97524269 sustainable urbanization in asia

8/14/2019 97524269 Sustainable Urbanization in Asia

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SUSTAINABLE

URBANIZATION IN ASIAA SOURCEBOOK FOR LOCAL GOVERNMENTS


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SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

IN ASIA

A SOURCEBOOK FOR LOCAL

GOVERNMENTS


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ii Sustainable Urbanization in Asia: A Sourcebook for Local Governments

Copyright United Nations Human Settlements Programme, 2012

All rights reserved

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat)

P.O. Box 30030, Nairobi, Kenyael: +254 20 7621 234Fax: +254 20 7624 266/7

Website: www.unhabitat.org

DISCLAIMER

Te presentation of the material and designations employed in this publication do not imply theexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerningthe legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation

of its frontiers or boundaries, or regarding its economic system or degree of development. Teanalysis, conclusions and recommendations of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views ofthe United Nations Human Settlements Programme or its Governing Council.

Information contained in this Publication is provided without warranty of any kind, either express orimplied, including, without limitation, warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purposeand non-infringement.

UN-HABIA specifically does not make any warranties or representations as to the accuracy orcompleteness of any such data. Under no circumstances shall UN-HABIA be liable for any loss,

damage, liability or expense incurred or suffered that is claimed to have resulted from the use of thisPublication, including, without limitation, any fault, error, omission with respect thereto. Te useof this Publication is at the Users sole risk. Under no circumstances, including, but not limited tonegligence, shall UN-HABIA or its affiliates be liable for any direct, indirect, incidental, special orconsequential damages, even if UN-HABIA has been advised of the possibility of such damages.

HS Number: HS/042/12E

ISBN Number (Volume): 978-92-1-132457-0

Initial Draft: Minoli Peiris

Contributors: Bernhard Barth, Jos Chong, Bharat Dahiya, Yeonghoon Kim, Tomas Stellmach

Overall Coordination: Bernhard Barth

Editors: Bernhard Barth, Fernando Cabrera

Design and Layout: UNON

Printing: UNON, Publishing Services Section, Nairobi, ISO 14001:2004 - certified.

Cover Photo: Bangkok UN-Habitat/B. Barth


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iii

FOREWORD

Urban development challenges in Asia are multi-faceted and appear to be overwhelming at times. Tey

include insufficient provision of infrastructure, rapidly growing slums, urban sprawl and the associateddegradation of urban and peri-urban ecosystems, high levels of inequality and underemployment.Many of these local challenges are aggravated by global phenomena such as climate change. Tispublication has been developed in collaboration between the International Urban raining Centre(IUC) and UN-HABIA in order to provide basic principles, knowledge and diverse case studieson sustainable urban development which, if put into practice, should help to put cities on the rightpath. Te publication provides a brief introduction to urban trends in Asia and offers a host of urbanplanning and management entry points for achieving sustainability. Te sourcebook builds on theSustainable Urbanization training course which was launched at the IUC in 2007 and will serveas a background document for such courses in the future. I hope that this Sourcebook will serve to

enhance the capacity and creativity of urban leaders to steer their cities in the right direction. Onbehalf of IUC, I appreciate the valuable contributions of the staff at the IUC and UN-HABIA.

Prof. Kwi-Gon Kim

Emeritus Professor at Seoul National UniversityDirector, International Urban Training Center

Te sourcebook on Sustainable Urbanization in Asia, part of a series of publications on urban issues,is designed for local governments in general and as background reading to support training events

for urban decision makers in particular. It draws heavily on the UN-HABIA/UN-ESCAP Report,Te State of Asian Cities 2010/11. Te sourcebook attempts to provide an overview of the multiplechallenges cities and local governments face and the many entry points to address them. It providesa framework for achieving urban sustainability through multi-sectoral planning, urban managementand governance and highlights the importance of addressing the multitude of social, economicand environmental challenges cities in Asia in an integrated manner. At the same time, sectoralentry points for quick win action are highlighted. Further, opportunities for cities to benefit frommoving towards a green economy are explored. Troughout the publication, long-term planning anddecision-making are emphasized, as cities need to play a more active role in reducing greenhouse gasemissions and building up their resilience to natural disasters and climate change.

Gulelat Kebede

Chief, Training and Capacity Building BranchUN-HABITAT


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iv Sustainable Urbanization in Asia: A Sourcebook for Local Governments

CONTENTS

SECTION I: ASIAN URBANIZATIONTRENDS

1 INCREASING URBANIZAION IN ASIA 1

1.1 URBANIZAION: MOS PROFOUND IN SMALLAND MEDIUM SIZED CIIES 1

1.2 WHA ARE MEDIUM SIZED CIIES? 2

2 CHARACERISICS OF URBANIZAION IN ASIA 3

2.1 ECONOMIC CHARACERISICS 3

2.1.1 INFORMAL ECONOMIES IN ASIA 5

2.2 SOCIAL CHARACERISICS 7

2.3 ENVIRONMENAL CHARACERISICS 10

2.3.1 ENVIRONMENAL CONCERNS NEED OBE BUIL INO ODAYS DEVELOPMEN SRAEGIES 10

2.3.2 PREVAILING ENVIRONMENAL CONDIIONS 11

SECTION II: ASIAN URBANIZATIONCHALLENGES

3 CLIMAE CHANGE 15

3.1 INRODUCION O CLIMAE CHANGE 15

3.2 CAUSES OF CLIMAE CHANGE 16

3.3 EFFECS OF CLIMAE CHANGE 17

3.4 CLIMAE CHANGE AND PRESSURES OF DEVELOPMENLINKING HE ECONOMIC, SOCIAL ANDENVIRONMENAL WIH CLIMAE CHANGE 17

4 ARE ASIAN CIIES EQUIPPED O ACKLE PRESEN CHALLENGES? 19

4.1 HE HREE MAIN PRESSURES ON ASIAN URBANIZAION 19

SECTION III: A FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN SUSTAINABILITY

5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR SUSAINABLE URBANIZAION 23

5.1 SUSAINABLE URBANIZAION AND HOWI SHOULD BE VIEWED 23

5.2 PRINCIPLES OF SUSAINABILIY 23

5.3 INEGRAION OF SECORS AND INSIUIONS 24

5.3.1 AN INEGRAED APPROACH O URBAN DEVELOPMEN 25


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5.4 BUILDING CIIES FOR HE PEOPLE, WIH HE PEOPLE 25

6 INRODUCING SUSAINABILIY IN YOUR CIY 28

6.1 GREEN ECONOMY 28

6.2 ENHANCING CONDIIONS FOR A GREEN ECONOMY 286.3 CREAING GREEN JOBS 31

7 URBAN RESILIENCE 34

7.1 UNDERSANDING RESILIENCEY 34

7.2 DISASER RISK REDUCION 35

7.3 ADAPING O CLIMAE CHANGE 36

7.4 MIIGAING CLIMAE CHANGE 37

8 SECORAL ENRY POINS 38

8.1 SOLID WASE MANAGEMEN: INEGRAEDSUSAINABLE WASE MANAGEMEN ISWM 38

8.2 SUSAINABLE URBAN ENERGY 39

8.3 IMPROVED URBAN MOBILIY: A SUSAINABLE,ACCESSIBLE CIY HROUGH RANSI

ORIENED DEVELOPMEN 40

9 SRAEGIC PLANNING 429.1 HE PLANNING FRAMEWORK 42

9.2 CIYWIDE PLANNING: AKING ONE SEP A A IME 42

10 POLICY RECOMMENDAIONS 46

10.1 FUURE POLICY CONSIDERAIONS FOR

LOCAL GOVERNMENS 46


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vi Sustainable Urbanization in Asia: A Sourcebook for Local Governments

City view of Dhaka UN Photo-Kibae Park


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1

1 INCREASINGURBANIZATIONIN ASIA

Over the last few decades, Asia in particularhas seen some enormous demographic changes.In 1990 the Asia-Pacific region had an urbanpopulation of just over 1 billion. In the next

twenty years that number had grown by morethan 75 per cent to 1.76 billion and the trend isexpected to continue. By 2030 Asian cities areprojected to be home to some 2.6 billion people.

While Asia is not expected to reach the 50 per centurbanization mark before 2026, the proportionof Asias urban population increased from 31.5per cent in 1990 to 42.2 per cent in 2010,the highest percentage increase (10.7per cent)amongst all regions in the world. Te increasing

urban density in many Asian countries due tothis rapid demographic change puts enormouspressure on existing economic, social and

environmental structures and upon resources,something which further exacerbates the risksassociated with climate change. Tese growingtrends highlight the need for planners, policy-makers and others involved in the developmentprocess to recognize the importance of theseissues and the need for creating more equitable,environmentally low-impact, successful urbanspaces for all inhabitants within their cities.

