Irnavenu a tlcut alteeva dedit sa atribuie domniei lui•Ludovie 0 realizare a tatglui sau - aluzie la momenlU11324 (6).

La aeeste ipoteze cu greu s-ar mai aducc eeva in plua. ~!'JD,In11micde tevoeresi concizia lor exttemi, rae imposiblli foimularea tml;i ,SoJUJii definitive.:, Cu toete accstea credem ci un document 'datAnd.din"ump"idomniei luiVl3dislav I ar putea pennite 0 nuan~ a episodului~t In vmnea lui NicolaeAlexandru. .-

Este yorba de ordinul de cbemare la cesie ernis de-Ludovic de Anjou 1a 5ianuarie 1365 pentru comitatul Cluj. In aces! text regele eltpune ~vele pomiriirazbolulul impotriva Tiirii Romanegti in felul urmator: "Intructr rsposatut<Alexandru> voievodul ,nrii Romane~lica unul ee ~i-a uitat binefacerile primite dela noi ~i en un nerecunosceror inca pe cand se bueura de via~ pamanteascii. nu s-atnfricosat <sa calces- cu indrlizneala cuteziUoare credintasa eu care s-a legat<fap.denob cat ~i scrisorile tntocmite tmre el ~i noi cu privire la anwnite In~1egeri.dari ~i

... cuvenite noua <in temeiul> stilpllnirii ooastre fIre~ti <~i fiindcA> apoi, murind el,fiul sau Vladislav, unmlnd relele deprinderi piirin~1i -enerecunoscandu-nec- catufide pu~in de smp!n al sau firese, fiiri a De intrebR fi a ne cere tnyoirea ipsvpndu.p inpomepjta paastrii Tad Romaneasca, ce pi se cuyine pouii dYpa dfClltul ~ rMdujaianBFdj. nymirea sa minciooasa <de down> intru infnIDQmji dnmnuluj <8"> de laHim; ttslmie sa caw cJ semnele <puterii> sale· a euftjzpt sa !ni'S' in locu!. ,lalij,Min WAupul sus pnrnMjftji "oastre po RmpaneJd eu inynirea trld!UODm fi !9iPicata,leacre a romAnUw ,i a locujtonlo[ aceki po; (7).Cuvintele regelui SUDl foartesugestive. Prima parte a documentului citat face a1uzie credem 1a episodul relatat deloande Tirnave. Ni lie pomeneec scrisorile.ln~legerile,i drepturile pecareLudovicIe avea tn calilatea sa de suzeran, precum fi tnciilciarea acestora. de citre NieolaeAlexandru. AjungAnd insll la urmajul aeestuiaesle ariltatll cu elaritate cauzanemul~ regale: Vladislav ,i.a asumal titlul de domn autocrat, ceea ee In ochiAngevinului echivala cu 0 uzurpare, 0 "numire miocinoasil".

Pomind de la aceastA constatare, insoptA de aceea dopacareinscmnele puteriivoievodale trebuiau sA fie primite din partea rege1ui, omagiul din 1344ne apare nunumai ea un act depus de un asociat la domnie, ci ,i ea un jurW:nAnt al potcnpaiuluimoetennor al tronului ram ROmAnefti lnsotil de confirmarea regali.

I Faptu! eil. Vladislav I nu a repetat gestul pirintelui du explicA tncordarea dinreleprle cu Ungaria. Alitudineadomliului muntean este'in stransii legilturlicu situapapolilicii din ZOM.

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DacA in 1344 reconcilierea mWlteano-ungarAse integra in declanserea ofensiveiantitltare a r9gal:elor cetolice (8), tendintele Ungariei de expansiune politid.re1igioast, confesionall au impus Tilrii RomADefti tndepifrtarea trcplati de 'liatuldu. Dupa: cein 13.19 Nico1ae~fik:ee UD prim pas in afirnuu"ea independenleiin report cu Angevinii, la moartea sa Vladislav I CObIidora inutilil confumarea sacadamn din partea: regalittpi. . ,

f.n relul acestase instituia, dup! fonnula luiNicoJae lorga"0 vasalitate speeiall"de tipul celei mstente intrc regii AngIiei fi Fnmtei (9).

In~ ce De privestc ineheie:m. rlnduriJe'de ... considerind cA in Illmm.dooImentuJui din 1365 plostalea omagillb.ti, de""elM de clare NicoIae,AltxPlldnaau mai poate fi PUS,Ia, Woi:!,~ • ~wt. P~&:"!i'~,~ ..'ICtb II "Ie ul) flriilL' -.,u p• .,..,.·.·oa...'!"'·_CICUl1)doIP,lOJl'!«:O.. ,....,.lodimR·~.Anjoa'B' 1bI.'" ."., " l\-,.,,,1.

NOTE

1. "&;I'iptoiY!H'BtWIf hungariCll11#1t" • I, p. 147.2. MARIAHOLB~. "Din crontca rel"fiiw ronuJno..lUlgare In secoJulalXIV­

lea",B~, 1981, p. 140.3. E. LAzARESCU, "Despre re/a(ii/e lui NtcolaeAiexandm voievoaat ungurll".

R.I., 32, 1946, p. 115-139.4. Z. pACLl~AN, RI.R., 17, 1947, 1-2, p. 167~168; nu csteUII studiu ci 0 scurtA

teceDZi.e Ia articolul lui E.LIzIrescu.5. MARIAHOLBAN. op.cit., p.140-141; inceeaceprivepaIdoileaargurnem

nu aedem cI automI. croni.cii percepee "n1l8Dfcle" situafiei din ram Ronillneasca.PeJltru cronicar asocierea Ia domnie probabil cI era nectmoSCUII.

6. Idem, 111 jurull;lJ"OIricii arbidiaconutui loan de TAmave (KOkOllO) Ji infonnaPilepri¥iad peromiDi. AIIAX. 21, 1984, p. 106-107.

7. DRH,D,I,d.42,p,78-79.B. G.I. BRArIANu. "In TOI,. HtNYlrie eJ 168PrJtlclpaUles Roumainu au..mi:

slide '; ARBSH, 28, 1947. I, p.76-79; f.PAPACOSTEA, "OeutIza italuI.ui tnewIrnrdiu rodneao". Cluj. 1988, p. 42-44.

9. N.IORGA,. Originea/i senau/ dil¥C(iiltNpoIUice In treCSd1lI 'fIrl10l'~ II."Studil tisupra emui mediu lOmdnesc", ed, 'erban Papacostea, BUCllI'Cfd, 19M. p.84,

ElM AufkIIl'UIII die Btdehuqea~WalaeheilUld V"'ra im XIV J.hrhUDdert betutdat

DieIeNoW: diu"ricrt: .•Die WIbdIIfliabit da-1!inIeBubI: dca VatelJidtachwur von Ntco1ac Ammdru YaI'LuolvOo-_ '-DieBed d...,derOeblade: dieAuerkenmllllldcrN'M~1JIIiIIt1m1bRItldal

N*llllhen Hernchen.

sI

MERCENARII IN FRANTARAZBOAIEWR RELIGIOASE

(1560· 1598)

"Mibai DlNU"". .' ' - ,. .!.,',' .; :>,.... /.,. " -

In r562.in FnnfaJ'ivifiti de Rc,{~'iz~* rlzboaiele religioase>,'Cronologia lor aproximativiestc~ A/lS62~tS63; B.1567.~ 1568;C 1568 - 1570; D. 1572 - 1573;E. 1574 - 1576; F. 1577; G. 1579 - 1580; H.A58S· 1598.

Aceste r8zboaie fac parte din drama european! ,i sunt legale de intragacrizi a lumii meditereneene (1). Defi nu ceecsc dedt foaite tar bitmii relativinsemnate, de~j se Iimireaza la acf.iuni locale li cucenri de ce'tlfi. iarefectivelearmatelor sumreduse, ele transtorma Frantatnfr-un cilnp deoperapunimilitarepe care se infrunta timp de 0 jumdtate de secol armate Cll 0 coloratura etnicivariatii.

Particularitatea cea mai vizibila a acestor infrunt!ri din secolul al XVI·lea francez0 constituiestructuratehnicii fi etnicaa annatelor,in special numirulmare de mercenari angaja~intr-un contltcr naponaJ episodic.

Fritz Redlich sublinia in lucrarea sa "The Qerman Military Entrepriserand His WarForce" faptul caexisrau in: aeea perioadi dcea tipuri de mercenaridezradicinap individuali - in Jimbajul epocii ''fahrendcs volk" • sau ritAcitori,,i exista, de asemenea, in Elvetia ,i Gcnnania 0 varietatemai "sedentari", care"ta111Anea inridlcmati in comunitlple de acasI. Reprei.CntanJii acesteia erauasemenea anei miliVi cbemate in imprejuriri entice. (2)

Singumladaosncccsarla aceastil definitieestecl inccade-adouacategoric- .' . ' .if au locullfi IlidCOOarU fnmcezl existen~ ioU-uri numlrconsiderabil to Picanfut,

Bretania ,i mal ales Gaeconte.tn tot secolul al Xvl-tea.Prima prezenJi semnificativi a unor trope de mercenari striini pe

teritoriul FranlCi se plaseazi in ultima treime a veacului al Xv-tea, mai precisdupa 1474,cARd regele Louis Xl av!i:Jd de irifiuntatun adversarredutabil- pcregele Carol Temerarol ~ a semnat la Constanta un tratat de "vesmca unire" eu, ,Confederapa Cantoanelor Elvegiene, (3)

Unadin c1auzele tratatululli permitearegelui Fran~ sAl'CCiUteze soldapice vor fi - de acum inainte, timp de trei seccle - indispensabili penbU armataregala.

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Elve~a, convenabil de aproplatA. va deveni pentru regii ceea ce TaraGalilor fusese I¥Dtru englezi.(4),' '

_A existat 0 timidUncercare de constituire a unei annate iJationaie in, .' .

timpul dorimi~ lui Francisc I. Printr-o ordonanfli regali, la 24 iulie 1534,erau create 71egiuni de infanterie,fiecare recrutate fi cantonate' tn 7 manProvineii: Normaildia, Bourgogne, Languedoc: Bretania;Picardia, 'Dauphinesi Guyene. (5) Masura QU a dat rezultatele lIcontAte. Sub Henri II a fost ',llbarickinati, demonstrind tnea 0 datA inferioritateainfanteriei franceze.

.Do altfet Sirtluodcsa-ln 1•..-sa"A HiBlmy ofl!lc AI! ofWar""""!tato.sA""~~!'OS"1IIoolltlil.-·"'1lI1iiI\I_1I",,!,"'O'li1i~!llI'ia;~\iI<l!"Il!Il!""""_~",t6} ,'. A', "

_,", "i-Ne~~~-~FJ*o)d ...&atl1a'~~_rq,cdt,"'..dcoI! ~,~;tIJpJIjIod .•• "" clM,1Dci faptoIln5ofl. 00 .....Igor.'\V~~ ~tn eJ(~ .._~~~,lupteLobositoBrealbOiUidtiei peJitru­ct:ccua nnw scat ~it;(7).lJitluCtoeste ~'dupl Francllc,1, 'apelul,la"~e1"""'~~"""pea .._. ftao=iI;. . . '" ""'~J"~aRCCOlulUial_XVl-JcarepreziotAapOgeutacesteipractici.

CifidcO.dcntons=atii4-lupta, de III Dreux, in 1562. jumlltate din armata~ era- c6mpusi din metcenaristriini, din care 6000 sunt elveJieni; 108JatrW; ,1 MObconiour- (1569), auntirullor oscileaz1 intre 6000 si '8000, (8).Cifra se _ .... jl'!'bl!...nlv,. .'

-. _In~,'liceaItl~OI4IoJt~ constituie principaIa toqA aregelui,Gat:da sa peBoJialI,efIlc -eJ¢(mitAdfu clVCJieni, far uilCOfttingent de 2000 de ,0llJneJ>I""P- .....".....,t lnPari"u1> Carol lX(1560- 1574)~H.nrim.(1,,'~"~1~9~). '~Jll.da~~~ Catherinade Medicisestealc!tuiti tot<Iin~cl' " ." . . '.'_,', "Fran9oii'~ville.IDlU'Cf8l' ill FranprisubHenri H, Francisc n fi

. Carol.pc.'ne'~tA,~ I8lemec;anismul recmtIrii' ti'u.pelor de....-eivevcm· .' .: ,'.' .,. .• .:~obi~ol".~ spiU)O el -vde e lC~oi Ia tiecare:domniC~:Cu:

Conft:nIeratia ~vetian"clre bepemu~ retlrutatea de oairteni din, aC:este' ,_Cimto8DC"•(9)0!iP4urcareape.fronalui Cerol IX.aspect8J ace&ta fUsese neatiJat _-, In 1S64.Iaptin 'ooIJic'''' J>uabeooJIi. .CatorioadcMcdicis~,tntr~UD~IjU de CClI'oanI> ~'lAIatului co COnfedentia CafttoeftClormvepene.¥-1lIltDoJlJeQt tn" ClIRI _vea nevoie mai multtaoricinddeserviCiileso1cfali1orcl~.. . , '. .. ~ de Vieillo:ville. fost tnsIfclnat cu.rezoJvarQ acestei probteme.

.Dupl douI .)W!i de.ncsocieif<:u l'CpI'CZCDtanJU cantoanelor; limp tri careamhueeioP ai lmpbtnlui ri PapeJ, sosiJi la LucCma auinoercat si 'saboiezetnlClegerea, VieiUcville a retlfit sa semneze tratatulla 7 decembrie I564" tratat

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Dtetagermanadin 1570, intrunitAla Spire,a fncercei siipum capiltaceste\ptactici.interzk:ind supufilorde a mai presre,astlel de servicil in afaragranijdorImperiului (Artikul auffdie Deutschen Knecht) (17). Dar obiceiul a persister, .ba chiar a inflorit.

. In asa "lstorie Universala" (carteaLXI), DeThou ob.servacA "acestoblceiaves; drept seep in;tpiedic,area inmuierii curajului najiunii germane prlninac~une".rn Germanie, ,meccenarii cavaleri emu Dwni~ ~tIri (rc.item), iar

.~-"Ii (Ian_Is), In sccolul al XVI-lea ~irU_ eraui.,.nvi4uaJe, ca ji in cazu] _lveJieuilor. De oi>iee;, ole..con_la _

_ ~.~~~,~eau ,co1ODCii fi~«anii .....~~'iufla vidtul", _·c~ jf~ in c1u....._.-.I"""!'1"PeoilJl.~dodi .t -_~'advi' ai'-difcriJilor suyerui .-\'CIIiJi-pea~ ,a nepia(tmpriitnutm.i cu, '?"",~ ppen.... astilbili '"eIpi~..."rut de oa"'" doriL"(18)" .' .'

:, ': ':·'U~cpI~ficJpicanijrscBII"'''.or;.,tn~UDOt~te'. M,;a1l'>i.......ll.wick; las..a;1lo.~",~pI'<a1abi1. al prinl"11Ihu-.. .

., Soldalunatl a unui raitlr erade 14 florini renani, ceaa Iioschenetuluide4 flOrini. 'Un colonel de raitiri primea lunar4048florini.iarcc1 aJI~or~302- florini. (19) Pentru mercenarii de rAnd•.solda era mal mult ddt~ de eceee IipsurlIe Ieacapca:eau distrugAnd ,i jefuind totol pc ruta ­

"pecaresedepJasau~ PracQC8 eraC\)~ tuturor mcrcenarilor. ', .-- ,Un rcgimentde niitlri ora format din 1500 de. OI8mcni impIrtiJi in 5

.......... fieclUpoJi '" armurll._pWoI fisaI"o. U1I~lde 1ansclleneji....... 2000 de ,olda~ diviuJi in 6 compaoli (..... de $0() dboameui. altele .tk?3Ol)). (20) .::':.,,'-:I.p~pllerau~cchipaJi; fDtf.,ocompanie~300dcOllDlCDi;

:·80.....mu-.2QsuIi.. ji.....2Qba_IO.m>J!'pen....doulimAmi.:» f170~. (21) • .. .' .•... . ., " 'lfaisuapomcnitulmarepl de VlcWevillc. trimis~ ambesadorla VIeIUlInI~"" ji bUsi.... dealoa1csl""'aeUprinJll gemuull filo.fron_. Din-.priv!D4 C11lioriasa >fI1m cI JaAu..bura n~ "toti CQIoeeil.

-.~ clpita# ji senoitorii 0Cu1ji. penoionari al~. ""Wi",,-.l~ dcsoairea 88 ti care nUfureazll de ,40000 de scuzi. (22). InteresantA

_ ji recoinandarea pc care 0,face aceatora de a ''continUil. in afecpunea ,i,fide11t8Wt peCate 0 manUCstIlQ sei\iclul regelulce domneslc in prezent(Carol.OOjiaCoroanoi ""'¥(...)~pedeasupno sI11111Jocll Die; 0 ,.;diearede soJdaIi.lidt",valericiljlpedestnojipeat<oa...,. in_""lWexplOllUl_'al ReB¢ltrl "prine-o __ ........ de mioa sa (...j". ~) MecaoDmulreCriltIrii este deci Memln1tor cclui elveJian.

9

RegeJe areacorduI principilor germanide a ridicacontingcnte in teritoriul, lor prin inteqnediul unor coIonei...fd\tleptCilori. acord bine plltit de coroena--Vieilleville enumerl chiat 0 serle de asemenea prinJi. pensionari printre

cere Iandgraful de _ duceIe Auguot de Saxa-Cobur Ii altii (24).A1Aturi dotrupeladll_ prmani1i-.rn,·soldeJiengIezi,_

spanioli Iuptl tnIr.oo tabIrI sao alta In baaUID batate Inmate iittre suveranii­lor ~ soticiump. De asemenea. In Did--\Ul~ nil5UDt de, ncgIijat merceuarii-. proveni~ In~ din (lpJconja Ii~ man zona ogricola8lIb dezwJ:tate, W1do,,(enoI " ·iT4I\tUIui-etinaeeoceridicate. 8JtntOme_1I~btnttumlrd, Odcle ,trddilUi...-Putrlzboaie1oritalieae.AIOIil"......,.,dI;o.l50deo-·.law.utli~1ngaaaaJ.indivizi4iDdrqdiasociU'dt..ali.·'·~.cIe·1Iopficdi'iinlJiti 'lIIIflcuftoinla .de crin sau eu~tli., (25) •

. FenomcmuI va-cnl"" o~~lebitI,!rttot ~lulat:XVI,:,1eI .apIrtDd numarofi.......-..;- ft&lI""';carnorl\lOa_ofariDdu.~ serviciile diferiJil~~ ~tanp..' , .'; Astfelde noblil-lIllbepniitiOrt au lost: La M61le. conte1e Coc<mat. Henri~ la Tour. viconte de Turenne. viitorul marqal al FranJe~ care Ji-a fnceputcafi;era militall ca simplu clpitaDai unci bande de 50 de O&meni. LaumIt deBois, mOl da Saint·M&I1in IiaItii. (26) . . . .

CQIIl era de ....81. apelulpoeralizld Iametcenarial statului francezaawl drept coiIsecinJI imedjafl ueate:eearapidl a sumelora1ocate aqiunUormilitare. Cei lacare s-a itlcul'Sau fttst~es baDcherii. iar haul acesta seva face COIl!ltarlt pAnlla Ruboiul de 30 de ani. (21)

In lOt....luI al XVI-1aa, 1/3 din ........ .-1Ii era razarwtI .....ta ..In 1514 h'& tulorado 4800000 IMe, iarln 1510 de I05510Q0 h(21)

Dar,In"""'''''';' _ .... "lera_dapIfitI. 1n.l$74,~u"Ji,~ 0 DOUl ann.... CII'ol tx. DlMJit .. oeirI ~"600000h diD ....... i sa_ ddt 300000. (29). V. G.~ Illlu<aoiia.. "Faraian_alllIld A_..~,.v-Ill_ ""'''-<;I.dafi liraballipu .,. .........p.....ii_....... !l' iTguwmaIaI"'! "'_ un"""mai dacltraballiIn_j.. (~:·>;' .:.,.

