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www.training-youth.netwww.training-youth.net

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In 1998, The Council of Europe and the European Commission decided totake common action in the field of European Youth Worker Training, andtherefore initiated a Partnership Agreement. The aim of the Agreement,which is laid down in several covenants, is “to promote active Europeancitizenship and civil society by giving impetus to the training of youthleaders and youth workers working within a European dimension”.The co-operation between the two institutions covers a wide spectrumof activities and publications, as well as developing tools for furthernetworking.Three main components govern the partnership: a training offer (long termtraining for trainers and training on European Citizenship), publications(both paper and electronic versions of training materials and magazine)and networking tools (trainers pool and exchange possibilities). Theultimate goal is to raise standards in youth worker training at aEuropean level and define quality criteria for such training.

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Some of you may have wondered: what does T-kit mean? We canoffer at least two answers. The first is as simple as the full version inEnglish: “Training Kit”. The second has more to do with the sound ofthe word that may easily recall “Ticket”, one of the travelling documentswe usually need to go on a journey. So, on the cover, the little figurecalled “Spiffy” holds a train ticket to go on a journey to discover newideas. In our imagination, this T-kit is a tool that each of us can usein our work. More specifically, we would like to address youth workersand trainers and offer them theoretical and practical tools to work withand use when training young people.

The T-kit series has been the result of a one-year collective effort involv-ing people from different cultural, professional and organisationalbackgrounds. Youth trainers, youth leaders in NGOs and professionalwriters have worked together in order to create high quality publica-tions which would address the needs of the target group while recog-nising the diversity of approaches across Europe to each subject.

This T-kit is part of a series of 4 titles first published in the year 2000,to be followed by more in subsequent years. It is one of the productsof the Partnership Programme on European Youth Worker Trainingrun by the European Commission and the Council of Europe. Besidesthe T-kits, the partnership between the two institutions has resulted inother areas of co-operation such as training courses, the magazine“Coyote” and a dynamic internet site.

To find out more about developments in the partnership (new pub-lications, training course announcements, etc.) or to downloadthe electronic version of the T-kits, visit the Partnership web site:www.training-youth.net.

Welcome to the T-Kit series

Council of Europe publishingF-67075 Strasbourg Cedex

© Council of Europe and European Commission, November 2000

Reproduction of material from this publication is authorisedfor non-commercial educational purposes only, provided the source is quoted.

This document does not necessarily express the official view of the European Commission orthe Council of Europe, their member states or the organisations co-operating with the institutions.

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Co-ordination T-kit series:Silvio Martinelli

Editors of this T-kit:Anne Dussap, Peter Merry

Authors of this T-kit: (see also last page)Bernard AbrignaniRui GomesDirk de Vilder

Other contributorsAlain Roy

Editorial CommitteeBernard Abrignani

Institut National de la Jeunesseet de l’Education Populaire

Elisabeth HardtEuropean Federationfor Intercultural Learning

Esther HookwayLingua Franca

Carol-Ann MorrisEuropean Youth Forum

Heather RoyWorld Association of Girl Guidesand Girl Scouts

SecretariatSabine Van Migem (Administrative support)Genevieve Woods (Librarian)

Cover Page and Spiffy CharacterThe Big Family

A special thank you is also due to:Patrick Penninckx for having co-ordinated thelaunch of the T-kit series, provided continuoussupport and ensured the link with the otherprojects of the Partnership Agreement.Anne Cosgrove and Lena Kalibataite for thecontribution given in the first phase of theproject.

All the publishers and authors that havegiven permission to reproduce theircopyrighted material.

Last, but not least, all the people that in dif-ferent capacities, at different moments andin different ways have contributed to makingall of this possible!

European Youth Centre Strasbourg30 Rue Pierre de CoubertinF-67000 Strasbourg, France

Tel: +33-3-8841 2300 – Fax: +33-3-8841 2777

European Youth Centre BudapestZivatar ucta 1-3

H-1024 Budapest, HungaryTel: +36-1-2124078 – Fax: +36-1-2124076

Council of EuropeDG IV

Directorate of Youth and Sport

European CommissionDG Education and Culture

Unit D5: Youth Policy and ProgrammesRue de la Loi, 200

B-1049 Brussels, BelgiumTel: +32-2-295 1100 – Fax: +32-2-299 4158

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Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 7

1. Projects in youth work ...................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Project values and the value of projects ............................................................................ 9

1.2 Associations and projects: an historical perspective ......................................................... 9

1.3 European youth programmes and projects ...................................................................... 10

1.4 Management, Management! .............................................................................................. 12

1.5 Values before and values after .......................................................................................... 13

1.6 The values in the project ................................................................................................... 15

1.7 The limits of project-oriented policies .............................................................................. 19

1.8 Culture and project management ..................................................................................... 22

1.9 What to do? ........................................................................................................................ 24

2. What is a project ? ............................................................................................................. 27

2.1 Project management is not … ........................................................................................... 27

2.2 A youth work project is … ................................................................................................ 27

2.3 Project models .................................................................................................................... 30

3. The Project: step by step ................................................................................................ 39

3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 39

3.1.1 About management .................................................................................................. 39

3.1.2 Proposing a model .................................................................................................... 42

3.1.3 Definition – Implementation – Evaluation .............................................................. 44

3.1.4 The “W” question grid – or the “Laswell method” .................................................. 44

3.2 Defining the project ............................................................................................................ 45

3.2.1 Introducing the community ..................................................................................... 45

3.2.2 Needs analysis ........................................................................................................... 45

3.2.2.1 Social analysis .................................................................................................. 45

3.2.2.2 Institutional priorities and values ................................................................... 49

3.2.2.3 Personal motivations ........................................................................................ 50

3.2.3 Defining the aims ...................................................................................................... 52

3.2.4 The concrete objectives ............................................................................................ 53

3.2.5 Strategy and methodology ....................................................................................... 56

3.2.6 Planning an activity .................................................................................................. 58

3.2.6.1 Planning and timing ........................................................................................ 58

Contents

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3.3 Implementing the project .................................................................................................. 61

3.3.1 Managing resources .................................................................................................. 62

3.3.1.1 Time management ............................................................................................ 62

3.3.1.2 Financial resources ........................................................................................... 64

3.3.1.3 Fundraising ...................................................................................................... 66

3.3.1.4 Material and technical resources ..................................................................... 74

3.3.1.5 Managing people .............................................................................................. 74

3.3.1.6 Teamwork ......................................................................................................... 75

3.3.1.7 Ongoing monitoring and evaluation .............................................................. 83

3.4 Evaluating the project ........................................................................................................ 87

3.4.1 Preparing and conducting an evaluation ................................................................ 88

3.4.2 Evaluation and project planning .............................................................................. 89

3.4.3 Planning an evaluation ............................................................................................. 89

3.4.4 Finishing and reporting ............................................................................................ 94

4. What makes a project European? ............................................................................... 97

Appendix 1: Glossary of terms ........................................................................................ 103

Appendix 2: Project Management T-Kit evaluation ............................................... 105

Appendix 3: Bibliography ................................................................................................. 107

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7

In the last 20 years projects have taken a cen-tral role in youth work and can be consideredtoday as a tool for social change, a cornerstoneto community development and to internatio-nal youth work or even as a tool to build and/orstrengthen civil society. As a consequence, themanagement of projects has become a neces-sary skill for youth organisations and a recur-rent topic for youth work training.

Project management requires a wide varietyof skills from political/social analysis to com-munication skills, from people to resourcesmanagement skills, from fundraising skillsto evaluation techniques etc… Obviously, thisT-Kit could not exhaustively deal with all theseissues and the authors have chosen to addressthe main elements relevant for internationalyouth projects. Written by experienced youthwork trainers at the international level, this T-Kitis largely inspired from ‘project management’training events run in the context of interna-tional youth work and draws on concretetraining examples.

This T-Kit should not be seen as a recipe on ‘howto run a project’ but rather as a proposal of aframework that provides the project managerwith a concrete ‘step-by-step’ approach, inclu-ding hints and guidelines for monitoring a project.

The T-Kit has been produced for those whowant to develop projects and who are able torefer to their own experiences and own project.It is for:• project managers in charge of developing a

project,

• trainers helping participants to develop theirown projects.

This T-Kit is divided into 4 main chapters mo-ving from general reflections on the value ofprojects to a very concrete step-by-step deve-lopment of a project. The four sections can beread independently but are of course inter-connected.

Chapter 1 is a general reflection on the role ofprojects in the development of internationalyouth work and the evolution of the value ofprojects.

Chapter 2 provides a clarification of what isunderstood by ‘project management’ in ayouth work context as well as presenting avariety of approaches and models of projectdevelopment.

Chapter 3 proposes a framework to guide thedevelopment of youth work projects fol-lowed by ‘step-by-step’ explanations. This chap-ter includes practical advice and concretesuggestions for trainers using project deve-lopment as a training tool. In order to helpyou with the transfer to practice, this chapterincludes an example of a project applying thestep-by-step project development explanations.

Chapter 4 presents some thoughts on theEuropean dimension of projects.

We hope you will enjoy reading and applyingthe methods to your own projects. We lookforward to receiving feedback from your ownexperiences of using this T-Kit.

Introduction

The emphasis put on project management, pro-ject work and project planning in Europeanyouth work is relatively recent.

European or international youth work has been,for more than 100 years, primarily developedby youth associations, organisations and fe-derations of many kinds, but most of themstructured in the form of international youthorganisations. For decades these organisationshad a strong philosophical, religious, political oreducational basis, which was shared by all ormost of the organisations in the movement –a kind of precondition for co-operation.

The values that underpinned the activity anddevelopment of these organisations were essen-tial to their existence, and the promotion orconsolidation of those values was often themain reason for the organisations’ activities.

1.2 Associations andprojects: an historicalperspective

Most activities in European and internationalyouth work were organised for and by mem-bers or leaders of local or national branches(and less for an unspecified or open targetgroup), and the educational goals were oftenfocussed around the organisation and/or itsvalues (through e.g. theme seminars, gathe-rings, statutory meetings). Education was bythen often understood in a political sense(education for emancipation, liberation, self-development or simply ideological education).Those organisations carrying out internationaltraining focussed mainly on the good organisa-tion of their seminars and meetings, or evenyouth exchanges (work camps, individualexchanges) rather than on training youth wor-kers, leaders or project managers. The leaderof an activity or project was also often some-one who had a political mandate or responsi-bility within the organisation. There were ofcourse exceptions to this.

Among the reasons for this, one should point out:

The lack of specific funds or programmesstrictly for training or educational activitiesat the European or international level. The

existence of the European Youth Foundation(EYF) since the early 1970’s was truly excep-tional; however, the Foundation did not serveto change things significantly at that time,firstly because it was in itself a creation of asystem for itself, and secondly because thatwas also the way educational activities at aninternational level were understood. Trainingas such was not used much as a term, possiblybecause the statutes of the EYF and of theEuropean Youth Centres (EYC) clearly excludedprofessional training activities from the pro-gramme of the Centre.

The prevalence – at multiple levels – of ide-ologies and organisations which were bothself-excluding and hegemonic (of whichCommunist ideology is the best example, butnot the only one). They based themselves onsocial analysis and solutions that would besuitable to everyone (the reality was differentbut the purpose was the same). Non-formaleducation was a way to prepare for a “better”society, and to develop the “new man”.

The belief that social progress would progres-sively eradicate the problems of the system(social exclusion, marginalisation, injustice, etc.)and that the role of civil society – includingyouth movements – was less to solve thoseproblems than to act for social and politicalchange (to improve, to reform or to change thesystem).

The division of roles between social and youthservices on the one hand and youth organisa-tions on the other, where only the former beingthe ones that should be professionally trainedto respond to situations of social distress (pro-fessional competence or expertise, as opposedto political competence).

It would be untrue to pretend that internatio-nal youth work was not based on projects at all,at that time. But the fact is that projects wereunderstood as part of the development of theorganisation, which led to project managementbeing seen as less important than leadershiptraining and political training. In the trainingcourses of the European Youth Centre, includ-ing activities of the European Youth Foundation,the number of courses and activities makingan explicit use of projects as a methodology orcontent for training courses only became sig-nificant in the 1990s.

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1. Projects in youth work

1.1 Project values and the value of projects

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1.3 European youthprogrammes andprojects

The changes that were accelerated after thebreakdown of the Communist regimes inCentral and Eastern Europe – trends, whichwere already noticeable in the early 1980’s –have naturally had major repercussions oninternational youth work. Global ideologieslost their credibility and importance, “interna-tionalism” lost momentum, curiously beingreplaced by globalisation and the internation-alisation of world markets. Classical interna-tional youth work lost some of its importance,even if international youth organisations didnot lose their raison d’être nor, in many cases,their strength.

But the shift of emphasis in European youthwork that concerns us was also made morevisible and sometimes accentuated by otherfactors too:

• the emergence of youth programmes withthe European Community/Union and thedevelopment of national youth policies

The Youth for Europe programme in particu-lar has added a new dimension to internationaland European youth work, which one couldsay is more open to all young people and,because of that, requires more involvementof youth workers and other socio-cultural pro-fessionals. What was until then a “privilege”of youth leaders and young people active ininternational youth organisations becameaccessible to potentially any young personin Europe: working together with youngpeople from other countries, travelling andparticipating in a youth exchange. Regardlessof how democratic and accessible use pro-grammes actually are, their consequences forEuropean youth work have been enormous.

Besides opening up Europe to all young people,the Youth for Europe programme – and sub-sequently the European Voluntary Serviceprogramme – brought a new category of youthworkers to the European level: those workingat local level in youth associations, local youthservices or other types of services and orga-nisations. Many of these youth workers were

not informed by an ideology and sometimeseven had what some considered a “poor poli-tical education”. But now they were actors inEuropean youth policy and soon no Europeanyouth programme could do without them.