1.1 URBANIZATION: MOSTPROFOUND IN SMALL ANDMEDIUM SIZED CITIES

Te number of megacities (with populationsof 10 million or more) is increasing aroundthe world, and half of the worlds megacitiesare found in Asia (12 out of 21). Tese highlyurbanized areas attract and are home to a large

share of development investment. Tey are alsohubs of creativity and often serve as knowledgecentres with the best national education and

FIGURE 1.1: ASIAS URBANIZATION TRENDS

Source: UN-HABITAT, ESCAP, The State of Asian Cities 2010/11

ASIAN URBANIZATION - TRENDS

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Asia

China

Sri Lanka

Thailand

Myanmar

Papua New Guinea

Democratc PeoplesRepublic of Korea

I


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2 Sustainable Urbanization in Asia: A Sourcebook for Local Governments

cultural institutions, allowing for vibrant, mixed-use and culturally diverse urban spaces.

However, in recent decades more urban Asianshave lived in smaller cities and towns than in all

the megacities in the region, a trend expectedto continue over the next two decades (seeChart 1.2). oday, 60 per cent of Asias urbanpopulation lives in urban areas with populationsunder one million.

1.2 WHAT ARE MEDIUM SIZEDCITIES?

Urban areas with populations under one millionact as economic and growth centres and provide

markets for rural products and urban services,performing the very important task of bridgingrural areas and larger urban centres. In this waymedium sized cities play an important roleproviding indirect links between the rural areasand the global economy. Many small townsnot only serve as administrative headquartersfor districts or sub-districts, they also serve asstepping-stones for rural migrants on their

way to further destinations. Furthermore, many

small and medium sized towns and cities in Asiahave emerged as important economic centres intheir own right. Hence, it is important to givemore attention to sustainable planning in thesetypes of cities.

However, while medium-sized cities act aseconomic growth centres, most have inadequateinfrastructure and services as well as poor urbanplanning capacities. Tis increases the danger of

severe environmental damage and burden andprevents these cities and their people from reachingfull economic and social potential by enticing

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025

Over 10 million

5-10 million

1-5 million

0.5-1 million

Fewer than 0.5 million

FIGURE 1.2: THE DISTRIBUTION OF SETTLEMENTS IN ASIA


Shangai 2008 UN-Habitat/Alain Grimard


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short-term economic gains over overall long-termdevelopment stability. Tis is exemplified by the

vulnerability of cities to natural disasters, whichare occurring more frequently and with increasingintensity than in the past. It is important to

understand the evolving characteristics of

Asian cities and the trends and challenges ofurbanization in order to appreciate the urgentneed for sustainable planning and action foreffective adaption to climate change required topromote stable, equitable development for present

and future generations.

URBANIZATION: A STIMULANT OFECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Cities are major drivers of nationaleconomies in the Asia-Pacific region.With just over 40 per cent of thepopulation in the region, urban centres

contribute 80 per cent of the regionseconomic output.

It is note-worthy that the combinedproduction of the whole region nearlydoubled between 1990 and 2008.Foreign direct investment, which istypically located in and around cities,is a major contributor to Asias risingimportance in global production

networks. Urban Asia features highpopulation densities and mixed landuse development which functionas unique spaces in which diverseactivities can take place. These are hubswhich:

- bring about a diverse and strongeconomy

- create a strong potential for the

reduction of poverty

REFLECTION QUESTIONS:

How fast has the population in YOUR city grown?

Has your city grown faster than other cities in your country?

What are the drivers for population growth?

2 CHARACTERISTICSOF URBANIZATIONIN ASIA

Asias rapid rate of urbanization has beenoccurring in an unprecedented manner in the

last few decades, this form of developmenthas occurred at an ever-increasing social andenvironmental cost. While development in thename of economic and technological progresshas created a higher quality of life for some, ithas dumped the negative social, economic andenvironmental consequences on the vulnerableand marginalised. Te following paragraphs

will elaborate the nature of Asian developmentthrough economic, social and environmental

contexts together with a broad understanding ofits consequences on urban dwellers.

2.1 ECONOMICCHARACTERISTICS

Asian cities are increasingly looking towardsdiversifying their economies and becomingsignificant and innovative service providers on aglobal scale.


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Te patterns of development in Asian economies:

Exportled growth:exports are a significantsource of economic growth and employmentin Asian countries. Trough a combination of

global capital and abundant cheap labour, Asiahas created a number of manufacturing bases.

As Asian countries develop, some now makehigh-value-added components and capitalgoods. Tough these goods have traditionallybeen destined for foreign markets, witheconomic growth has come an expansion ofdomestic markets, which are now gaining inimportance for growth strategies.

Knowledge economy: today, Asia is nolonger just a source of cheap manufacturedgoods and services. Many Asian countrieshave sought new opportunities by improvingtheir innovative capabilities, which has led tonext-generation outsourcing. Instead of justexploiting cheap labour, western companiesare increasingly looking to Asia for fresh talentand moving their research and developmentdepartments there (for example to Bangalore

in India). Tis has expanded Asias potentialfor innovation on a global scale.

Financial centres:financial services make upan attractive business sector for cities, whichcaters to the needs of foreign and domesticinvestors, both directly and indirectly. As adynamic-high growth sector, it is a major

economic asset on a national, regional andglobal scale. In addition to okyo, Singapore,and Hong Kong, a few Asian cities such asShanghai and Mumbai, have made efforts toturn into international financial centres.

Te patterns of economic growth above indicateAsias advance in becoming a leading participantin the global economy. However, particularlyfor small and medium cities in the region, the

challenge to realizing their growth potential is thelack of cost-effective and high-quality physicalinfrastructure, an often inadequate regulatoryframework, and the lack of capacity to developand implement a local economic developmentstrategy. Another significant shortcoming is thefailure to capitalize on dynamic, ever-expandingand unique informal economies.

FIGURE 2.1: URBAN VS. RURAL SHARE IN GDP IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (1990-2008)


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1990 1995 2000 2005 2008

Perce

ntage Urban populaton

Urban share of GDP

Agriculture: share GDP


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Source: UN-HABITAT, ESCAP,The State ofAsian Cities 2010/11

FIGURE 2.1: SHARE OF URBAN AREAS IN GDP, ASIA AND THE PACIFIC


85.580.0

75.5

84.5 87.083.5

47.0 46.5

32.5

62.5

71.0

42.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

East and

North-East

Asia

South-East

Asia

South and

South-West

Asia

North and

Central Asia

Pacific Asia

Percentage

Urban share of GDP Urban populaton

2.1.1 INFORMAL ECONOMIES INASIA

Asian cities are hosts to large informal economiesthat in most cases underpin the success of formaleconomies, by providing important productsand services for a fraction of the cost. Te linksbetween the formal and informal can be witnessedboth directly and indirectly, and usually displaya mutually dependant relationship. Tere is

a positive relationship between urbanizationand the informal economy, an increase in theformer resulting in an increase in the latter. Teimportance of the presence of informal economicsectors for urbanization and economic growthis such that they are an early characteristic ofurbanization in almost all regions of the world

and are often seen as an essential part of thetransformation process of turning developingeconomies into more developed ones.

CHART 2.3: SHARE OF INFORMAL JOBS IN NON-AGRICULTURAL, URBAN EMPLOYMENT,VARIOUS YEARS (%)

US$

$7,

916

$13,

985

$21,

618

25,000

20,000

15,000

10,000

5,000

Re

public

ofK

orea

Cambo

dia

Indone

sia

Philippin

es

Thailand

Bangla

desh

India

Nepal

SriL

anka

Sing

apore

Paki

stan

Taiw

an,

Provin

ceofChi

na

100

%

Share in informal sector GDP per capita

80

60

40

20

0 0$880

$450

$230

$293

$1,

945

$531

$360

$703

$998


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BOX 1: HOW CITIES CAN SUPPORT STREET VENDORS

Quezon City, the Philippines

In an effort to legitimise the informal sector, Quezon City has provided stalls andsites to vendors under the Integrated Hawkers Management Programme. Vendors

are assigned individual spots on sidewalks or open spaces under what is knownas Mayors Permits and for a nominal fee, with priority given to members of theHawkers Association. Credit is also made available to vendors through the Self-Employment Programme of Manila Community Services Inc. (Amin, 2002).

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Malaysia is another of the few countries in Asia that have given formal recognition tostreet vendors. The governments 1990 national policy on hawkers included fundingfor the credit schemes and training programmes that enable street vendors to improvetheir business practices and facilities. The policy was part of a broader one aimedat turning the capital Kuala Lumpur into a clean, healthy and beautiful city for thelocal people and tourists. The plan involved relocating street vendors to food centresin buildings or to central sites, and also assisted in the design of vans for mobilehawking.