0riCUltl. ·wi Prinfului IaU replui aJ cIrui tezam' era IOU,~:~,am1uareaplipi ddelor DIfea riIcu1 de a, pierde:razboiul duspemr!iellW:.....un__li._dolU_nopIItiJi. (31),1n1567.Cooid<! ....oubordine 9OOOde~,JlDilblDiclrorate~ ~dclCUZipe~nu-i:llnt NobiUi Jw'aJ'i'DOti'tfi"drme ,r bIDii'ti'bijuteriile,_i1~d' iei, ill" OOptjbjd11ele do tIlOiceDll1l1O todielipll ipre Cbutrcs peiatlu a

10

'-~-----------------i

intercepra uanspcrturite de mirfuri ce se desBfurau pe rota Bence- Paris.Imagineanu trebuie insl inncgrill. Fenomenul rnereenariaMuia jueat

un rol esenpal in conetinnree viitoarei annate regulate. A dUI in special la"democratizarea ermerei". '

Monopolul militar at nobilimii dispm: odat.i cu rizboaielereiigi~. SubHenri II numai IS % din annati esre repRZentati de nobill, iar dUplIS!lOprocentul scede sub S%.

, ,MiChel deMontaigne constata cipegustclrij,judecltorii orIfdOt,artizaniiIupti,apIrI O<afel. Ii~ III ~boOi•.(33l DuJlI WaI)on;(tin.in~'1 01Xvl-lee armatc!e ~u constituitcea mai impodlllll. ulizaR i. surplu~ui de,

. baD;. MeroonUli~. mal llitin. ""'""~ .... ,<le, •~~'~bliocmlb''iOoiIi'':'''''L~~~' 1tV0l!Oi .

.dOOri<e tip. _ de""l'lIIliJo::: clO~'Pifl¥l~(34li SI...illU1 ......enoriatnlnl .,mllrcontlllni. peIllru wall........ !in .. .-iI10c'op\faide _ .... eopjlalnlnl. (35) l>In<iolo""~"~ce;

~otel''''''JlaI.'''''~zarea_" "~~totr"...... 1.11. . . .'" .. ' .o .......,.-reau " . '-,, " . " ,'. . .' ,-

." '

NOTE

.' 1.", IlIlAUDBL. '~_ ~ hll... IlIOdltoraollo opocalnl FI1lp aI D·. 'lila ". 8 ......d.1ld, Merldlano,.!985 '1986,vel, 6. p. 105: '. ", , .2.-PIUTZ RBDUCJi,cJ~t tn I. Wallentcin. "S13temul m,oncUal modern ",'

8ue>u!otd. Eel, Meridiane,1992,vol. I. p. 233, nota 25: . ., 3.V1C1'ORDVRlJI, '.'HjJtolro de-.. ", PIrl'. 1905. vel.I, p. 599: .

4.1. WA1:.tllRS1:lllN,op.elt" ""I. I,p. 233: .5.1;.BViS~t!~II-er".Parl•• 1931,p.283;, " '.~. SIR C!I.0MAN, olIO'''' WaJIOi'teIn, op. 011.: vel. I, p. 233. _ 2'1:"

.7.~p.233: ..:",. '.' .....: , ...,.....•.•..8, 1.IIDlNGBR. RIA' ... tnmelUaea et I". ,guerra- dO reUa10q ".to,

1\e... ~crllI.19""MUlIllho,or, 55/1983, p. 13: .. '.· .9.'PJ. DIlV1lllLlJlVW, "Momoirta",In "Colleodon unIv_ll. dea

...........~.~ I'b!'tol.. do""""', l.8ndro.JlerII. 1785-1807,'

.....lO(l(Jll; p,41"" . .' . '.' , .19' 1lR.D/lV!llJl,UVJl,Ul.op, 011, "'.. XlOqII, p. 35·36:

, 1I, \bIdom. p. Is..". ..: .' ......, "· l:a.tW~• .,:ol~;vnl.l, p, 211i· 13;illl...... "333, fll .".: .14,~p,2", HI .

II

IS.;. BERENGER. op. cit. p. 13;16.P1E~ CHAMPION," Charles D:'et le control de l'Espagne aprb Ia

Sainte-Barthelemy", Paris, 1939, p. 347~)7.J.ll.~J\IUDBJO~ "~shisUHiques",Paris, 1892,p.417;18; ibidem, p. 417;.19. ibidem,p. 4.18; ,20. ibidem. p. 418;21.fui_. p.419;2i P.DE VlEII.t EVD..LB. op. cil. 10m XXXI, p. 336

,23. jbicJi"n, p. 337; - '

<:24<~p;34~;, ','. ",. . -, . "~, 25. BRANTOME.~ co".Ictea", Ed. I,aJ\iiIe,- tom. V. po 303-308;

> 26.P. CHAMPION. clp: ciI.. p.m; .', .\, - " ' ,,' ," ., ' ' .

. ,e27.LWAlIllRSlillN. op. <it,yo!. I, p.m,: ~.P.c:HAMP10N;op.clt..p·349;··'·'. '. __. ,_. 29. V.O.lOBRNAN. citolID Wa1IetsIoiD, op. <it. YoI.I. p.~3,30.ibidem. ,po '234; , '

',3'1. V. DlJRUY. cp. ciL, vol II, p. 27-28; ..,32. MICHELDE MONTAIGNE". " Esseis •"Paris, 1968, cap. 7, p.366;'3. I. WAr" ERS1'EIN, op. cit, vol Lp.2IO;34. ibidem. p. 211; .3S. ibidenI, p. 211.

Une partiCuIari~ des guerres de reIiaioP"~ la Fca:aee, du xvr-'e. Ie est, rep: • :nire par la, atnx:ture etbnique ettecJmiQuede l'.nD6ede mere....... Cd:

eXJl".' met en Mdmce queJquC!:aupecu de ces ariri6cs: la struc:Iute edHiique, lastructure teebnique, Ienomln et lebut de erceoaha. En fin OOUI 'p()UVOns retenir...."""""'"'" . .. . ""'. ' . ", ' ,

. t)Lea, lui.... ootervl lIeU1ement dans1'atm6e du roi,c'eit-~, lls'ootlutt6 'poUr IaClUflt del cidloUques mews'Ui etaient~; done nn'ya pas"un lieueon Ia«JnJe. ioetllliuKTU,'eJJlMtdel\aiiW!'rdt-~" '.' '~'J' ""' •• ,;' ,

2)Pendanl ki 'XVI.,e ~le; kbUdget de1'_ II r6Iervant J/3 pOor l'iiitNiUD.'__,,_ '" ,,",",.,' .', . c, ','",ceIle...-.. j,..:' - ,,' ,-, "" '\ .'"",

3)Ce~aj0u6~,rMe principlll dana-I'org8ni..ttoa'de 1a futtue ...... 'MguUere. SiblU)l&r••w:ut adispanl: ail ~_IQi_,*'_iltN:IJ':fapHW 1J8Ok~deflQblesdansl'ann6e a.euleirm~"",:." :.," ,(I '(d:'d' J~-

12

•

,

'-~-----------------:aJ

13

I

I

,,

14

L _

I',

'i, ,

Ii

exen-plu, U': secolul a1 x-iee. patriarhul Nicolae Misticul, intr-oscriecare aitre >aru.l Si.neal, n IU.Jle$te tiran pentru IlDti.vu1 ci ag:imeasa illp:)triva statului bizantin ectuvara cu un razboi fratricid, 0rebeliure: a fiului~tartaWui spiritual (31). fn -Alexi""'­Anei Comnena t.tramn are senauj, de ~tordar Jili de tiran prinmijIoacele pe care Le folosejlte iIllfl?tnva adversarului '(32) • LaItl.nnamos in veacul a1 XII -lea, regJ.i normanzi pi papa sunt tiranipesVru-c! au u:zw:pat st3piIti.rea bizantina tn Peninsula Italic& Ji aucreat state latine in Orient, iar papii au uzw;pat PJ.terea spirltuall a~ului(33). .

In se<Dlul ai XIV-lea, ,jtefan DJsan, profitBm. de sl!biciUll!liastIttUlui bizimtin, tjd atrib.n.e titlul de ctal al p8rh1]ar~ gredlOt',ed:livaJlrd cu oel de basileu iar Sigi. nJ al ~~ni';iepme craiti~t al zaladlar (34) . fng8rxtjree JP1iticl- 'djntx:1bl _..-~de=~cati~c1a~:N._·*',."t alfie_'",_deal~ - ~,oeibiHl1tini.(),illli!li~sniiKut

..EUEJI'lIlOAiaat: T••,. Jri'''b''QA. fJ:wiI.-") '"'"'4iC t_lor~- de DRs pentI\l V"'01 &lXV-lea este~tI.'~~ ,lui a::naenin'al n-lea Pal,eolOgul,ilema.i&vSnd ninde oanun cu iuperlulQ:m:llmilor.

_ 'I'1rimd eel mU eti'Wbfizat-pua eI~J.eM:*'"'"'d alII;-lea, -care prinviol.."..,1 .trK:«Lcarea drept:Url.lOr:X·. ilor -[~J (37) ..,~~ bizarttina In Balcani; dannialui f:l.in4 considerati.~

- [ s] (36). tn ci::nt.tadi4ie cu cei.Wti CritobJl din Inim:ls nint;ituleaz3. totdeauoa - [fkun1Bl.\f'J (37) - ~it uneod de epitetU1 ­[~sl, iar st4p8nirea lui - ~l.asa cum era binesl. 0facA, tntr-o scriere panegirioi imanatl. sultarului .•

,Din analiza aoestor c8j;iva tqcl. relativi 18 turcii otarani p.1tellretim nAcar Q:uI erne]"?; i: '

1. turcii devin harbari pentru c8 trliesc tn afara neMU1ui pi aliJ1bii el..,ioe, tn a£ara legilor pi. regulilor rrorale bizmtit'ti:! ¢.

,2. imaginea.lor B1 este uult eJeonel::d.tI. de a altorbarborl',pe careimperiul i-a CI..lPOSCUt. Dinpotriva, cum van veeee. nu. aunt atAt dehamari ca al~ii - latinii.

15

16

l~. _~

I

tntar~.a aCea6ta: ~}iune: latinii suer. ecevarace state in erann.bizmtin. inilerlul pa.erde crtce speran.FA de a roo,;;. l::eneficia de pe UI.l'I\aCGfet}ului, basileii, nelipsiti de intentii bl1ne, umbli din orap i':noraf. ttl~a unui ajutor Occidental Ber, O;:;cidentul mJ. se decideniclodata sa declare 0 cruciada antiotomana. Afla..ti fn fata UIlBlal1:emative disperate: t:ureii - cAro:ca Ie eraLl tl.-i.b.lt;ari - ~i-latinii ­oIrora te erau trib.J.tarl eccocedc. ~i de la Flol,mf,a. ~i religios - s­m::p.1rea. dl nimic ILl pare ~-i nai tnBpIim1nte atun:::i c8I:d sa ca'IS01ea7AaI to:ul s!! ttt:&rpla 0-1 wia I:k::nn.llui §i 01. p:trivit tealcgiei inpreiale,Statul bizantin va exista !n foI:na sa acb'a11li !n ciuda catastrof~lorpecue Ie infruntl.. ii o.m judec4}ile d::xtlnului sunt diferite (52) ­["ru.~v&uoiQ.tU'l'o\)e60l:l1cP(IJCl'tU·l- se resemneazi. aJltept&nd: unmiraml aJ. lui I:lmEZeu, al Sfintei Fecioere sau al. sf8:nt:ului IUni.trU;

_'~~telorpntru~~ini Ii utn1a cUI. JiMrl penl:nJ turci, '":,[~~l.-~ sau.trrPl~J~~vizi~- prIbIairea statlJlui:-_~~_col p"'t;mdl. _D...., ._"

'a114II"":" -~ fi QP-"-al~_j',"cia!:naoeJ..i tiIip. 0:.1n_.~ hi 8-& ptIb.,..t, -QdixJli-Wl. w:m ~ ~tun:esodi",1531.

NO'1':!1

1-8. GYLAM:RAVCSIK, "BY.lANT]]ID1tNCZ-CA~, volurrele I-II, Berlin,1958 •

• pecerece :nu ne-am propus ttl aceastA ancheta prelitainar8. si.faoem un mrijl] eozpuat ,pentnllitet:atura bizanti.r.iml~~cJent.'adesecol XIV-XV, relativft. la turcii otaaani, ne..van . s!l :iIDi.clDUl'Ii!('r.L1 alUlI1te pn::te de intetfeLentA i:ntre oe1e cb.\Iliteraturl, tarllInsi a intra 111 detalii ccecrete. Pentn1 Ilx:epK semal!m in scrieri1elatin rti oa etn::Dim frecvent saracen - S1lIUlCDJ, toarte rar rntAlnit la...... .