The management of European youth exchanges– and the emphasis put on their educationalfunction – stressed the need for project ma-nagement. Not only were youth exchanges con-ceived of as projects but they were also to beevaluated as such, both from an administra-tive and from an educational point of view –with the emphasis falling on the principles andskills of project management.

The development and consolidation of theprogramme demanded the development oftraining. The impetus in training especiallyin the second and third phases of the pro-gramme, helped (or confirmed) the shift ofemphasis from political/social education totechnical, administrative and managerial skills.Youth workers were now required to organiseprojects, to manage projects, and to report.And to the horror of some and the joy ofmany, “traditional” youth organisations werenow expected to do the same.

However, it would be wrong to suggest thatthis shift was strongly resisted. In reality therewas a process of adaptation that was quite fast,although not always without pain. The Long-Term Training Course of the Youth Directorateis symptomatic of this evolution. In its twofirst editions the course, then named “Long-termtraining course in international youth work”,was run against the tide, with an only half-disguised suspicion, if not open hostility, fromthe statutory bodies of the then European YouthCentre. Four years later, the course was oftenpresented and requested as the model. TheLong Term Training course (LTTC) has beenthe activity that has contributed the most to“popularising” principles of project management,because the course itself has been run on thebasis of projects as the tools for learning anddeveloping local youth work projects.

The development of youth programmes in theEuropean Union has also provided the star-ting point for the development of youth poli-cies in some member states. The creation ofnational agencies for the programmes – andthe necessary budget allocations for that – hasstimulated the emergence of co-ordination and

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Factors that encouragedshift towards

project management inEuropean youth work

complementarity between national actions foryouth. In some countries, the procedures andmanagement principles of Youth for Europewere “imported” into other national youthprogrammes and policies. Note, for example,that within the programme there was littleprovision to cover the structural costs oforganisations. In fact, organisations wererequested and expected to find matchingfunds (often more than 50%). Especially atthe beginning of the programme there wasalso a clear emphasis to attract projects fromformal youth groups in a clear and justifiedattempt to reach “common” young people.

• the economic and social crisis – affectingyoung people – and the attack on, andsubsequent reforms of, the welfare state

This is one of the most common argumentsput forward to explain the withdrawal of thepublic sector from many associative and socio-political projects. The (financial) crisis of manyEuropean states – together with the efforts forsetting up the single currency project withinthe European Union – has resulted in a short-age of resources to support or follow-up “tra-ditional” socio-educational projects. Social andyouth projects had to become autonomousand accountable. Jobs were no longer secure,structures were no longer supported. Theemphasis was now put on results, the supportwas now allocated to projects, not to organi-sations.

Some of these arguments may seem very shal-low, partial and even provocative. But the dif-ference has been visible – if not in results atleast in philosophy and principles for youthpolicy. Look for example at the idea that sup-port to youth (or other) organisations neverused to be as generous or careless as someanalysis seems to suggest. In most countries,youth organisations – especially internationalones – have had to fight hard to keep theirindependence and secure their survival.

That might partly explain some of the contra-dictions around the popularity of project man-agement: most associations, including youthorganisations, are in favour of it, not against(naturally, for they also strive for a better andmore efficient way of doing things). Indeed,there is no discussion surrounding a stance proor against project management. Everyone – andrightly so – wants things to be done in the best

way possible, with an optimal use of resources,with the most visible and sustainable results,and with the best publicity.

• The import of business ideasand liberal ideology into the social sector

In addition to, and as a result of the above, thereis no doubt that the predominance of (neo)lib-eral ideology and principles and generally the“triumph” of capitalism has resulted in theimposition of business-like criteria within thenon-market sector, including civil society andsometimes also state administration. Amongthe ones most relevant to our concerns in thispublication are principles such as accountabi-lity, profitability and, more generally businessmanagement applied to the non-governmentaland non-profit sector. Project managementhas not remained immune to these develop-ments. For the sake of the non-conformist,however, we can also say that the profit-mak-ing sector has also adapted many ideas fromthe non-profit making sector.

• the challenges of re-building democracyand civil society in Eastern Europe

The collapse of the Communist system in Easternand Central Europe called on “the West” tosupport the emerging democracies in Easternand Central Europe, a challenge which wastaken up very early by the Council of Europeand by international youth organisations. Inthe youth policy field, this meant an immediatechallenge to respond to needs that had moreto do with immediate and tangible results thanwith principles. Governmental and non-govern-mental partners in Eastern Europe wanted con-crete tools and skills to help them develop theirpolicies or simply survive in an atmospherewhere anything that did not seem businesscompliant was suspect or at least doomed tofail sooner or later.

Regardless of how pertinent the analysis andthe requests are or were, the fact is that projectmanagement courses supported the drive for achange and, especially, they opened up furtherthe demands for “business-like” professional orprofessionalised training. The repercussion ofthis is not difficult to imagine: besides the influ-ence this has had on those countries’ youthstructures and policies, it has also impacted onthe practice and the philosophy of European andinternational youth organisations. For some it islike being seduced by the taste of the forbiddenfruit.

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Factors that encourageda shift towards

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• the shifts of emphasis in politicaland development aid

At the same time, there was a serious shiftaround co-operation and assistance for devel-opment between the wealthier North and theneedier South. It is very probable that the shiftin development co-operation policies occurredas a result of general policy changes, mostlyinfluenced by factors already mentioned above.Nevertheless, we refer to it because it doesillustrate the difference. Due very much to theinfluence of non-governmental developmentorganisations, “donor countries” started to linkdevelopment aid or assistance to results and todemocratic conditions. Support is now almostexclusively for projects, with an emphasis onsmall scale projects, and not “policies”.

• postmodernism: individualisationand fragmentation of young peopleand youth groups

The erosion of collective models of associationand social participation by young people, toge-ther with the development of their self-aware-ness and reflection – associated with the rejec-tion of models of reference – has meant, amongmany other factors, that long-term commit-ments are less fashionable and less suitableto the reality of young people today. In whatis also referred to as the “risk society”, the indivi-dual person has more to decide by him/herself, more to choose from and bears theresponsibility for shaping his/her own lifeand future.

The progressive disappearance of some com-mon models of reference – social, cultural orpolitical – has also led to social fragmenta-tion among young people and to multipleidentification processes, both synchronic anddiachronic.

In this new environment youth organisationsand institutions are challenged to adapt andmodernise: long-term programmes and com-mitments are much more difficult. The wordis short-term and if possible “now”. In fact, manyyouth workers say how difficult it is to keepyoung people’s interest and commitment insomething as exciting and potentially moti-vating as a youth exchange, if it implies aduration of over six months.

Idealism and political engagement have beenreplaced by realism and action, qualities asso-ciated with small scale community and groupprojects. Visible results and experience “now!”are more attractive as something new andimmediately “socially marketable” by givingcredit to those involved in it – a reflection ofconsumer habits and the need to get the la-test model in clothes, computers or portablephones (and notice how quickly things areout of trend), as well as the development andpopularity of new and “radical” sports.

Young people are less likely to commit them-selves to an organisation, programme or cause.What was before an expression of global con-cern (eg. racism, poverty, war) seems to havebeen replaced by concerns about globalisationand how to participate in it through other meanssuch as the Internet. In this context it is easierto commit and participate in a project thanin any organisation. The project is short ormedium-term, is flexible and has concreteand visible results. Similarly, the young peo-ple can contribute to shaping and managingthe project without having to “jump” throughthe successive levels of leadership in the organ-isation.

1.4 Management,Management!

It is difficult to see how much these factors havebeen a consequence or a cause of the changeof priorities, thinking and language, regardingactivities and programmes in European youthprojects. The fact is that when looked attogether they help to understand why projectand project management have become thetrendy words and approach in the 1990’s.

Some of those changes were actually less deep– or less radical – than they seemed to be. Themajor differences are not in the nature of whatis being preached, taught or done, but in howseriously it is taken and adopted, and the lan-guage used. The very nature and reality of civilsociety, which international youth organi-sations are part of, would suffice to makeanyone aware of the risks of over-hasty ge-neralisation.

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Factors that encourageda shift towards

project management inEuropean youth work

The fact that the language and principles ofproject management are popular, does notmean necessarily:• That projects and project management did

not exist before;• That the quality of the work undertaken

today is higher than before;• That there were plenty of resources, which

were not well used • That everyone is now a great project ma-

nager and that there are no hiccups at dif-ferent levels.

Let us not forget that part of the changes men-tioned above have been stimulated becausethere are more resources now than before (eg.for European youth projects), and the num-ber of institutions and partners involved hasalso grown exponentially. A drive for efficiencyand accountability – having to do in the firstplace with the quality of projects – was thusinevitable.

1.5 Values beforeand values after

We can also look into this by recalling andanalysing what values are involved in projectmanagement and in youth work. What arethey? Have they changed?

• Efficiency

Project planning methodologies allow orga-nisations and institutions to be more efficientby placing an emphasis on the concrete needsof a given situation or group of people. Bylimiting the field of intervention and antici-pating the results as concretely as possible, theresources will be used in a better way andoverall efficiency should improve. By focussingthe scope of intervention there is the guaranteethat results will be achieved as there is lessdispersion of effort and the contribution andinvolvement from the different actors involvedis more coherent and better coordinated.

• Accountability and (shared) responsibility

Whereas in an organisation or group the respon-sibility for activities lies with the politically

responsible (the elected board), project ma-nagement has put the focus on the projectleader or team. These people have a high degreeof autonomy in how to proceed and managethe project once the objectives have beenclarified and agreed with the political level.Consequences of this include the fact thatthe responsibility for the project is clearer asit is easier to identify those in charge of each ofthe steps. It is also more “empowering” as itgives workers, members or volunteers, a clearshare of responsibility and therefore of power.Accountability comes also from the extendedpossibilities for evaluation and assessment –as well as reporting – of the project.

• Equality and independence

Projects usually must comply to criteria andpriorities, both formal and content-wise. It isthe fulfilment of the criteria and the respectof the pre-defined priorities that determinethe elegibility of projects for funding or forother forms of support. In this way, all pro-jects are “equal”, at least in the sense that theyall must fulfil similar criteria. Nepotism is thusprevented and the allocation of favours or pri-vileges to one organisation or the other needsto be justified. All organisations are thus, apriori, on an equal footing, the quality of theproject being the deciding element. And thedecision-makers can decide with greater inde-pendence – less bound to alliances and pres-sures. In fact, the decisions are often taken byso-called expert committees that are supposedto be less subject to political pressure. Thissituation should work to the advantage of“political” organisations as they would complywith the same rules and avoid the need forjustification.

• Economy and consistency

Projects funding allows sponsors to better seethe use of their money (ie. to make sure thatbudgets are used for what they were meant). Itmakes seeing deviations in the use of themoney more easy.By allocating specific resources to the imple-mentation of objectives and concrete activi-ties, it is also possible to increase the efficientuse of resources or at least limit unreasonableor uncontrolled spending or inadequate pro-ducts. The fact that the project has a set time

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frame and possibly includes different check-points for evaluation and monitoring may easethe financial control and management of theproject, namely by speeding up the process ofinterventions and corrections.The need for each activity of the project to bein line with the aims and objectives and to “fit”within the overall project framework makescoherence and consistency easier to follow, inthe same way as it carries the potential to limit“deviations” or distortions.

• Quality

Quality as a result of project management ispotentially improved by the extended possi-bilities to optimise the identification of skills,resources and procedures for a given set ofobjectives. Resources are identified in relationto the specific need and purpose of the project.Monitoring and evaluation are important toolsto “measure” quality, or at least to check therate of progress against the objectives or tar-gets set, both quantitatively and qualitatively. Doing better and doing the best possible ismade easier by working on a project basis asthe options are clearer to identify.

• Realism

The essence of projects is that they must berealistic, just as the objectives must be achie-vable. Realism is an important value in so far asit helps to eliminate projects whose aims areinadequate or inconsistent with the size,capacity or scope of the promoting organisa-tions. Realism means the prevalence of themind and reason over the heart or the soul.Realism is also a motivation in the sense thatrealism makes achievement more likely andthus the project potentially more visible.Turning great ideas into visible practice andresults could be a motto for projects.

• Flexibility

The project needs to be planned, implementedand evaluated. Sound project managementallows for – and calls for – changes to be intro-duced as a result of on-going progress andregular evaluations. Dysfunctions and distor-tions in the planning stages can thus be corrected

and, especially, the different components ofthe project may be adapted and adjusted tounforeseen changes or evolution.

• Transparency and visibility

Accountability means also transparency andvisibility. Transparency because the allocationof public (or private) resources and their impacton policies and programmes is more clear andtraceable. It is not anymore so much a matterof who got money or subsidies, and how much,but what they got it for – and what was achievedwith it. In addition to promoting transparen-cy – and supposedly preventing nepotism orfavouritism – working through projects mayincrease the visibility of policies and pro-grammes – as there are always results thatare tangible, that can be shown and graspedeasily, through the media and through otherchannels of communication.Visibility is as important for the project teamand organisation (mobilisation, public relations,communication, publicity, motivation) as it isfor the sponsors and promoters, who alsoneed to justify, demonstrate, publicise... whatthey do with the funds they administrate.In other words, an organisation, vision orpriority is marketed better through projects.Transparency serves also as a “guarantee” ofhonesty and integrity, values which are crucialto any non-profit making organisation.

• Creativity and innovation

Creative and innovative projects have foundnew ways of doing things, new methods toachieve aims and objectives. Working throughprojects forces every new project to be diffe-rent and unique – the principle of innovation.In doing so, it stimulates the creativity in peo-ple and organisations. The search for betterperformance and for appraisals or evaluationis a stimulus to non-conformism and uncon-ventionalism, themselves also importantmotivation factors in organisations. Creativityand innovation embody the need to be closerto the reality of the young people or of thecommunity, and to interact with other peo-ple, organisations and trend-setters. Creativityand innovation also rhyme very well withmodernity and modernisation – crucial con-cepts of our time.