As in other South-East Asian cities, the number of street vendors in Kuala Lumpur hasrisen sharply since the 1997-98 financial crisis, providing alternative livelihoodsto those who had lost their formal jobs. By the year 2000, the number oflicensed street vendors was close to 35,000, not to mention more than 12,000unlicensed operators (Bhowmik, 2005).

UN-HABITAT, ESCAP, The State of Asian Cities 2010/11 (citing: Kohpaiboon (2008)and ZsinWoon et al. (2007))

Currently the spread of urbanization hasoccurred without giving due considerationto informal economies and their significantcontribution to national and local economies.

With an unprecedented focus on upgrading

formal economic sectors, policy makers usuallysee urban informal economies as an irritant orproblem regardless of their innovative aspects and

contribution of millions of dollars in revenues.Informal sectors are also an important sourceof basic income, employment and livelihoodopportunities for those who cannot find formalemployment. As a result, they effectively absorb

many migrants from rural areas looking foropportunities.


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2.2 SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS

Economic growth has not benefitted all urbandwellers in the region equally. Over 40 per cent of

Asias urban dwellers live in substandard housing

and overcrowded slums (Asia DevelopmentBank,2010).In developing Asia, poverty can becharacterised by the following features (amongstothers):

Large and ever increasing backlogs in thedelivery of basic services.

Te lack of access to adequate, secureshelter resulting in severe overcrowding,

homelessness and environmental healthproblems.

Increased vulnerability to health problems,environmental shocks and natural disasters.

Increasing intra-city inequality, noticeablein residential segregation, and in issues of

violence, which impact disproportionatelyon women and the poor.

Providing basic urban services is not only crucialfor public health and economic development,it is also critical for dignity and basic securityfor women and children. Countries in Eastern

Asia have made significant progress in terms of

access to drinking water by achieving 98 percent coverage (see table 2.1). In South-East

Asia some countries have achieved universalcoverage, others have made significant progressbut a number of countries still lag behind. Insome countries in Asia the proportion of urbandwellers with access to basic water supplies is indecline. Tis is probably linked to poverty and

to a significant growth in the share of the urbanpopulation living in informal settlements (i.e.slums) where lack of legal tenure often preventsaccess to piped water (State of Asian CitiesReport, 2011).

THE PLIGHT OF SLUM DWELLERS

The most obvious manifestation ofurban inequity and poverty are slums.Instead of reaping the benefits of theurban advantage as they expected,slum-dwellers pay an urban penaltythrough denial of legal status in the cityand deprivation of a range of urbanservices. They are constantly at risk ofeviction, lack a political voice, and areexcluded from main benefits of urbanlife such as decent housing, safety andthe rule of law, education and health.These currently remain monopolized bya privileged minority.


TABLE 2.1: URBAN POPULATIONS: ACCESS TO WATER SUPPLY, 1990-2008

Country

Eastern Asia

South Asia

Bhutan

Maldives

Iran

Sri Lanka

India

Pakistan

Bangladesh

Nepal

Afghanistan

More than 98 per cent More than 95 per cent Less than 95 per cent

Republic of Korea

China

N/A

100

98

91

90

96

88

96

N/A

97

97

99

100

98

95

93

95

86

94

36

98

98

99

99

98

98

96

95

85

93

78

100

98

94

100

97

98

93

92

52

87

N/A

100

81

99

100

98

94

93

90

64

80

77

100

88

100

100

99

99

93

89

81

75

72

100

97

South-East Asia

Malaysia

Singapore

Thailand

Viet Nam

Philippines

Indonesia

Cambodia

Mynmar

Lao PDR

Democratc Peoples Republic of Korea

Mongolia

Eastern Asia

1990 2000 2008 Country 1990 2000 2008


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Generally, providing basic urban services such aswater and sanitation, solid waste collection anddisposal, and transportation remains a challengein most Asian sub-regions. Te reasons for thismight involve a combination of inadequately

targeted public resources along with issuesrelating to recognition and/or legal tenure ininformal settlements.

With increased demand for land as city centresexpand, the lack of legal tenure results in the

urban poor being subjected to forced evictions,which disrupt social and economic networks thatare vital for survival.

With overall income increasing in Asia, the

number of people living in absolute poverty hasdeclined in all but a few countries. Yet as shownin Chart 2.4, in many cases more than 20 percent of the population still live under the povertyline of $1.25 a day.

BOX 2: INDONESIAS KAMPUNG IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMME

The innovative Kampung Improvement Programme (KIP), launched in 1969 in

Indonesia, was the first urban slum-upgrading project in the developing world.The rationale was to provide basic urban services, such as roads and footpaths,water, drainage and sanitation, as well as health and education facilities. Theprogramme soon became a model for the transformation of slums from illegalsettlements into a regularized component of the urban fabric. Through officialrecognition of improved kampungs (villages or hamlets, in Malay) as formalsettlements, municipal authorities effectively brought security of tenure to,and improved the lives of, 1.2 million slum-dwellers in Jakarta between 1969and 1974.

In 1974, the World Bank decided to support the programme with soft loansin order to accelerate implementation and upscaling. In 1979, the Indonesiangovernment endorsed KIP as national policy. By the time World Bank supportcame to an end in 1982, the programme had improved the day-to-day livingconditions of close to 5 million urban poor. Permanent monitoring andassessment, based on trial-and-error, as well as input from the communities,were the major factors behind the success of the programme.

The KIP has gone through various stages of growth over the past 30 years,evolving from a physical improvement approach to community-baseddevelopment. In the early years, the scheme received adequate support fromthe government, international agencies and the people. Although rapidurban extension remains a major challenge for KIP, recently support from thegovernment and the community has been waning and no international agencyfunding is available to keep the programme going at its original pace. Asa result, the first slum improvement programme in the developing worldhas not been able to keep pace with the current growth of slums inIndonesian cities.

UN-HABITAT, ESCAP, The State of Asian Cities 2010/11


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However, the absolute decline of poverty has in

many countries occurred in parallel with a markedincrease in inequality in rural and in urban areas.Tis suggests that economic expansion benefitsthe better-off more than the poor. An additionaltrend is the significant discrepancy in income

distribution between cities of the same country.

For example Beijings inequality index (GiniCoefficient) is among the lowest in the world

while inequality in Hong Kong, China is amongthe highest in the region.

CHART 2.4: POPULATIONS LIVING ON LESS THAN USD 1.25 A DAY IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

CHART 2.5: INTRA-URBAN INEQUALITIES (GINI COEFFICIENTS)

China

Mongolia

Cambodia

Indonesia

Lao PDR

Philippines

Viet Nam

Asia-Pacific

Bangladesh

India

Nepal

PakistanSri Lanka

Kyrgyzstan

Uzbekistan

0

Earlier (1990 - 1999) Latest (2001 - 2006)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70



Beijin

g(2003)

GiniCoefficients

HonhK

ong,China

(2001)

Shan

ghai(20

04/5)

Wuhan

(2004/5)

Shenyang

(2004/5)

Fuzh

ou(2004/5)

Xian(2004/5)

Wuxi(20

04/5)

Yicha

n(2004/5)

Benxi(2

004/5)

Zhuhai(20

04/5)

Baoji

(2004/5)

Daqin

g(2004/5)

Shenzh

en(2004/5)

Colom

bo(2002)

Phnom

Penh

(2004)

Jaka

rta(2002)

Manila(2003)

Quezon

City(20

03)

Kaloo

kan(2003)

Pasay(2003)

Cebu

City(20

03)

Dava

oCity

(2003)

Zamb

oanga(2003)

Bangkok(

2006)

Nonthabu

ri(2006)

Samut

Parka

rn(2006)

Nakon

Ratch

asim

a(2006)

Songkhla(

2006)

Chonbu

ri(2006)

Udon

thani(2

006)

Chian

Mai(2006)

HaNoi(2002)

HochiMn

hiCit

y(2002)

0.9

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

International

Alert Line

0.22

0.53

0.32

0.370.370.35

0.39

0.45

0.34

0.41

0.43

0.45

0.36

0.32

0.41

0.44 0.44 0.440.42

0.46

0.43

0.34

0.49 0.49

0.36

0.560.58

0.53

0.390.380.40.42

0.29

0.34


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2.3 ENVIRONMENTALCHARACTERISTICS

Asia, which has enjoyed a fair amount of foreigndirect investment, has become the factory

of the world through national industrialpolicies as well as mass relocation of labour-intensive, less technology dependent and oftenenvironmentally hazardous industries fromdeveloped countries. Te focus on economicgrowth and the need to address prevailing

poverty has resulted in far less attention beingaccorded to environmental issues, in particularthose associated with urban development,especially due to out-dated laws and their poorenforcement. Based on existing consumptionpatterns, Asias natural resource base will soon belower than that of any other region in per capitaterms. Given the high resource and energy needs,the growth of Asian cities is not environmentallysustainable. Infrastructure, development and

growth strategies that are resource-heavy willlock Asian cities into unsustainable consumptionand production patterns for years to come.