9. Jt::l1RE CllNrIBJlZBS, FiIR N, Bdit:ura A:a:ieidei RSR, a&:1JrePti,19&:;1:, p. 354. "daci. ar intreba clneva de ce soo;>l sm' grecli pe ttolenibaXbari, c30d aveau 0 singuri. creciin~ ,i serveau aceiafi zei, amrlepn'de oi ~uneade hamar Be def1DeJte ru prin credi~c;i.pr!nae.n - [.pvw) -, l:iJttA - ["fAi'tnl) -, O%SJ'B"j h1re& statului - ['C1iV~W'ri(sKO"'ulasl-~ educatie - (ml8Bt4) ~ Noi suntem cre9tini",i avem 0s~ o:ed:!ntl ,i uns~ botez~ cu IIll1te neanuri, dar

~~~~r-~~~;'l,etl~~~.Alris 1959, p. 158, nota 13, - (ds'/UV'llllJV~~J.

. 1927,~·c~i~2,"~~:[~=~~6cn~~(.:.)~~Y, s{)po6I.wv IW Wv "XOv~v ( ... ) ) .

.'. 12. T.'JWliiOl, "La r"lleptia2 de Jam VI amtaeUzine·1i!Ur l'btJ:!yz!lDtiD',.. wepdnc;:iptl8l81t a la luniere de.sea bistntre"'afl1975 Ji!.. 177, "au trdlcat,.tratatele de pace - [~mw~g - jUrllminte - (opttOl] - deveilind spejuri - ('/doPKol,ImciplroWU>s) " •

13. mIL G1!l1I'IJiR. NtIle rAc:it il'1l!!ct/t ae aiage de Cb1Starltin::pJZ PE'lee tures", 394-1402", REB XXIII/1965, p. 102, "Manuel Paleologw.

18

.......----------------- j

tnth"djlSC.a aceasta 'JPpune: latinii 5Ul,C eoevereee state in statuIbiiantin, icrperiul piettie ariee speran}A de a na;. i::ED!ficia de pe UDM~ui, basileii, nelipsi,ti de Intent i i. bune, urnbli din ora;; Inora" tn~ urn.Ii ajutor occidental (Jar, Occ.ldectul, nu se decideniciodat.i all declare 0 crociad! ant.totorana . Afla"ti In rete uneia1'tenBtive disperate: tureii - cirora Ie erau tJ'iliJ.tari - §Ii latinii ­'otrora ie &aU tri.b.1tari eeuanic, fi de la Flcl-c:n1=a. ~ religios - s­er ph'ea ca nimic I'A.l pare Ea-i nai t:nSpi:in&t€ atun::::i dIiJ;::l sa cmsoJeaUidI ecea ee tnl:&rpla ca wia Il::rtWl.u1 1i cA. ittrivit teolc:giei inpre1ale,Statul bizantin va sedata !n forma. sa acbau !n GiLda catastxof!fuJrpecare Ie tnfninti. jf a.JJ\ judec$S-ile damlului sunt diferite (52) ­['m~v&.u.oia1'o.'tO\)eBou.lJUm"l- ae resemneazi. .,teptAnd: un

Illi.rac:ol al lui rumezeu, al stintei Fecioare &aU al Sf8ntuh1i IUaitruj"~.Pi9atelorp:m.mb1zantinjfi udnia dwiEzeiari pentnl turei,,:_(~~J.-:eau.iqlli.ni.J'e1t,,~-previZi~- pribusirea statului­"~IIP>~_col~........~.......... " ....' "1til2il·4- - - 9L.' _ Ji,......au.~cbmia!neceJ8P1tiJitl. CUll_~~-apr:lh.,jt, o.drdU-'VIlumapi C8&'tureelllJai II

.1531.

NOTBI

1-8. GYlA~VCSIK, "B~CA", volurrele I-II, Berlin.1958 .

• Deoarece nu ne-am propus in aceast! ancheti preliminarS safacem un studiu carparat pel'l.tnlliteratura bi7aI1tir~lEide1talJ1deseccJ XIV-XV, relativa La. turcii otanani, ne.van sa:iD::1iollrluneori aruaite p.mcte de interferenti tntre cele d::ull temturi, fIrI~ a intra in deta1ii ccccreee. PentlU incep.tt samaliim in scrier1le~i ca etn::nim frecvent sar..ce:. -~, foarte:tar intIlnit la

"""".9. oJtll!H'BS.C1lNIlB.Jl?BS, ftDlV, Bditw:aAa':e"iei RSR,~,1982, p. 354. "dacI. ar i:nt.nlba cinl!Ml de cesc:"" Mn gred.i pe ttoienibaJ:bari, c&nd aveau 0 singurl credin~,i serveau acei.,i 'ni, amrlspttrie cI. m,t.i·m'a de ""'rha r Be defi.hBJte tI.1 prin crediri,tI Qi.prPi~ -,lyEvosl-, l:id:li ~ [y).i6Trq]-, ozganizarea statului - ('fllv169VtiI.mAttsicisJ - pi educatie - (KW&n4] • Noi suntem cre9tirii,·,i avem. 0s~c~ ,1 un s:U!gurbotez~·cunulte rs ,"'r!, dar8CICl6tinl'wtM'rl pe b l1 gari, vJacb 1 , .]1 *' zi,'~ ii-alte~~".-

10. J. MBmND3<l', ..Introducticn.... l'~de~lI!ltn'IU' ..'Parl,s1959, p. 158, DOt.a13, - [dS'xuwov~~).

, 1927,l1Sc~i~2,"':-;'l;.!~~~~~(:..)~.,:p~v. 8flpu9t.lov &l: 'fOVTfX.O~V ( •.. II ..• ·-12·~T;'IiiOIB)l. "La euJCeptjcn de Jam VI C!lntacuzinesur l"catq..zaadn' - Vue p.r.inc:ipUSlIIIDt a la 1unie:re de,sea bisto4re", RBS;IIl2f19751. ,~177, "au !Idlcat"tratate1e de pace -[~~mwVOlXl .- /'uriminte - (opK01]- devenind spejuri - [Glop-an,baopKO s". -

13. lWJL GPIJI'J1iR, "the rilcit ir¥riit desi"de CbJStmt.irxp:U ....res. turcs", 394-1402", R:BB XXIIIf1965, p. 102, "MaD.1el PI!lleoloSJul

18

a"'----------------

r

superior prin virtute basileilor precedenj.i , ill tirrp ce eaiazid, dincentra. rncrece ill contPSie {vic1enie} pe"cei nai corupj;i (vicleni.l isau, pentm a' exprima IlIa.l. exact, 0 virtute perfecta se cpune viciuluiperfect ~ - "Mavooni.. 6 IlaJ..ctwMvos, &vftp 'toO"OUto 1tMOVEk1:~V ~\1&~'tobs &p(crtous tm" npo ai'rrQli, pacnUOv &oy ilC(:rvos, ei GellIS s\m;:'i'v, ilC'[0'* Jvuvr{oy 1tOVllP{q:. ,oos novTUJOoS '61t&pfpaAArt: /laUO\! ot.d xp~ .b

~ 11.' • ...... "'" • '~L, IIIje aKpl,..€~'t"e:pov £!1tElV, QKI-'U TlS UPf.:T'l npos ceocv cvnxeurevq n",.;uv 1')

~K 8uiJ,U!TpOV Kwdav'v'.- ~ 14. Ibid,\Oe. cit.,.p. 102-103, u•••KM&t;at,KQ\J..'lO"l'(I;'l(JJ(OMtlV

Ej.l1tUtil..QIl8VOS KlZ ttfs dUllS fu~€A&{as naM\! lnQv&Gtpe'ov· . .15., MlHIUL J:I.lIQlS, "Istoria turt:::o-bizaot1n4", ediJie vagi Je.Greo.Il,

B:titura Acadeini ei RPR, ~lQl1"'e,ti19sa, 'p58f !'aIci este aaestl nat,,· _m!Ilfr8llata pi 'Btn!c:hi4ta ca hicluful dint:re~. des f' itI..eI..­wt cia toate ~tt,i:ne.t]lratlde dest rl;'si asa III! ~-,deJatiir!i dhau ) ,,] ¢. i\¢liva rirll ljIi'l,ie"81!turea firi{m tnoeteUl·,si ail::« re1a;:ii farfi nici ° ru,:I.ne §i fad rr4sura cu parte biUb1teaedl

pi. cu parte ~eneiasca§Ii cu animale nec:uvSntiit.a3re ... "15. nae.. p. 174-176.17. Ibid., p . 175, nrn:ci st rntre ei erau~ r&zb:Jinici, dar tn

contra cre§'tinilor. NJJnai sa h auzit glasul crainicului chemin::i laakkin, ~i cu totii alearga rn toate parS:iJ.e inalll'ati sau nu, jili maiales pe joa". ~

18. Ibid., p. 175-29.19. BBSSARICN, Im:R IV, ;,J.358-360.20. CRlTOBUL DIN IMHROS, creoucere de Vasile Grecul, Editura

Acaderoiei RPR, Bucuresti, 1963, p. 297-19, - [MOOWVAEIIlV1a"fOUt(DV1rE7t01TJCUJ.

21. MtHAILlXJKIl8, op . cit., p. 56-22; p. 344-1522. nae.. p.23. P1IlJLGAUTIER, op. cit., p.104-29.24. Ibid., p. 102-17.25. M:IHAILr:uI<AS, OF.CIT., P. 71-2026. lbid., p. 288- (20-25) .27. <:ifO<iIOO~, ''M9Inrii'' editatA de vasile ceecc, B::litum

1'I:ladBtIiei RSR,~, 1966, p. 146-5.28. MQI1Ul.IXOO\S, cpo cit.,~. 39-4 ...

. 29. EmNS DITI'SN, "!J&pPa.poI;"EM.1JVCiundP()))JlZIOI" be! den letzanbyzantiniscb!::n' ", p.iblicat in volu:ru1 rr din 1lcte1e

:'3ui de Studii Bi-'no de la <:brido Belgzad).964, p. 273-279'. "rplOS ejiplX. I-Itras 6P.&lCo)V~tJ10P.6POV &TJPIOV",d".U!s d~r1eiilsq«f!KO+ pos 6cuj.1Cl)vl, d utbs tlYs ayoll as. ot'll:p§6po~ 'fOU avnxptCmo,""',""' •• d .0/1 'Q1l <4<'xp{\UO". xp',,",OS d "1" .011 XP"""~ ""I .l!vKlcnBu"f.1vTmv ila edv sv a\hrp~ 1t.q-yt'"Vta. ,IAlICOV 1tpoG7t8fov tV6u6su £8JUl&ttntstbv pn:t.I.IQP+m6ll:vros8tYa;lv lli:rav5. ( ... )" Aceste apelat!vecare ~~esc pe Mu.bamad al II-lea stint desprinse din "IseGtl1at:ure:m:lZ!ll:ldol" a luiD.1kas: p. 313-12; 319-13, 385-1J 291-5; 395-]21375-19j 289- (19-21). ~ ,

30. MIHAILIIUIO\S, cp .cit., p. 320, oota tracbdtorului Vasileceecc.. 31. HKlENJlIIRNSIUlR, "L'1tfe::llogie~tiquedel'Fhpire.QyzantiD",

PI;Iris, 1975.3.2. AN1\~ ''AIed.adii'', tradlJCere in linta. usnlIll!( de~

M!U'inesa.1, editura Minerva, ccieccre BPr, ~ti, 1977; cartea I:r-a, x- (3-4) 1 XIII-2; xrv-r. XIV-2; XV-5; XVI-5.

19

33.~ KINAN:S, trajl,rere re J. RoseIDlum, Pads, res belleslettres - 1972, carrea III, 92; cartea V, 218,220.

34. M!H1UL I:XJl@.S, q;J. cit., p , 46-48.35. Ibid., p. 286, rete lui Vasile ceecu.36. Thid., p. 400. rete lui Vasile crecc.37. OOltJ:L[,DINnH 5, cpo cic.. pretut.ini:ni.a.ttorulild I'~'l

~t pe Ml.ihamad al II-iea ~i-i COI".sidera stap8ni.rea legi.tima:, p ,36-38. .

• In istoricqrafia bizantinll ID.1 existA J?OlemiCi antillUSUlnene.SCrle!.ile int;iira).i1.or roan al VI-lea cmtacuzm:, l'li Manlel PaleologulIDJ. aunt dedit aiIlflle ~la}ii ale uror lucrAri occidentale tradusef~ de Di.ro1trie Kid::r as: '1'I:lTa d'J\l;jli.n:>, RicalOO dalalte crece,'tvez:i aiHms G. Bedt: "K:ln:betDJ t«ile¢9't:leLiteza.tur imbizentiniwtlEn

, Ri!id1" Mn:b:n 1~59. Bi2'ilDti¢i C:m:e:: Pire&;:tt:i: ll"ClI:BVIJrl. st~~tull"titg&lli7d;~Htic:I. 1U~ Ii. ',_ _ "" 1IStfeJ, dl pll ,

- aN:i.. ihlli1 I1Hiduc , .~l.~ t:urclfili:d pentT\1 g:reCi~­p3litic8. pi ml una rehgioasl.. rn occident ti:x:rnaiJ~moral 11z:elJgios prlnmz!l in istDricgrafie, litM::i'~kel~ '. BP"'f'ihi 1oa~ fara:~ ar:i.L:dnUe a ui ins::tieri.lebizmtiMsa fie mai llult 0 influen>J. ocx:i.dentaU. Iat! 0 paralel8. tntre i.nBe'ima:teligiei ie:1am1ce tn vest ,1 in est:

I. IslaoW este 0 religie falsi.; di!d. o::::re,tWSllll este dreapt".a'credi~, atunei, logic, J'E!ligia 1lI.lSU.1man1. este 0 pseudoCredinj:.l. _Bizantfuii IDJ. o'gti:;esc ni.ci ttAcar dam!. de I,::OliteiEm.1l vedUlar grEici.., II. aeee 0 raligie a ,\...iolenj:ei, impusa cu sabia, care-jJi

transform! noii converti}:i !n uci9C1i ~i~ 3.i binelui. Pentrug1ll3Ci este un soi de nebunie care-~l p:>sed! adeptii 8i faptele lor;P-BE~tideDiavol\lLlSUlrrani.iatacape~ini_' ,..

TIl. Este 0 religie a ilTOralita.~ii ~i desfraului: exaeerbeaza-n:tp:rtalner1I SPa.1"penni~::l=peD::rastia.Esteo reliQie.:..~ ei ceea ce este trI.p:6c suflet:ul. PentJ:u bizantlni.orlginea ei este Diavolul, asaexpliolni ~ferintaDiavolului pent:ruchip..l1 turoului atunei c8rd tX'bJfm! pe p1hn8nt. #

rrfr . M:bamed eeee antichrist. Grecii n consideri psc ri p::ofet~i Diavol, iar Sphrantzes n mneste mai vicioa dec8t Diavo1ul. Inoccident M:WInEd este asimilat cu veehile duhurl saxr'::I2 .,. 'I'e:LllItq;.ut,etc, Ji',se'afla to. ietaxhiA InfemJ1ui s:nllll1.te'd,i.npi.cturllebiBerici'nr<X:IlBfruite tn secnlul a1 YN-lea;1 tlB1 t8rziu."rn biser1ca 8m Petrc.rd.odin.B:Jlogna, deB: o17N, Infem.u este1E:ycezentllt de treiperea..je:Iulian~,Nicx:>'M din1lntiochia p1 lti&rBd. Pa1t:ru 0 infOLnarede 10e su,ficientl. putam irdica c&teva din numeroasele 1ucr1rl' alei.st.ot'iogxati"!,,~ a:nta 1* "'agE' care, 8-&.1Copt de tuz'cli u::ntBUiIji formarea 1Iil!Ig1n1i lor: M. watt 7be'mf1umce oc Islam in Hi:'dtew,l&:iz:1:ps, at'1'!bJtgh 1972; N::nl&l Dmiel IsL!Il'l ar:lCf t:be h19st, lIIIJJdng oL '(21

lh., .IiI:tilD.l:lg',1960; 'SilIrluel Clew 2be et. ale arxr tile.rose••• , IQ1dra19361 fi Alairi DJOellier;~'Islam, ee 1. MJsrd J'mmsvue de Byz2IDCe auJmo\t-Biec:le tn .JIcte1e O:i:gr: 'lui de Sb.dli Bizant:.ilE· dela~,1971, -vo1U1L11 II, P, 71-87., .

38. Vl'I'AI.omn'LAlJRBNI', L'idee de guerre sainte et la traditia:z~,RXXIII/1964,p. 94. , '

39. IIt:dU !Do cnre evolue"'JI sentimentul antilatin tn societateabizantinl este!:line surprins ,i analizat de H. 1Ju:weiler tn operacitata, laps;pm'le 106,109.119,120,123.

40. J. HBrBNlX:RFP, cpo cit .. ~. 157 t:u.ur::toarelel GEDlGIOS1IllN1IKIS Qegc:u:y RWmts. a.u:g the t:uri:s.mel ts of his ceptivity;hystodcal suroes tn SpeclI1un XXVI/1951. .

20

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,sr.'

21

l'orgcmi8atiorlI:olitique; et ron seton la fo!; en trouvants ainBi. desba:r'bares ~tiens et des barbares IllXl-~tiens.nma la litt&atu%ebyzantine du XV-e etecj.e lee tures otte:ll\anS sant oarceree sanS tenirOOlpte du contexte politi.que. Gregoire Falamas, tres indulgent enversla foi misulmene, lea reconnaissant quelques rerites militairee etpolitiqJeS aux turcs, n'hl!sitait pas de lOlbet «tee plus~ entrelee cerceres'". L'errperaJr Jean~,bienque fait des tures sesa:\.li~s et. Orehan devient son gendIe, ne cessait pas de tee~lertell EO ea, rDl paspr Cl'M81m p:1Ir leur tel igim, m!Ii.s sc:urto.lt pn'Ce'q:e,dep..lis lcngues ecoeee, ils faisaient be1'lCX1lJP de mal aux Rlnneis etn-avaient pas~ lee trait& de paix, en deven!mt otpeu:jures".1Ildell.1t <il 'Col-a svk1e, J. Cb::lrtaanems nettait en MdeIx:e UD! autred:lmensi.cn dl- '"butare" bJl'C:"le vice" $1'11" eJtien aveioI"la:vertu" ell

, byzantin. Encore Cb:n'taB"'8'Qil, elms ladl!l cdptiOndlJftitaCle de laVi6rge, cxrISidere que leB turcs cat we,pt6I!iJ._ect,ic.n~p:ui­piller, ilies n::itilleut: '"vCIleIira.et J:tds ,""11~i.e~ etidI*t&itcujcms I: 8" ......~ 8'ecfoUleIr:-,f)'ukM, "Ie plus ­aet~anti.ottcmm, apt d:61Eeh'M b :: Idllie'HI!ni'P1eB:{ ,4 InsCXXlSi.dme:lt drgiast.~: la r;nJ1ganie, ]ale..··' le, ?4.) lPjje, ,legavage dans de plais rs ec de Map' :1 • ,-,' -. ';', ' _, '

J:e I 'analyse de qJe1q topOi, 1D2S pa.M:DllI-b!tenLr'm1lDJnS dNI:OlXlClusions: premi.AIIIIE!Ilt les turcs deYimment Mrb!"res"!JMce-qJ'ilsvivent au dehors du peuple gree, de la langue ~& 4Ie,au l)MmB deslois et des reglea byzantines,et~, leurim!lgen'est pas'beaucwp trop diff~ede eerie des autres baJ:barcei au contraire,OOlite IDJS avo:na vu, He ne sent pas IlDinB stignati* que Ies latins.

III. L' atitude du rronde byzantin devant la conqul!te ottarane.Confror.tae a une dilemne, lee cures qui ae crouvaient awe: portee duBosphore et tee latins qui 'taient depuisbeaucoup de tenps dans1 'Errpire, influenc:'e par l' Msychasne et par la puiesante aversionccecre les latins, lee byzantins ont cmiesit de~r contre leelatins et d' attame ure BOlutial d:1:vine p:ur le~p&:il ceeoee. L'avenirreate, par ~lection, un dcmaine des.iniraclell divins. N::Jus t1alsf1Uliles li:nn!!IB ici de nettre en ctIeo stim-deUx de8attit:OOes de-l'ep::lCp!,palanite et antipa1amitei c'eBt-A...cJire de~,1&~, ec~latine et enrrAos tetp8 antit:lJXT;Jle, 14 S • ide. n est:'~ iDportant

remarquer que pour les byzantlns, soient-ils 'dell f!IlIl8~, ~sro..... politiques cudes neLixtes dl,c1eJ:9A. l'IaL!lnn'Mtpu-un,darger:religielx. mai.s pInt&. un.- .... pPlit:kP!t. 0!tla'eHp11q-l'e"l , Y\e'&stcrits ant::ii.sJard.qJes~ cBrJs.1&1ittAr8ti,re~i CBl1es q.d'existent Ba1t des o:npilaticns d'aptls lee 6t!:tits 1&~ l'Ortdent,'traduits partielJ.em!rlt en grec ptt Demet:riol!I~

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LA FORMATION DES BOURGS SUR.LES DOMAINES DES NOBLES ROUMAINS DANS

LA MOLDAVIE ENTRE 1780 ET 1850.

Simion CAqlA

A uneepoque"oi) les produits echetespar lea paysansI;lppartenant.au domainc6tai.enl soumis au~ :fl!odal,l'uriedes·""""'ir6llIfiI.....par_noblespoUr

Caire agrimdlr lcui ieVeftu dtt dOIDaine. 6Iait 18 ,ti"'JithKule·la vente de cosproduits,par Iacr6Ition,depdites locaIit61-a tMe de.cean~.'Encons6quence. surles 'nombreux dc)me1nesoot apen:l des bol1J'gl 'q'6taicntdepetites local. qUi DCpOUvaiem pas lWpim:autitre deville,maisqui,cootrarienientau viUa8e""'Mua,avaiad. surtoUt ~S' foootions commerclales et artisanales, tarKfis que 'lea .aetivitesaariOOles Y8,vayont une rOle tOut a faie secondaire.ees boorgs deviennentlescemiesCcoDomiques. de IDutela region. ,

Ce ~ne, important pout 14 Moldavie au carrefour de deux siecles. Iexvm~ et le XOOmc~ bien que mentionnt!: parun graqnd ROmble de'cben:heurs,D'.paS b6D6fiCi6 d'ure regard plus attentif que dansune petite mesure.

Lei premimes informations noussonl offerts dans quelques monographiesdes villes de 1a periode entre les deux guerres (1).On rrouve une tres courte'~de ce probleme dans l'ouvrage de D.Ciurea intitule: "Les vines etles....... de la Moldavie pendante la periode de chute du feudalisme"(2). DimitrieCiureit IOUlient que Ies bQurgs se fondent sur une privil~ge princier, qui a commefunrkment un riglement enae Ie propriet8.ire et Ies tuturs habitants. Ce priviUlges'accmde dans certaines conditions: Ienouveau bourgne doit pas concure les autres

. bourp. illui est enterdlt de recevcir les palsanslierfs. Le privilege 6tablit Ie jour demarch6.bebdomadain:: d defoUes.le revenedo propri6tai.re du domalneetdu pouvoirprincie1. J) Ciurea .affinne _que Ie bowB cree a uIICtopograpble sp6cWe:-.UDeroecentr8k,botn6e:de boutiqueset d'ecbopes, et pout Iereste lesmeisoos des-habitans.Au fODll c'eBt Ia topographic lipique do bourg de petites dimensions, soit~i1 ancieno4U1ouveaux; les piuS grands ourpourseule diff6rence I'existence de plnNe"R lUeS

''principdn'', c:ommeJciaJes. L'aete do prince prevoit des IerTains pour.eonitruiredes ;6:oles, des, bains publiques et it instiwe la fonctionde capitai_. I\Iourg'(I'equivalent do piefect d'aujourd'hui).

NousileptJuVOllS,p8'l finir ce court regard historiographique sans parler de larecension de Nicolae Iorgaa I'ouvrage "De I'bistoire de juifs. la population, IarepQpUlltion et IafondBtion des bowJs ee des bourgades dans la Moldavle" perE.~hwartzfeld (3): T~ intuessante est I'affirmations de lorga qui dit'que Ie,

23

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I'i".:

i

L

cbenomene de In fondeticn des bcurgs sur le dornuines nobiliaires a comme modeleIn situation ermneue de Pologne, er quil peut eire rcuouve aussi dans Ies regionsourmses a I'autorite russe. L'idU, seulemeru enonce.sur Ie role nefa.~te deeesbourgs,ayant a InbaseIe bistret. dans la descgregauon du village mumain, mente une attentionnrticu'Iere.

Comme t'on a dejh dit. I'interet pour In croissance du revenu est fortemen lieau nombres des habitans du domaine. et ces bourgs representaient one methode de_I'eccrottre.