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and youth work

• Competition

One of the most important values of the post-modern society – and of neo-liberal manage-ment and ideology – competition is increasedand optimised through (youth) policies basedon the funding of projects. By setting generalconditions for projects, public and privatefunding institutions put pressure on theapplicants to be more performant, efficientand, above all, to be supportable by beinggood or better. For there are never sufficientresources for all projects... a selection hasalways to be made. Competition is certainlynot risk-free, but it surely forces project teamsand organisations alike to be and to do theirbest in order to be funded, to remain floatingand to be recognised.

• Participation, modernity and employability

What has been outlined above as characteris-tics of young people in post-modern societies –namely the suitability of the project to indi-vidualisation and to fragmentation – also meansthat for many young people and youth work-ers alike project work provides a useful andaccessible opportunity for valuable learning,and experience, which is transferable to thejob market.

To be able to think about and practise themanagement of activities as projects is also toacquire, develop and practise skills in plan-ning and management. It is to learn how toexercise responsibility and autonomy throughnon-formal education activities. The oppor-tunity it provides in experiential learning –especially if adequately supported by educa-tional evaluation techniques – is invaluablefor breaking through patterns of low self-esteem, mistrust and situations of marginali-sation and exclusion. Project work, and theteam work implied – development of socialand communication skills – is thus motiva-tional and empowering, by giving relevanceand value to small, achievable, changeswhose visibility may break through patternsof marginalisation and low self-confidence.

Of course, these forms of social participationare very different from other “traditional” formsof social participation. They have the advan-tage of being more suitable and accessible formany young people today, even if they arenot yet or not always properly valued andrecognised. They remain a continuing chal-lenge for many youth and project workers.

Small-scale projects also have the potential tomobilise the community around the projectand – remembering the above commentsabout realism and visibility – contribute to thedevelopment of community participation. Theymay also promote the status of the youngpeople inside the community, via the mean-ingfulness of the project and the values itmay carry.

1.6 The valuesin the project

Using projects as a way to plan, organise anddeliver programmes and activities or as a toolfor the management of people and resourcessays little about what the projects are for.Project planning and management as suchare nearly value-free techniques that can beapplied in the public and private sectors, aswell as in civil society.

European youth work, however, is not value-neutral. European youth work, and nationalyouth work too, is guided and oriented accord-ing to priorities and values that are themselvesthe expression of an implicit or explicit youthpolicy. The simple term “European youth pro-ject” carries in itself already a certain philoso-phy: trans-nationality and European co-oper-ation, probably also participation, education,autonomy by being a project either by or withyoung people. Furthermore, the youth policiesand programmes of the European Commissionand of the Council of Europe have their ownvalues which projects run within their frame-work should respect and promote.

At the level of the European Union

• Mobility and solidarityThe capacity and motivation of young peopleto go to live and work in another country areimportant, as a way to promote the singlemarket, freedom of movement of labour, etc.Mobility of young people is also an asset tobreak through isolation, alienation or passivity,in as far as it implies “mental mobility”, too.Mobility and solidarity go together – as in the

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decision on the European Voluntary Serviceprogramme (EVS) – because Europe should notbe seen only as a space to develop a free mar-ket, including freedom of movement. TheEuropean integration process can only besuccessful on the political, social and culturallevels if there is also an understanding of theneed for solidarity and, thus, perceiving Europeas a space for solidarity instead of a groundfor competition.

• Self-reliance and creativity of young people European youth projects must be planned andrun in a way that stimulates autonomy, self-reliance and creativity. These values have majorimplications in the way the project is pre-pared and run, on the role that young peoplehave in it (owners/participants and not con-sumers) and, of course, on the objectives pur-sued and in the attitudes promoted. It is alsointeresting how self-reliance and creativity areput together as values.

• Understanding cultural diversityCultural diversity is obvious when one looksat the European continent (and most continents,for that matter). The recognition of culturaldiversity as a normal situation and the positivevalue and understanding given to it are partof the cornerstones of building Europe whilerespecting cultural difference. It is also a pre-condition for intercultural learning.

• Combating racism, xenophobiaand anti-semitism

Together with valuing and understanding cul-tural diversity, raising awareness about thedangers of racism, xenophobia and anti-semitismis one of the main themes of European pro-grammes. Without awareness raising therecan hardly be respect for and understandingof cultural diversity and, ultimately, of otherEuropeans and non-Europeans alike.

• Developing a European dimensionor identity

The Youth for Europe programme talks of“enabling young people to view the EuropeanUnion as an integral part of their historical,political, cultural and social environment”,which is possibly the most explicit referenceto what is referred in other instances of theprogramme as the “European dimension oridentity”. In line with other texts of this andother programmes, the explicit purpose is not

to create a new identity to replace national(or other identities) but rather to develop anunderstanding of the role of the EuropeanUnion – and the European integration process– as part of the present and future. Thisincludes a call/need to connect the Europeandimension to the local and national levels.At the same time, those involved in definingthis policy took care to make sure that theEuropean dimension was not exclusive toEuropean Union member states. Hence thetwo programmes (Youth for Europe, EVS) areopen to other countries (either as programmecountries or as third countries), although todifferent degrees and in different ways (itseems to work easier on a reciprocal basis foryouth exchanges).

• Active participation of young peoplein society and institutions

“Encouraging young people to take an activepart in society via non-profit-making associa-tions and organisations”, means a recognitionof the crucial role of civil society, associationsand organisations in developing participationand citizenship. This simultaneously, implies theimportance of the non-profit sector in gener-al (as European youth programmes are most-ly educational and run on a non-profit basis).The Youth programmes refer to “enablingyoung people to become aware of the impor-tance of democracy in the organisation ofsociety and thus encourage them to play anactive part in its institutions”. Further down,reference is made to the need for “allowingyoung people to express their opinions on theorganisation of society and encourage the vari-ous public authorities involved to take heedthereof” an explicit reference to the need ofpublic institutions to open up and sustain thedesire for youth participation.

• Participation of disadvantagedyoung people

Both programmes give priority to the participa-tion of disadvantaged young people, in a recog-nition of the importance of social cohesion andof the accessibility to European programmesto all young people. This is translated practi-cally through several measures, includingadded possibilities for financial support. Theobjective includes also a call for the youngpeople (presumably “non-excluded”) to be madeaware of the risks of social exclusion. The samespirit is to be found in EVS: “(...) to facilitateaccess to the programme for all young people”.

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• Equal participation of men and womenBoth programmes stress the importance of safe-guarding, pursuing and raising awareness ofequality between men and women. The Youthfor Europe programme talks also of encou-raging women’s participation: “making youngpeople sensitive to the need to ensure equalopportunities for men and women and toencourage women to lead an active life in allsectors of society.” In the European VoluntaryService, this appears also as a general conditionunder which the programme is run: “(...) It isintended [EVS programme], while respectingequal opportunities for men and women, toencourage mobility and solidarity (...)”, itself areflection of general policy principles of theEuropean Union as it can be read in the pre-ambles of the decisions.

• Independence, initiative and creativity“Encouraging independence, creativity and anentrepreneurial spirit among young people,in particular at the social, civic, cultural andenvironmental levels” is one of the objectivesof the Youth for Europe programme, in itsconcerns with the need to boost the employ-ability of young people. In this sense, EVSgoes further: “encourage a spirit of initiative,creativity and solidarity among young peo-ple so as to enable them to become activelyintegrated into society (...)”. These values gobeyond the social and political into educa-tional and training objectives: the involvementin a European project, mostly through a stayabroad, opens young people’s mind and devel-ops their autonomy, independence and cre-ativity. The role of non-formal education toachieve this seems to be further acknowledgedin the new Youth programme.

• Intercultural learningIntercultural learning is a theme that can befound throughout the whole of the youthprogramme, either as an objective, as a con-dition or as a need. In the Youth for Europeprogramme, intercultural learning is both partof the social objectives (solidarity, humanrights, awareness of cultural diversity) and ofthe educational objectives too (see applica-tion and report forms, or the guide for appli-cants).Intercultural learning should also be consi-dered together with the other aspects of theEuropean dimension and openness to thirdcountries (including that of young people ofimmigrant origin getting to know their originalculture).

Finally, values related to intercultural learningcan be found in the renewed objectives forpromoting the respect for “cultural diversityand its fundamental common values” with-in the context of “responsible citizenship”.

• Recognition and promotion of informaleducation

The role of informal education in pursuingsocial and educational objectives is visiblethroughout the existing youth programmes,not least because they are programmes withan educational purpose outside formal edu-cation.Informal education is also placed in the con-text of pursuing life-long learning and trai-ning, for which it has “a fundamental role toplay to enhance employability, adaptabilityand the culture of entrepreneurship and topromote equal opportunities.”1 Similarly, thenew programme aims also “To stimulate recog-nition of informal education acquired withina European context”.

At the level of the Council of Europe

The main values and orientations of the Councilof Europe youth policy were formally adoptedby its Committee of Ministers in Resolution(98) 6 of 16 April 1998, themselves the poli-tical affirmation of the priorities and practicesof the Council’s Youth Directorate.

• Help young people to meet challengesand their own aspirations

Youth policy is placed under the priority andperspectives of the young people themselves,rather than the institutions’, in the spirit ofdisseminating the values of peace, freedomand solidarity.

• Particular attention to disadvantagedyoung people

In view of “contributing to social cohesion,especially by combatting exclusion”, the spe-cial concern for disadvantaged young peopleis a guiding principle of the objectives of theyouth policy of the Council of Europe.

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1 Common Position (EC) No 22/1999 of the Council ofMinisters adopted on 28 June 1999 with a view to adop-ting a decision establishing the “Youth” Community actionprogramme (Official Journal, 22/07/99).

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• Participation and strengthening of civilsociety

The development and strengthening of civilsociety appears natural in an organisation con-cerned in the first place with advancing humanrights and democracy. Young people’s partici-pation and involvement in the decisions thatconcern them has also been one of the pillarsof the Council’s youth field since its creation,namely through the development of so calledco-management between governmental bodiesand youth organisations. This objective, amongothers, is to be pursued by the promotion of“training for democratic citizenship.”

• Youth mobilityThe importance of youth mobility for theCouncil of Europe should also be read inthe light of the pan-continental dimension ofthe organisation and the numerous obstaclesstill existing to the mobility of young peoplebetween the Eastern and Western parts ofEurope.

• Intercultural dialogueResolution (98) 6 talks of intercultural dialogueas one of the priorities of the Council of Europe’spolicy “in a spirit of respect for diversity”. TheEuropean Youth Centres (EYCs) and EuropeanYouth Foundation (EYF) have had a key rolein deepening and disseminating interculturallearning in non-formal education activities.Intercultural learning has impregnated all thetraining and education activities of the Councilof Europe in the youth field, including co-opera-tion with the Union in this field. The referenceto intercultural dialogue is also an encourage-ment to further co-operation and understand-ing of trans-national and European co-operationwithin each society, namely through safeguar-ding and advancing minority rights.

• Commitment to human rightsand democracy

In view of what has been said above concer-ning intercultural dialogue, priority is also givento “combatting of racism, xenophobia, anti-Semitism, intolerance” as well as “all movementsaiming to undermine democracy”. The con-solidation of democracy and human rights isalso explicitly mentioned as a key priority, bythe development of young people’s awarenessand commitment.

• Encouragement of new forms of youthparticipation

Possibly more inward-looking than the othervalues and priorities mentioned earlier, new

forms of youth participation is neverthelessan important priority in the sense that it reflectsthe ever-changing nature of young people andthe need for regular adjustments of youth policyand programmes, including also Europeanyouth projects.

• Training for responsibilityIn accordance with the role of “training fordemocratic citizenship” and the role of non-formal education, the Council of Europe putsa priority on “training young people to assumeresponsibilities”. This can be understood asacknowledging the specific role of civil soci-ety and the “school for democracy” whichnon-governmental organisations, and particu-larly youth organisations, represent.

• Development of youth policiesResolution (98) 6 lists several objectives andpriorities related to the development andrecognition of youth policy in as far as it canhelp “make more of the potential offered byyoung people”, an important statement whenapplied to managing youth projects. Underyouth policy development, mention is madeof the development of suitable legislationand structures, exchange of information andgood practices, etc. This is also an admissionof the fact that the development of a Councilof Europe youth policy can not be pursuedwithout the development of national youthpolicies.Although apparently more formal than theprevious values, the form and structures inyouth policy are likely to influence signifi-cantly the form and role of youth projects ina given country. The definition of priorities,the funding institutions, the decision-makingprocess on youth projects, to name just a fewelements, reflect the differences in nationalyouth policy priorities and structures.

These values in our projects

For our purpose and for the running of Europeanyouth projects, it is not necessary to know allthese values and principles. It is not neces-sary either to respect them all in one project.However, it is of fundamental importance:

To know the values according to which werun our projects.These, as we shall see, must be determinedby the target group of young people involved,by the organisation or institution carrying or

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promoting the project, and by ourselves asindividuals or teams acting as project leaders.Finally, to be financially feasible, they mustbe compatible with some of the values orpriorities of the European institutions – orother sponsors.The key values of each of these partners neednot be the same. They should, however, becompatible. And for that, it is important forthe project leadership to be aware of them,and at least identify and discuss them impli-citly or explicitly. This way, whenever keychoices or priorities need to be decided theleadership has a solid and shared moral orpolitical basis to inform their decisions.

In the case of European projects, to be clearabout the reasons for engaging in Europeancooperation.Europe is more than the possibility to get fund-ing for an exchange project or for a trip abroad.For young people, the value and impact of anexperience abroad can be very important. Itis thus crucial that the project leadership isclear about what drives them so that youngpeople also benefit from the experience – notto say that the objectives of European institu-tions should be embraced as a new religionor as an imposed programme element

To be able to stay in controlPossibly the most important skill and attitudeof the project leadership is to be able to stayin control of the project, to steer the projectinstead of being steered by events and bythird parties. To do so, it is necessary to haveclear priorities, objectives and also key valuesand principles, including those having a par-ticular impact on the educational process.