Currently Asian cities suffer from severeenvironmental problems ranging from pollution,congestion, excessive waste, etc. due to rapidlyincreasing urbanization. Paying attentionto the environmental impacts of growth is

critical for the provision of adequate housing,energy, water, sanitation and mobility needs topeople (to address social and economic issuesmentioned above) in a manner that does notcause major depletion of natural resources orendanger future generations. Tis essentiallybrings environmental concerns to the forefrontas an integral part of present and future efforts tobring about sustainable urbanization.

2.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNSNEED TO BE BUILT INTOTODAYS DEVELOPMENTSTRATEGIES

Because of high unemployment and rampantpoverty, governments often give a highpriority to economic development by means ofindustrialization. Tough it is acknowledgedthat environmental issues are important, they arestill perceived as a luxury that can be addressed

after achieving a desired level of economicdevelopment. Tis cure rather than preventionapproach often causes unnecessary costs andimmense damage to the environment, all of

PUTTING IMAGE AHEAD OF THE NEEDSOF THE POOR

Local authorities tend to focus onmaking cities look global for visitorsor investors. This often happens at theexpense of the urban poor. Followingare examples of high-end initiativeswhich tend to overshadow the practicalneeds of cities:

- Flyovers and elevated expressways vs.traffic management and planning.

- High-rise apartments vs. upgrading

informal settlements.

- Shopping malls vs. traditionalmarkets.

- Removing the poor from the citycentres to the periphery to improvecity image vs. eradicating poverty.

(The State of Asian Cities Report, 2010)

HEALTH AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Many people in Asian cities sufferfrom poor health mainly due to poorenvironmental conditions that resultin malnutrition, poverty, crampedliving conditions, polluted air andcontaminated water. Not only do theseconditions pose a major strain on statemedical facilities, but many of thepoor still lack access to these medicalfacilities or other health services in thefirst place. These unsanitary conditionstogether with high population densitiesmake Asian cities particularly conducive

to the breeding, mutation and spreadof disease.


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11

which have numerous negative impacts on urbaninhabitants.

2.3.2 PREVAILING ENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONS

Air: Air pollution causes as many as 519,000premature deaths every year.

Air pollution stems from two sources:

Stationary sources e.g. power plants,industrial activities and residential andcommercial buildings.

Mobile sources e.g.: motor vehicles in

particular, due to poor maintenance, poor fuelquality and inadequate traffic management.

Tere is no comprehensive picture of air qualityin Asia. At best, research has found some changesin air quality in specific cities. Tese show

improvements in certain cities such as Bangkok,Colombo, Dhaka etc. but also serious decline inair quality in cities such as Jakarta, Phnom Penh,Ulaanbaatar, etc. Tese declines are thoughtto have occurred mostly because of increasing

rates of vehicle ownership, high manufacturingconcentrations in inner city areas (as mentionedabove), together with the use of low-quality coaland wood in cooking/heating stoves.

Apart from drought and flooding, threatsto water resources result from many factors,including poor sanitation infrastructure, riverpollution and ground water overuse.

Currently, urban authorities in Asia find it achallenge to maintain and/or replace older partsof water supply systems, many of which areplagued by major leakage that results in seriousamounts of wasted water.

Te recycling of wastewater has a significantimpact on relieving the pressure caused byinsufficient water resources. As of now, only afew Asian cities have the capacity or resources to

set up large-scale wastewater treatment facilities.Tis is considered a serious problem andimproved sanitation and wastewater treatment isa major issue in water management in the Asianregion.

Solid Waste:Despite records of improvements,dumping is still the dominant method of solid

waste disposal in most Asian cities. While manygovernments try to improve services and facilities,

developing Asian cities still face serious problemswith inadequate waste management. While allcountries within the Asian region have policiesin place to manage waste collection and disposal,implementation of these rules and regulationsis still lacking. Inadequate collection anddisposal of solid waste in urban Asia is a sourceof health hazards, environmental degradationand greenhouse gas emissions. Tis indicates aneed for improvements in enforcement, as well

as increased community awareness to promoteunderstanding by, and gain cooperation from,urban dwellers.

WATER SCARCITY

According to UNESCO a country can be

considered to be water-scarce if totalextraction is greater than 40 per centof annual water resources.

An Asian Development Bank Surveyof 18 Asian cities done earlier inthe decade showed that mostwere extracting more than 60 percent of annual volumes neededfor replenishment. In cities such as

Chengdu and Shanghai (China) therate was greater than 80 per cent.Another challenge in Asia is agingdistribution systems. For example: inKathmandu, the distribution systemloses around 35-40 per cent of cleanwater through leakage alone. Similarly,Karachi loses 30 per cent of cleanwater, while Chennai loses 25-30 percent. As water demand rises and/or losses due to leakage grow, theprice of water increases and it does sodisproportionately for the poor.


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Tere are several reasons why waste quantities arerapidly increasing in developing countries:

Te number of people living and working incities is increasing.

Te amount of waste generated per personis rising in line with increasing incomes andlifestyle changes.

Te amount of waste from businesses isincreasing

In addition, the substances in waste are increasingin complexity and variety, making waste harder

to manage, recycling more difficult, and causingincreased pollution.

RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH INADEQUATEWASTE MANAGEMENT:

In their disposed waste, lower-incomecountries tend to have more organicmaterial with high water content. If

there are no formal collection servicesprovided or these services are irregular,these municipal wastes end up mixedwith faecal matter, infectious medicalwaste and other hazardous materials,leaving communities at risk of beingexposed to diseases and other hazards.

For example, uncollected wastes canclog drains and cause the stagnationof water causing the breeding ofmosquitoes or the contamination ofwater bodies from which the localpopulation draws water for dailyconsumption, cooking and cleaning.There are also high risks in the spreadof diseases from animals frequentingoverflowing dumpsites in search offood.

UN-HABITAT (2011), Solid Waste Management inthe Worlds Cities

Slum in Nepal UN-Habitat

Bangkok 2009 UN-Habitat/Alain Grimard


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13


What are the biggest sustainable development challenges in your city?

Who is most affected by these challenges?

What policies are in place and what practices are applied in your city vis--vis slumprevention or slum upgrading?

How does the informal economy contribute to the overall economy in your city?


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Traffic UN-Habitat/B. Barth


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3 CLIMATE CHANGE

3.1 INTRODUCTION TO CLIMATECHANGE

Climate change refers to changes in averagesand extremes in the weather of a region or ofthe planet as a whole over time. It is measured

by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind,storms and other weather indicators.

Te key climate change indicator is the averagesurface temperature of the earth. Over thepast 50 years the global average temperatureincreased by 0.65oC. No region is immune torising temperatures, though some have witnessedsharper increases than others. Over the next 100years the Earths surface temperature is expected

to increase between 1 and 4oC depending on theaction taken.

In its 4th Assessment Report (2007) theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Changestated most of the observed increases in globalaverage temperatures since the mid-20th centuryare very likely due to the observed increase inanthropogenic (those caused by human activity)greenhouse gas concentrations. Te increasein carbon dioxide levels and those of othergreenhouse gases in the atmosphere -- primarilyfrom the burning of fossil fuels and land usechange --is increasing global temperatures at arate never before seen in human history.

Historically industrialized countries have beenthe main emitters of greenhouse gases and on aper capita basis they continue to lead in emissions.However, by 2004 developing countries in Southand East Asia were contributing 13.1 and 17.3per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions,respectively (IPCC, 2007), with China havingsurpassed the United States as the main emitter

of greenhouse gases.

Te energy demand of urban areas - includingAsias rapidly growing cities - is a majorcontributor to greenhouse gases. In particular, therapidly growing housing and infrastructure stockin Asia with its energy needs for construction andoperation as well as fast growing car ownershiprates in the region are likely to increase per capitaand total greenhouse gas emissions in Asia.

Te Asia-Pacific region also stands to be severelyaffected by climate change. Te region alreadysuffers from the highest number of weatherrelated disasters, and these are predicted toincrease with climate change. Due to their size,geographic location and elevation, cities in Asiaare the most exposed to the effects of climatechange such as droughts and heat waves, floodsand cyclones. Tese will affect all aspects of

life. Te urban poor are particularly vulnerableas they are often forced to settle on the most

vulnerable land.

IIASIAN URBANIZATION-CHALLENGES


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ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT:

In Asia over 80 per cent of the regionstotal primary energy supply stemsfrom fossil fuels. Biomass remainsan important source of energy whereaccess to modern energy is poor. Theregions total energy consumptioncontinues to increase significantlyin line with increases in electricitygeneration and private car use drivenby rapid economic development.

EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION:

this particular sector contributes anestimated 1/3 of greenhouse gasemissions worldwide. While tighteremission norms and technologicalchange have resulted in a decline ingreenhouse gas emissions per car,overall emissions from cars continueto grow on the back of an increasingnumber of cars across the region.

According to the International EnergyAgency, the number of motor vehiclesin Asia will increase by more thanfour times in the next 20 years. Asiasshare of global energy consumption isexpected to increase nearly threefoldfrom the current 6.5 per cent to 19 percent by 2030.

BUILDINGS:

according to the International EnergyAgency, buildings account for asmuch as 40 per cent of the worlds

total end-use of energy and about24 per cent of greenhouse gasemissions.. Buildings, especially high-rises, tend to be made of materialssuch as concrete and steel that areenergy-intensive to manufacture. Theoperation of buildings, which requiresheating, cooling, lighting, etc., furtherconsumes large amounts of energy. TheIntergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change, IPPC, has calculated that thegreenhouse gas reduction potential inthe building sector is particularly highas the investments required to increaseenergy efficiency are relatively low incomparison to the huge cost savingpotential due to reduced energy bills.

(State of Asian Cities Report, 2010

Bangkok, Thailand UN HABITAT

A train snakes its way through Seoul, Korea

UN Photo-Kibae Park

3.2 CAUSES OF CLIMATECHANGE


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3.3 EFFECTS OF CLIMATECHANGE

INCREASE IN NATURAL DISASTERS:

Many Asian cities lie on coastal plainsthat are bound to suffer more frequentflooding from tidal surges and stormdamage. The Asian region is alreadyexposed to high chances of extremeweather events such as heat waves,tropical cyclones, prolonged dry spells,intense rainfall etc. In fact, in the 20thcentury Asia accounted for 91 per centof all deaths and 49 per cent of alldamage due to natural disasters.

RISING SEA LEVELS:

An estimated 18 per cent of Asiasurban population lives in low-lyingcoastal zones. In 2000, according tosome authors, more than 238 millionpeople lived in cities located in AsiasLow Elevation Coastal Zone (less than10m above sea level), a number which

by 2010 rose to an estimated 304million. As a result of climate change,these areas are potentially exposed torising sea level and storm surges.

IN URBAN AREAS, THE POOR ARE MOSTVULNERABLE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Due to lack of proper land plots orhousing, the urban poor often live inenvironmentally vulnerable sites suchas low-lying areas, along the banksof rivers or lakes, on steep slopes orin the proximity of waste dump-sites.These are likely to become morevulnerable due to the effects of climatechange such as increased rainfalland inundation, stronger cyclones,typhoons and storms, or sea level rise.Moreover, the poor are more likely tobe affected due to water and food

shortages, as well as well as the rapidspread of disease.

ECO REFUGEES:

Many people living in thousands ofcities and towns across the Asia-Pacificregion face increasing uncertainty

about their future, with millionspotentially relocating as eco-refugees(known as climate change refugees)from affected rural and urban areas.The relocation of eco-refugees willpose a significant challenge, requiringnew urban settlements that will furtherreduce the amounts of land availablefor food production.

(State of Asian Cities Report, 2010)

Residents of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa district in Pakistan

UN-HABITAT

3.4 CLIMATE CHANGEAND PRESSURES OF

DEVELOPMENT: LINKINGTHE ECONOMIC, SOCIALAND ENVIRONMENTAL WITHCLIMATE CHANGE

Climate Change is intricately linked tosustainable development. Environmental,economic and social development challengescan contribute to the emission of greenhousegases, while climate change can undermine the

components of sustainable urban development(see figure 3.1).


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How does your city contribute to climate change? Is this significant?

How is your city affected by climate change? Are certain economic activities, certaincommunities and certain locations differently affected?

FIGURE 3.1: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Carbon Economy:Dependency on fossil fuels,inadequate investment in

renewable energy

Infrastructure:Bad designs lock acies consupon paerns for many

years Mega demand for land and natural

resourcesGlobalisaon:Cross-country consupon

paerns leading to increase intrasportaon of goods

increase in chemical wastage

The dynamic of per capita

consumpon between developed

naons:

e.g. 17.9 in United States as

opposed to 1.5 in India*

Consumpon paerns tend to

posively correlate according to

increase in wealth rather thann

an indicaon of the consupon of

a city as a whole.

ECONOMI

CDIMENSION

SOF

CC

SOCIALDIMENSIONSO

FC

C

Eco refugespoor urban health and

liveability disproporonateimpact on

urban poor: relocaon, loos of liveableand land, loss of livelihood, food insecurity

Disproporaonate impacng nutrion,water and energy suplies, worseninggender based inequalies in terms ofproperty rights, resources, access to

informaon.

Disproporonate impact on elderly andyoung: less able to avoid direct/indirect

impact of cc, less able to cope withresulng injuries / illnesses.

SOCI

ALIMPACTSO

FCC

Increasedtemperature:

Ground water depleon,water shortages, drought,

degraded air quality,heat island effect.

Increased precipitaon: increasedflooding, increased risk of landslides or

mudslides on hazard slopesSeal level rise: coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into groundwater

supplies, increased storn surge hazardIncreased extreme weatrher episodes:

intense flooding higherrisk of landslides

Loss of biodiversity

ENV

IRONM

ENTALIMPACTSO

FCC

Land use change:deforestaon, slash and burn

Solid waste management

Atmospheric brown clouds

Urban sprawl: increased use of motorvehicles, congeson, poor

maintenance of motors vehicles

ENV

IRONM

ENTALDIMENSIO

NSO

FCC

Depleon of essenal naturalresources

Infrustructure failures: poweroutages, vulnarability of

infrustructure etc.

Reluctant foreign investmentdue to environmental risks

Inefficient producon.

ECON

OMICIMPACTSO

FC

C

CLIMATE CHANGE

* To Read more refer to UNEP. Atmosperic Brown Clouds: Regional Assessment Report with Focus on Asia,

http://www.unep.org?pdf/ABCSummaryFINAL.pdf


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4 ARE ASIAN CITIESEQUIPPED TO TACKLEPRESENT

CHALLENGES?Te processes that Asian cities put in place topromote economic growth, social inclusion andaddress environmental challenges shape theirability to develop long-term urban sustainability.

Asias urban planning practices are as diverseas its urban and national histories and currentpolitical and governance systems. o characteriseAsian Urban Planning Practices this diversityneeds to be considered. Te long history of

Chinese and Indian civilizations, the spatialconstraints of Japan, the socialist planningmodels of Russia and their impact on North andCentral Asian countries, the multitude of vibrantnational cultures in South-East Asia, the uniquehistories and cultural heritage of Australia, NewZealand and the Pacific Islands, etc., all lead tospecific urban planning practices and contexts,each of them deserving to be studied on itsown. Nonetheless some common characteristicsamong Asian countries can be observed.

In the 20th century western planning modelshad a strong influence on Asian urban planningculture. Many countries in Asia attempted to planthe future development of their cities based on theidea of becoming modern and in a way catchingup with the west (Watson, 2009). However theassociated urban modernism (see box below) as

well as its related outcomes are often consideredan unsuitable reference for shaping urbanizationin Asia and are commonly seen as aggravatingenvironmental and socio-economic challenges.

4.1 THE THREE MAIN PRESSURESON ASIAN URBANIZATION

Te contemporary Asian city nonethelessexhibits significantly higher densities thancomparable western cities due to varying factorssuch as geographical constraints (as in okyo,Hong Kong and Mumbai), slower pace ofinfrastructure development on the city peripherycompared to urban spatial expansion and rapidpopulation growth.

Rapid urban growth characterises the urban formof the contemporary Asian city, which exhibitsplanned as well as unplanned spatial expansion.

Following economic liberalization, China has

experienced dramatic urban transformation dueto the demographic pressure from increasednumber of in-migrants and the emergence of anexpanding middle class.

On a larger scale, urban corridors and megaregions develop as a consequence of the economicadvantages they offer. National governmentsencourage this development through policies

that strengthen these special zones via taxation,provision of infrastructure, etc. (see ShenzhenSpecial Economic Zone (SEZ), China).

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OFMODERNIST CITIES

Urban modernism is associatedwith one or more of the followingcharacteristics:

Giving priority to the aestheticappearance of cities by makingthem spacious, uncluttered, andwith grand views. This provides fewopportunities for the poor or forinformal activities.

Priority given to vehicular movementas high car ownership is assumed.

Separation of land use - wherebyseparate areas are carved out forresidences, community facilities,retail, commerce, industrial activities,etc. It is assumed that people willtravel between these areas by car.

Allocating different residentialdensities for different income groups(for example, lower densities - one

house per plot - for higher incomegroups).