Du point de vuejuridique, commeIorgaobserveaussi (4) les noblesont toujourseo (11 une seule exception(5» l'Injtiative de fonder de bourgs. Les nobles obtenaientun document sigt16 par Ie prince (6), avec IcscODditions dans lesquelles ils devaltfonder de nouveaux bourgli. .

~s cela, ils IDIlOIlCCDt 18 fondation d'un nOuveaUx bour8 (1 pertir de latroisieme d6cennie du XIXe si~c1e par 1& presseaussi(1).Apies <j'ttfte"nombred'habitans s'y fussent d6jA ~lis, le tbattre du doniaine conclut un accord avecceux-ci (8), accord autentifi6 per le prince (9), et qe'on retroove souVent en deuxexemplaires (un pour Ie maitl'eet un autre pour Ie bourgeois).

One autre situation est celIe dans laquelle iI s'agil de cenclure un acte sur lafonderlon d'un bourg dejaexistent, en fait one reconessence juridique d'une situationexistente. Dans ce cas, il existe deja Un accord entre Ie proprietaire du domaine etlesnouveaux habltans, et cet aete est la base sur laquelle on demand6e Ie document defondation (10). Quelquefois dans I'accord entre lee habitans et Ie noble on prevolt"obligation de celui-ci d'obtenir un ectede fondation (11). n y a aussi des cas ou lebourg se fonne a partir d'un village (12).

Lepouvoir princiera ses conditions propres pour accorder un aete de fondation:I' accord do proprietaire (13) et Iapreuve de saqualit6 de propriaaire (14),Ic nouveallXbourg nc doit pas concurrencer un autre bourg situ6 sur un autre domairie, (cettecondition est rest6c plut6t _~tiqueque pratique), I'interdiction de recevoit Iepaysans qui s'enfuient do dom1jne voisins. ;I_

Leprince fixe le jourdu march6 bebdomadaire et je jours de foire.(etrtre un etdouze par an( IS), Ie prince a aussiIe r61e de garant pourcette acte de fondation. etaussi ll r6s0lut lee conflicts qui peuvent apparaitre entre les deux parties.

Le~ do futur bourg a ses propres conditions lui-aussi qui doiventetre respect6espar l'habitant, el sourtout, le payement d'une longue eerie de taxes,Les plus frequentes sont ; Ie "bezmln" (16)(une somme anuelle pay6e pour laconcession d'un terrain de construction en regime d'emphit6lse) des taxes stir lesmerchandises vendues auxfoires,les monopoles f6odaux: des taxes sur Ia vente desbcissons alcoolique (17), du mazout (18), sur Ie boucherics (19), sur les fabriques debtere (20),00 de chandelles (21). Les propril~taires ont le droit de preemption (22), etils accordent I' autorisation de ccnstruire des fabriques de toute sorte (23).

En revanche, Ie noble etait oblige de menre a la disposition des habitans le~

trerains pour batir lea maisons ecles boutique, I' enerott pour Ie foire, mais pastoujoursIeterainagricoleet Iepemeage. Lea habitansont I'obligation d' annoncer le proprietaiR

24

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del bourgavant tout vente Imoblhairc.Les bowpois ~ctc.o'lWSIlide certaines dispenses.en priocipal. ils rceevaient leteIain4c constnktion, destin!! a I'!!Slise (24); au ~imetiere (25), ~ l'eooJe (26). a -,"boipital (27). ala rnllison de pritres (28) (cta.1n bourgs aVec UDeOOlDlnUllaUtCjuive): Ie b8in pubJique (29) (dans Ie memes),po Nu). et pOur..O8lJlaulilUi 10plopi~ lie pmKl pas de taxes. Dansla premiere aRn6e d·~l~.;~ ,-Ie8habitansM pUent pas Ie"bezffian"(30).

Lepouvoirprinder eonsidere Iebourg comme une propri6t6 du noble. et levelIClU1ement l'impOt. ("birul"),et cela seulement apMsquehiJlIes nrEu (31). CommesoUn:e de privUqe Jepouvoir priooier.iuBe au8li..cer'" qW-dIJIMl'IfsMt eftIrO leIlOb1e et tes habi.taas, en J8r'eru (Oujours IN,' "flllldc l'ae:te oripnaire.-I.e

. premibt'eacqxdnepeutpas~IQOdiQ~par.!I''''''.'''1l ·.irJ32hapQII I toIa"p'j)l",.klmy: rif6,_cn,...,OItLpour 3 nki.ri.n II -••_cdlll

,:Pit~~vue~l',spoctlA1r';.'fJ._QI!I'_""'_,WJt;~Ctlh:qui.e..foaC:iioq·~.~.n;'__~ WelJe......Idc¥·I~_fcatMlI·...niH ....bphilMLAI~U04ot,...~Jt,_U)'al·1" I ••on , .LeInii"'"delbabitaD. 8OIK-JlIli6;ri'''V'QIIltC'.dg .......,""0".

L.bourgs prenneDt«J'.....dIas qI...~. =7#aS.,I"t__6 «fu;KJ., -«'~et. parfois, elle esie repriIe parlil-propMtairedu domalpe qui ee flltlW'ibuerd;pP.QllU~pri~ (33).1., infonnations-conc:OI1llInt IaconatructioRl-do'bourgsoatiout afait accidentalJes" pourtant~ connaissoolli'existence auco ~nJent

du.a:ooenV"lt, de Ia rue pripl;ipale et la par<»Jlisationdes boutiques quia1hMnt etre-consuuilos. Nous avoos aussi d'atestation s1lr laprocuration do mott6riol de

Q1 b:uetim (bois surtout) par 108 nobles et mame la consuuctlon par CISfui-ci desbou'iquespour 'encourager I·etablissement de nouveaux habitanl.

Le domaioe du bourg a uoe scertece ltC8 r6duite. parfois dans 800

~"¢Dt,cdw.ci cow sur d'autres domainea etcela apour~" Me des.piOiIO& et la reoonai.SW'l:C oomme coproprietainJ du bourJ-dos1Hlblet...-p • totceadomaines. Unaub'e probInc cree par. surface trill nWuiwdu"bolbjJI_ celui."dCl'~iwKllNDt avec de la DOWriture. Le c:aa: Ie pIPs-,ar' _.-ailui de~Nou (34), Dille nouveau propri6taire .......t611RC parde d'UDe lUbe dwwlne,voilIiftdu bcKq. pan:c.que. ondit dans l'acIe: ill doVaieilt acb~'~r leur~avec de •• un ·.dePCnaeB dans d'autres domaiDiea (35) .

Mdleureusement nousaVOlll peud'.informadolal sur III ItnIOtUl'e IGCiIJe-de IapopWaticm de CCI bowgs. Lea nouveaux habl.18DtI llODt, pour Ia phil IfRDde JWtieai86I,MpaL.1,. de faire cooatruire des boubquCll ct des nWsons, mail UeriN'11 V__ ~. h.ina plus pllllvre, doe hommt& quiD'oat pas leur· PI Ii $' U'l4)' aBUlBi •.~ riches, qui peuveDt faile COJIlItIUire I:a j4ei1 7 ...

.d'~iIIeDccd'un bouts -5boutiques et 4 maillOftl-o O6nhaIeJneur IeslIlIblea-a'babitIIiKRUle DOUVeIUl bouq. Les bislrob llOnt auMi rlDlllbicux. &:i"I. QUIle-notDbre desartiJans ell: phiaddtrit queceluides.rDlll'dNmdt.(J6H.es babI.! "qal cultlvent~p1aQ&cs agic:oIeB. soit ~·ummllllJUloe~ soit, ·raror u; COIilii1tl oco11""oaprincipde. payent nne dime poui tout ce qu.llt produllem tout COIDDle lcs,., ..s

25 •

I i,

(37).II existe a.J1Ssi dans Ie bourg, sans lie consumerdans nne cmeg6rie sociele hpilrt.

des habitans exempts de charges fiscales vers I;Etat et qui ont. en compensencn, desobligations speciales vers Ie noble. surtout dans l'adrmmstratton et Ie maintien deI'ordredenssebonrg. I~ ';

EthniqUeMent parlant.la presencedes Roumains est indiscutable. et dans leur,grandemajorit6 nous les trouvons comme proprteraires de maisons ou deboulique~

(38). La population juive apparait elle aussi meeuonee dans les docUrnentes et on rtrouvedans quelque$ bouIgs des elements spodfiquepour 1a comeneute juive (desmaisons deS pri~. des.belns publiques, des &;oles juive). NOliS n'evons pasd'atestation pour d'aUtretgroupes ethniques, sauf la mention, dans quelquesdocuments de fonde"oiU deta populatlOn'ml1ltnienne (39).

IIresttune questiOn esseiltielle: ces bourgs scnt-lls'des Iocali~ urbaines ou;. des localil6s ntrales?Du poiDtcle vue~Ces boutgs ne'sOnteat6sOrlquement

paulesI~ rorales. L'Wsfenct deqbektuellaetivit& agriCOle8~ COtQplemrea6illset secoMaim,iD8~30oventpour tesbesoimidu boUrg .. CIt.-aa.1p6clfiquedes villes PaysR.oullWnS. dins lequeles les activit6sagriooles OPt un 'Certa:iri poids

''jusqlJe'dails la~moitih:kJ dix-neuviemesi~le.;'\ . :Eli ee qui conceme tes activites specifiqoes urbaines, on observe la

prepCJl'ldem1ce maSsive du marchand, du butiquaire, tee artisans aYatttune- placesecondiure. Le boUrg devient en centrede commerce permanent et pCriodique dansIe meme tempS(gnk:es ales bOutiques et a ses faires) et j) failla tnlnSition ducommerce itinerant etp6riodique au commerce stable: et permanent.

Pourtant. bienqu~ilDe s'agissenullement pasdes habitats nmtUX, itest dificiIede lesconsidel'etcotilmedes ,villes. Tout cela'd6ptnd des~ iJdopt6s' poUrd6finirce que c'est Ia ville (la gt'aDdeurde ta population,-1$ fOi1ction ecoiiomique, Ie r61epolitique et administratif, etc,). Nous pref6rons tescdhSidertt'CODlIllC;des10calittswbaincs..erne Ii elleuont, du pOintde vue~lapoputatiOn, piuS petlteiqueaatainesdes \'iIlqe8 enviinnants mills it taul tenir compte- non lieWetnenI du lp6cil'iqw: del'activit6 "conomiqut-mais aussi de la dinamique de ltur dtV6kippementB1l6rieut.

, ' , ' , , '.

NOTE .

"1. ARWR GQROVBI,."FlDticenll. CercetIri isIorice~ra OlBfukri"; Fllticeni

1""'; >.mIAI COSTAClIIlSCU, "SoIUI " ...... To""'I" <linJ- Odome; -,Ia¥ 1930; D.FURl'UNA. , fttnfiintarea t8rp1ui Sivellift, WiDs R.I., aD _I. no. 7·8,1915,BllC1lreftlt P. 125--134; " ,.2. DIMITRIE ClUPA. "Orafele plAtgurUe din MoldoVa in cildruJ~tde

descompunere afeudaJjsmt"ui'~ dBni "'SiudIi ticeJoeIIrl,wnsmce, Imrie. ACIdemiaRomAni, Filiala lafI", VD(956), p.97-105.' . ,', '

26

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3. NICOLAE 'ORGA. Recension a E. Scbwartzfeld "Din iatoria. evreilor:impopttlarea,~pularea ti JDtemeferea~lor din Moldova", dina RI. anI, no 5, 19~5. Bucuretti.p 8~I03. "4. Idem p. 102.

5. "Documeme privitoare la istoria~ a Rominiei. 0rafC fi .$Uri 1716­1861" Moldova, seriaA, vol Il, Bucurefli. 1960. p, 22, (suivant: "Doc. ~."). .6. "Dpc. ec." p. 10-71,76, etc..7. Idem, p. 237.8. Idem, p. 48,76.9. Idem, p. 76.10. Idem, p. 22. ,

1l.Idem.p.7S., _., ,',t".<'12. M. COSTAcuEscu. ""cIt..p. 30-32, ....ClOaO\'llI,ii;&. P. ",,53.".. "- .. -, _.- "",- '-', .... ~.B. D;oc:. ec.• p. IS. '14. Idem,; p. 223,' , ,15. Idem; P. 16,p 123; ~~4 'Stl, pri~itoiftlllllliwUt,.~N,,", Lipelpiei";'.AURFL V.-SAVA,B~ 1937. p. 256. ' .' _16: "Drc.ClC. ", p. 15.70-71, rt.17. Jdem.p. 77.18. ~p. 7()'71. 74,17.19.~ p. 15, 7()"71. 77.

.20. Idem, p. 77, 273.21. Idem, p.77.22, Idem, p. 75, 77.23. Idem. p. 75.24. Idem. p. 251.2S. Idem. p.75, 77..26. Idem. p.16, 75, 251.n. Idem.p.2Sl.

.28. Idr:m, p.7S.?8.29. _ p.'6,15.30. _p.l6-31. Idem. p.123. -32. _p.22, 77.

33.~ P.243-246.34. .Idmn. p.47.35. _p.47.·36. ldem. p.71.37. _p.13.38. N. IORGA, op.cit.. p. gs·91. p. 99, etc.; D. PUJmJNA, op.cit..

·39. "Doc. ec. ", p.16.

27

I'I

NOI DATE DESPRE"BUZDUGANUL iNTREGIRIr'DIN CORESPOl'IDEl'ITA PICTORULUI

COSTI,N PETRESC.U'"

Gabriel BADEA-PAUN"

, '.Cu prilejul$ilbitorir.ii.ziielde 10~~920 in~ltali, Regelul Ferdinand

I i-a fost ofent "ca tisPtati pentru vredujcia f1 bona conducere a Tarii in 1916­1919" (1) un buzdugen, pecare ziarele vremil (2) naritau ca fiind ~iltor

.':accluia allui tdihai Vitcai;ul'·.reali~ dupl~epi~CostinPeaescu~i exccutat de Casa Ren6 Boivin din Paris (3).Darul a fost ofel'it-de un grup de,6copile ale orfelinatului "Radu VedA" din BUCUl'tfti. condos de Marin lonescu(4), i ,iliatorul actiunii fi al suspnerii sale prin subscnppe publici. J

Regele Ferdinand 1ti riispunse caldului omagiu cu care acesta ifi iDsopsegestul, cu urmatoarele cuvinte: "CIl 0 vie enwfiune prlmese aeesl",.,a defrumos; buvlugtJllalcore odinioam erapartal de vitezli nOltri voievozl, clttid'11 pus intdia temelle a statului Ii au flltreziirit visa'pe careDamnezeu MI1'­!WI sii..J reaUzez ea qjutoruliubituluiMea popor.FiJurit din iubireapoporuluicu at8Imaimareplikencu cAt pia eliiubireaptJptJrUlui rom8nesc este leme¥aeea nuJi sigurdIi eeamaifrumoasiich~iepentru an viiIor 101 mai striiladlTilrii.11 voiuparta ea an semn de amintire a timpuriIor celormai gnkpriR.care 1JItt' trecut, dar fi a zilelor clior mai gloritHlse. In II vitI Sliiruuy.ll demai muUe ve«un ale anul neam lubit, v8d vitejls slriUn6llGScli a oslafuluiromanr slljlrmJek Ulffd poptJr fnlreg ,i lacriJmile can NJU wfnGtdar t;""au tfIIt an rod t1fd de frumos. Pentru Mine va ji un 1mboId 1i maimare ItJmudfl strig: "TriiUIscli iubita noastrii pua 1" (5)

Ideea oferirii acesuri dar , sugerati se pare pentru prima dati de ReginaM~a fi imediat imbriJip.ti de mulp oameni politici ai vremil a fost insa enmare greutate realizatii, datorit& lipsei surselor financiare.

Despre toate aceste avataruri ne sti mirturie corespondeeja purtati deCostin Petrescu cu Casa executoare Rene Boivin ori edreseta diverselorpersonalit1i.ti ale epocii, fonnat1i. din 11 piese (scrisorii, rnemorii, telegrame.chitanje sau alte unprimate) afIate in posesiafiului artistului, arhitectul RaduPetrescu.

Buzduganul este din aur, impodobit ellptece prepoase. Globul din parteasuperioara este executat dintr-o foaie de aur ajuraticu meridianedin o~1 aplicate,

28

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J,

If

este surmontat de un cap de vultur cruciat, cu ochii marccp cu doui rubine: sesprijina pe patrq sramete feminine rumare dip. aur •care simbolizeaza teritoriileromA.netti,uniticate in 1918. ManeruJ esie in~urat Cll benzi spirale din argintfi aur pe care sunt inscrise, ea fi pe meridianele globului marile bAtilii punatede poporu1 roman de-a lungul istoriei. Este ornamental Cll motive geometricecizelate ori gravete, specifice "neorom!nismului"- varianta national! a art

nouveau-ului european.Diinensiunile piesei sunt urmitoarele: lungime 70 em, din care lungimea

statueteJor 11 em.fi diametrul sferei 10,30 cm.; avAnd greutatea tolala de 2000g. (6).

~ Jegatil"'bu.odugon a "'"~'"prdine cronoIagi'" .ill_<>rgaDidrii _chUo<de arliJI.llillUoele8 poartiI date ·ficalo. .. . .. '1=in text, celelalte putAnd. fi. plasa"'ih contcx.tu1 cronologic co ufU$tI dupi 0

·iJ~~ a teXMui in ~ti brdine cronoJogicl. insOJin~u-Ie decoiliel1tanJ., VOl prezenIa~ptCSC. .

Prima cafe d4tat! 1/14 februarie 1920. expediatJj de iniJiatorul ace$tei', ,i~ •M~'Ionescu, agricuJ.tor~j~ lalomiJa. ea rispuns. dupi

,CAte lw, sa se fnteleagl.1a cererea pictorulni de a achita 0 surna de bani inecomo, pentru executerea buzduganului, cursul de schimb ridicAnd probleme.

, ce grW potfi~ite: "(.•.) am'inceiart sUac cum scrieJidarfmi este imposibilfiindci s-a desfiintat serviciul devaluti". Intreaceilsta ,i Ul'lDltoarea ce se

·pistreazl exist! 0 ,Ita datatA 27 Martie. pierdutl. in cea de a doua datatl 6Aprilie 1920, Marin Ionescu se plitlge din noD de cursul sclztit. alleului:"(...)vi cog si mi creclep ci fi eosentfoute. mihnit de ghioionul caremi se inblmplil.din cauza vaIutei. dar cine fi-ar fi putut incbipui cileul ncsnu sl fie atit de

·scizut" ,i COIltinUi propunindu.-i pictorolui "si luptlm' tmpreunA sa obJinemvaIuta. oficiall fi si De dea'guvemulce Dtl: 8'-0 lVuDSC".

GreuIatea cu care VOl fi onor&te note1e de plata nvor exaspen pe CostinPetrescu care 3 aDi mai tirZiu. in 1923, inCa scria memorii pentru achilarea.sumei in integralitate.

A treia fl cea mai importantil, pieS.. cste adresati de Costin PetresCuministrului de, rlzboi: pe eD.-lSte-ul pe care calc, scrisll este consemnati adreaapariziani a picton11ui: hOlclBtlJeve. 39 Avenue de l'Opera. Inca pk:tciml,propune,varianta cea mal avantajoasl pentru'drumul spre tarA aI buvtuganuluiJi 0 ex.pozitie posiblll. to care obiectul si ~,exposinaintea !lferiril lui Rege1w.;asemenea',se CCIe8. r I) c:1arificarea tuturor detaliilor legate de modul:in careavea sll se fd plata.. focI de la tn~put pictorul ofer! 0 scurta descriere a obic.ctului:

"Buzduganul reprezinti un fel~mltiucllghimpa,tI rezultlind din linillc lIilizpMale vulturalui,inlre aripilelui de jurtmprejurcelepatru surori 11 susJin.~ tuOOI

29

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,,

lui in spiralii ~i in decorapuniaur ~i email 0 inscriPlic corriemorat:ivi ,i apoimanerul,Totulesteexeeutat in slit vechiu romanescdin argint, aurcmail. mbineVi perle". Descrreree estc tnioJit! de un desen l!muritor (singura sChiJI pastrati.cu exceptia descnului acuarelat fmal conserver in coleepa arhitectului RaduPern :eli) pe pe~ din stAnga, mijloc. executeta in tu~.

EXeeutia urma sA fie gata cum scria, in zioade' 25 aprilie , Cosdn Petrescuurmdndsl piece in~ CD obiectul in zinaurmitoare, co speranfa'CI va putea fi~i exrus: "(...)Cm1 citnaintede solemnitateapredirii lui ar trebui expus citevazile cu plat!. Execppa lui atilt artistic! cllt fi materiaJ! este tntr-adevirimpecabill.", Cu baoiiobfinuJi in urma vizitiirii tlI1l1And a se oomplcta suma de

:53000 lei. Pmlie lipd'dlif'" 'fidaJI;opeaid1blc ee~:tII'Mln'inldupA

;'dndhiiutpi twpUi.lfjieacldiei.·~~,~~~uipriis VaIizaolicIaII, ""'*_ .. ft mod l\iealifi"'''''' de......... ).. ,

0' te1ep'aJDl alJCDlIdiD partes -doaniJici BtJiv1ft.: ,wla'dUtti'C fleelcforidatorului Casci. cea prc1uat afaccrlle dupI niHii'.tc6."lw{sC#a-bi',zilcle.urmstoare; Ja2laprille pe adJesa boleluluiin c...... W-d\iliplctoiul, ce n'informeaVl clPriDripesaRfisaheaa. fiica eel mare iilttgitieiMariB/iifUridu« ,la Vichy ar fi tncintatldaclar putea vodea obiectul. lar oak8,dm 23'aprilie.mil:enteazA lucdrile., trimiJind un~antion din emaihil cerut Iahotehil a:rtdtultti."Je vces envole rcchantillon d'c!mail pour le sceptre, si la cou1eur est voeedesire. telephoner ou fasser me Ie dire au debut de I'apres midi pour De pasI -ercre de tefi4iS;"