To be aware of limitsA project can be a very unique and enrichingexperience, but a project is just a project, justlike a person is just a person. Both have limitsin terms of objectives, scope, time, etc. A pro-ject alone can not change society. But it maycontribute to addressing or solving a particu-lar issue or problem. Working by projects isto prioritise and to exclude that which is nota priority. Establishing priorities implies estab-lishing criteria according to... values, objectivesor needs. Being aware of the limits is also impor-tant in order to give adequate value to changesand to results – not everything can be changedat once; not everything can be solved througheducation

• To get adequate training or preparationWe have seen in the previous chapter howimportant the non-formal training of youngpeople has become to the European institu-tions and the European youth programmes. Ifwe talk of something as common – and cru-cially important as intercultural learning orparticipation, it is not realistic to expect thatevery youth worker or leader will automati-cally be competent in those areas if they arenot adequately trained. The organisation ofand participation in adequate training activi-ties may thus be very important, not only forthe success of the project but also for theachievement of its educational objectives.

To be able to translate and to adapt thosevalues to young peopleThe role of the youth worker, leader or edu-cator (who may be different from the projectmanager) will be to adapt and to translate thosevalues and educational principles into a pro-gramme suitable to the young people. It is alsoto be able to understand and communicate withyoung people in order to understand theirvalues and to incorporate them into the pro-ject and its methodology.

1.7 The limitsof project-orientedpolicies

Projects also have limits

The project is first and foremost a tool for socialchange, or at least that is the way that we

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THE YOUNGPEOPLE

OBJECTIVES

ORGANISATION LEADERSHIPValues

andPrinciples

would like to see it understood in youth andsocial work. Projects are rarely an end in them-selves, they are just a different way to plan,organise, mobilise and achieve. Of course, theirpotential for optimising resources and invol-ving people makes them perhaps an exceptio-nally well suited tool, particularly for Europeanyouth programmes. However, on top of theadvantages of project management listed above,we should also be able to identify and be awareof its risks and limitations.

Increased control and vulnerability

Reduced support for programmes and organisa-tions to the benefit of projects makes the orga-nisations more vulnerable to funding for specificprojects – which often have restrictive or spe-cific objectives and form. It is also easier tocontrol the organisation’s development bythe number and size of projects supported.Limiting support for project may prevent thedevelopment of programmes and, in anycase, limit the possibilities of expansion of anorganisation. As many projects are decidedon a regular basis (annually or bi-annually)the independence and freedom of movementof the organisation may be constrained as defacto the sponsors (often public institutions)have more ways of control, possibly underthe disguise of equality or quality of the pro-jects. Finally, the emphasis on projects allowsgovernments to easily shape the scope ofactivities by NGOs, by deciding what is fund-able and what is not. An alternative could beto start from the youth organisations’ needsand perspectives.

Short-term perspectivesof youth policy and programmes

While we all agree that it is important foryouth work institutions to remain in tune withyoung people – and thus be able to act andreact by permanent adaptation – the empha-sis on projects as tools for policies should nothinder medium and long-term policy goals.Pursuing deeper and on-going changes insociety can not be done only through short-term projects. Many projects are, unfortu-nately, run under the pressure of: involvingmany people (visible, presentable, big num-bers) and involving different young people allthe time (avoidance of cliques, demonstrateopenness, etc.), which does prevent – or at least

makes difficult – a medium-term approach towork with some groups of young people. Initself, this approach is partly the cause of thedisengagement of young people – a phenom-enon that it is also a consequence of.

Many and small projects

The general development of youth policy atEuropean level has also meant that the stateshave new or at least different possibilities toinfluence young people and youth partners,not always driven by noble principles alone.The search for media attention and “marketableresults” is sometimes translated into a prefe-rence for quantity over quality. There are manyexamples of projects getting insufficient fund-ing or coverage to be run with a minimum ofquality, but enough to create “clientele” effectsor to allow the politician in charge to presentlarge figures to the press before the next elec-tions.

Extra pressure on youth workers

The past years have seen increased pressurebeing put on professional youth workers todevelop and to manage projects. In some casesthis has gone as far as “transforming” the wholeassignments into projects (with certain posi-tive results as well), but even when it has notgone this far, youth workers may be put underpressure to “think differently and do diffe-rently”. Youth workers are asked to be pro-ject managers, administrators and fundraisingexperts. Notwithstanding the often necessaryreasons for that, the fact is that youth wor-kers are increasingly given responsibilities forwhich they are not necessarily competent. Ofcourse the professional “market” value of youthworkers will come out increased, but there isa risk that this is done at the expense of acloser relationship to young people, and of thestability and security which are traditionallylow in this area of work. The risks of demoti-vation and disengagement should thus notbe underestimated. Part of the impact of suchpolicies may also be visible in the progressivenumbers of youth workers that are “requested”to work on a consultancy or freelance basis.

True projects with false needs

The priority given to project support as a formof youth policy may have the perverse effect

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of generating unnecessary projects or rather,projects whose needs are not obvious. Thismay be especially true when organisations relyon project money to survive or to keep someessential services or posts that would not bepossible otherwise. Although the project qua-lity might not be at stake, there may be anartificial priority for the projects – sometimesvisible in organisations that are involved inall kinds of projects.

Same but not equal

The democracy of support through projects –by putting emphasis on each project’s qualityand less on the status of the project carrier(although probably that always plays a role,at least in terms of previous records) – may insome cases lead to a similar treatment of verydifferent realities. The conditions for carryingout a project successfully depend on manyaspects: previous experience, dimension andfunding of the organisation, its structural capa-city to manage delays in payments, its capacityto generate internal synergies and mobilisedifferent levels of expertise, etc. This is oftenhighlighted by the growing tendency to requestorganisations to fundraise or find matchingfunds for substantial parts of the budget. It isclear that some organisations are better sui-ted to this than others (including being able toformally fit into criteria), the latter having torun a project on a very high risk and questio-nable quality or be forced to drop the project.It would be interesting, for example, to researchthe number of small organisations which werefinancially “burned” in Youth for Europe actionD projects, to name only one of the most wellknown cases. This is where the principle ofequality may clash with the proclaimed valueof accessibility of (European) youth pro-grammes to all young people. ParaphrasingOrwell “All projects are equal but some maybe more equal than others”.

Distortions in youth policyand project management

Of course all the risks – some very real – ofyouth policies based on project managementare, at the end of the day, distortions either inproject management or simply distortions inthe definition and steering of youth policiesand programmes. They are not intrinsic toproject management and can be prevented orcorrected.

It is also true that other ways of developingyouth policies and supporting youth pro-grammes have similar risks, sometimes on agreater scale, while presenting less advan-tages compared with project management.

It should also be argued that the implementa-tion of youth policies and programmes requiresprofessionals who are aware of their role, powerand influence, and who need to be adequatelytrained and monitored.

It remains true that projects and programmesare the reflection of political values and prior-ities and that these include, in many countries,the possibility for the decision-maker or politi-cian to influence projects and to have a sayon the allocation of public resources (namelythrough projects). Projects are always, at theend of the day, an expression of a policy which,in a representative democracy, always includesstriking a balance between different vestedinterests.

It is thus important to recall what has been saidearlier: project management is essentially atool with many functions and attributes. Whatyouth policy makers and practitioners makeof it depends on their capacities and skills, ontheir values and on their interests, and ontheir capacity to learn.

The intercultural dimension of projects

Whether the project to be undertaken is runwithin the framework of the Council of Europeor the European Union programmes or at apurely national level, there is one dimensionthat is becoming increasingly present at alllevels of youth work, and that is interculturallearning.

Intercultural learning has become over theyears a criterion and a dimension that hasacquired growing importance. It is found aspart of the objectives of programmes, the pri-orities of youth policies, concrete objectivesof projects and also as a methodology. It canbe found in many books, in the legal textsabout youth policies in Europe, in the appli-cation forms and report forms for projects. Itcan also be found in the programme of activ-ities of many youth projects.

We have already seen the extent to which it isa value, priority and a methodology in the pro-grammes of the Council of Europe and of the

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European Union. We have also explored brieflyits double role in promoting a better under-standing of the differences between countriesand within the same country (e.g. between themajority and minorities, immigrants, etc.).

Intercultural learning as such is the object ofanother training kit being produced in thisseries. We shall thus refrain from expanding ona theme that is developed elsewhere and aboutwhich there is an extensive methodological, prac-tical and theoretical literature. At this stagewe would like to draw attention to the inter-cultural interferences that are likely to occurin the management of a project, whether theyresult from European partnerships or frominvolving several cultures in a project “athome”.

1.8 Culture and projectmanagament

The “cultural interference” may be more orless perceptible – or blamed for difficulties –depending also on the level of acquaintanceof the people with the theme. But intercultu-ral learning and the curiosity about the xenosabroad or at home, are also responsible for alot of the excitement and motivation to run aproject or to participate in one. One of thechallenges with intercultural learning is thatit is never easy to say for sure what in one’sattitude is related to culture or to personality.Similarly, running an intercultural project oftenimplies working in at least one other foreignlanguage – hence increasing communicationhazards – and certainly experiencing misun-derstandings which will be attributed eitherto language or communication difficulties orto cultural difference. The distinction is per-haps unclear because language is also part ofculture, but the tendency to ethnicise andgeneralise individual experiences and beha-viors – by associating them with stereotypedcultural characteristics is very strong and per-haps the first step into cultural awareness.

A lot of research has been put into the influ-ences of culture on different management stylesand practices but not necessarily lead to def-inite conclusions, although highlighting certainexisting relationships, along the lines of “Yo

no creo en las brujas, pero que las hay, lashay”2. Cultural difference seems to be respon-sible for many funny and less funny situa-tions occurring in multicultural projects. Whilenot attempting to be innovative, nor evencomplete, we would still like to mentionsome of the areas where conflicts, confusion,frustration or excitement are likely to occur inrelation to project management.

Culture and power

All cultures are equal in value, but we do notalways perceive it that way. We tend to establishhierarchies between cultures, usually startingfrom our own (“better or worse”, more or less“developed”, “stronger or weaker”, etc.).

Planning and managing projects involves alwaysa more or less explicit negotiation and harmo-nisation of different but usually compatibleinterests. The perception of oneself and theperception of the other influence the way inwhich the partners will negotiate and find solu-tions to their challenges.

Who takes the initiative for the project? Whosets the limits? Who defines the priorities?Who decides what is suitable and what is notsuitable? Who is “visiting” whom and who is“at home”? Who “owns” the project?

These are just some of the questions that arelikely to interfere with a smooth negotiationand implementation of the project and whereculture will play a role.

Culture and organisation

Who is well organised in Europe and who ispoorly organised? Who defines what a goodorganisation is? What are the criteria for goodand efficient organisation?

The criteria for efficiency and for organisa-tion – and the project is a master example oforganising an effort or an intention – are oftenassumed to be universal. Yet, they are taught,practiced and evaluated in sometimes radi-cally different ways. A step by step approachwill be ideal for some, while others will feelcomfortable in advancing several steps at the

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2 “I do not believe in witches, but they surely exist.” Thesentence is attributed to Federico García Llorca.

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same time. The role of improvisation – whichin different circumstances would sometimesbe called creativity – is one of the most con-flictual ones; in fact it is the meeting (or not)of expectations and confrontation of ways ofdoing that is often at stake.

Culture and time

Similarly, who is well organised is the ques-tion of who is on time. Time management isoften a euphemism to designate punctuality.We all know who in Europe has the reputationfor being punctual, never punctual and eventoo punctual. Respect is a word that jumpsout very quickly in these moments, drivingthe feelings and discussions to the emotionallevel very quickly. Yes, one hour is composedof sixty minutes, everyone agrees, but the lo-gical consequences of that are understood verydifferently.

The interference and interactionof different factors influencing the processof intercultural cooperation may make the

process of understanding it – and managingit successfully – more difficult.

Culture and communication

Communication is itself a source of conflict,especially in situations of conflict or tension.What to communicate, how to communicate itand when? What is important to tell a partnerand what should be left implicit? What isthe level of commitment to a communication

process and what is the role of communica-tion for the sake of... communication? Why dopartnerships that seem to start so well, carriedout by the best of friends in a training courseor study visit, sometimes get stuck because oflack of communication? How far is it possibleto attempt to understand another culture?

Culture and money

Economic power and capacity – real andassumed – have a strong influence in the qua-lity and nature of intercultural relations, as wesaw above with power. But besides the obviousinfluence of money on power and its implica-tion in very practical issues (who applies formoney where, who supports whom, whodecides where and how to spend the money),the relation and attitude to money can varysignificantly and be understood as an elementof cultural differentiation, as well as a sourceof conflict.

Along the same line is the attitude towardspublic grants, including European money: whatis good practice and wise management, whatis opportunism or mismanagement, what is“cheating” and what is wise or clever accoun-ting? How seriously are financial rules takeninto account and how well are books kept? Aninteresting aspect is of course the fact that inEuropean programmes the rules apply to every-one in the same way, and the procedures tendto be similar for everyone (even though this hassomewhat changed as a result of decentralisa-tion of programmes such as Youth for Europe).

Culture and youth work ethics

Professional ethics and principles are also ano-ther easy ground for astonishment and conflictamong colleagues and partners, and one thatmost often remains unspoken. As usual, thedifferences are noticed when they have alreadymade a negative impression.

Who is to take the involvement of participants“seriously”? What is the role and behaviour ofthe youth leader and youth worker towardsthe young people? Is it acceptable to drinkalcohol? Who is to exercise responsibility andto act in a responsible way? To what extent doyouth workers know the restrictions and obli-gations imposed on their collegaues abroad?Who is a good and modern youth worker andwho is not?

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1.9 What to do?