(Watson, 2009)


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Currently efforts are being made to takeecological principles into consideration whileplanning new urban areas. For instance, theSongdo city design in South Korea has obtainedthe LEED certification. Another example is

Dongtan in China. Despite these efforts thesecities cannot offset the increased ecologicalfootprint they cause due to the increased wealthand associated change of their populationslifestyles. Economic factors remain the maindrivers of the urbanisation process.

Urban planning is the key to ensuring thesustainable development of Asian cities.Planning can guide their growth and integrate

economic development and prosperity withsocial cohesion, with as little environmentalimpact as possible.

One key problem with the predominantplanning and urban management approaches isthat they fail to accommodate the way of life

of the majority of inhabitants in rapidly growingcities, especially who live in informal settlements.

Master plans usually do not live up to theimportant challenges of the 21st century such

as climate change, food insecurity, oil depletion,informality, etc.

Te regulatory aspects of planning usuallyembody Western standards and associatedtechnological requirements that are not onlycomplex and time consuming but also foundto be costly and unsuitable for the urban poor.

Another problem is that plans are often drawnup by experts with little or no consultation

with communities. Terefore there is littleunderstanding of the dynamic and contextof poverty and urbanization within citiesin developing countries, leading to manygeneralizations about values, lifestyles, priorities,etc., which many not really align with the realitiesin Asian cities (UN-HABIA 2009).


Which of the plans in your city are being funded and implemented, which plans areout-dated or are not being implemented?

What percentage of the area of your city is planned; what is the percentage of peopleliving in unplanned areas?

To what extent does the cultural context influence the rapid transformation of thecities?

Which densities and typologies reflect and enable local lifestyles?

Cont next pg...


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The rapid transformation of Asian cities is happening now. Which mistakes can beavoided by learning from previous transformations of similar kind in Europe or NorthAmerica? How can new technologies - from high-rise buildings to smart cities - beexploited to the fullest?

What are the current urban trends in planning practices in Asia, in which ways do theydiffer from region to region, and in which ways can external models be imported?How can local planning tradition be preserved and at the same time modernised toaccommodate new needs?

Are current urban planning models contributing to achieve sustainability in yourcountry? What are the driving forces for urbanization?

Are urban planning practices taking into account local culture and participatoryprocesses?


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Changwon UN-Habitat/B. Barth


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5 GUIDING PRINCIPLESFOR SUSTAINABLEURBANIZATION

We dont yet understand the long-term causes and

effects at the intersection of natural phenomena andhuman behaviour. But we do know that creatinglong-term value in our resource constrained worldwill require a unified approach to design

Gary Lawrence,former director of planning

for the city of Seattle.

5.1 SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATIONAND HOW IT SHOULD BEVIEWED

o achieve sustainable urbanization it is importantto recognize that sustainability is more than helpingto reduce urban ecological footprints or increasingthe durability of urban infrastructure. Tere is arealisation that no city, no matter where, no matter

what size, can accomplish its goals by relying solelyon existing master plans or conventional practices

and methods that separate urban planning,management and governance from one another. Inthis sourcebook, therefore, sustainable urbanizationis understood as a process which promotes anintegrated, gender-sensitive and pro-poor approachto the social, economic and environmental pillarsof development, to meet not only the needs of thepresent but also safeguard the future. In order toshape urbanization in this manner, it is essentialthat policy makers, both locally and nationally,understand and establish the key principles

that need to be considered when formulatingdevelopment strategies.

5.2 PRINCIPLES OFSUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability requires that all forms of

development and associated policies be judgedon the basis of three criteria (the 3 Es formingthe triangle below), be it on a national or localscale.

At a local scale, this ensures that every action taken whether it be primarily regarding economic,social or environmental ventures -- will considerall other aspects to arrive at solutions which arebalanced and cater to the sustainability of allthree aspects. Tis guarantees that any actionis not only environmentally sound but alsoeconomically viable and socially just.

Good planning, governance and management area necessary condition for achieving sustainability.Te framework also asks who participates,governs, and manages, whichare the effects, onwhomdo they have an impact and whatis to bedone and how.

In order to respond to the imperative of sustainableurban development, local governments needto be in the position to govern, plan andmanage their cities and this in turn requires anassessment of the institutional capacities of localgovernments, their departments and staff. Moreoften than not a vigorous capacity developmentapproach is necessary that goes far beyond thebuilding of technical skills of individuals.

A FRAMEWORK FOR URBANSUSTAINABILITY III


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FIGURE 5.1 SUSTAINABLE URBANIZATION

Economy

Governance

Equity Ecology

Pla

nning

Managem

ent

SUSTAINABLE

URBANIZATION

Source: Adapted from Cohen et.al (2009)

KEEPING IN MIND ALL 6 OF THESEASPECTS WILL HELP DEVELOP PRINCIPLES

OF SUSTAINABILITY IN YOUR CITY:

- Environmentally sound and carbon-efficient built environment, includingthe use of appropriate technology.

- Vibrant, resilient and competitivelocal economies promoting decentwork and livelihoods.

- Accessible and pro-poor land,infrastructure, services, mobility andhousing.

- Governance structures that willempower cities and communitiesto plan for and effectively manageadversity and change.

- Socially inclusive, gender sensitive,healthy and safe development.

- Participatory planning and decision-making processes.

- Creating conditions of non-discrimination and equitable rights to

the city.Source: Adapted from World Urban Campaign(UN-HABITAT)

5.3 INTEGRATION OF SECTORS

AND INSTITUTIONSAchieving sustainability by engaging incomprehensive planning, governance andmanagement may seem like a daunting task -especially when faced with limited budgets andrestrictions at the local level. However, withinnovative thinking and identification of, as wellas building on, existing resources, it is possible tomove towards sustainability through equitable andfeasible eco-efficient development.

Currently sector policies and actors continue tobe the primary drivers of urban development.Different local government departments, theprivate sector and other urban stakeholders focuson small parts of their city without meaningfullyintegrating their approaches for overall sustainabledevelopment. Sustainable urbanization requiresan approach that combines different strategiesand ideas in order to efficiently create a city thatexcels in competitiveness and quality of life, while

safeguarding the environment.


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5.3.1 AN INTEGRATED APPROACHTO URBAN DEVELOPMENT

Below are three strategies that can aid localgovernments in formulating an integratedapproach to urban development:

Assets based - as opposed to needs basedapproach. Starting the process of development

with needs leads to dependency on externalresources. Starting with existing assets andopportunities helps create developmentfrom within, promotes partnerships tocollaboratively take on issues of importanceto the community and creates opportunitiesfor growth.

Horizontal integration - this has to occurbetween sectors. It allows local authoritiesto identify new opportunities for sustainableurban development within the spaces in-between sectors, and to address development

challenges that are crosscutting in nature.

Vertical integration - this has to occurbetween institutions and actors. It is requiredfor the design and execution of policies andstrategies and derived from a decentralized,multi-actor arena. Vertical integrationhas two dimensions: top-down (e.g. fromnational to local government, from cityagencies to community boards) and bottom-

up (e.g. from local government to nationaland from community boards or CBOs to cityagencies).

5.4 BUILDING CITIES FOR THEPEOPLE, WITH THE PEOPLE

Public participation in planning and designingurban infrastructure and services is essential foridentifying what, why and how change should

occur.

Participation of all stakeholders in a particular cityensures that any action taken and services providedare accurate reflections of the needs of people andthat the benefits of development are shared moreequally. Well managed participation can bringout concerns of different stakeholder groupssuch as women, youth, older people and people

with disability; participation can also deal withconflicting development objectives; furthermore, it

is a method by which all available options can beexplored.

Tere are a number of conditions and guidelinesthat play a significant role in ensuring thatparticipation goes beyond superficial consultationand becomes a form of meaningful practice. Teseare:

IMPORTANCE OF THE LOCAL LEVEL

Responsibilities of local authorities arebroadening due to decentralizationand globalization. Local authoritiesnow find themselves in settingswhich involve multiple actors andare required to cover a broad range

of specialities that include housing,infrastructure, social and communityservices, local economic developmentand environmental protection. Thusthe multi-dimensional and crosscuttingnature of modern urban issues andchallenges need an integrated outlookto urban management. Differentdepartments should therefore worktogether more closely by integratingphysical, socio-cultural and economic

aspects of urban planning anddevelopment. Most gains in eco-efficiency can be made by institutionaland organizational set-ups thatenable healthy and effective urbanmanagement and by devisingintegrated solutions among sectors.

(ESCAP, UN HABITAT, 2011)


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Creating an enabling environment:

A committed city leadership, both politicaland bureaucratic.

Conducive national policy and legislative

framework, with support from higher levelsof government.