UlUweucrisorii diD llaprilie va fi vizita pe care 0 vaf~ artlstulUi.NicolaeDnagoInir. ofi}m'de artilerie ce t,i depune cartea de vizit!, ce constimiea 6-a pies! a dosarului buzduganului.1a edresa parizianA a luiCOstiil Petrescu,

~. en urm!toatele euvinte pe verso: "un ordin.talMiDiS~,de RIzboi.tmi apune si ,mI pun tn lcaltUlI cu Ova. petltru a pllti ,i _'Ci:~bricdiat"",dllllomul M.S.Rcge1ui". UzmatI do dou! te1C_ .......;tlIttd8ll,,paqiaIcUrate. tot 1a adIeM perizian" ''Nous n'avons pasdes~. Atlffll~ ..~ a doua de la Bucuretti. dAnd de tottles cI totuI 8~a~:"Affairesarrai1ges", .,MAti Cbtistescu. CostinPetrescu IOSCfle~B~,tnaI, t1ri aachita suma dilt«ati Casel Executoare fi fir! aft primi! dreptririI~~,autor ce'ise cUveneau. Aceastll. litua\ie este probatA de doni adrese 'all!,direcpeicontabl1itate.a MiniStmdui de Rhboi din 5 septembrie 1922p 1,()maHm.Pickinll cosidertndu-se ultragiat nu a vrut s! mal tnapoiezeub' ieft de bani cerImIsese~prl"esia sa, dupI plltirea but.dUganwui. ''(:..)<:tmt~~:riIiDbursare,nu s·a v§rsatdec!t 50125 lei ti de atunclpAnI~ au treeut apio8pedoi anidezile, avemonoareaa vi ruga sabinevoiti a \rII'sa restul SUnelor pADlli8Coperheachelmielilor. 39450 frarici franceZi spre a dcscureaastfeI gesttunea eOtnisieiritilltare, care in prezent Be verlfici la serviciullichicilri~ , ,

30

,

La eceesra artistul a rlispuns co an lung memoriu exprilllandu-~i pozipa:"Ole. Ministru, potrivit intreb.lMin. Resbella adresa Dvs.no. 4006110 mal 1923rdativ la socotelile confeclionlrii bezduganului M.S.Regelui ce s-au filcutdupaproectele mele, am onoarea a va da urmii.toare1e limuriri. In 1920 mi atlam laParis delegat de comitetul buzduganului M.Salc si supraveghez executarea luice se fiiteala Casa Boivin dopa modelele mele. Lucrarea fiind tenninati iarSlUns iJisuflCienti decerece comitetuI stringerii fondului nu mai da semne deactivitate. am scris 0 scrisoare Dlui. Ministro de razboi, pe anmct 01. generalRipon, scrisoare care probabil ee giseste 18'~'. 51 i~leS~ii plata luiprin sucursalanoaslrii din Paris, adAUgam in scri8oare,'Acestajutoli anticipat arpurea fi acoperiiprin banice s..aralegediDpxpozipaCl1.~,aob~uj, care

- trebuiasi aibnoe co niulifna1DtC,-dC'-'1O-~ datafixitl pcbIi'i1so1e-l1\ni~teIi

predlrii. RispunIuI afirmativ .sositeu 'adtdnduiere tneAi Ibia fit una de 9mai buzdoginilfa sc:iiit Ia;MiDisIeruI-~ Rlibo(8doS de,~etuImilitar. AnispIls~lui. Minisliu RIfc8mi ¢a 51, iunAnc Solemniti(U predIrii biwi$nnluipeotnl aIm dati,~ aIexpunela A1berieu. pmtru ca din~leinttirilorsi'sc'acopUe',nu numai plaia lui, daqfplata mea ca autor precum,i restulcbeltuielilor inele ocazionale de~ mea la Paris 7 slptimini in scOI'UIconducerf lucririlor. D-sa. consultil. chiar in seara de 9 mai pe M.S.Regele firna vesti cil a 2-8 zi, irevocahil. va uinta a lie face predarea buzduganului,jag4duindu-micise va ocupa personal co plata fi restituirea cheltuielilor mele.Deoarece pAnI acorn nu numai cit n-am fost satisflcul, dar am pierdut ,iocaziunea de a ani se expune public opera .ceeece in profesiunea meae un lucrude cipetenie, propun urmatcrul lucru. Cu OCllzia incaronirii Suveranilor amexecutat proiecte1e coroanei M.S.Regina, peecum sl mantiile de tecoronare ale

• •M.L. Regelui IiReginei.Daci ecesie obiecte (7) tmpreunlicu buzduganul s-arexpune cu Castul cuvenit in CapitaJI'fi in principalelc orlfC din (Sri, ar dare7.ultatul UJ'IDitot: mjnjsterul fi--ar acopcri dCficitu.l. drcptul de eueor 10% mi­ar risplilti numca si proptille mele cheltuieJi; lac beneficiul eel fllIHe s-ar putea• •

indrcpta -spre ~perele de binefaccreale M.S.Regele. Totodatl '" avea ,isatisfacc:rea expozipei publice a operelor meIe." .

Abia1&4mai' 1923 cste pWit:~Casei Rene Boivincostul manoperei;chitanteJe se plstre8z1 in arhiva arhicect Radu Petrescu. Costin Petrescu fi-arealizat visul dea-fivCdea lucrIrile expese 1ft sala Athencului elJiva arii nui.iltlf7.iU c8nd a impodobit sala eea mare co fresca narativl!i a Jstoriei NationaJe.

• •

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NOTE

1. Fragment din inscrippa, de, pe ~eta .buzduga.tUHui.2. " Dacia Trajani -, z~ nat«mal Independent, Sjb4i; lUlUII, IV..65, p. I.3. Casa B~nc Boivin Ilfoal fondatA ip. 1892 'f'i a'avut 0 ampli adilr'itIIRdupfi

l.9P cAod, /!.,WBtprellJ8tA de ficele sale doamnele Boivin fi Sonrel. Casa~ctiYe~-ti, awtlfl, (!CJ~·,'CatalogueJntem.ational Exhibition,s of modem

. JO"elIo!Y•. \8!l11-J$i1 !.<>olton. 1961. . .4.~~ •.... ' .

.,~~~~·:Cu"_"; 1llll9,l9<2.Fundapa·.QjjlJJrllll":~"~ 1m,p. 153.. ..'. ' '" ...•! ,,'. 6'1J1IiiJlAN-,tJ.l:lW,.,::;~rr_,~din:.aU(~4in Rominia~" Ed.,~,,~,~"'~~.llifi.: ......,.. ',..k. ".'. 7. A,rti1lUl~""'Ial"""'_uriiIo,_ -....... din 15~,1922 (~,Rqilll':i ~ rnantiilc R.ege1ui ~ a flesiMi, rocbia:PesineiM:~~t1c~te~J~ per8anaje~ istorice).,' .

.. Wa:area a fast pRzeJatatA Ia sesiueea cercurilor fliinJifirestudenJCifti.organizalidQ~ietateaPetruMaior ti Uaivasitatea BaberOolyay, Facuhate8:IeIstori~F'~e~C1uj.I3-15mai 1994.

, i. " ,;',

For Ibc ,Coroaatio.fr<n Ibe IS-th of October 1922.0( King FllI'dinedand Queen Maiy,. JomaniM painter COstin Petrescv'dcAigned -a liCIf9Ire,realised at.~: B9ivio. ,in Paris. This"~ presents 1Ite.conespondcnce ofCostillPct1CiCU,witb Ren6, Boivin,and o&berpenoDll,. COIlCCI'Iliag~ andartisticaI~. Alllhese 1cUen were published for th<; first. time and theyiuppreserved. in arChitect RadII 'PcIrescu archive.. .

32

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,r ,SPATIAL ANDTEMPORAL HORRIZON

ON mE LEGIONARY NEST·

Alina TUDOR

For someone woo' use 10 study the history - especiaUy the history ofpolitical parties - by using the classic methods. the title of this presentationmay soUnd original. But for the historian oCtile LBGIONARY MOVEMENT,this title will find .very SOOD its explanation. This is because the_LegionaryMovement ,iso',a party,like oIbcra. Appeellng 10 die" apiritual nature, the so­called"in'atiooaI" of IbC _nati~ ooDecti,vity. the Legion~~ I dare to saythat it was inevitable t()bIppen -SJ*ifi"c mdbods. trying to reliase '8 complet~ of the individuIJ. inside the .community he joined, initially, of hisOWDfme wilt The-aim of tbe'legiomiry education was to l;milda new man,wHo must have a new~OD of the history andespecially of the romaniandevtllopement.

, This paper trys to describe - of course, very summarelly - those originalstructures that the legionary doctrine built for using them at the making of thisnew man. Those structures represent. in fact, theessence itselfof the legionaryorganization as a poJiticaiparty.

Themost important novelty for the legionary organization is the NEST.1bey were small formations. made by three to thirteen members. conducted byachief. In "The LittleBook". theCapitain (conceived themllke "small families"_and "churches".Thenestwas"the basiccell"oftheLegion.Thiswayto organizea party wasconsidcI'ed by some intelcctua1s very suitable fur an agrarian country,

.wheee the most part of the people lived scatttred'in small, villages. (1)But Ute most important featureof thenest is that., inside it, they created a

new way of life. 11Je nest was a special space. where any indivi- duality wasvanishing; the only important thing was the community. COOreanu describedthellC$t as a ''smal1legionary familybased on love". Andhe added: "Wehaven'tmembers, individuals. We have only nests. 1be Legion is formed not by anumber of membas, but by a number of ncsIs." (2) So, the nest e itself aspatial model, a collectivistic one, very normal for a collectivistic movement

11Jesystem ofnests had aremarcableelasticity. Itgrouped on ages, sexes,cultural levels the legionars from a certain goographiCalzone. There werethree kinds of Desis: the Brotherhood (for the youngmen between 14 and 20years old), the nest for Ladies and the Legionars' Corp (between 21 and 28years old). Each one of these kinds ofnests had its own ideal of social life anda system of values whichhad to be assimilated by its members.

33

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In 'The Little Book", the life of the nest was regulated step by step andthe same rainuteness conceived the entire legionee's activity, either he was"educated" (a common member of the nest) or "educator" (the chief or an oldermember).

The Legion presented itself like a legalist movement, which operatedinside-the Romanian state and respecting its laws. So, this is the first featureof the legionary model: it is built inside the spatial and temporal structures ofthe state and starts from these structures. The life of the nest was progriunmedto g0 on Saturday afternoon and on Sunday. The rest of the time, the legionarsmust - as Captain ordered ~ to work hard at their jobs. ..

SlltuidSyiftemoon. the legionars met insi~ the nest fer-en hour sitting";­this so-ca1Ied "bout of the COuntrY" (3) must go on in;'apCrlect~y. to

make Cuy-tbe open taJb &ndtot the purificationof the souls of participBnts.The life oCtile nest watched ainodel which cornbhlCd the religiousity withthemiliwy diScipline. Captain's point of view is like monastic rules and be don'taccept any deviation: "Less talk, more think. nothing to disturb the majesty of'the silence and hannony. I mean that you must execiee hecomplet silence". (4)The time spent togetherby the members ofthe nest was very important. It wasa way to control peoples, but also to use their capacities for the benefit of theLegion.

The punctuality is a legionary virtue, as "the legionar must be a<. entleman". (5) The most important thing in this point wasn't thepoliteness,but the legionary discipline. The individuals equality (seen in positive ~ns: torise everybody to the highest cultural level, that the Captain desired to be themain feature for the new legionary man) ~,in this very rigid point, its bestrepresentation. Here is what "The Little Book" said: "If the chief of the nestfixes the sitting at nine o'clock, than everybody must be-here just in time, Dotearlier and Dot later. Nobody to make the others to waif'. (6)

The beginning of the sitting was made after an entire ritual. The chiefof the nest and, in the same time with him, all the members' invoked GOd'sgood will. and the dead legionars' memory. 'They stated their faith in theRcmeaian future and sweated loyalty to the Legion. At this point the sittingwas opened.

The time that the legionar spent inside the nestbed, actually, two mainparts. I shall can them ''the Church time" and "the debats time". First of themis the most important and the most interesting. ,

An important part O;f the Romanian intelectuallity between the warsthought as the main condition for the fulfillment of its destiny in Europe, thereturn to the traditional values of the nation; the village (the peasantcommunity) and the orthodoxe faith. The Legionary Movement tried to putinto practice this model which the others built only theoretical. Inside the

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Brothemood, for example, the religious education came first. The youngrncnmust to recogni?C. "tn love the Lord and to behave after the christian model".

The, collective prayer was the most important for the Iegionars. Theybelieved that "the power of the divine forces is as great as the call, the prayeris made jointlyby an the people.That's why, in thesittings of the nest,Saturdayevenings. you have to pray and to advice alilegionars that, the next day,Sundayto go to church." (7)

Often in his "circular letters" to the nests of the country the Captain asksthe legionars10 pray.during theii- sitting, for the fulfillmentof acertain politicaltask..

,Sunday bits .it ,speC&, ,~catio~for,ll:)~~" It was f~ of allchristian boJ1idaY~ whcnCl\terybQd(wentt.o"tbe:C6uicb to listen theservico.

'AD: ihe iegionarS-must 'gq to'u.e CiuUCh.on'S.mday 'and in every orthodoxehaUula. ' ..' '. .... .' .

y '.'_ -~ J::Irq,:YiC~, insist. on.~~Ji~ ~Q!1Sity. with its very:spccial

ftaIures. I ,taIbd. "in the .beg:inning of my pn=sentation.~ut the legionar."celective ptayc('. I mentioned that the legionary nest was conceived like achUrch. The chureh is (or the legionar, the. space of the RomanianSpiritualunity.Ids conceived likevthe last harbour" for the people. But the legionarRevetcame alone in the Church. to stay by himself to face to face with hisGod. The legionary doctrine considered ibe collecuve prayer more eficientihatt the lndividualone~ Legionars pray together for their collective aims. Theypray tor theQlptai'n and for anyOne who Deed God's help. The place whuemany legionars meet to pray becames a church: the nest has the same role: theSoul'spurification. But the legionar who prays alone feels sad and lonely.Thereason: awar from the community, individuals worries become nonsense.The Church n)eans,for the legionar, thespaee of the collective purification.

,of the'spiriiual community jn the n~ of JesusChrist. ,Another importarit moment ofnest'slife is "therlebats time". It was Dot

oDly the~s of the public activity, criticlam or oiganizing proposals. butalso theybuilt mound dlesetalks an entire apiritual edifice wbere every legionarmust find ~indnjate preocupations.

The ta1k$ ,Wme depending on the kind of the nesl.The teenagers'education inside the Brotherbood must have many sides:

christian edUCf!1ion, nationlll educ8tion. social education "in the spirit of thejustice and SOCial equity and'Clel.live worlc" (8). But the teenagers mustget, inthe same way,"the 88nitary edUcation", that rilean~ " he, the teenager,must ee~ away&omnlltl'lbtrlesa diseases. especiallyvenera! diseases. whichexhaastal1 the power-ofOlirypulb".

The same education must be followed-up inside the nest for Ladies.,bIltthe mainidea of the eduCational process was that they were to becamemothers,

35

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AJso, depending on the surounding where thC Mit woi\:ed (1iPWn or,p'F),~ were new sulJjeets for ~ diSCUllSions. Thlii, while the nests_ doe _ del_, e.g., theup-to-dateproblinlsinlheapjoultlDe.lheillte1cctua1s in the city debated the lcaionary clocttine. analysed thedew:lopcmentofthe R.omInian ~iety and prOp: sedsolutions..the tMiJdinaof"tbe legionar RomarUa",

, Inside the nest. the I l' Bws mUll be. ft7e....... !'lOt to 1igbtoacbother. As...ear- Slid, thoy _ be ........ll8mlIY". n-oIieaIy. ...... ""'" 1M>

a.m. 0118 ......; PI*1ke was aIitllediL.'but we have not here thepIMe•• " ' it. , ,.' -ar:-br a';l $e_"'!~~':iJI!~tldI ofq ;it" ~1":"l__J ';' q'it"', 'aae·'" .-. :~~;; .".:C"''¥.¥tbuunrisc'");.j. tf", Ii w.... 'cII1'f'te»i'-'Dll1beY'84d' c4f8illtyJotbc'upon, . . .' .' . '..": ;~: ,,', ..,' .' . .~.. ..

. At lI....hf'.. ,,,.no........~~1Jf..(..-,;.. 1DI """'I'aImodel. the kpJOuils'Ji'" UJIt.I"II~" a.~ ofibDl$ai1ylife. 1bey..;.'l1o...... hisllti rltuaIiIJili, .....~..lIietridlilon_OIIleti. ' ·IJ.l1tI:r- afCd .~tbe"'rationeJjsm ..(~U.. ,ipiiiand iIr.Ir.itY1D...tt yow:setfto. a cause) and the individua1ism (seen as"",,.iess_ 'lick ofpatriotism )', ' .

This new IifC style. pI~nd by tbe.Jeaior?n. found intbe,~inter~WIIiS 9u t iety.. ;; I oila.,.,d. of'sUppol'ttlil. That'swhy it'is imporI:InlfurtbeRc-.' lhiltory.llidllso1NlcaUiieitsorigiDatity.I 1hinIC' it is intel.dna.. be studied by the tbroillll __

NOTES

1. Frafi!;isoo vmOA. "IstDriaOlrziidC Pier"~Oftbelron Ouudj,tIQc.. Bel Hum "", 1'993, p. 110." , , , " .' " : '.. 2; C. Z. CODIlI!ANU, 'P....u l.giollari·C'Porlbel "). Sibi I936,Bd. "TliIuI_........ p.338. '.

3.C.z. COllllEANU, "CIr1iciaFu!uidoow'b"od. 7,C8mp"~ 1937,p.8.4. idam, p. 9. '.'.5.jdmt. p.9.6. _,po 35.7;," ,p.49.'•. W ···.p.24.

• 'I'I!ltpIp«"" pi lilted.. 5-dl ISBACottpU.UIndiI .' AprI • NEihBIU.4NDS

36

I,

•I,.,

!,

,:I,

I',,

ZIONISM AND MESSIANISM"E••tern European Jewery aod"Theodore Hertzl

<Jeoqpaoa CONST6NTINESCU

Amoraadi8GwtalrctideaiotbeIDllllLMlEurope.Jewt.hC8le iI.~ ,(:..11"''''11 IlIid ;11114..the ai".iod of "bbot-...'y l*Pe"'.bUrdca or tbcdcioift:'

'itCiC" "ioni'; always tumed10 ."""M·IO" oltodljJurning reactioas. baiC: forthe,.,, futureanti"C'!'it...-Modcrn.............tbcDlythofjcwiihcal tpia.-.y. '4it ,iiftY."

mthe i9-tll1W,hg:9. hwillU'IplyOllDll ia." lbdofJDeiiili.med uiilmy. ann..~, IDiWins areat cDer..... ofltrael's people.

Divine anOUDeemeDI:

"""'The lord yoW' GOD is bringing you into a fertile land - a land that has riversaDd springs. aDd, undergrounds sbeams gushing out into valleys and biDs: a landthat prodacea wheat and barley, ji&p6S figs, pomegranates, olives and honey."