As explained above, our intention in this briefchapter is to outline some of the challenges thatcarriers and managers of youth projects arelikely to meet when venturing into internatio-nal co-operation. The principles and methods ofdeveloping intercultural learning with youngpeople in a youth exchange are covered byanother publication. Also, chapter 3 providesadvice on working in multicultural teams.

Still, in view of the challenges outlined above,it is useful to take into account some basicprinciples or ground rules for intercultural co-operation.

Accept insecurity and ambiguity

It is normal that a relative uncertainty or con-fusion of norms exists. Bear in mind that yourpartners may be feeling the same way. Nomatter how hard you try, there will always besurprises and events you may only compre-hend later.

It could be culture...

... or not! Try to refrain from interpreting theattitudes of others according to the stereotypesthat you have learned and acquired about peo-ple from the same nationality or background.In particular, try to manage the tendencyto look for confirmation of the stereotypes.Probably your partner is really acting accor-ding to the stereotypes! But it is also possiblethat it is not the case. Remember: stereotypesare usually a very partial and very simplifiedimage of reality. So far as possible, try to under-stand the behaviour of your partner as theyare. Let them make the connections to theirculture, instead of you. They may be in a bet-ter position to know and they probably willnot feel offended, or will not feel the urge todefend themselves if it comes from them.As a way of preparing yourself and your col-leagues, try to read something about the coun-try or culture you are going to be in contactwith, if possible by someone from that cul-ture. It may help. Before going, take time to

think – maybe together with the young peo-ple and/or with your colleagues – of the pre-judices that you may have received or heardabout those people. Recalling them may helpyou and your friends to realise that they areprejudices, even though you may always findpeople who can make the prejudice seemright (if you try hard enough, you will!).

Put yourself in the otherperson’s shoes... or skin!

A rather daring recommendation, we agree.But whether you are visiting or being visited,try to imagine how you would feel if you werein the other person’s position (e.g. with a li-mited understanding of the language, probablyinsecure and feeling uncomfortable about thefood or the weather, anxious about the deve-lopment of the project, dependant on otherpeople, etc.). This attempt at empathy may helpunderstand how the other is feeling and maketheir attitudes more understandable.

Be clear about your limits andthe conditions you are subject to...

You are in a better position to negotiate – andto be understood in your requests – if youknow for yourself the conditions – or the results– that are essential for your project and yourorganisation. Similarly, if you know what yourprinciples or values are you may explain themand their raison d’être better. Usually peopleare sensitive and experienced enough to respectand help you meet conditions that may havebeen imposed upon you, if you explain them.This also requires from you some effort to dis-tinguish what is really important from what isan accessory or, what is related simply to yourway of doing things (remember: there are alwaysalternatives!).

... and remind yourself that what youwant to say will probably never beunderstood in the way you meant it.

We tend to forget that it is nearly a miracle thatwe manage to understand each other acrossborders. When there is a common languagethe illusion that we understand each other ismuch bigger, and the illusion may be greaterif one of the partners happens to use their

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mother tongue. Remember: only you knowwhat you actually mean! We can expect thatour partners hear and understand exactly thatmost of the time, but be ready for it not to bethat way. And even when you understand andare understood, the practical consequences ofthat are very different (people have differentways of interpreting things and doing things).

There is more than one wayof doing things!

There are always different ways to pursue thesame objectives, just as there is not one methodfor doing things. Of course, “our” way is still thebest and most normal (for us), but others willprobably disagree (they also have their bestand normal way). Consider your own ethno-centrism when implicitly or explictly evalua-ting other peoples attitudes and work

Discuss/negotiate ground rules...and evaluate them

Especially if you have had previous experienceswith intercultural projects, it may prove use-ful to discuss and possibly agree among thepartners on basic ground rules for communi-cation or for dealing with the programme orthe young people. The actual rules definedmay actually not be very important, but thediscussion provides a golden opportunity tobring into the open possible different approa-ches and sensitivities to certain issues. The exis-tence of some rules also provides an opportu-nity to address sensitive issues through theevaluation of their implementation, with part-ners and with participants. But one should avoidbecoming a slave of the rules; as suggested,the rules are a medium – for communicationand negotiation – and not just a set of normsto be applied blindly.

Trust!

Especially when engaging in international orEuropean co-operation projects, a high degreeof trust and confidence between the partnersis essential. This must be differentiated fromcandid or romantic attitudes of naïvety: onealso has to have a minimum of assertivenessto understand what might go wrong and todiscuss it with the partners and colleagues. But

the richness of the experience, and the rich-ness of culture, is based on the impossibilityto predict everything. So, some trust in thepartners, in the young people, ought alwaysto be there. Without this trust and the corres-ponding recognition of equality of dignity(and of cultural competence) the risk is thatthe attitudes reflect the biases and insecuri-ties there at the start and that the spiral ofself-fulfilling prophecies is engaged. When indoubt, do consider that hospitality is one ofthe most commonly spread and importantvalues of human communities (Europe inclu-ded!); therefore the chances that your hostsare doing their best and that your guestsunderstand your efforts are very high.

Tolerance!...

In the absence of a better expression, we haveto use tolerance to mean the need to some-times accept things as they come. See first, tryto understand, and only after react. Not every-thing is foreseeable and, on the other hand, itis legtimate to expect that partners are doingtheir best. Even when that best is not goodenough for our own standards. As a friend ofours put it 3, tolerance only makes sense if itis painful, if it is hard – otherwise, what’s thevalue in being tolerant? Intercultural learningis a very rewarding process and experience, butit can also be hard.

... and frankness.

Intercultural learning has to be based on theability of those participating in the process toanalyse it and to discuss it, including the con-flictual issues, in a meta-communication orevaluation process. Apart from the obviouslearning process that this entails, this con-frontation of feelings and experiences is ne-cessary to clarify the atmosphere and to get ridof mutual frustrations and resentments thatmay have accumulated. Without moments likethis, very common in conflict managementsituations, there are chances that the co-opera-tion will not continue or that the assumptionsand misunderstandings will prevail in thefuture.

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3 BERGERET, Jean-Marie, quoted in “Navigare Necesse est”.

Get the best out of it!

Despite everything that has been said, inter-cultural learning is a lot of fun! Although it canand must also be pursued at home – wheremulticultural settings also exist and are pro-bably as interesting as any group of youngpeople abroad – the fact is that both for theyoung people and for the youth worker veryfew things can replace the excitment of tra-velling and being faced with difference, novel-ty, sometimes the exotic, and in some waysthe feeling of being a foreigner, a visitor or atourist (anonymous, free, etc). So instead offacing it as a headache or as a problem, changeattitude and take it with ease and with fun!Not everything can be settled in advance and,frankly, it is sometimes the small incidentsthat make the experience a memorable one,for leaders and for project participants alike.

Get trained!

One thing that is very true regarding intercul-tural learning experiences is that, especiallywhen abroad, youth workers often go throughthe same experience as the participants. Butyouth workers and project managers in par-ticular also have the possibility of being trainedfor it. In fact one of the main objectives of theEuropean youth programmes and policies is toprovide training on intercultural learning toyouth workers and to young people in gene-ral. The knowledge, skills and attitudes forintercultural work can be learnt, developedand improved. In order to get the best out ofour efforts – because no-one is born know-ing everything – and in order to make betterprojects.So remember, a European Youth project is morethan just a successful application form…

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Project management has become the corner-stone of youth organisations developmentbut not the only way to run and manage anorganisation or institution! It is one of thetools for organising tasks and pursuing con-crete objectives and can be compared withand distinguished from:

• Strategic planning: longer term orienta-tion and definition of policies, activitiesand organisational development. Impliesa capacity to foresee and to prepare forstructural change or adaptations over arelatively large period of time. Strategicplanning usually affects or takes intoaccount structural and infra-structuralchanges (or triggers them).

• Tactical planning: very similar to projectplanning, tactical planning refers to thevarious steps and processes to reach strate-gic planning goals or, generally, to steerthe organisation with a shorter periodof time, namely by adapting and reac-ting to unforeseen changes or progress.

• Cyclical or recurrent planning: manag-ing and dealing with regular events orforeseeable in a regular basis (e.g. acti-vities during the holiday period, GeneralAssemblies, etc.)

• Daily planning: dealing with actions thatneed to be done immediately or in a veryshort time frame.

• Contingency planning: measures andactions taken or foreseen to respond tounforeseen situations, if and when theyoccur.

• MBO – Management By Objectives: anapproach to management of tasks andteams consisting in focussing on objec-tives to be reached, often leaving roomfor the teams to decide on the best wayto achieve them (but sometimes leavingalso too little room for flexibility andadaptation!). It is referred to in contextsof a relatively high degree of autonomyof employees, workers or volunteers and

it is supposed to stimulate their creati-vity, commitment and productivity (it isassumed that the objectives are agreedtogether). It refers more to a style orapproach in management.

• MBWA: an abbreviation created by ScottAdams, creator of the Dilbert comic stripabout management and business non-sense. MBWA stands for Management byWalking Around until something even-tually happens. It stands as the proba-ble antithesis of management, becausethe latter implies some kind of action orat least planning...

• Crisis management: concerns dealingwith one crisis after another which, asMBWA, is not exactly a very efficient wayof management. Management should ulti-mately allow those in charge to antici-pate and prevent crises. Crises managementtends to lose a medium or short-termperspective and, therefore, influence onthe course of events. In a more positivesense, crises management refers also toa way of dealing with exceptional andunusual crises or catastrophes.

2.2 A youthwork project is …

The Oxford English Dictionary defines “project”as “An individual or collaborative enterprisethat is carefully planned and designed toachieve a particular aim: [e.g.] a research project/a nationwide project to encourage businessdevelopment”.

Youth workers who are asked this question atthe beginning of project management trainingcourses come up with a broad range of answers.Here are some of them:

• “promoting an idea, structuring a seriesof ideas, reconciling various action pro-posals”;

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2.1 Project management is not …

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• “envisaging, planning and defining acourse of action one wishes to pursueto achieve a specific future situation”;

• “describing, at a specific time and in aspecific situation, the processes of changeone needs to initiate to create a new si-tuation at a definite time in the future”;

• “a process which involves setting up acomprehensive scheme, which takesaccount of the various aspects of onesituation, for the purpose of arriving atanother”;

• “a dream, a process, an instrument whichone can use to project oneself into thefuture, to set oneself goals and objectives”;

• “drawing on the present to envisage thefuture (tomorrow). A destination workedout together.”

Origins and meaning of the word:

The word “project” was first used in or aroundthe sixteenth century and derives from theLatin projicere (= throw forward). The Latinroot thus suggests movement, a trajectory, acertain relationship with space and time. Theimplied process involves:

• a point of departure …

• used as a base, from which …

• one throws oneself forward …

• towards a goal.

Historically, the word and concept were firstused by architects. In the fifteenth century,Filippo Brunelleschi made two innovations inthe architectural practice of his time:

• work on Florence Cathedral had beeninterrupted in the fourteenth century,and Brunelleschi was given the task ofcompleting it by adding a dome. Beforestarting, he produced a drawing (progettoor plan) of the dome, using various pers-pectives to provide a geometrical re-presentation of the future structure, ashe envisaged it; through the interplayof these perspectives, the dome itselfwas supposed to say something aboutthe city’s historical and political context.

Florence aspired to be a city open to theworld, and so the dome comprised twoshells, one external, one internal.

• Brunelleschi rationalised architecture andgave it a new temporal perspective – anapproach which made it possible to se-parate planning and performance, projectand implementation.

His example suggests that we should rethinkthe term “project” and see it as a concept whichserves to organise action.

Projects in education and youth work:

It was the American thinker, John Dewey(1859-1952), author of the famous “learning bydoing” theory, who did most to develop theconcept of projects in education.

For him, a project has four prerequisites:

• a communal reflection process, whichshapes its growth and development;

• observation of the conditions in the envi-ronment where it is devised;

• knowledge of what has happened in si-milar situations in the past;

• an approach which synthesises observa-tion of the present and knowledge of thepast and so identifies their meaning.

From all of this, we should note that a project:

• is a method which enables us to movefrom idea to action, structuring the va-rious stages in that process;

• sets out to alter the (social) environmentin which it is to take place;

• takes shape in a certain social, spatial andtemporal context;

• has an educational dimension and enablespeople to learn by experiment;

• is the product of collective activity;

• necessarily involves evaluation, whichestablishes a link between idea andaction.

This means that projects have various typicalfeatures.

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Characteristics of projects

Projects have a purpose: projects have clearly-defined aims and set out to produceclearly-defined results. Their purpose is to solve a “problem”, and this involves analysingneeds beforehand. Suggesting one or more solutions, it aims at lasting social change.

Projects are realistic: their aims must be achievable, and this means takingaccount both of requirements and of the financial and human resourcesavailable.

Projects are limited in time and space: they have a beginning and an end,and are implemented in a specific place and context.

Projects are complex: projects call on various planning and implementation skills, andinvolve various partners and players.

Projects are collective: projects are the product of collective endeavour. They are run byteams, involve various partners and cater for the needs of others.

Projects are unique: all projects stem from new ideas. They provide a specific responseto a need (problem) in a specific context. They are innovative.

Projects are an adventure: every project is different and ground-breaking; they alwaysinvolve some uncertainty and risk.

Projects can be assessed: projects are planned and broken down into measurable aims,which must be open to evaluation.

Projects are made up of stages: projects have distinct, identifiable stages (see Chapter 3:The project: step by step).

The following, on the other hand, are not pro-jects (in the youth work sense of the term):

• past activities which are repeated in exact-ly the same way on a regular basis;

• activities with no clearly defined goals;

• activities which can be repeated or trans-planted anywhere at any moment;

• ongoing activities.

2.3 Project models

To embark upon a project is to opt for action,for controlled change over time. “A project isnot a dream … but a dream that comes truecan be a project”.

The project method is the frame within whichthe dream can take shape and become rea-lity.

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The chameleon is a really good teacher.

Watch it closely.