Suitable political arrangements at the city ormetropolitan level to ensure coordination andaccountability, complemented by provisionfor direct and indirect participation.

Participation that is broad and inclusiveinvolving all relevant stakeholders, especiallydisadvantaged groups; creation of multiplechannels for participation to involve all socialgroups at various levels of government.

Civil society and community organizationsneed to be supported and involved incoordination. It is also useful to recognizeand learn from their proven methods for

organizing and empowering the poor.

Creating a motivating process:

An open, fair and accountable process thatis comprehensible, transparent and based onclear ground rules.

An established distinction between short andlong-term objectives; to create legitimacy andmaintain commitment, rapid progress has to

be made on selected short-term actions.

Outputs that are adopted through properprioritization and sequencing of action.

A willingness to strive for consensus backedup by conflict resolution techniques andsound political decision-making.

Establishment of monitoring and evaluation

processes to track progress and outcomes, andthat allow learning from experience. Teseshould also allow for citizen involvement inmonitoring implementation.

Provision of long-term support to citiesby local government associations, nationalgovernments, bilateral donors and/or

BENEFITS OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION

Participatory approaches arepractised at all levels of planning.Many infrastructurerelated projectsintegrate participatory elements intheir set-up. The extent and nature ofparticipation by different parties mayvary. Local governments need to ensurethey choose an appropriate level ofengagement. For a simple project, aninformal meeting might be sufficient,while a complex project requires anextensive participation procedure.

Public participation has many benefits,including:

- Better planning process andidentification of problems

- Better and faster execution ofactions

- Better response to local needs

- Greater ability to deliver withinbudget, with clear priorities

- Increased residents understandingof problems

- Better support from residents

towards initiatives- Greater sense of belonging and

influence amongst local inhabitants

- Increased community cohesion

- Capitalizing on peoples experiencesand community resources

(ESCAP, UN-HABITAT, 2011)


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international agencies, and promotion ofknowledge sharing between them.

Closer links in legislation and practicebetween multi sectoral urban planning and

management, and land-use planning so thatpromising participatory approaches can

positively impact the preparation of land-useplans and planning decisions.

(ESCAP, UN-HABIA, 2011)


How are urban governance, planning and management supporting sustainable urbandevelopment in your city?

How do you engage citizens in your planning and development processes?


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6 INTRODUCINGSUSTAINABILITYIN YOUR CITY

Existing cities rarely have the luxury of engagingin large-scale physical restructuring or changingtheir urban design. Terefore it is necessary tounderstand how principles of urban sustainabilitymay be applied to existing Asian cities withminimum disruption. Te following chapter

will elaborate current methods and practices ofworking towards sustainability in this contextalong with appropriate case studies based onsuccessful practices within the Asian region.

6.1 GREEN ECONOMY

Economic growth is a foremost priorityamongst developing Asian nations; this hasincreasingly led to conflicts between economicand environmental agendas. A Green Economyis one that results in improved human well-beingand social equity, while significantly reducingenvironmental risks and ecological scarcities

(UNEP). Te concept connects economicdevelopment with environmental protection, andtries to demonstrate that the two are in fact notmutually exclusive. It seeks to guide economies onpathways of higher, more equitable growth withlower carbon, energy and resource intensity. It isconsidered a good modern method of applyingprinciples of sustainability to existing cities asits measures are pro-growth, pro-jobs as wellas pro-environment which not only integrates

different perspectives but is attractive as it doesnot hinder a citys ambition of greater economicgrowth. Although some green industries in Asiaare export oriented, many are based on theprovision of locally-used services. Tis is thoughtto strengthen local employment with jobs thatcannot be readily exported. It is also seen as an

opportunity to attract clean, high-tech industrieshelping these cities become centres of innovationand employment (Sustainablecities.net, 2007).Tis in turn is thought to build local skills andcapacity that can then lead to new industry

clusters as well innovative small and mediumsized enterprises.

6.2 ENHANCING CONDITIONSFOR A GREEN ECONOMY

Tis can be achieved by: Minimizing zoning restrictions and

permitting the orderly densification andextension of cities, by using land management

tools, incentives, swaps of buildings, etc.

CITIES AND THE PRINCIPLES OF THEGREEN ECONOMY

- Use of innovative thinking,technology and maximum utilizationof existing infrastructure.

- Efficient development that isnot about destroying all that is

familiar and adopting radical newapproaches, but instead aboutmaking wise use of resources.

- The Asian Development Bank andthe International Monetary Fundestimate that over the next 10 years,it would take USD 4.7 trillion tomeet new infrastructure demandsand USD 1.6 trillion to replace aginginfrastructure.

- Shifting away from resource-intensive delivery of infrastructureby adopting green constructionand promoting the retrofitting ofbuildings for energy and waterefficiency, which have beenidentified as major possible sourcesof employment in green economies.It is currently accepted that everyUSD 1 million invested in buildingefficiency retrofits creates 10-14direct jobs and 3-4 indirect jobs.

- Sustainable infrastructure alsoprovides opportunities for additional


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Redeveloping inner cities through brownfieldredevelopment where land abandoned byindustry, rails, military barracks and ports isreused. Tis not only decreases developmentpressure at the urban fringe but also could

yield additional benefits such as tax-revenues,job creation, reduced greenhouse gasemissions, and lower required investment ininfrastructure.

Providing for growth around public transportstations; referred to as ransit OrientedDevelopment. As there is lower dependencyon private vehicles, greenhouse gas emissionsare reduced and an orderly extension of cities

can take place.

jobs in areas such as transportservices, which usually accounts for abig portion of a citys job market (inmany countries 1-2 per cent of jobsare in transport services).

- The manual refining of things thatwould normally be sent to a landfillalso creates additional jobs in thewaste sector, which is particularlyadvantageous for the unemployed inthe informal sector.

Source: Swilling et al., 2010

EMBRACING LAND PATTERNS THATDISCOURAGE URBAN SPRAWL:

This involves encouraging futuregrowth to occur in a more compactmanner with mixed-use land andmedium to high-built densities,enabling efficient public transport andpopulation thresholds that supportconcentrations of economic activity,

services and facilities, while at the sametime allowing for ample green spacesto improve surrounding ecosystems.Of course, it is acknowledged thatcities need to be developed in diverseforms to achieve sustainability. Thus,the compact city form has to beimplemented in areas where it isdeemed suitable to local contexts andmodified where it is not. In the context

of Asia with its high number of naturaldisasters, densification must not lead tohigher vulnerability of people, propertyand wider urban assets.


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FIGURE 6.1: SPRAWLING LOW DENSITY CITY REGION

Source: UN-HABITAT (2011) Urban Patterns for Sustainable

Development: Towards a Green Economy.(An urbanised

region composed primarily of one low-density, sprawling

conurbation is poorly suited to mass transit and strategically-

located facilities, increases consumption and emissions andfragments the wider landscape in a manner that is detrimental

to the functioning of ecosystems.)

BOX 3. ENERGY EFFICIENT COMPACT DESIGN: SINGAPORE

Well-planned cities are an essential component of creating efficient,sustainable cities. Singapores comprehensive, integrated urban developmentplanning has brought the city up to high standards of infrastructure. Measuressuch as creating high-rise, high-density urban forms that reduce private cartravel and encourage the location of community facilities within walkingdistance of people or near public transport ensure that the city maximises its

resources. The deliberate greening policy at the city, neighbourhoodand building levels including the use of recycled construction materialsprovides for energy efficiency and minimizes the impact on climatechange. Research conducted has shown that less radiant heatenergy is emitted from denser urban areas than from expansivedeveloped areas (Yuen & Kong, 2009).

EXPAND AND IMPROVE NETWORK

INFRASTRUCTURE:

A competitive city region needs to beadequately equipped with networkinfrastructure. This not only involvesexpanding infrastructure to neededareas but also upgrading existingsystems in order to get the most out ofthem. In an interview with stakeholdersin 25 major cities around the worldit was found that infrastructure was

considered the most vital in attractingprivate investment.

Tis can be achieved by: Encouraging efficient multi-modal

transportation systems that will reducedependence on private automobiles andsupport compact development. Te easypublic access to and from urban centresimproves the chances of a city remaininginternationally competitive.

Enabling the use of alternative energysources can reduce power rationing, whichcan stunt economic and social development.

Alternative energy advancements will allowthese sources to become more viable optionsto meet the pent-up demand for energy in

Unused urban spaces can be used to densify cities

UN-Habitat/B. Barth


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an environmentally friendly manner. Citiesshould be geared to take advantage of theseadvancements, particularly as the price offossil fuels keeps climbing, making alternativeenergy sources more competitive.

Tis can be achieved by: Modernizing building regulations to require

more sustainable construction measuresand more green features such as solar water

heaters.

Ensuring that building and constructionreforms are linked to sustainable urbanplanning with the objective to model a moreefficient urban form.