(poulcroaomy, 8, '.9)

was tepeteaded and memorized throughcenturies., but always uofu1filk:d, It was theYell" 1896 when ajoumalist to VieDa, jew by birth, pub1isbCId "Der JudeAstaat" •"'The Jewish State"; and his name was Tbcocbe HenI.

.The bookwas YeIy small (SO Jlll8Cll)' bat it', cartel'became wry loogevive..'Principe) tfwnewas simpIe~ DeCOIiity oflllisiDg ..Jewish... Imltwdiptely one ofHerz.I's frieDds. NIIdum Bimtunnn,.fotmds a name for the new idea: zionism,derMtecI fiom .1Dl's D8IDe, symbol ofJClWII- 8Dd judijm.

At that time. european jewel)' was too much dMded. (&om material andcultural point of\'iew)to give oDe answer 10 the riooilltprovocation.- '&viDa, iwpottall positiooa (8l8IeriaIlY,,1 'iAg,. andabo cuItut8Ily), weatetnJews reqoested II aDIy claim their 8ssimjJ8tioa in societies in which theyweroIMas. AatbemitiJm andhillpromotonwere serious problems. but ahnost MJyODcwas COIl\Iioced of their fbtute dimiMtioa

A"em aj'"etj(lll we can see mthe East ofEuropc. Here,the IDtisemitismwas a daily realty, DOt an intelcctuaJ. abstraction. -" The political statui of iewi!lpopulation WM a tittle v.tIbIe in the llt8Ies who composed this area (Russia,1«"•••, BuJpria, PnJ..... lJkraiDe. Serbia). but. generally, was the same: the lackofcivil ri&btB.restrictioDs ODIDIl'ril1ges, pofliesioDll. limitations of living areaandof

37

~-----------

I,,,r i,,

.(

trav~u....s lire.., "numerus clausus" sloping the <In~s III \ Jniversities. etc. The intensityofrestrictions is diverse 1I1 every stale; contemporary decurnents are mentioning as"blackextremity" of antisemitism Romania and Russia (here, ill IS81 - 1884 were thesreatest progroms in Europe before the second world war)

Eastern Jcw-ery was very poor and lived almost a nualtemtory, in little viUat:>;·;called STETL, In a lot of cases those steels were isolated of christian world (theirlanguage was the Yddish). But. for the material, social aJld cultUral atmosphere ofIi stetl OD~ consult Shalom Alehem's lirterary work orex clnefrubbi's Moses RosenvoIwne of memories "Dangers, Tests and Miracles" (see bibliography).

At the e~ld of19~~.we can resume, there were more thinking currents:rdiaious messllUU:sm, mithological messianism, assimilatiomsm, zionism (religiousor _'IIQ. eiixeO i-. tbo:_sxea&.;~. wbir.(l .,,!"P- JQWisb ~le to"'-Ioi' """'~ .... in l~ E"""·wPh1lHltauah ... -.....ond ",it\>S~_8 a"_ iJl ~dijsnP...Mur~.Ji.iJl-~lWdwjll~,.aJLutopia .-lUI~ rea,ijty,' '.' , , . ''''''_. Thopdor~ Hpal W4S P'eoeded j)y..~ _~ect".I" 1ewI frOapol.llll/t

space or Russia especially; the most impo~ part of their woda. tried to _valeto Jewish reader the respensability of a glorious past, rescnm'ng in atheist pIan theidea oftbe chosen people who is continuing his messianic mission for the humanity.The most important exemple is Leo Pinsker. doctor from Odessa.

But the influence- of those works was limited; they were known by someintelectuals, not by masses. The liaison between the two levels was made byHOVEVEI SION Associations. conceived like the Jewish.youth's organi,,;stions.

The most important fact,Pf my demonstration comes to light in 1896, whenTheodore Heal wrote and published "the Jewish State". There is some difficulty tosay what is the liaison between T. H., his wotk and Deryfuss AffiUr.

There are a lot of points of wiew and questions: was He impressed amdinfluenced by Dreyfuss Affair? In whatsense? Washis work the fruit oftbia anUseu"1itCOIlCOlIf$C of events? Was it his credo fo his entire life? We hlrie supporters forevery hypothesis, but in this moment I am interested only by the book's impact, not.author's.

"Messiah is here, a tall handsome mIlD from Viena, a tort of • doctor".I"""Y'"'bed David Ben Gourion..future founder and pteIDier of Israel, be heard inthe litde polish stetl of his childhood. •Cbajm W'1C:ZtDllDD. futu.-e leader of zionist IDO\(CmCDt andof IBraol. stndmat lit thattime. said. 1atc:r: "HcIZI'S provocation came from the beaveo, like a Thunder","From ~I!Sli'; Oalima, RomaDia, from every oouotty were the j~ WfPopreseodcomes a lotoflctters ofapprouval, congrabjlatjon, enco~ ftomPP' tiNHeal received an enthusiast letter from the first colons."[Baruch Hapni, seebibIiopphy. nr. S]

Tboodor Her.d himselfcomes to fabulous dimMllions: he is taU bandSKRJ)f!;.hisvoice is like a thunder, and God has chosen him to bring back Israel's pcaplcl toJerusal~.

38

r

He is also "the new Moses who wiU bring Israel backin his home - Zion,"'" GaD. ICC~myown eyes bow myfabulous legendstarts", wrote Theodore

Hem in~ diary. The first zionist congress (Basel, 1897), where partic:ipapbwere nearly exclusive eastern, greeted the theatral appearance of HerzI with the oldJewish batt:Je.ay:

YECHI HAMELECH - LONG LIVE THE KING

At least. no one of contetPporans was able to see Ibat Herzl was not whatwecalled a maist. Palestine, lenlS''''''', Zionwere not importImtftotn him (in his bookhi: dido.'1 mentioa them); hiso8iciaJ missjgne to Europe'. gRIll powers were finis'dwithRllU1ts wbich dqrr·... IDO't'Ojl me pwfa.tof 1 U.d.,...... AI_diui,

. u...... IDtho.....HmzI!uodIo_,ooIy_ ,_canbe_as homclapd fOr JeWs.

What were :r:iomsm's c:benca at the'eod of 19.... ? Perhaps, his chanCe waSthe faCt that Hn's id08l were WblowD. His accuracy in matter of statalorganization, is clear but his fBntuy (be was dramatic BUthO!) comes to lightUIIConscious. In 1896, he~ drawing the pIaasofthe greatest cities inJewish state;he~ were the theatres will be placed, be SIDle the cD'cuses. the avenues, the_ buiI...... he fixed tho _ for tho........ _1loIIyday>, ere, _ ......end "'" otb<n.ntheywere known ""y well. pcd>opo tboywill btingloHmzlaglooyofwritcr, not ofMessiah. Jewish people bas Idways his prophets, his dreamers andhis ioovators, butthey are only what they are.

How ODe can explainHerzI's&me? I tbiak be wasthe man ofhis era becausehe superposed srcat messianic CUITCIlt which pmDloted him to the dimension of asaviour. In the same sense, his death (00 1904.1uly, 3rd) lepmcuted an importantmoment. Probebly, every Jew in EuJ-oP, was in momiog after the man who wasnear to be a DeW .Moees. HiI Jopod bo>I"es DOW a myth, ODeof the stroIlgest mythsof modem lewilbbistory -:ad bistoriogmpby. ZionUt's movement IoadersItip was

."pnh'*'<l by Bleam ofpnl'".tkl1 ....soDi IDIldle RltiIioat fever turns down. Itcomes back in 1948,111 the fouDdetiOli of11'¥jOhii ill' d;'m state.

I can CODChJde: zinni. was the natural resultofJCwish mes,janism and is aaood euinple to dcmonstnde how strong and1astins mythceabe.

w..1beodorc Herzl • real. zionist and • real Jew, a patriot bmnt by loft forhis peOple? It il hanDy to aay. His Jewish culture .was inexistent; he~hebrew alphabet, apecific prayes, how to behaW in • synagogue. Ooce~invited with Nathm Bimbmn to Great Syilagogue in Vtlnius,Lithuania. 1'he &re.tSIIIpIise baa appeared When the two apostDles of zionism were not able to open aJewiIh Jlf'8Yet"book:. 8uI biI faith inzionism wasstrong, andhegained his frontplac~ia. the hilltoly of Jarad's people. Heiab S)'UlboI of an em; israelian hitoriognlJlh)call him .. the Visjonar".

BUtwhit is cOmn'butiOD ofcastem Jewc:ry inthis movement? Excepting" theirenthusiaSm, Ibeir need of security mel \lUIfott "(Baruch Hapni, see notes ), they

39

atfelIod leadl:rs~ hope. :1 little material SIIPPOI'f, aed.twe fuft~ ''Mota! symbols:lWlI'VAH ( lIatioaal hymn of Israel TOday 'I, who means" hope", wriftn in Jassyill jswi8h hollie::,.and "DIE HERZL fLAMMEN ", actuaUy the symbOl m ilraeHan ,f!IIfe, bis pationll t1a&,

Anyhow someonestudiesthat problem, be can't denythe stroDg'iiaiSOllbetwecnfirst promoters of zionism and eastern Jewery. There wbere alsc some oppositioos toHerzl's ideas even m the East ( see so-caUed .. pRJte8t ralminer ") but they remainIlIIinoritar'

'Qlal: is.a \/UYliIltleaad p'!I"-p.teu' t rionof a complex situation, importantg,.,;; peaple•••x. r.•. This swdy was CKi8CciYed lba short fiule of.... tel... tI Pili far_. aJiID\ ""'1Dow ~abootdiem -and, I.tqwAlrAIullJlreto..-r:. ' 111tIllI¥_•• nt, .,,', .'

T

II~,

, I'I '

, ,', ", ,"

'·-To

,, ,

I

I

..in roINaltiQl! lr8'q~y:

1. cbief-nbbi dr. MOSFS:RiOSEN: "Primcjdii, incercAri. 'liiracllle", Ed.Hasefei,Buchare,t, 1989(*ere exim alio aD English edition wbith the tide~5, tests,miracles"), "BiWical essays". Ed, Has., Budurrest, 1992.

2. J. BROCINER: "Cbestiunea israetitilor romini" ( ''The problem.. of J'CDlIIDianisraelites" ), Bur..h'Illilt. 1912.

3. T. HERZL: "TIle jewish stale",

-in other ltrtgua,ge.f:4. P. K.ORZEK: "Juife llIl PoIopo", Pnsse de Ia FoDd8tion NIIicnaI des sciences

poIiD~ FIIDCO lSWO, .,. B. HAGANI: "Le Iii 'M"e poIitique.1OIl fcov!IIrur. Th. Hal", P8ris,·1918.6. A. EBBAN: "My "",,**).. my af riM·"" 1IneI", Tel-Aviv;-19U.

40

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LE l\IYTHE DE CONSPIRATION DANSLA ROUMANIE D'AUJOURD'HUI

Leonard DRULA.

Aujourd'hui c'esr unecertitude 10 fait:que Ie domaine on so rttanifQs!e')'imaginaire est Ireserendu. II n'y a pas aueun fragrrienl de la·realite qui 'nisoitpas tributaire au l'lma,iaaire. Cet1e-'ecmstatatton est explicable st noue~onsIe rapport imaginain;,realitth):!l I'irrtaginaire f6nctiOl'lnt-~'.

"flltre" qui epure la realite, retient et structure ceue reaBte d'une maniereparticuliere. Larialite dans sa plenitude est tres compnquee.elle contient unemultitude d'impulsions, de messages, de dales. Ce qu'importe c'est lareconstitution sur Ie plan menU'1 de I'individu au d'une commenauterl'hnege.par rapport ala reallte derernunee. agit pat Ie rruchemcnt d'un critere'~lectif.

LareaJ.itefrappe par l'abondance deses meseges. elle est unconglomerat.d'autrepart, l'imagioaire a un ceracere selectif. mais coherent er en msme tempssignificatif. En pessenr par flhre de-I'Imaginaire la reallte se transforme enune image, Les individus, Ies collectlvites, pensenr en images qui sont desrenecnons de lareaJiti, mais qui ne sont pas identlques avec la realite. L'Image

,est une reduction maximalede la realne. Malgr6 ses formes speclrtquee de semanifestcr, l'imaginaire presenre des structures stabiles, arcbeupales. qui sont

,pi:::n::eptibles d' unemamere particuliere, surdes planset avec intensitis'distinctes.De ce point du vue, iI est evident que ni la vie poIitique, ni d' autres segmentsde la~ ne font precve d'lmmunne vis-A-vis de I'imaginaire. En depit decette evidence, I'fmaglnaire politique est one "decouverte" eecente dessp6cialistes. Pendantla derhiere dCcenie. I'imaginaire politique a gagm! I'interatdes sp6cialis!es, Par exemple, RAOUL GlRARDET a infirme I'eureoled'idCalite.de laquelle s'entoure la politique et i1 a demomre que la pracdquepolitique De se deroulle pas d'une maniere logique et ccherenie, avec desobj6ctives, des regles et des idoolOgies prectses. (I) Au contraire, I'imaginairepolitique cannait I'extsrence d'UD fond qui' n'est pas logique et coherent. Lapcliuque a CIIglobe beauccup.de tentations de I'imaginaire, ~ lle a entrainantdes passions,parfois 4echaio6es. Evidemmenl, il n'y a aucune societe qUi soildispens6edeces tentations. Si cet aspectne peurpas Stre nte. la question relative

4\

",

.ri ,,". dismamfest ti )liS de ces tent8tions se pose 'Rlit It Drtce point

....,iII pNi ~_systOmestotalit8ires, ..SOlDetes_....... qui se"'1 Ii..' de restructuration. doUG I., sec;;d" ell· crise,• I 1p1U&.xnrit'~•••1sr.rtairios qui.' ...·"... laspbere de la.....

L.es.sp6ciaU , is . 'Ic"'1hiIlUlelD~. f• ....,m.... ltielsqW.odI-lWulill'tde'- • e Pare:=..... RAQULG~moten'.. 'hI '1M • gO : a)i'" 0iIdIpind:i0n (Ie complot). b) le sauveur. c)Itt '11\ ' l·aroit__lbCEl ed·tDlnombrelimitide... UIl' ,Ie: 1Ii61 ' , dei." a :J. 45 " 7)lI'C"...·..rn e; COIJIlIlTI it IlCKn'eaUX

.Ii.PikOS" 7 .....11. JfiMIioP~~p~ici~Jadeper¥fs",re

'~......... ,,' ,,"'~"'_('llIadei~"jit.,.. ,. '.' 0>'"

" . ,r.....Il·, at a • J'" r...lK1IpiI.....,·.1.::.''l'ilation"_,', 1:',1', ,r .. "1''11'''.,1.' ! De ;,khz'. ..'.i·"i(~till\>. .

T . ,cia •.' I .'" 'kI""', ' ',' '..,....... ., I ..pas .. unel"OIl q.-.plCii".....te·dMIs, 1a1.\'" ....... lM~.c TUI"ute.lArpoint de d6pa1'traide dins 18.&foil, ., e,. , 'Ldir. I' : 'Iir~ eIIe mtmc., dluts __ ~Mmebb

pe*da".;........ t,"" P.... '-". DOUS IroUVoJI:s '.... ri....pde J'autte••1' m' _16 pbnp Wi1 ,ny:.Ia '_ de coniidetet l'adm'saire"lr='w£.O*Knr1e1 ditf6iiit,8WlCune8Utremani6l:e

de.....cI'r fI • ....is.. • ....llllnif rl~.. P8co..6quent;cet ..aulle..itirpirelam6fl "'v, .. au ""ut- qu·i1poursuit.ilinspirel'inquietudedelOll qu'oo ani"- .' 1& nc I'M:/JI,ccI"aun", Cet"'autre.. "CCUst ou plut61p!. *'.lXAhIMJl,wi.watdlllNttlOil1I'Iaius).".' ii"liMd ·M"u' ct par0' aqJ 7 " .....ns Ai" peat:&ial ., l"b I .F...·'.qu..rU*ieur dela.•= .. ;o"'~awc,lr . ,I' _I· i·~""de"~1lIi&oocrie.' on.._it,· • GIl...•• _O'lmoillrd6JiWI.d.... rid60 d'UDe«1i1ipii1ticm

qui ........ ciI6;;. dur.III i u,: ·"te"' que cit l~irlterieul:Bft."'hniaito, ceadeux~,ia "III:iCNU·iuStsateJeut, .miij It? i'DecepaibtduweoaGRJis nee :'11 iR.: Wi _j1IfcillioD" la~'dIDr' Ie CIdfe·de .. viCIJO'i'iqw: .Ces III'JII '. ..;......-' tIIIe'mv: I.ion toQile.. nest fiIciledeJailirle ~.~\.i"qv'iII(;Ntiehli."i.Dlllilr"II:' 'Lii~'__ce'. 'de..... I·d' I UU : ••, "i;·' S."

Ea _ OIltiXbiia-quelques _iMi"..1a,r6iUi6. brultJNrllCild.......... ·mpIifterI',_:nt Il·jn" 4' ail" .....,..I..edg' cltislbMes

Ck" dl fa. I . a{3)i.Sj cea I ' F~ ·.·des COnj 110 I. disCO'nploU.. IOIltJl'OP.~cb8que sociOtI6i,..,e6puqUe. ou ~JOrial. Ie....d·jntenaitJ6 o'ert1* unifucne ot ...elletpt!••tail desdilBa&lC6i

42

II,

"il-----------

I

I,,

senSibles: comme je I'el itldique ci dessus. les societes en crise S90t p'll\Ssellisibles,plus anirees Par ces tendences. Par exemple. it est facilede saisir Iefait que. dans Ies regimes totalitaires. on cUveloppe et on ena,etient de,vraidpSycltoses autour de ces coritplots.Dans cecadre. wla,tb6ttit du complot" estexb6niem.cnt vivant;en. menant surIe tapis l'icUe d'unvirtuafoomplrit gCneia]i$s.qui _ace la cit6;autant del'interieur, aUtiJlt que "de t"exterleur. '. Oiipeut

. -rejarder comme significative )'id6equi a servi'da:ns l'URSS et danS les6t&ts-'lites (parmi 1eoquo1les1a ROUDianle) ............t ..~dahgOrqui Ie;inenares de la ' des6tatS'occideritaUx. ~ '": ',/0-,.,>" -":>" -', -.,-

'" ('n:~ f8ut '''''Jll~'' ~l':"*aocl.i;,'"i '1iIui61bll1hlalie'dtl."'__d'iiil~i1ii<·"7\I1"/ ':;;~I~ilio.,:Jdi.:ctN:'jttk.P ,"" ' < ":-. ,,',"-'~:~>~,.," 'jaL.-.;~, .: I,~,,;;;~:,'4Orit"Il48M:;....,1Milit:, ~'''' ': Jr,u~1r"~ -'''" ~ .....- ""... , ",,""""", "" l'eB()rittoujoum 6veill6,qui -..due ~~'Cle If'''hitioii;iiJ~e -i1_io1ic~

': -do laiolidarite.,en poumuvantetHn8riie ,~,ijsS ..ll,:~ond;.un'::ti8dre·qtinuf." "conferere It justiftcatiOn d'6lin1iner les ' , ' , --""'-, Leregitne""~ 1iliIst:, ' ,~, , "POt' " ,',I'Ol>oOnir dU _de1ll-uitalm!"""",.. iIislaiIIBtio.;elO&fu1!;Y

" bcsOiJi' d'wte justlficatioitinlplicitcfet eXplicite'~ses mesurespuqiti,\ies.'-· " _.; Le'patti unique s'identifie a 1'6tat, aUx Idealt1C natioltaux et'arlsiaUcune"

, ~tation de pourratt'atrequ'un acte '~'8ntiP&ttiotique, a!rtina'tioiW. Les"stimestotalitaires,' lee societes qui se trOuv¥:t :'dans"<-~e,:-:p6'riode d~­'reotganisa'd~ encoreprouvent tmeplus ~sensibi1it6 1\ ,deS terttatiomt dece genre~ -Utie pareille societe est la socl6t6n:i~a1he.,,~'l~.~,so~:deD6ceinbreI989. Un~me s'em6Croulle' et ~'autre a prisQU-~~ de~._

'sa p(ace~-une tab1edes valeurs est retnpJaC&, Piu'ilne autre: C~~'jW perlode,de rech6rche,CequCoonstitUe tm"temin" ,'_"¥I'lesniy~~.fPoliti_qyeSse ',DaiMout facilement, Moo lrrtelltionn'estPas demeureCn diScUssiOn raureo1e

:-desactalit6qui a ete attrlbu6~ 6venenlebts ~[)6ceirl~'t9'8~.;~~!~~~es ,:cornme un nouveau' debUt, comme tine renaissaitOe dOe I\la volOhtl divme,

",' " ' , " - '~""',' '"

•D6cetn~'1989 est d6veitu Sym.bol~ Systeme de~ .atiquel~,I'IlfJPO' tetout. Les evenernet!tCSonlete soit aht6ii~' soil~eurs par ,

" " -" .,~ ,,' -', ,,' ,nqiport du moment 1989, V_on de cet"'!""6"" de~dans III

'pelspCctivede l'im8ginai~ .;'sans Pietentiond'~ '~'Ia '~~ti~;,politique ulteriemeA r~venemCnt Ce qUiestinterCsant' c'esf la<~ii1am6i:e- de,laqueUe lesfor~c='-politiquCSqui sont constitu6s oni'e~e leu(I6w.~en _"

.usant~plus ournoins-d61ib6tement, Iernythe de la~tion." Pal' Cxemple"dans sa tentativede remplirile"vide de pouvclr", le FRONTOE SALtrr