Whatever direction it takes, it sticks to it.

Do the same. Have a goal in your life and don’t let anything distract you from it.

The chameleon’s head never moves, but its eyes are moving all the time. They missnothing. That means: find out all you can. Never think you’re the only person in theworld.

Wherever it is, the chameleon adopts the colour of its surroundings. This is not hypocrisy.It means being tolerant and it also means having social skills. Confrontation gets younowhere. Nothing constructive ever comes out of a fight. We must always try to under-stand others. We exist – and we must accept that others do too.

When the chameleon moves, it lifts its feet and hes-itates.

This means walking carefully.

When it moves, it holds on with its tail – if it losesits footing, it can still hang on. It protects its rear. Sodo the same – don’t act rashly.

When the chameleon spots its prey, it does not leapon it, but it uses its tongue. If it can catch it with itstongue, it does. If it can’t, it can always pull in itstongue, and no harm is done. Whatever you do, gocarefully.

If you want to do something that will last, be patient,be good, be human.

There you have it. When you’re in the bush, ask theones who know what the chameleon can teach you.

AMADOU HAMPATÉ BÂ

Learning from the chameleon (Mali)

There are various project models, reflectingdifferent definitions and developments inmethodology over time and in different fieldsof application. Each model is also tailored tocertain factors – context, target-group, available

resources, etc. Nevertheless, all projects fol-low a similar pattern. This section proposesa number of models; we shall try to identifyrecurrent features and use them as a basis forour own project implementation plan.

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Structuring the project along questions to askbefore launching the project

Main issues

Defining aims, objectives,context and target group

Content of the project

Where and when

Practicalities

Funding

Partner

Means of action

Communication

Evaluation and follow-up

Questions to ask before launching the project

In what context will the project take place?What changes will it entail?Why carry out this project?What is the expected result?Who is the project designed for?What are the issues at stake?

What is the theme and content of the project?What is the chosen approach (methodology)?What activities are involved?What is needed for the project to go ahead?

Where will the project be implemented?How long will it last?When does it start/end?

What logistics are required?What practical matters must be dealt with?

What is the overall cost?(planning/ implementation and evaluation),Where will the necessary funding come from?

Who are the partners?What is their role?What are the arrangements for co-ordination?

Does the project qualify for any financial assistance?Can it use existing facilities?(conditions?)

Internal communication: how does informationcirculate within the project team?External communication: does the project needmedia coverage? (Why? How? Which aspects?)

How and when should it be evaluated?Which aspects? Why? What follow-up is planned?

Use questions to identify individual elements of the project and how theyinterrelate. Your answers will give you an overview of the project and let yousee how its constituent parts are linked.

WHO? – FOR WHOM? – WITH WHOM?

– identification of project partners or target groups

– their roles and relationships in the project

– their views on the project

– strengths and weaknesses rooted in these relationships and views

WHAT?

– the main project activities – spontaneous, organised and institutional

– social, economic, cultural, political and educational dimensions

– the project’s impact on these dimensions

WHY?

– needs and wishes satisfied by the project

– motivation and interests of participants

– main objectives of the project

– project funding options

– relationship between participants’ objectives and institutional objectives

WHERE?

– social context of the project and situation of participants

WHEN?

– what period is being focused on (past, present, future)?

– short, medium or long-term?

– background of participants as it affects the project

HOW?

– how was it done? Organisation and participation process

– techniques and instruments used

– input of participants’ experience, theories, other projects, etc

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Structuring the project along “W-questions”(inspired from the Laswell method)

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Analysing

Analysing

Developing ideas Taking action

Choosing Contractualising

Perceiving

Programing

Monitoring Fine-tuning

Defining

Planning

Implementing

Capitalising

Evaluating

AIMS

OBJECTIVES

Environment Target Groups

Organisation

History

Structuring the projectalong the different phases

Spiral model(from Institut National de la Jeunesse et del’Education Populaire (INJEP),. – La crise del’organisation scolaire / Document 48, Guideméthodologique pour la direction de projets.Formation au Diplôme d’Etat de Directeur deprojet d’animation et de développement sousla responsabilité de Annette Coulon, CREPS,Chatenay-Malabry 1991)

Spiral modelSpiral model (from Institut National de la Jeunesse et de l’Education Populaire (INJEP), Elaborationd’un projet d’établisssement – démarche générale en spirale /Document 47 /MAFPEN, Rennes 1988)

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Genesis of the project

Putting it into practice

ImplementationMonitoring

EvaluationReporting

Assessment of a situationWhich can be improvedGathering people

Implementation conditions- resources- limits

Analysis of the situation

Deciding to work togetherProject is still vague

Defining actions- tasks- methods- planning, managing time

Defining an evaluation plan

Formulatingaims and objectives

Diagrammatic representation of project planning stages(from Institut National de la Jeunesse et de l’Education Populaire (INJEP), Méthodologies de projet/ Document 46 – Direction des Lycées et Collèges, 1990)

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Project

ManagementPlanning

ProjectGenesis

ProjectDrafting

FundRaising

ProjectEvaluation

Report

Monitoring

Projectimplementation

Project management - phases(from Leonid Kelim training instruments/Young women from minoritiesand European minorities study session/EYC Budapest December 1999))

Aims of the organisation

EvALUATION

Social and educational aims(linked to the social environment)

Concrete and mesurableObjectives

Activities

Resources

Result

Project phasesand evaluation

(from Rui Gomestraining instruments)

UnderstandingMy Role

Fine-tuning

Analysing Programming

AssigningTasks

Implementation

FormulatingHypotheses

FormulatingObjectives

Developingsolutions

Interpreting

Evaluation

Planning a project on the basisof my role in the process

(from Alain Roy training instruments –Université Marc Bloch/Strasbourg))

Genesisof the idea

Endorsementof the idea

Precisedefinition

of objectives

Acquisitionof resources

Projectmanagement

Evaluationand

development

Technicalimplementationof the project

Receptivenessto youth initiatives(rural environment,disadvantaged neighbourhoods)Reports from voluntary advisers(approach, experience, contacts)

Initial contact: – listening and helping to formulate the project– referral to voluntary adviser

– Documentation,– Meeting with resource persons– Market survey– Initial summary of the project

Precise definition of objectivesDefinition of human resources,necessary skills,financial resourcesand communication strategyDrafting the scheduleDrafting of the presentationdossier

Acquisition of skills Choice of appropriate legaland tax statusAcquisition of financialresources Acquisition of technicalresources

Identification of humanand technical obstacles Adjustements, re-schedulingand revision of objectives Internal and externalcommunication Management and accounting

Feed-back to partnersEvaluation dossierNew examplesof co-operation

Transmission ofexperience acquired By a voluntary adviser(advice, criticism, contacts)

Information on appropriatefinancial options Guidance towards appropriateadvisory institutions and bodiesAssistance with the formatof the presentation dossierProvision of technicalequipment(PC, fax, internet)

Youth enterprise workshopRound tables onspecific themes (business start-up,humanitarian projects,cultural undertakings,publishing…)+involvement of volunary advisers.

Assistance withthe promotionof young entrepreneurs

Facilitating contactswith other project leaders

Voluntary adviserOf the initiative network

Experienced projectleaders

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Phases in setting up a project(model produced by the “Initiatives de la région Midi-Pyrénées”

network (France) for a training course for youth project monitors)

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The above models have been used as traininginstruments for future project leaders in a vari-ety of contexts – amenities projects, youth workprojects and school projects. Some are moredetailed and complex than others, and termi-nology may differ, but in general they have thesame structure, and each comprises the follow-ing stages:

1) “Genesis of the project” and definition”:• definition and background, environment, • organisation, aims of the organisation,• target groups• perception – analysis, assessment of the

situation, social aims• project gestation, genesis and endorse-

ment of the idea• developing, choosing,defining aims and

objectives,• formulating practical and measurable

objectives, formulating activities, evalu-ating the resources, formulating actions,planning

• evaluation plan.

2) “Implementation”:• carrying out, implementation, • planning, assigning tasks, taking action,

• management, monitoring, regulating,fine-tuning,

• management of resources

3) “Evaluation”:• evaluation, • analysis-evaluation• assessing the results• capitalisation-evaluation, • reporting • development prospects.

The dividing lines between the various stagesare not absolute, and may vary in practice,depending on type of project, context, targetgroup, etc.

Managing a project means conducting it fromthe initial idea to final completion, adaptingto reality, managing resources and peoplethroughout the different project phases. Thisis not an easy process requiring concentrationand a certain amount of endurance through-out the life of the project … see the graphicbelow!

Source: from Els van Mourik and Danny Hearty Knowing me knowing you: an intercultural training resource pack, Léargas, 1999

3.1.1 About management

Management is defined, in simple terms as theskill or practice of controlling, directing orplanning something; “The act of directing, ormanaging for a purpose”. In other words, it isthe effort of planning, organising and mobi-lising people and resources for a given pur-pose. In the case of project management, weare talking about the capacities and skills thatmake the project feasible and real.

Project management is a tool for better workto bring about change, especially in voluntaryorganisations and youth associations. The shiftof accent from political education to traininghas been accompanied by a proliferation ofoffers and requests for training around manage-ment: time management, project management,organisational management, team management,conflict management, financial management,etc. The growing symbiosis between the busi-ness and the non-governmental and non-profitoriented sectors of the last decade has indeedput pressure on NGOs to be performing, effi-cient and professionally managed. Similarly,business management has “imported” wordsand concepts that have first appeared in thethird sector, the most obvious being ‘empower-ment’. This should not mislead us into thin-king that the two sectors are using these terms

for the same things. Even if the vocabularyseems to be the same, the meaning and impli-cations are often very different.

This is not to say that NGOs must not be effi-ciently and professionally managed. Theyshould, and not least because they often usepublic money which should be optimised.There are indeed many areas in NGO manage-ment which require the same and sometimeshigher level of specialisation and expertisethan in the business field. However, when wespeak about training and preparing projectmanagers, we are talking about more thantechnical management skills. Remember, theproject is first of all to carry out change, to makea difference. And this implies project leader-ship that is able to lead and follow accordingto what is most pertinent in the light of theproject needs.In youth and social work, the project manageris responsible for managing the material andhuman resources and for leading the projectto the expected result.

Project managers are centipedes - they haveto be good team workers, good communicators,good time-mangers, good fund raisers, goodmotivators, negotiators … But first of all theyhave to remain human beings.

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A project manager must be:

• An organiser, with capacity to understand, plan and co-ordinate efforts and resources tomeet the objectives

• A strategist, able to set clear long and short-term objectives, keeping these in mind togeth-er with the reasons for the project’s existence

• A motivator, with skills and attitudes enabling him/her to motivate and commit people tothe project or to participate in it (workers, volunteers, young people)

• A fund-raiser, with knowledge and confidence to apply for funds to administer and accountfor them with integrity and competence

• An activist, in the meaning of someone able to spot initiatives and to organise ideas intomeaningful social actions with clear values evolving over time

• A visionary, someone able to imagine social innovation and change• A community worker with particular concern for the affairs of the community or/and organi-

sation he/she are involved in,• A social worker, capable of caring for people without replacing them, i.e. instilling in them the

motivation and confidence to take part in shaping their own future and realising their projects,• A teacher and a learner capable of empowering people while at the same time being able to

learn from the experiences and use that for the organisation, project or community – moni-toring and evaluating a process in relation to the objectives, changing plans and ultimatelyobjectives in relation to the circumstances

The list could be more complete – in yourorganisation or project, which functions orqualities are the most important? Also, thesequalities are not necessarily needed in alltypes of projects. Very often they are not con-centrated on one person but rather spread andassumed by different people in one or moreteams. Nevertheless, it is clear that a lot of thishas to do with more than just “know-how” orskills. It is also about knowledge and the capa-city to use it, about ways of being and workingwith people, of using experience and learningfrom experience. In other words, it is also verymuch about attitudes. These, however, can notpretend to be taught or explained in a trainingmanual. They are acquired, developed, reviewedand adjusted through practice or in real train-ing situations.

What is “managing a project”?

Nearly everyone is involved in high-level ma-nagement all the time. Anyone who can getthree children dressed, breakfasted and offto school and get to work on time, despitehaving to rely on public transport, is a superbmanager. Anyone who can plan and producea dinner for 12 can manage complex admi-nistrative and task functions. Anyone who cansurvive on social security is a financial ma-nager. People simply need the confidence to trans-fer these skills to other situations. (Adirondack,1992)

Management, at its basic, can be defined as,ensuring a project makes the most effectiveand efficient use of resources in order toachieve agreed objectives.

– What needs managing?

It is helpful to distinguish between:

• people’s individual responsibility for ma-naging their own work,

• responsibility for managing the organisation(setting and monitoring long and medium termobjectives and developing policies); e.g. theboard of an international youth organisation,

• responsibility for the day to ‘day manage-ment’ (what the organisation does, how itdoes it and how well the work is done), thepeople who do the work and resources e.g.The secretary general of the internationalyouth organisation and their team,

• responsibility for managing a team or a pro-ject; e.g. a team that runs a specific projectorganised by the youth organisation.

– Who manages?

Most projects, nowadays are managed by ateam. Youth work projects are not anymore thehard work of an individual youth worker buta collective effort of a group composed of dif-ferent people, with different capacities, expec-tations, experiences, backgrounds and cultures.“Teams are now seen as solutions to problems ofexternal adaptation, responding to complexityby bringing together a diversity of perspectiveswhile responding to dynamic changes byencouraging team to make decisions at thefront line where the action is” (Schneider andBarsoux, 1997).

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8 reasons why projects succeed

1. The organisational structure is suited to the project team.2. The project team participates in planning.3. The project team is committed to establishing schedules.4. The project team is committed to establishing realistic budgets.5. The project makes proper use of network planning techniques and does not let the plan

become an end at itself.6. The project team works with bureaucracy, politics and procedures and not against them.7. The project team agree on specific and realistic project goals.8. The target public is involved from the start of the project.