Advocating for legislative reform as soon aspossible, accompanied by education in newbuilding technologies and attractive financial

incentives to adopt such technology.

6.3 CREATING GREEN JOBS

When talking of Green jobs many think ofenergy and waste efficiency through expensiveautomation of industries. Tis is not thecase. Green industries refer to the methods by

which we try to sustain our normal lifestyleswithout using as many natural resources as wecurrently do. In many cases, it refers to adaptingskills and certain products to become moreenvironmentally sustainable while ensuringthat workers receive decent wages and benefits.(IME, 2008; Green Careers Guide, 2011)

While this approach may have a less direct impacton the physical structuring of a city towards

sustainability, its focus on creating a more

CONSTRUCTING A GREENER BUILTENVIRONMENT:

Building more efficiently andretrofitting existing structures can

significantly reduce the existing useof energy and water given that,globally, 40 per cent of energyconsumption goes into housing(building, maintenance, heating,cooling and lighting). In some energy-poor economies, conserving energy isfast becoming a necessity. In additionto saving money and leaving a smallercarbon footprint the environmental

health benefits of energy efficiency(less air pollution, improved thermalcomfort through natural ventilation,etc.) can be significant. These benefitshave been seen in fewer sick days.Though the initial investment toachieve this may be high, generally thelong-term savings outweigh the initialcosts.

THE NEED FOR GREEN JOBS IN ASIA:

Recent trends show that a hugereduction in jobs for migrant workersand blue-collar manufacturers is likelyimminent due to a predicted shrinkin trade-oriented sectors in Asia. Forexample, Chinas mining industry saw

employment fall from 9 million in 1996to 5.6 million in 2007, a 38 per centdecrease.

Asian manufacturing industries are verylikely to undergo vast changes withever increasing limits put on globalgreenhouse gas emissions. As issuesof climate change become increasinglyurgent, the timeline to reverse and /

or mitigate the damages caused bya high carbon global economy isever shrinking - forcing many Asianeconomies to commit to carbonreduction targets. This is creatingmore pressure on Asia to continue itsdevelopment based on less carbon-intensive industries. Therefore, creatingjobs within a green industry sector isseen as an effective way of achievingsustainable development.

(Asian Business Council, 2010)


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BOX 4 LOW-ENERGY OFFICE BUILDING: MALAYSIA

The Low Energy Office government building is a first of its kind in Malaysia.Located in Putrajaya, the building exceeded projected energy savings of 50per cent compared to buildings lacking in energy-efficient design, achieving a

total 58 per cent savings.

A few of the buildings cost-effective, energy-conserving measures include:

Windows primarily orientated to where there is less direct sunlight

Windows also equipped with appropriate shading mechanisms to allow maximumlight while minimizing heat.

The roof is equipped with 100mm of insulation (compared with the usual25mm), and a second canopy has been set up to protect the roof surfacefrom direct solar radiation.

These simple measures, together with several other innovations suchas natural air ventilation, an innovative lighting system, etc., helpreduce the energy burden of the building.

(Asia Business Council, 2007)

sustainable job market through the nurturingof green industries within cities provides aneconomically and environmentally attractivemanner of achieving both equity and sustainabledevelopment.

o further demonstrate the urgent need to shiftfocus to a more effective and sustainable form

of economic development, it is also necessaryto understand what the future demographicprojections are for the working populations in

Asia and what it means for national and cityeconomies. Chart 6.1 demonstrates the varying

labour challenges to be faced by Asian economies.

FIGURE 6.1: SPRAWLING LOW DENSITY CITY REGION

Source: Asia Business Council, 2010

200,000

Z

50,000

25,000

(10,000)

India

In

donesia

Philippines

China

V

ietnam

Saud

iArabia

M

alaysia

T

hailand

Ho

ngKong

Singapore

Korea

Taiwan

Japan

0


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Based on current trends, the world working agepopulation is set to grow from 4.5 billion in 2010to 5.2 billion in 2025. It is thought that Asia willbe responsible for 300 million of those additional700 million workers. However, these trends

vary from country to country. Countries suchas Korea, Japan, Singapore and aiwan will befacing an aging population, becoming relativelylabour-poor over time. However, countries suchas India, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia

and Vietnam will have a larger labour force inthe future, making them relatively labour rich.For labour rich economies the challenge willbe to employ the excess workers and foster realeconomic gains through productive industries;

whereas labour poor countries will have toemploy their shrinking work forces in higher

value-added jobs in order to ease the burden onthese workers of supporting a growing retiredpopulation, as well as find workers with the right

skills for new, technology-driven industries.

ADVANTAGES OF CREATING GREEN JOBS:

The emerging green economy hasflexibility to accommodate and offeremployment opportunities for a widerange of skills and experiences.

Industries that are related to carbonreduction such as renewable energysectors and waste management cancreate new jobs that previously didnot exist.

It is estimated that over the next twodecades the number of green jobscould reach 100 million worldwide some of these jobs can be createdin existing industries that are usuallynot thought of as green industries.

Particularly for labour rich

economies, more jobs at homewould drive domestic economicgains by reducing the pressure tomigrate or work abroad.

(Asia Business Council, 2010)


What opportunities do you see for your city to move towards a Green Economy?

Which sectors do you think lend themselves to creating green jobs?

Informal waste recycling, Yangon UN-Habitat/B. Barth


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7 URBAN RESILIENCE

7.1 UNDERSTANDING RESILIENCE

Our human settlements and livelihoods depend

heavily on the resources provided by the earthsnatural systems. Te resilience of communities

will then be partly determined by the ability ofthese ecosystems to buffer, recover and adaptto various environmenta l changes and theirassociated social and economic impacts.

Building urban resilience involves an acuteunderstanding that climate change projections-- however sophisticated -- cannot predict the

future with 100 per cent accuracy. Accordingto UN-HABIAs Cities and Climate ChangeInitiative (CCCI) and the Asian Cities ClimateChange Resilience Network (ACCCRN) of theRockefeller Foundation, this calls for adaptivesolutions that are not specifically designed for asingle climate future.

Furthermore, risks associated with climate changeare not distributed evenly between countries or

within countries. For instance, climate change islikely to have the heaviest impact on the smallislands developing states, which include some ofthe poorest countries in the world. At the sametime, within countries the urban poor often livein environmentally vulnerable sites (such as low-lying areas, along the banks of rivers or lakes, onsteep slopes or in the proximity of waste dump-sites), which are likely to become more vulnerabledue to the effects of climate change and increased

natural disasters. Building resilience thereforeneeds to be pro-poor given both the high levelsof vulnerability of slum dwellers vis--vis naturaldisasters and the general dependence of the pooron climate-sensitive natural resources. Resiliencethen, can be understood as a process that enablescities to not only cope with shocks and stressesbut also looks to tackle the challenges associated

with poverty and facilitating more generalimprovements in quality of life.

As the Asian Cities Climate ChangeResilience Network notes, a resilientcity will incorporate certain elementsinto urban systems that will help towithstand a variety of challenges:

Redundancy: this is when thereare several urban systems in place toserve similar functions. One systemcan provide substitute services whenanother system is disrupted. Forexample, the use of multiple energysources with a variety of pathwaysdistributing power to all parts of thecity can be considered as infrastructureredundancy.

Flexibility:resilient cities need to beable to absorb shocks and/or slow theonset of challenges, avoiding massive,catastrophic failures. If a system orinstitution fails, the flexibility of the citydynamic will ensure that the impactwill be minimal on other systems. Thiscan include a diversified economywhere populations are not exclusively

dependent on a single industry therefore having a selection of sectorsand industries to absorb a work forceand provide alternative livelihoods incase of the failure or disruption in oneindustry.

Capacity to reorganize:this involvesthe ability to change or evolve tochanging situations and conditions.It involves recognizing when certain

methods are no longer effective orappropriate. Finding new solutions andstrategies should become a continualeffort to address ever-changingchallenges.

Capacity to learn:this addressesthe need to utilize experiences fromthe past. Making sure that mistakesmade, lessons learnt and successes areincorporated in future decision-making

processes.

(ACCCRN, 2009)


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ELEMENTS OF URBAN RESILIENCE

Adapted from the Resilience Alliance.

Redundancy Flexibility

Capacity

to Learn

Capacity to

Reorgnanize

Resilience

sector to invest in reducing the risksthey face.

Maintain up-to-date data on hazardsand vulnerabilities; prepare riskassessments and use these as the

basis for urban development plansand decisions. Ensure that thisinformation and the plans for yourcitys resilience are readily availableto the public and fully discussed withthem.

Invest in and maintain criticalinfrastructure that reduces risk, suchas flood drainage, adjusted whereneeded to cope with climate change.

Assess the safety of all scho

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