-NATIONALS s'e.s!: etrore6 de 16gitimer SC3 positions."Ce que'"CornptC,c'~st"" " , ",1 .. ' ""

l'image quechIqUe fotce politique set:onfeCt:ionne qu'elle meme et per~alaquelle eIle defiriIt ses oppos:ants: ' .- '

43

.,

j

,.,I

L-:r,

'..II , r~ Ia.-nellc .., wit' soutient ill'iIIfini qu'd1cetitftOOvoir mstitueall 7 7 Ie lall64li111 iF (04). Puis, nous 88Sistons i. oe qlie est -dev~u un

,()t :1 riMe,.,.. ,'ra'". '.. :wi18 CON _ at .'«.tlit une h~gitimit6. C0RfClZlli .aux .preolicrespm • IIlti~W I ; t.Pcrl.1c 12etle28janWcrl9W,leflSNlI'.Rxxill'ISidcraCOIL oi!IIlmt>URe<JJt'" t 4'ffl.assiCF.Lapt e~a1eet"'n"llIJflIt ,._au. IiI'We,deJa"OOII$A' kGe1arue.desforces' m 11,,'[', til.lfi6es llU prtis politiqucs .JI 'oppoai tion. Je

• it' ...... r " E.meUre~~;)c4'6lequeJapresseet;,=,,*"" '. :'''1Y_~la,f,*-r·'I1.,~~,d·-.cpcrspeclive

.•..'iilij.._.l!I!'~~•.,.·,:J:¥,~'!""~"""j'if""l'appatiti",,.".,'4J':' '. C ....'_'_ ,-- ,', - "',n- ,a" ," :"'_ <'.""'f':"c,< ;'" ' '_', ''-''_'i J t .•;;pIIr~.",~·~~~i,'" .;"'~. ',', .. " ,." ,,'~,~;:~j~.•~ la TV':'.;,~.."-,~; '",,',. ". _ ,.,.,::',....:~ i,,"J -·..·OJ.;, Cctte{..~_~~,.;~r~ .. :~:if"7k , f,'''',que

;) __:;~IiiIae',~~~~ ..~:~:P7r,.,.;t.~.~:~ ...') d,II*~8C.,).l6tK?K)I,:JIii • _. II ),,'''.t, st' 1:',poJ~~, ;'vadaa'liIctiGD8: .'t}¥~I'~,.,? 44' ",~'.i~b~.~).~',perJa1'¥.;. 'Oft

'< ,"4 . ,11""'j", :.' .: ;~~la"d= I tjw... un'~'_,)~, ~, ~. quim lriI6.Cc qui'~r~issr.. '" '1m*l".de"1·~·,\du'jli6n6bitlUX~COUbeIe"bieD~,-~,~1. A...·'OV",· ',:reap: iioodela'viJk.pi6P"9....j¢;.~idmti6c~'~',..:. ;' i b....... 1 • ,.,t,',quc.r~:,cst .00: ,"autre",CObiW ',1_)I:~i""'" tV ~,~vioJePN;j ~~:ljui,aDJint;l'6quilibre.,a

"~l·~"''',"imie~'Ja~. MIl mt6"NoUs~;~:hmepratiqUcp:mque·'~"'~-"'"peIitiqiac;,oeqac~,~'~';rl"""'te.

" Ja:.11...."tl'+;;:ti 1l,,".Il;)'~ ,'.;':1- ,~.,~'..-tia.,dc:Jlfllt mile ,CD,"~~_,. t'/t~·.",.fo"~'JQl,"a1IlIe~p'f II'+JUC,imqcqui·, '.. ::,......:....... :Jc.1.....: '''i'impu''. :,..~~.) ,RI8",:.-rd:i;lpufp".',~" JPdIt"<5).aalUl,."D·ichf ""la~41i,i~••'n~.....,(W·lillfl

' ...ft. h;' .*j=o '.~ie,~;~i.icM'.. deU8iaons-'~Mh*I'.'''c)M.-".' ',,~' ;':, '",:·~":rS ",.' ,

'" ",~_~_,."'@iI~ot:j;~iBl iaj~ .. ~'~~''P'd6vieoclr&"le­pi_KId ?" 't.',t~,J'8I'l',l :1't';"·da:tQIt~, ..; ',. II ;(: ,lCI='_;JiM."lIca,.,dj" , :..,~rrv. · :mis'CD

, ''''II' Wert-II' racrmlieP~l~ur ..babit6p81'''_C:OdC·qJCiI ai'MleicntT ~'~,isrilJ.(fi). , ' ' , ,':"",' ': ','

:.... 'l!lttd71~ r ..u_tutnl8..,.."s.jr",~_••. IU:Ia~' jt••'~qep8r..;-'l·.....r';~c0rp8."'...icanpUM.' ,PyUI:qbe poIKIIIi¥antla 1IpC.do.lawuml'l'w"" ,La TV. ,.. ses

44

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reportages, met it la disposition de roue l'image d'un lieu tenebreux, peupledes etres qui sortenr de la sphere du normal.L'ldee d'un lieu qui cumule tout,cequ' est altere dans la societe fOt mise en circulation. La "Place de l'Universite"est Ie lieu des drogues, des consciences menlpulees. des "psychopates'', des."desequilibrts" (7). Done.I' etablisementest menence. on attentea te etlence,a l'ordre, a I'harmcnte de la communeure, Ceue conspiration a ete identilleeavec un comptot legionaire, fasclste, Le discours presidenriel, vla-a-vls desagitations declenchees dans la Capitale (Ie 13 juin 1990), est eloquent de cepoint de vue. En m&ne temps.Ie TV transmetait des imagea du chaos de laCapitate, des incendies, des immeubles devastes, des confrontations violentcs;Pni.$,sontmises en circulation des nouv~es"pr~u~"pour~eenevideneeIccoinptotJegionaire: des images et _dCl~ODs concenuint l'6xistence

'del'aitneJ:Qent, et ,'les drogues trou~ ~s les~'s des partis poUtiqUes-', d'OpPositian ou -R I'Univestite, (9) . NbUB aV()fts ici I'image d'un veritable

aiJS8ut de I' obscurite. d'uo attentat a la _bUite de Ia communautC. D'autre'pert., on vehiCtile l'id6e d'un camplot international contre la Roumanie, maisen 'lWOCiation-avec la conjuration det'Inteneur, NOllS asistons AI'exacerbationdu"peril bongrois", qui devient un lair-motive engendrantdes deCisions et desaffumations pueriles. Parexemple: l'Idee de la necessue de militariser Ia regionou se trouvent des cltoyens magyars (10). Le Pcuvoir a Invente l'Image d'unesociete assieg~ controntee avec des conspirations iuterieurs et exterteurs.image dent Ie but est d' obtenir la legitimitepar l'argument de force politiquequi lutte contre les p6ils. En meme temps, on met en circulation l'id6e de~gation par laqueile la cite est menance. L' action Ia plus representative de cetype a Ct6la manifestation de force des mineurs dans [a Capitale en juin 1990.

Le bruit polinque joue un rale tres important dans Iamise en evidence de1'ima8e de Jaconspiration. Plusou moins deJiberement. lacompetition polltqee .

.'a·6(6 defonn6e dans Ia presentation officiaIJe.on a mis en circulations desaffirinations paniquai'des: Ie retour des grands proprietaires foncieres.lapersecutiondes 3 800 OOCI membresdu Parti Comunisre, Ie chomage.(II)

Le nationalisme a eteaussi exagere: on agite I'Idee d'epurartcn .des.­cthni~ qui auraient contamine Ia spiritualit6 roumaine. Bien sdr, I'histoire c' _'est comme instrument pour expliquer une r6alite preeente,elle est utilis6epourobtCnir du capital politique. Des personagesautoritairea: Draculaou Anrcnescusoot r6vifi6s dans lepaysagepolitiqueroumain. Lemeasegepolnique est tresclair: "'image d'une soci6t6 assi6g6e, qui Be contrcnte avec des ~rils interneset'ext6rnes etd'lei la n6ccssite d'un r6gime autori.taire qui seuve Iepays; C' esttinexemple caracteristiquede ce que signifie I'explcitation de I'bistoire pourjustifie(une ~tude poUtique de momcnt.L'image de ce complot cst la pluscOPSistantc, IwuS elle 0'eet pas le seule,Lcs competiteursdu Pouvoir mettent

45

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en scene un autre mythe, celui de 18 "conspiration ccmmeniste'', ridee qu'en.decembre 1989 nous avons assiste a un "coup d'Etat des communistes de Indeuxieme ligne" (13); d'ici !'idee que la "nomenldature" ccmmuniste etSecuritatea auraient reinstaure Iecommunisme. D'Ici que "la Revchnicn a etevolee" (14). C'est la p6riode OU on vehicuie le cliche du "neoconamisme" etd'Ici t'obsedente question: "00 'evee YOU, fait pendant les cinq demlersamites?". On a fait la suggestion de r6diger'des listes avec les membree duParti Comuniste et de la Securitate.EvidCrmllent. toute iIIegaiite. tout laxismemoral sont consideescomme peeave d;u n6ocommunisme et la Securitate est consider6eresponsable4etout malqu'on troavcdene,laiIOCi6t6.,

, ,Diuscetcxpol6'.-mo ,~de'aw*ie'dlMleDCelapt&.mcedeI'~giquedaDs Iavie paIitHJue.Ccdiiill?'oiftd6ja 'vu~ J·i_."·aiJ.tre~· sur1ep1eo poIitique pcatd6rauJ ariacOaftUa~:;,' "; ,pllCe quel'opponem potitMpK: est 1111 ..~_.diff'eritht qti'iI t'aut Bimhlel'.Cctte relation n'eet pas- mrivoqUeparce'que"'autre"'a.cnr6antilem&mePoint de vue. En fait avons iei rune des'mytOlogies essentielles, la dispute quioppose le "BIEN" au "MAL",

NOTES

I. RAOUl:- GIRARDET "Mythel et mythoJogie politique", Seuil 1986, pp12-18

2. Ibidem, pp 26-443.ANDRERBSZLER - ..M;Ihes .. Mytbolosieo ............" P.UF 1988. pp

16-344. "ADEVARUL ", le 13 janv. 1990; "LlBERTATEA", 16 Ie jan. 1990.5. "ADEVARUL",leI4janv;l990 >

6.' ~DIMINEATA ",Ie 26 avril 1990 ..,. "DIM:INJ?ATA ", mai 1990; "AZr" le 17 mai 1990.8. "AZJ.", Ie 14juin 19909. "AZJ. ",Ie 18juin 199010. "ROMANIA MARE ",Ie te cct. 199211. "AZI".lc2juin 1990- , .12. ~'ROMANrA MARE ".Ie 6 sept. 1990; "EUROPA ",Ie 3 DOV. 199213. AllRPL PBRVA. CAROL ROMAN - "Misteie1e RCvo~ei romlm",

Ed. "Rucruci de vAnturi",.B~ti 199114.·DUMlTRU MAmU' "REVOLUfIA FURATA" Ed. "Cozia"•

. B"""'"fIi 1991. pp. 101·117

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IN SEARCH OF A LOST CONTINENTsome considerations about the idea of Europe

in communist Romania

Adrian aOROIANU,In this essay I suggest a more unusual way of analysis of a historical ..

phenomenon. Therefore. I made used not only ordinary sourcesHke, memorialistical works and press study, but also those sources that, at the firstsight, might be classified as periphericaland withoutany scientific value - fromthe painful character of cinema productions to the pure analysis~f popularsjokes with national touch by which people. the Romanian people in this case­would avenge its own helplessness before the communist regime and its owncomplexes in comppared to other European people.

Myessay refers naturally to Romania seen as a European country,comparable. from many points of view. I think, to the other former communistcountries which, in spite of inherent differences among them. have certaincommon peculiarities given by history in the latest half of the century. This iswhy I'm going to tell you is not available for Romaniaexclusively. but also forPoland. Bulgaria, Hungary, Czehoslovakiaand Russia. There arecertain commonaspects especially regarding their relation to Europe Rot as a geographicalterritory, but also as a spiritual land.

The idea of this essay starts from two very up-to-date problems. Firstly. the obsessive discussions in the political, economic and cultural fields inRomania, regarding the integration of our country in Europe. Neverendingdiscussion might be born on this problem. The fact that many people areinterested in thiS makesme think thateach andeveryoneundeptaDds it in variousways.Secondly, the discussion's born on the continent withregard to the dangerof a future united bipolar Europe ~ith two speeds: one in a hurry towardsunification- France and Germany - the other slower.England.

My attempt was facilitatedby the fact that, owning to my specialization inRomanian contemporary history, I have studied very carefully the communistpress after the Second World War. In fact, the themeof my diploma paper is thesludy ofa magazineof this .kind, one of the most ridiculous in thehistory of theRomanian press. a so-called cultural weekly "Veac Nou" (''The New Age").dedicate to closer ties between Romania and USSR. It appeared between 1944and1989, changing in the latest years its programme and regularity. There. I

47

•might say that I am ral:hef an expert in ridiculous journalism.

In the evofuuon of modem and contemporary Romania I identified fourstages regarding its releuon to Europe:

1) ASSUlLed europeaaism in the antebellic period, since Europeanizationmeans modernization.

2) Unrecognized biddeR~sm in the period following 1948.3) A mimed Europeanization iaitiated by Gh. Gh. Dej in the 60's and

continued by Nicctee Co.run .4) The fearei iI.tEI,t, GefiaiD& the period after 1989.

In order to i'W 7 s ,.... 'sliN\.lbavochosen twoenmplcs: first. theworkofthemoStfNa' , - ;·p.''IfTisbtwhOwrotelatelytbClutcc:otlay.in aperiod when RQR'188ia W8II iDarapidpr0ces9'ofmodeniization., This playwright is IipneoJloR LueaCaragiale and he.temained II ODe of

.'the,most keen observers of the Jilomapian people.Caragialcis hurst and~al 'towards his characters. His plays. show' corruption, lack of honour, blacbnml,leyantinc moralsthat dominaIed the Romanian society. ForCaragiale, Balkanismis 'tpe antonym of Europeanism. Paradoxically. his scenery and characters areperfectly European. For .......:

• the parlamentarians and politicians- the world ofgazette owners• the theatre to witch peale of Bucharestgo, in order to sec German and

.Italian plays but, most of all, the.,m houses, whichwere real instititulions ofCentral Europe. ,

,Li~ critics are slill:' wondcrin8 whether Caragialc: did love his beeoesor not Butcertainly his work accurately reflects Romania in the 19d1'oCntury'­a eeuntry.with a COJ:ylitutioD:on Belgian model, 'one of the rriost'liber1din~ aC9\Uitry in which modc:nrizationwua 8yDonymofEuiqiunl~'a countrY iJ). ID asocPdent COU1'8 of its evolution. All these'made RoavlDia'a'Balkan country. ~t.a,EuropcanB~ one. "' ","

The secOud ex.emple fortbis period.I found ina diary writtm in tbC 30·s.this century, publiehd;in Romania lately in 1991. Vihen its author; .'yOung,WOm80 named JeniAetcrian bed died long time: ago.This diarY Icrers to theperiod betwecO 1932~1947"It is worthy to know what-idadofbooDJbat)'CJUDS. ,woman oftbie30'soould buy from thebOokshopsofBuchaiest. bOOkSpubllllbcd" •et that tUnc by Fnmch publisbmg h...... like 001_ Pion. Stock, SeulI;Fayard.,1banksto hecelder brothers,Jeni Acterian tookpart at tea-Parties alougwith important representatives of the interwar young generation J.i.ke MircCa

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Eliade. Emil Cioran, Eogen Ionescu who later became famous names in the,European culture. They were excluded from the Romanian culture during thecold war on the mere reason that when' they had had till: possibilitY to choosebetween tbeircountry and their liberty; they had chcosen the second one. Thisgeneration belonging to the 30's was a perfectly European generation. At theirmeetings; they would discuss about concepts, and ideas which used to bediscussed ar that time in the Western centers of Europe. Considering variousaspects, such as the aspect of the street. cultural elite. free trade and the typicalurban mentality of, Ibc great cities - we might siy that Romania consideredi~apartof'~idM"IDri"'.' < '. " ->; c_','", ,,' .'. '".'

, ,Inflct.Bl¥:hIrestwucallell'"'tbeLtu1cPariioftbe8l1bns"'imd Romawa._;'.'tbe Bc1aiwD. ohhc,OrioiIe',';:',''';, ;..;--, I;:' '" :,.:, ,. "

, '" "',' _,_,~" J,'::'?<;';<;' J.

2. AIlertb...ntell_' "" ,

But yet, how wasJ~ possibile that in few yeats after the war, the tenn"guropcan" would almost become aD insult, the definition,:of a' suspect,reaetionary .reality? The image of old Burope radically modified from 'theRomanian view: Europe is divided in twcperts: aEurope belonging to countrieswith J!opl,Ilardemocracy, including Romania, anda Europeofcapitalistcountries.In other words,'a Europe afGood and a Europe of Evil. The word "Europe"Wl$ abandoned. as if it was a botIrpoU.' anuioVietical workI. good 10 defineonly the Westernc:ts. The target of the Romanian'communistleaders, especiallyafter the deposition ofMichael I. KingofRotnania:, was a process Ofsovlensenonas fast as posibile.

As. I.havt already mentioned, I had the oppOrtunity to study carefully ateview that bad brought a great conlributionto sovietlzation, the review. "Veac

.'Nou" publisbed bY theAssociatioDforQoaerTics with Sovir:t.Uhion. I fOundthecommunistswerc1Ocagerto¢karl&e,thal:thcywoul~trytoniodifygCography

il8Clf. Here it is whata Uiacberofgcogtapby saidin December1944: "USSR is" continent, oDta country and this should be explained to the pupils studying,seography". Helme Cburclilll at Fulton 01\ the 5th of March 1946 ,about the"Iron Curtain" divided Euiope, the·Romanian'phUoeommunistS tended' toconsider Europe's limit somewheJe ill the iniddIe 0~Gctm8n)'. On the ease oOtthere is a new Cont:iDell.t,' a kind- of ~verland ittciluding USSR and its satellitecountries. In this NeWrllftd J&oI8ted from Europe whereRomania was to enter.

The ch8ll8'" are 10 dIep thatgradually the Word ''EuroPe''does no longer&w carin DCWlJ4Ci'i andaflioiallipeeChes;'Thconly policyallowed in Romaniais the IIOCialist QUnppoIJcy. As a sign of Romania's translation on the newcontinent, tboRomanian Army that' gave 200000 victims in the antifascist

49

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Therefore, I have studied a magazine named "For our country", publishedby the Romanian Home Office and a collection of novels published by theMilitary Publishing House, a collection named "Sfinx". The propagandisticrole of these publications are obvious. How can a spy's robot portrait bede$cribed?

We are often told that the comes from a western country, without beingnecessary to specify the name of the country. The spy necessarily has a German

. name, more seldom a French, English or Italian one. When we~ given more'details, we learn he comes from Federal Germany, bUI he is paid byAmcricans.~ lYe can realize,~ the spy personitiesthe Free Europe,,adio'Sf U>n tbat,as we know, "'aspaid bY AihCricans and ~tOadc!'Sted from Gcfinany.Evil always comes from the West. Not onlyspies, but also neonazism; violenceand atomic danger. This conception entereddeeply the collective mentality. Ontheotherhand, it is clear nowadays that f'rom the60's 10the SO's the USSR andis satellites manipulated from the shadow the western European movement

'1 CelUJ,esw.ormimed re-euiopeanlzatlon