– What managers do?

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DO THE WORKIn small organisations

managers may also do thework of the organisation.

Recruitment & selectionEncourage teamworking

Appropriate information & consultationAppropriate involvement in decision-making

Ensure appropriate skills & knowledgeTraining • SupervisionMonitor performance

Acknowledgement / praisePersonal support

All workers areresponsible for

self-management

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT

Provide direction and leadership

(for organisation, projet, team department)

Dev

elop

&su

stai

nvi

sion

Dev

elop

over

all p

olic

ies &

ensu

reim

plem

enta

tion

Dev

elop

new

idea

s

Stra

tegi

cpl

anni

ng&

deve

lopm

en

t

Ensure clear, achievable, sharedcore

objectives

Ensureadequate

resources

Monitor &evaluate

work

againstobjectives

Ensure appropriatecom

munication

&decision-m

aking

inall these

processes

MANAGE THE PEOPLEWHO DO THE WORK

Evaluate ideas & informationfrom outside organisation / team

Evaluate ideas & informationfrom inside

Organise informationCommunicate appropriately

Store information

MANAGEINFORMATION

& COMMUNICATIONSet clear, realistic targets

Ensure adequate resourcesPlanning

Good systems & proceduresTime management

Clear standards & expectationsMonitor quality & quantity of work

Improvement & change

MANAGETHE

WORK

Liaison with otherorganisations / teams

Liaison with funders / donorsRepresent organisation / team

PublicityPublic relations

MANAGEEXTERNAL RELATIONS

Financial planning (budgets)Financial monitoring

Financial controlManage funding and funders

Manage fundraising

MANAGEFINANCE

Manage premisesManage equipmentManage materials

Manage stock

MANAGEMATERIAL RESOURCES

WHAT MANAGERS DO

Source: from page 3, Sandy Adirondak ‘Just about managing? Effective management for voluntary organisations and communitygroups’, 3rd ed., 1998, ISBN 1-872582-17-6 © Sandy Adirondak and London Voluntary Service Council.

8 reasons why some projects fail…

1. Inadequate authority.

2. Lack of project team participation and planning.

3. Lack of project team participation in problem solving.

4. Inadequate communication skills.

5. Inadequate technical skills.

6. Inadequate administrative skills.

7. Unrealistic project schedules.

8. Unclear project goals.

Four factors in a successful project!

Successful project management is about connecting together four different and sometimesconflicting factors.

All of these factors need to be looked at andevaluated equally in the design of the project.Too much focus on one or two factors canlead to others being ignored.

3.1.2 Proposing a Model

There are many ways to plan and manage aproject, probably as many as there are projectmanagers. There are also many more schemesto explain the different steps in project plan-ning than the ones presented in the previouschapter. All of them are valid and have theirpros and cons. After all, the purpose of devel-oping project planning skills and attitudescan be simply expressed as:

Allowing those in charge of the project, projectmanager or the managing team, to be in con-trol of the project. This will enable them to changeplans, to adapt to unexpected situations, to takeadvantage of new opportunities. And, above all,to know why they do what they do. This way, theycontrol, master and steer the project instead ofbeing lead by the project, by deadlines and byrequests from different directions.

The scheme we are going to follow in thischapter is not better and is not worse than anyof the others. We have used it for some years

now in different training activities and cer-tainly in running many projects. The actualscheme still builds on one adopted by theteam of the first LTTC of the European YouthCentre back in 1990 and adapted as a result ofvarious contributions. We have chosen it aftercomparing it with others (see Chapter 2.3)and having concluded that it is both under-standable, logical (to us) and flexible. Youshould use it and read it exactly as said above:as a tool to help you plan and understand yourproject at each step and to help you get themost out of your efforts and of your colleaguesor young people involved. If you’d ratherchange the scheme, please feel free to do so,skipping some parts or adding others, accord-ing to your needs.

Below, you will find the proposed scheme anda step by step explanation of each graphic ele-ment, some indications on how to proceed witha training on project management (“Suggestionsfor training”), how to formulate an applicationform (“Putting it down in the application form”)and a concrete example of an internationalyouth project (“Let’s go to Ban Uppa!”). To helpyour reading, the Coyote in the margin willshow you where in the chapter to find thedifferent graphic elements.

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The need or problem

Projects work best when the peopledeveloping them understand andappreciate the needs and problemsthey have to tackle. It is important toproperly evaluate the need or prob-lem. What is its root causes? What arethe symptoms? What is the scale of it?For whom it is a problem?

The opportunity for the project

Projects need to have or to create thespace in which to operate.Projects need to be actively supportedand backed with more than just money.There must be support for the projectfrom key people and an active partici-pation from the target group.

The idea and vision

Projects need a vision to unite all theiractivities and efforts. It is from the visionthat strategies, objectives and workplans flow. The big idea behind theproject should be clear enough toshow how the project will make a sig-nificant and sustainable difference tothe needs or the problems

The capacity

Projects need the right balance of skills,energy, resources and organisation toget up and going and deliver results.They need to be designed so that theyare able to make an impact and createresults.

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Follow-up

Strategy orMethodology

ConcreteOBJECTIVES

AIMS

Personalmotivations

NEEDS ANALYSIS

community - young people

Final Evaluation

Consolidation

Celebration

Through what ?

When ?

For whom ?

By whom ?

How ?

Whit what ?

With whom ?

What for ?

Implementation

By whom ?

Why ?

By whom ?

What ?

How ?

What for ?

MonitoringEvaluation

Resources

Where ?

Throughwhat ?

When ?

Plan of activities

Institutionalpriorities

3.1.3 Definition – Implementation –Evaluation

A simple and commonly used way of imagi-ning the project is dividing it into three majormoments: definition, implementation andevaluation.

DefinitionThe definition is all the early planning andpreparatory work – from the needs analysis, tothe definition of objectives and identificationof activities and necessary resources. This isall the “invisible” work that is carried out evenbefore the project starts. This is where theproject takes shape and where its fate is decid-ed. The work in this phase should include:• A needs analysis of the social reality • An analysis of the organisation’s or promoters

capacities and interests• A pre-definition of aims and concrete objec-

tives• An identification of possible/probable acti-

vities• The needs for evaluation• The calendar of the project• The potential resources• The people in charge of the project• The partners• Writing an outline of the project• Possibly applying for funds

ImplementationThe implementation phase often overlapswith the definition because many tasks thatare already part of the project take place whilesome definition work is still going on. Theimplementation phase must consider:• The actual activities and how they inter-con-

nect,• The management of the resources: human,

financial and technical,• The communication and public relations

strategy,• The process for evaluation, feed-back and

regulation,• Accounting and record-keeping,• The way to involve people, especially young

people and generally the surrounding com-munity.

EvaluationEvaluation is part of the project plan and comesmostly at the end of the project even thoughwe consider also the need for intermediate eva-luations. In fact, the project is not finished withthe end of the activities: just as one part of

the definition is “invisible” to the public, so isvery often the evaluation and the differenttasks related to it:• Evaluation procedures: i.e. checking what has

been achieved and what was not achieved,• The impact on the community and on the

organisation,• The follow-up measures to be considered,• Thanking and “celebrating” with the people

involved,• Writing documentation,• Sending financial reports, closing the

accounts.One of the advantages of seeing the projectmanagement in these three phases is that itconsiders the full time span of the project –including the evaluation. As we know, the dif-ficulty of many projects is not in the carryingout of the activities but rather in completingthe different tasks enumerated under “evalu-ation”. Its limit is that the phases are partly arti-ficial: the overlap is quite high. In fact, theyinfluence each other so much that it may bedifficult to distinguish what is where. Still, noone can do a project without... preparation,implementation and evaluation.

The project planning grid in the graphic hasbeen designed so as to provide a visual under-standing of these three main moments – eventhough they are artificial.

3.1 4 The “W question” grid –or the “Laswell method”

Why, What for? Who? When and Where are theclassic five questions that help in clarifyingthe ‘whys’ and ‘hows’ of the project. Especially intraining on project management training, the“Ws” are useful because they help trainees inclarifying their thoughts and actions. At thesame time they help distinguish and understandthe different step in project planning (e.g. dif-ference between needs analysis and aims).

The complete list of ‘Ws’ is also extremely use-ful for imagining or preparing an application,especially if there is no pre-defined form. Atthe end of the day, regardless of the institution,those are the questions that any potential spon-sor or supporter needs to have answers to.

We have added the ‘W’ questions to the sideof the project grid graphic. They complementeach other.

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3.2 Defining the Project

3.2.1 Introducing the community

Most youth projects are also community pro-jects in the sense that they address themselvesto a community or to a group of young people.The community may be larger (one may consi-der the “national” community) and the targetgroup may be very narrow and specific, that willdepend on the scope of the project and its aims.What is important to remember, when thin-king of the community, is that the project is done:

• For the (young) people• With the (young) people• By the (young) people

The project is not done just for the sake of theorganisation, of the sponsors or of the projectleader. Nor it is to make money. The project, asan organised effort for social change, intendsto bring something new to people. Somethingthat is missing. Something that is needed.Something important. Hence the starting pointis always the community. At this stage it isimportant to think: what is our relation to thepeople affected by this project? What do Iknow of them? What do they know of me?What kind of stereotypes or prejudices mustwe face? How can we get over that?

The people, the community, are the ‘raison d’être’of the project. How to involve them from thestart is probably the most important questionin the definition phase. It will determine notjust the success or failure, but also its generalsocial value.

Let’s go to Ban Uppa! …and look at a concreteexample of a youthproject:

We will be following the story of Ban Uppa!during this chapter, as an example of projectmanagement; to put the theory into the lightof practice.

We’ll start our journey in Banville, a small andstill young town in the outskirts of a large

city, with a large section of the populationbeing of immigrant background, mostly com-muters to jobs in the city or neighbouringindustrial sites. The youth population is pro-portionally higher than the national average.There is a shortage of jobs, the level of successat school is lower than the national average.It is a community with a bad media image,known mostly for its social instability, youthdelinquency and petty crimes associated withdrug-trafficking.

We work at Ban Uppa! – a local associationformed two years ago by students and teach-ers who were concerned by the lack of culturalopportunities for the young people. The asso-ciation – whose main purpose is to providealternatives for a healthy life style and thecultural and social development of young peo-ple – has been mostly active in organising afterschool sports activities, as well as cultural eventsin the neighbourhood. Most of the activitiesare directed at young people, but some areaddressed to the population in general.

We are two social and youth work studentsdoing our practice at Ban Uppa! and entrustedwith developing the work and activities withthe young people. The Board of Ban Uppa!has encouraged us to design all the projectsand activities that may be beneficial for youngpeople.

3.2.2 Needs analysis Why?

Why is the project necessary?Why is it relevant?

Why should everybody be interested in it?

3.2.2.1 Social analysis

Whether we call it social reality or the com-munity – or society at large 4 – the project weembark on should reflect the needs, condi-tions and specificities of the target group(s)it addresses and should be coherent with it.

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Community

4 The focus will depend very much on the social and geo-graphical scope that the project addresses. It can be from aneighborhood (e.g. creating a youth centre where youngpeople can meet in the evenings) to a very wide reality,such as Europe (e.g. creating a network of youth centres toinfluence European youth policy). This depends obviouslyon the type of issue addressed by the project.

Truly speaking, most of the time we have theidea and afterwards the project appears (it isour idea). “God wants; Man dreams; the pro-ject is born...” paraphrasing Fernando Pessoa.On a less poetical note, we often seem toanticipate the needs and – by connecting oddfactors – see the opportunity and need for aproject.

Very often it is good like that. Still, many ideasand dreams remain just that because some-how they did not find the right echo in thereality they intended to address. However, theworse cases are when ill-conceived ideas, endup being implemented, sometimes against theinterests of the people whom they are sup-posed to serve, and often with their apathy, ifnot alienation, simply by not reflecting theneeds of the community. The difference is howmuch they reflect the needs of the society orthe group the project seeks to address.

Needs analysis reminds us that no matterhow wonderful our idea may be, how impor-tant and crucial our role may seem, nothingmakes sense if it is not needed. In marketterms: don‘t bother generating a supply ifthere is no demand for it. The approach of ge-nerating first a need so that there is demandis, in the social field, too risky to be taken as avalid principle. We are talking of committinglimited resources, we are talking of people, weare talking of participation, citizenship andautonomy of young people.

Needs analysis includes the social, politicaland economic conditions existing in the areaof the project that make the project necessary. Itcan be linked to the situation of a target groupor to the general social situation of a commu-nity. The social analysis is crucial because itshould determine the social aims and objec-tives of the project as well as the programme ofaction adopted. On the other hand, a project,especially when dealing with social exclusion,should be anchored in a local context and aimto bring about change or improvement of thesituation. The social analysis will contributealso to the identification of the target group.

The needs analysis involves checking:

• What is needed or wished from/for/by theyoung people concerned?...

• How much of a priority does it represent?...

• Is it wanted by the community and the youngpeople?...

• Is it different from what is already beingdone?

• Does it make sense within its own context?

• What change may be pursued by the pro-ject?

In order to get positive answers to these ques-tions – or at least to know how to handle them– the following questions and clues may beof help:

• Who identified those needs as being a prior-ity? People from the outside or people frominside the community?

• Has the same thing been done before in thesame community or in the neighbourhood?What difference would a new project make?How would it not fall into the same pitfallsof previous projects?

• Who has been consulted about the oppor-tunity of such a project? How does it fit withthe public authorities and private initiativesin the area?

• To which extent does it take into account theaspirations, needs and wishes of the peoplethat it seeks to help? How have we involvedthem or consulted them in our needs analy-sis?

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DON’T:

• Start your project against influ-ential people in the community!(You may be sabotaged)

• Think that you know everything!

• Do it for young people, do it withthem!

• Do it only because it is fashion-able!

• Get stuck in passivity, fatalism orpessimism!