Because of his physiological deflcicnccs, Ccausescu never succeeded tospeak Romanian correctly. Thus, he couldn't atleast pronounce correctly theword Europe. Yet, this word appearead in his speeches more often than in hispredecessors' ones. Because of the events of August J968, wien he harshlycriticized the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia, Ceeusescu became theMoscow's rebel ally in the western opinion. In fact. Ceaugescu mimedindependence from USSR, liberalization and europenization as well.

Although, he prevented Romania from becoming Soviet Union'spossession, he transformed it into a Latin North Korea. Ceeusescu considered

,'himself a providential leader. After he had received famous political leaders­such as de Gaulle and Nixon, after hehad on his tum visited USA and the GreatBritain, CeauFu concluded thatEurope was too narrow for him. His ambitionwas to become a kind of leader of the third world. Therefore, he strived tobecome a mediator between USSR and the USA, between the Arab states andIsrael. The contrary phenomena occurred on thelevel of thecollective mentality.Onthe otherhand, the communist regime tried to present Romania like a Paradisewhere at least jobs and everyday's bread are available. ern the other hand, theRomanian considered Europe a mythical land. In the analysis of thesephenomena,I think that tile study of the popularjokes would be very interesting.These wide spread jokes are called "bancuri", in-English "wisecrack", a kind ofanecdotes, some ofthem with a political touch. mocking the presidential coupleNicolae and Elena Ceau~escu, some with a national touch reflecting the

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1t...i148'$ roMdoQship witb the I;urope!J;l\i ill I:betlction plan......~.have a f1U4 8truC~ with three or fOW' cbaraclief8: one

.-~ theodllJn weFf(:IK:h. Oerman.IiI:'lSii8Qli,.EnglishmeM;, " AmcriclUlb.n.ROmanian describel himselfastbe: IDQIt Iazy.withe greatoit liaror. OR thecontrary. hi: shawl to bemore clov... tIIaa the EnglishmaD. IDOI'e cft'leieftt thanthe Gemwn and, more vUik _ .. frcocth.C~u didll't admilthat theWe. bad certain vl1uctl ,whidI ......rria didn't posses, In the culUR for thewidlIJUJIICIl•• Wet& Wllia..."riJy, PIIfOdied. If France had JlOvels'and'movies uw............\141)' .... 11~iaMd Us owe DOVe1a and movies

-.With 'lIOIlqf~""""'~,WYiOdft/!DJIIOriiu;ROpMmii.~.QW~~"""'''-''''''''''!il''''of_8Ul.R...lIoocl"'d·~. .... " .,

, .-, ;.,.~'., -.-'

... aeoJIIJ.... .. '. . " .. ' .

Nowadays, the Romui.. ~ or som" of them • Ieeros to be angry with'Europe. TheR~'s~ ofprovial;:,iaIiM.t.'havecreatcd a verystroog ,myth: the mythofthl""""'iwope"nu. opinioo is rooted in two reuons:1)TheRomanian arcuid 10 haveprotected Europe from tbe'Otomartdenger inthe Middle Age. While the Romanian were fighting to defend Europe, thewesterners were prosperous~ buildiDgs c.thedrals; 2) With Churchill. theWest Romania in Stalin'.Iuulds. Rcmt.Ii. wu .. says one of the Romanian·sold. If then EUrope ~ in which we be10Dacd at thattime- abandoned us, it i. itsduty today to help us.

, These myths have always beendeeply explQited CVCD by the COOII11IUliBtleaders. Undoubtably, tbln DIG.thiDa·. in tbcIc suppositioos. But tbebiItoric truth gets !<lot ill 1IiIlIololIY,

5. A few oonr'iI'"Those whoare Ifnid f'f~opcjntodaY'J Romania. 'rOl.1blIt~jsoI.~

, ofourcou:nar is the-multofQCQ'Jt, ml'...i~lPdjowiabplota; Thewilt ,k thItisolation stai1a from inIido.ltia l'OOled ia tIto JkeeAla', 'AlMoueill:', in_1beircoUectiVo-~;,':llwcta"lthipk""',dIcl_-of~'it..wontwaledy of die ROQII.d.n spirit Ioday.*)

.)L1.JcrIlea.... 'J1J1lM IUlIIi ronan':! pic:rdul.~ l'Ileij ~ ........iMii. f', IPlIIR.; ';.~a""pc IntlIIlI~Sooia.a-.Wwaric I.,. \'wiIMIl1....... a,wo,"..u.,..U.._,*, llpIIotIMici - alost pi •••" ..~ anuaI a1l;S,a.A. dIlltTours. PranI' Ip 'Pil"- 1m. 10 !We" Ii formha ...", til YOhUnuI "Wbatdoes It mean 10beEu1I:lpoan !brouIh biMaryr' LSJLA. (bImaIl/l994, PlIpen,fll.... AnnuaICetI'-1Q ofLS.H.A.Toun. Pruce, 1993.)

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I "mSTORIA URBANA»

_cALTIA,-~_"HI5ToRIAURBANA", II clntiprim "UmAr a vizut. b*"meliparului

- _Ii fweputalllCCStui in, a fbst fond"1 do 0 .. -doilttit_. CPfClor din Roilla..ia;. - ,,*.' lj... peltrDlriliAcade.meiR(W"....dIi'dejubolidMtateimportantl.AC .Ii"

o • iIaI '...... . &..--- til • . . In •__.....­...~~ ~''''IR8'ea tIDW lUIWUllfliCSI'Ul fllCl OODStit\Ue,' tr-uD.~n us:....;. cJo nees a iDltrumC:nt do Jucnt, Ql atAt Diai mn1t CD cit eete unica~de acoat pro1iI din RrmAoli. . .

Remca apare ,biauuaJ. fiiDd concfnd do 1m colectivde redactie format dinIced. OmIkrindci. I08lJ8 BogdanClflpjciu.0Iae0rgbe Omfac'lzino, Vasile Ciobanu

, (8llC!I..._redaCtie)i MirceaD. Matei.PlwJ.Niedermaier(tedactor fe£). VICtor Spinei,0IMr 'kleIMl.· , ,

, Boptul8UlDllf al revistci este orientat en precldere spre istoria medievall •,~I eel,Or ce au inipat-o fiind medievi,ti-,' s.ingurul articol dedical perioadei

001••'4"'01_ ~ o'tIcerea asupra aotichitifii ar trebui sa: constituie mai CW"l1nd 0~. Articolole sunt semnate de Mircea D. Matei - "Opinii eu privire Ia(lrieutIrile aetuale In cen:ctarea roml!oeascA a OI1lfIllui medieval"; Paul Niedennaier-"Evolupa retelei de 0l8fC in Transilvania medicval.e"; Gh. Radu - "Uneleconsiderafiiprivind dezvoltarea demograficl a oCSfului Piatra Ncam!"; Dumitru ~aDdru ­"'Prcaiunea-~ ruralI-fi Ol'8ful rotIl4neSc interbctic";1imil AngheJ M "DieADonII'''a del'~lMz von Anu:r; Vasile NCllm(U -."La rCY01te-des citadins deJUlYdoprinteqw de 1633 dans IeCOlltexte des troubles sociaux de Moldavie pendant

, Ie ptemicr tiers du XYO-erne sieclc"; de asemenea Bunt pablicate dezbaterileooIocYiubd."'TeI'DleIlii 'ITrg I Oraf· semnjfiCllJie> evolufie fi utiIizare." dcsfl!,urat in 5febnJlirie 1993 to Aula Academic; Rom'ne. fi lacare au participat persOllll1itJPimpodaule..1I1e istuiei or8fUhli, ca Paul Niedermaicr All Min:ea D. Matci.

. ACClJIIIUDl..maicupiode douIcomribupi: IiIioomadlliu a1luiMichel TInased231ltd 1e00emJ! de "piap"~ variateIe saIe"-vi. OOIDpalabV co Bituafia diD fraucedf- gmDIIlI. f un aItuI allui GheorRbe Sebesty6n:"Putem vorbi de comune in istoriamedievaII • CI'llf*'r noastre?" .

Revilla ee iDcbieie cu un capitol de teeeDzjj.SpelIIP1 cI accst mnnlra trczit fi inte.twlll istori9iIor cee seocupi de anticlritllte

Sao de cpociIc mocIernI fi conttmpotabl Ji cI urmItond numIr va cormllDa acest

""""'I""" -

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SOME 77IOUGTSON THE OCTOBERCONl'BltBNCB IN IWCHARBST

Heildd All!o.buki .U"i""'" ofH..l8Wi

Wh.!n I orriud ill BuCMnsl iJI the -'of0I:uiIH!r, I~ /{} admit • I ,lit not qul~ ...... wIIPr 110

up«l./n myopinionit was urrific that the~ ,1J4tlmI, wt'n willing 10 Ol'gurUu Q tOfl/i!I~;" 1MjlmplaN. 1M~ie f war jII8t cowotyng 011 IffY pmIiotu mcorgrten wfth [SHA peop/4. wllkilltird IIIwtIp#IrlIidbtltllO""'''''''''rn,;-fIIldmwmJIIv.·HawbtI_,b«Jl1O R/UftfIIlIlJ~, f ....... ucildbothabDutlIM iIfeiM oftIW CtJII/mItU (MytM tmd#llltoricdl~J tlIId1M dty wh4", 1/ was /wid.

MyPQiJiliN~f1I'UW'dlOho-UfuNJ ':IMftRu-daynuyln~It __~,-.Ii", ,..thY~I#.. r! ;7'" ; ?..lI1t."..-~iII~flwc..... r:-•....~...~."..,.I...m ;11••".,..., 1 '."..... ;'--"I',1iItt~~

.. ~"'J~b'f."f~ptICIJI':iIlI'tNqlf";'~Qft.l;:C.,,'i ••#IPIIA: ".1"'" . .--" ·A.rhimwrlunJ'~;icl1lllw ...,'.t'jijiJIUtOol:pI4c" I prtftrMtN>~","''WJildi',m-,mr1wH~""rD* I '''''''''''''11.1:1..,,.""'_iItI•.Jo~-.~.tIomig/tu twJIwJ ill t1wnJ-.,. tI/pt·fDldlwr"u'" Rw!taIlIIzn tllpItfiL. Tlr¥ftlet if,lie ..--ocllillvtll~ aIld~u:MiltIrity ofdiffemuErm>,-n~' 5'rwd:

me. once ..galll, in 8ucItDnllt. TlW Ifliglu "'" In''' 1I ""'Y origitwl ob<erl'fltj",~,bill in QII, .. .,.. ofaJlMU1fW'rbartiJ Ifilll'00wlilrlll j/)1tJ.1 A,tpwflZltt ..mmt81" .. -

• TIle. l/ni,..'IJttOfBwlw.,." -wlwtrdw tlCfIlk"uc pariof/1M C""femu:etool piau, bdHs..,...,It>tIri. by 11£W:ryQP~' 'tr/#"~ plMJMg 10 risk pltJNl """'.... rich nudlliofl "".,,.,,,.,,.,.

, TIre _ /HIiJtp _ ~by'tM opming Uct14,., ofthe DeanoftM FQCIIlryof.0-of*Fac.ItyofHistory, 1"rr1ftnor Zo! "dR!_ wllidllOOA: JU IKu:l,o "",r IJinorlcol roots. to Ndiquiry..

A..JwIttn rouldoll, thbIk 4jI,r 1/1, Uctl~ vI,II/O rM mDMmry of C,mictJ1 DId liDi •.""'orgelUlbl, mon.t J_,pitk lIS to'IM /tU/Ory of CridiIMily. whJch 10~~,,"""'M

Eruop«lIf. cuhuR!' As a F/nn.C6MUfg fl'Olll .. COMIIIry wIwR! Gnd; OrfO<k»: R!Jigil)~ ha,,,1so pkqd ariPifICd1llrok. fJ-tJ1MCOIIIf'Il1"QiSQllu;rrmw/y IrrurRlUlg.

fll 1M~ ptUfriftM CDIf/-- "'" _", "- by Wrryou.r -wru how myllu lUI'c~hDw1M)'ftuIctIoIt _. ,llI/IlIIrftw"-W ""IM9o=rhItttoCQ"'J_~jul'tfwr.t ~fi.-ly

I#tGr (1M of. , kdpoiMl of1SHA CfIff/tI",.", 1# IIJ__*#11II~P"JPI4It­df/ffrMI--nu.itydl 4 dbtr..__Wf)pe;i."-,."""._....rIil8l. """"tINS/lMIIe4 to jutat- dap (lUI'~ ;,), _-..4.10 dtaU.. ...,., '*' C1ftINT"""

. t-UUUIO}Ild.bb$' '. $ t .....'iI¥lJ....tI'IiId'." IliWnli....-.-....cliJ"'"~' .

hlloh,lDllldwrI"-laJUC#MII1fpc&iwilltpl 1-_1IIftl~4d>'rIc ••)lIf.1tary., nwNo w,dNr IIJ IU 111~ IIlIrilr& ouT btu r/d&r, .,.,_1Il'Dib.-4-.__litfdr-' dUtWlioIu. FM"'~ II'IU _10 ",",,..u wilD /wi pel'lOflQlly up.r{m= ( sfIde dna ".-..u1ll NiUIIIptJA 11_...." IrJl~to_. ~t.1If MOpIII1C1f_ ~andiJrlfll:D/tIw fmBJc,~~fJ/Io<>"""'pfi ..,dll_~)IraItM.

.... wIrat IInIet _ """ 1MOJ" I I Jrd <rtJiIIJ<t r1/,..~ ifIIJory III .' J' 1JwJ MWn'

~1afl.Jwlifing Iodftf-..lllltMUptI8f, til.""",111M poIIliwly1cJo,I:i,., in IIJfutJrnr. AlIdw,lN)'wfIIrwhk:h """c-mbuk to';" """~',coope""I;{)"in rhmM o/ISHA 1J_"'X;'" itfIIHrI. Ml!~.-I-" ",*-kuIrt.

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AI dJlclka congra /nterlfIJ/JoIfai L$.H.A..(l-_'f__-"""''IIUtr«It" 0laNJa. U aprllIe 1994

Cristina JON

lnpsrloado 4-8 aprili. /994 s-o duflJlll1'tll Ia Utrecht rOlanda), C41 tIe-aJ clnc/leactmgn!.I' OIII«I1aJ /.s.H.A., 10 cew au participat stutknp din 2/ de tlIf't: A.trla, BeIgUl,FI1tIlmda, FTanIo, Oermania, Israel, ltalia, Olanda, SpanIa, MQrea /JrltllIfI" mrlJoJrJjan,Croatia, CIhk1, &tonta, LttIIImIa, 1A1tJIfkI,.Polawitl, ~.R1I.Jio. Ucrulllo;~!-&H.A.-1JJlcrneftJ j/ilumru"} ajiMtJ'l"U"" Ia ace wtlI·11IItJIItIN CJI 0 .,.,.,.fOil j"

.. 14 8tudtnfL /JII4Irma aftm 8I1'IICt#J'atI in.:.d016 J*fi: pr11IIlJ aI:IIIJrl* 'al ! tee.ImtblelNlOr/nl,me ale 1.s.H.A., far cea de-Q doua pu.ntarea blcrllrl1orf'l"rlVb:"CIJN'HI/fk:rIt iii Cddrul Q palm aldtc,." "Hllbita/", "Ttmp", ''Marginall'', "Ruq;tdtWz marlIO,.ew:nhHente"("Hom,","7Jnre", "'Ovt/aws", "Big Things"). .

. LfIcrdri/e Studenplo,.'bucu1l1ften; au trator proldeme desLU/ de divem, dar totIublttdndtnsftra vie/if colid/ene, care, In wi/mele decenu. e 10111UllprezenJillnlstorlQg1'qfie.Acm.problem.aumers delahahitatulln epoca "ron::ullli l'banditismulln epoca1VmalJcf,la~ colidianlI In leri/ariil. paJ,Stiniene ocnpote de Israel, trecdnd prjn tem, co:oblecfeleccuntce In Egiptul antic, viofO cotidianif a familtet regale la castelulPe'Io/, (I zidin WaJalUfUi omob/lnuit din Romdnia In penoado camlln/slii, urbanizarea indpiemIJ In.Prltrclpate inprima jrnn4Jote a seCQ/ului af XJX·fea, "Ia,ta eotidiana a cutbulill JegWnar, ajaponezilor In perlooda conJemporrmfJ etc.

Remarct2m, pe1lt7u ealltoteolor projesionala. {uer!Jn{e semnale de: Dan AlJtUlloale("Latrones, delJcventa sau WIJO{liJ soeialir), SimlOn ('ri/lia ("FortnaYfia de tthguripe morlflebolelrfli Ja ifdrIltul seco/ului al XVlJ!-lea ii itlcepuU/{ secollllui al XJX-lea. Un em deu~ anyttenm"), BogdanAntoniu ("V/ala cOlidlanain lerl/orille fJCIlPak de llmsl").JUriIardIm, de fJIIemenea, pent,." originalitolea temc! afes.e (CIUII a stdmlllntertua1t1ed/sell/Ii), JllcrlJrlle Aline; Thdor ("SlrUClllri ~'PaJio.lemporafe In universul culbld"tJeglonor"), ale lUI Adrian Ciorolanu ("0 zi din "iaJ" lui Ion lonucu. TIIapJ COIIdJanIJ Itpe'"Pfla Itmpu/Jll In medJlIl urban In Romdnla andor '90"), Mihai Dtnu ("LogodnilliClbIItorll ", TamRo~ fa tnceput de secot XIX Aspectejllr!dlce', Romeo lJrrIliI("Japonia asrJ1zi. J1afa wtidIaniJ inIre IrudiJieJi modemncue "). Gabri£fBtllfea.PlIun ("PjafaCOfIdiqnlJ fa caalelld 1egaJ Pele,.'), aceasta din urmiJ prezentaliJ Ii cu ajuto,."l imagtnJforproleclQle. '

All !08IIWlpn.te expunerl pe diferlle Isme (cum a /osl cea a pro!esandul w. Iv.M(jnherdt, "TheI~ion ofPopulaT Cllllllre "); organizarea unelpremu4rl pe temQ "Ex­perimentalAtdtsoIogy"•. auJor Csabo Hidon (Ungaria).Pe ldng4 dubaterlJe admbtJnro.Ih>e ,lltiinpjJee. organizotorii olondui au mat QlIlI/ In vd1re II alteaclvlt/{Ii ca: vJzitaNa~lIi (CaIarljnectJlWenJ). a Damulul/t a 'Iilmullll din Utrecht.

Biltmpd]1OIJIefl conrtdelYllpazlltv, avdnd In vedsrefaptul clI1nI4lnirile stllde1feltlnt 0 QJemenea amplotue se IntdmpllJ deslllide rar. LucrlJrlle prezentateau QlIlI/ Jm nJoHfacademic inegal. dar IIJJ schimb de parer! II experll!:1lJe Intre studenp aparttntbtd IlIIOrmeditlmivenltore atdt de dtferile uls oricdnd bifUlvenlL

55

SESIUNEA ANUALA A CERCURlWR IjTllNT/FICESTUDENTEljTI, CLUJ, 13-15 MAl, 1994

Alin CIUPAUc:

Organizald ta Cluj, lnlre 11.15 Iftlli, • clltre "Sod~kltea Petru Maior" cv,sprijinul FacuItapi de 1810rie fi a UltillenitiJlii "/JaM,. Bolyai", cea de-a doua '

,'~a~iil!JiHJmuJhJa~pi""'$t~tia reMitstudetJfi '!l #torie4ify:e1tltek ~rsitGR GIwj. 1JfIetU'ff#i ¥ "Alba-Iulior nmifOOra.ire.c~ fi2stJUknfi,d,in lJJtgcri4-' ,- - ,- IncadrNI seCfbMilor (istam anticiJ.piJiheologie. stwlii dasice, isIorie, msdJe

ft istonogrofie, tstorte modem4, isltNW emuemporand fireltz/i; intemll!i0naJe)lucr4rile au fncerr:at sa cuprind4 .lUf"cte variate ale perioadelor fi domenii/ortnortce respective. 0 excePtie poole fi constderata seqiunea reur1I!1tii -istorlr;modeme. in cadrul csreta S-OU de/afar doud grupe de lucriiri: WID avdnd co celltnl

de'inreres lurnea popularii, diferile iposraze ale mediului rural fi semnifict'liile'acestora din perspective istoricului, fi a doua, preocwpdndu.se de refleetarea unorevenimente europene (revolUliajrancezd din 1848, insureqia polonezd din 1861)fn presa romdneascii din Transilvania. Din prima.cotegorie putem apreciaoriginalitatea luerarii stuthntei clujene Eugenia Barlea, "tpostaze ale imaginiiceluilalt in se/'lSibilitaUa populard", in care autoarea realizeazil un studiu de inorieoraUlhazatpe amintirile de rihboi ale veteranilor celui de-a[ doilea rtiz,boimondiIIJ.din cdteva sate maramurelene. Chim doctJdin punct de vedere cronologie lucranas-ar fi bu:adrtJtIn tiJla :recJiune. demersul coatare merltdali me"liMat. In ceea ceprivefte studiile rejeritoare la "imtJginea" unor jerwmeM europene in presatransilvdneanll, puJem re/in# tdirmD/la cd wi un studill oJpresei rrJItIdnepi. negUjtJndpublieariile ~ghiare Ii germane. '"' poate ojeri 0 imagine deplind, exhalUtWa are/leetiirii unuia sau altIlla din jenomeMle studiate. .

Lucrilril~ secpunii de irtom rIrodemil Nl" bucurat de prezerya proj.univ.Jr.Camil Muref«nfi a eonf.univ.dr. Nicolae BoefC»l. decanul Facultllfii dill Cluj. ceaufileut utile observtJlii. liJ.r6nd bud, tkpiina posibilita/e de a partie-ipa la disCU(ii.stud~r. Din acest punctdevetkre •0 mal TI'ItJnje~din partea modemtoruIuidisculiilor, ca fl 0 mai more rigoare din partea sllS/indtorilor lucrarilor de a setncedra in timp", rezerval. arfi JNrmis respeeta1m programului initial.

In final trebuie siJ nmtuaIm organkarea administratMi irePTOiabild, inreauearea cilrela un rol deosebit l-au avut memb.rii SocietlJ/ii "Petru Maior".

SUMAR

STUnn:

OVIDIU CRISTEA: 0 precizare privind raporturile dintre TaraRomaneasca ~i Ungaria: peg 3.

MrnAI DINU: Mercenarii in Franfa razboalelor rellgloase 1560-1598: pag 7.

TATIANA COJOCARU: Turcii otomani Iascriitorii bizantini dinsecolele XIV-XV: pag 13.

SIMION cALTIA: La fonnation des bourgs sur les domains desnobles roumains dans la Moldavie entre 1780-1850: pag 23.

GABRIEL BADEA·pAt1N: Noi date despre "BuzduganulRelntregirii" din corespondeap pictorului Costin Petrescu: pag 28,

ALINA TlJDOR: Spatial and temporal horizont on the legionarynest: pag 33.

GEORGIANA CONSTANTINESCU: Zionism and messianism:eastern European jewery and 1'heodorHertzl: pag 37.

LEONARD DRULA: Le mythe de conspiration dans la Roumanied'aujourd'hui: pag 41.

ADRIAN CIOROIANU: In search of a lost continent some consid-erations about the idea of Europe in communist Romania: pag 47.

SIMION cALTIA: prezentarea revistei "Historia urbana": pag 53.

HEIKKI ArITOKOSKI (university of Helsinki):' Some thougts onthe october cotiference in Bucharest: pag 54.

CRISTINA ION: Al cincilea congres internaJionalI.S.H.A.Utrecht, Olanda, 4·8,aprilie 1994: pag 55.

ALIN CIUPA~: Sesiunea anuald a cetcurilor ftiin/ificeMuden,efti, Cl~. /3·/5 mai, 1994: pag 56.

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