Needsanalysis

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DO:

• Ask the opinion of those involvedin the project!

• Ask several people’s opinion includ-ing potential partners, sponsors, orsimply those whose support youmay need (at least you will nothave them against you)!

• Think about the social dynamicsthe project could kick off (negativeand positive)!

• Look for results of similar projectselsewhere (did it work?)

• Remember that there is no objec-tive analysis

• Do it when it needs to be done!

• Dare to go against the tide!

Putting it down in the application form

• In many application forms, the needs analysis is spread throughdifferent parts and questions.

• Most often, however, the needs analysis is what you have towrite at the beginning about the context of the project or thebackground of the application. Some sponsors/funders may askspecifically what is your needs analysis, how it was done or, morecommonly, what changes will the project bring

• Remember that few things are obvious to many people! Oftenyou do need to explain things, even if it may seems obvious toyou. Make sure that the analysis that you bring up in the appli-cation form somehow fits or is in accordance with the fundingpriorities of your sponsor! And, as always when applying forfunds, save yourself from present and future troubles: betruthful!

Needsanalysis

Let’s go toBan Uppa! …

We have been asked by the boardto start identifying a project thatwill be our flagship project and

that brings something new to the organisationand to the town. Since there are many youngpeople and delinquency is talked about allover, the board would be happy if the projectwould somehow address the issue.

Delinquency is indeed a serious problem, andis also damaging for the image of the youngpeople. But we wonder whether it is really aproblem of sociability and education of theyoungsters (mostly boys) or whether it is a symp-tom resulting from other problems, namelyunemployment, poverty and the presence ofdrugs.

We decide:

– To go out to where young people meetand listen to what they say about it;

– To organise an informal meeting to dis-cuss that with the young people;

– To talk with the school staff and the localpolice;

– To talk with the Parents Association;– To have a meeting with other local (youth)

associations.

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Suggestions for training

The following questions have been used for individual and group workat several courses with a strong project management dimension.

Importance of the project

a) Why is the project necessary and important?

b) In which community/social context is it placed?

c) What are the problems faced by the youth/community?

– How, and by whom, were they identified?

– What are the causes of those problems?

– What are the priorities, the main needs?Why those priorities?

d) What is the relationship with the empowerment of young people and improving theirsituation?

e) What is the project going to aim to change?

f) What is realistic and achievable?

g) Has it been done before?Is it being done by someone else?What is innovative in it?

Personal motivations and competence

a) Why are you undertaking the project?What do you expect to gain/learn/get out of the project?

b) What competence or expertise do you have for it?What are the values that drive you to do that?

c) Are your interests and values compatible with the project’s aims and public?With those of your organisation?

Organisation’s role and aims

a) How far does the project fit your organisation’s aims, values, traditions and experience?

b) What experience does your organisation have with that kind of project?

c) Is your organisation fully behind the project?What benefits can it get from it?What are the risks for the organisation?

As you progress through the questions, do take written notes of what answers you foundand of questions that you don’t yet know how to answer.

Needsanalysis

3.2.2.2 Institutional prioritiesand values By Whom?

A single individual rarely carries a project. InEuropean youth work practice, the projects areusually run in the framework of an organisationor institution. Each organisation has its ownaims and objectives, its own values and its ownexperience. The project ought to fit somehowthose aims and values and reflect them,otherwise the organisation might see no rea-son to invest in the project and a conflict is like-ly to arise sooner or later between the institu-tion, the project worker and the project itself.

Finding the right organisation for the project isalso important. Bear in mind that not all orga-nisations can deal with everything; there are alsolocal institutions which have particular tasks(e.g. school or police). Interfering in their field ofcompetence may not bring positive changes.The values, practice and experience of the orga-nisation are naturally going to condition the typeof project to be undertaken and the metho-dology to be adopted. It will also influence itsscale: a small organisation is more likely tosupport a small project than a very large one.

Even if the project idea comes from the orga-nisation, there is always an implicit or explic-it negotiation process between the organisa-tion’s interests, values and priorities and theneeds expressed by the community. Theyhave to meet in some way.

For example, the organisation aims at educat-ing young people to adopt a healthy lifestyle.The experience of the organisation is likely alsoto influence the shaping of the programmeand the working methods adopted as well asthe choice of a target group (for whom). Thevalues of the organisation should also be takeninto account, not least because there is anexpectation for it (previous experience, imagein the community, coherence, etc.).

Let’s go toBan Uppa! …

We, Matto and Dali, two youth workers/trainees, have talked with

the young people and other partners in thecommunity and think that delinquency seemsto be the consequence of unemployment, drug

abuse (people steal to buy drugs) and a ge-neral social degradation that leads to a carelessattitude towards others. We think that whateverproject we come up with, it should addressthe question of self-esteem and of drugs. Itshould, we feel, give young people opportu-nities to experience and do positive things.Somehow, to break the circle of violence, exclu-sion and bad image and to offer motivatingalternatives (for example travelling abroad).

This happens to be very much in line with theexperiences at Ban Uppa!, whose board hasbeen looking for ways to address those issues.When meeting with colleagues and the board,we have received a lot of support and advice.We were also told, however, that the organi-sation existed for the whole community andtherefore it would be important for the pro-ject to help restore the image and relation-ship between the youngsters and the rest ofthe community. And in no way should the pro-ject be moralising or stigmatising: too manyyoung people have problems, there was nopoint in pointing the finger at anyone. Wewere given the green light to proceed andsubmit a project idea.

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DO:

• Ask your organisation’s board whatthey think about the idea! Listento their suggestions!

• Talk with other workers or volun-teers in the organisation (they mayhave similar projects, you may needtheir help)!

• Respect and value what the organ-isation will gain from it!

• Seek commitments from the insti-tution, not just words!

• Make use of the organisation’sresources and experience!

• Check if the organisation is theright one to carry that project, andvice-versa!

• Check if the image of the organi-sation may hinder the project (andhow to overcome that).

Institutionalpriorities

3.2.2.3 Personal motivations

Any youth worker has his/her own motivationsfor starting a project. These can be professio-nal motivations (try new approaches, desireto progress in a career) but they can also bepersonal (being particularly concerned withthe issues being dealt with in the project,desire to travel abroad...).

Being clear about it means also to legitimisepersonal involvement or motivation. We donot do a project only for others, we also do itfor ourselves. Even if we are driven by purephilanthropy or altruism, it is still our desireto help or serve that drives us. We should notventure in to the project only because of ourown interests. But it is fair to also take theminto account.

While motivations do not have to be madeexplicit in the project presentation, they shouldbe clear for the youth worker because they willinfluence his/her motivation to keep on workingand their degree of involvement or commit-ment. It is also easier for the person involved to:

• Identify possible conflicts of interest• Safeguard the possibility of meeting expec-

tations• Possibly prioritise expectations• Get the support of others to realise those

motivations.

The motivations are also usually associatedwith our proximity to the target group or thesubject. This may be important in some casesbecause it may help legitimise our involve-ment and the project as such (e.g. I am also ayoung person who has been a victim of delin-quency). This may at least show a capacity tomobilise people to be involved in the project.

Close to the motivations is the competenceof the project manager to actually deal withthe project. Although strictly speaking this ispart of the ‘resources’ section, the fact is thatbefore venturing into a project one shouldmake a self-evaluation of the competenciesneeded or of the extra skills it requires (it maymake it easier to invite others to the team).

But if there are too many specific competen-cies needed they may come from the organi-sation, or have to be acquired somewhereelse (and thus cost money...).

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Personalmotivations

Putting it downin the applicationform

• The organisation is often presentedwithin the general context of theproject, even though administrativedetails are usually requested sepa-rately. If your organisation is notvery well known to the funder, makesure to provide some brief infor-mation about how close it is to thesubject of the project or to the tar-get group. You may also want toshow that it is credible by givingexamples of previous successful pro-jects. Show clearly the link betweenthe project and the organisation!– No organisation has the duty tobe active in all fronts!

• Do not send too much informationor publicity, unless requested.

DON’T:

• Start your project without otherpeople and/or organisation toback you up!

• Change the project to the pointthat it is not yours anymore!

• Run over other people in theirroles and competencies!

• Be afraid to introduce changes ifthey make sense and are withinthe scope of the project!

• Be afraid to share work andresponsibilities with others

• Let contradictions between yourorganisation’s values and yourproject practice persist!

In Ban Uppa!…: Mattoand Dali’s motivations

Both of us are finishing our youthand community worker studies. We want to have a good result from the experience because we

believe it will be easier for us to get a job.Matto was actually born in Banville and hasalways lived here. He feels it is time some-thing useful is done with young people in hiscommunity and he feels proud to work there.He knows the people at Ban Uppa! and thinks

that if the project works he could possiblywork there on a regular basis. Dali comes fromnot very far away, but she does not feel Banvilleis her home. Mostly she wants to acquire com-petence and experience in a ‘tough area’ which,as a woman, is even more important if she isconfronted with male colleagues.

Both of us are young people and, like our col-leagues in Ban Uppa!, we feel that nobodyreally cares for the young people because no-one is ready to take them seriously.

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DO:• Follow extra training if needed (a

good opportunity for self-deve-lopment)

• Discuss your professional objectiveswith the organisation!

• Admit that you and your colleaguesalso have egos and needs.

• Identify what makes you happy inthe project (that is what you willwant to safeguard)!

• Use the project as an opportunityfor professional development andinnovation.

DON’T:

• Pretend you know more than youdo!

• Be embarrassed to pursue yourpersonal or professional aims.

• Lie to yourself about why you aredoing the project.

• Be afraid to ask for help.

• Use people or an organisation forpurely personal objectives.

Putting it down in the application form

No application form will ask you about your personal motiva-tions, the credibility of the organisation being the most impor-tant criterion to decide the capacity to carry out the project.

But often the sponsors do want to know who is in charge of theproject, how the person/s was/were recruited, etc. Here you havean interest to show that those in charge of the project

• are competent

• have some affinity to the theme orthe organisation (insofar as it doesnot prevent them from having anoutsider’s view)

• are motivated and can be secondedby other people for concrete tasksor functions

If in doubt, don’t write much! Writeonly when it helps the application,otherwise it can also be damaging!

AIMS

Institutionalpriorities

Personalmotivations

NEEDS ANALYSIS

community - young people

Personalmotivations

3.2.3 Defining the aims What for?

From the needs analysis we now know whythe project is important.

The organisation has also chosen, within thewhole complex reality of Banville, to give pri-ority to a certain type of project having to dowith self-esteem and healthy life-styles.

We now know what Matto and Dali are look-ing for and what drives them.

This should lead us to identify what we aregoing to make the project for – what its aimsare, what it sets out to achieve in the long term.

Defining the aims is the first effort of rationa-lisation and concentration of efforts, becauseby reading them one should get a general pic-ture of: the issues addressed, the target group(s),the methodology, the promoter, the geogra-phical scope, the change that the projectintends bring about.

The aims reflect the first priority of the pro-ject. Aims are often defined as overall objectivesor goals: what the project or organisation wouldachieve if it was 100% successful. It defineswhy the project exists, its purpose and reasonfor being. The aims are similar to the missionstatement (for those familiar with Anglo-Saxonterminology).

The aims provide also the educational, ideo-logical and operational framework of thewhole project. Whatever activities we decideto undertake, whatever methodologies we optfor, they should be compatible with the aims.The aims should not change during the pro-ject: a change of aims would mean a changeof project altogether!

It is common for some people and within somecontexts to distinguish between social aimsand educational aims. The distinction is notalways useful or necessary. Nevertheless, todefine them may help us to better understandwhat we are talking about.

Social aimsThe changes in the social environment orsituation of the target group concernedthat the project intends to promote (e.g.take young people in Banville out of socialexclusion or combat delinquency).

Educational aimsWhile the social aims aim to bring changes inthe social environment, the educational objec-tives aim at promoting changes in the indivi-dual people or target group concerned. In

other words, what will the young people learn,how will they be empowered and what for(e.g. learn about the risks of drugs or HIV...).

In Ban Uppa!…:The Aims for Matto and Dali

We are now in the final stage of ourproject research. We have consult-ed, we have checked, and we havediscussed with each other. The

impression that we have is that young peoplein Banville are indeed de-motivated and sometend to fall easily into the trap of delinquencyand violence, probably because the futureseems grim to them. The presence of drugsmakes the whole problem much bigger.Besides a very acute health problem, it stig-matises the whole neighbourhood and con-tributes to the rise in delinquency. And it hasalso brought about conflict in the families.

We think that they should focus on raisingyoung people’s self-esteem, offering themhealthier alternatives and being clear aboutdrugs. This is what we think that we can do best.

When making our presentation to the board ofBan Uppa!, we defined the aims of our projectas To provide young people from Banvillewith healthy alternatives for their leisuretime and to prevent drug addiction in theneighbourhood by raising their self-esteemtheir social participation and mental mobility.

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Suggestions for trainingThe following questions have been used forindividual and group work at several coursewith a strong project management dimen-sion– What is your project for?– What changes does the project pursue in

the social/political environment (country,region, community, target group, organisa-tion) concerned by the project?

– How does it intend to respond to theglobal objectives of the youth programmeor organisation that it is part of?

– What would it seek to achieve if it were100% successful?

The aims should be condensed and expressedin one or very few sentences that contain theessence of the project and can be read almostindependently from the rest of the project.

Definingaims

3.2.4 The concrete objectives What?

A project is defined in the first place by thetime (projects have a beginning and an end)and by the objectives: by what is set to beachieved or done through the project in thattime frame.Defining the objectives is crucial to makingthe project realistic and achievable. By read-ing the project’s objectives one should have afairly clear idea of what will be concretelydone or achieved by the project.

The objectives are a translation into practice ofthe project’s aims. While the aims are generaland far reaching, the objectives are concreteand if possible precise. Objectives should bedefined so that they are:

– Concrete. What exactly are you going totry to achieve? How many people will beinvolved or concerned? How many activi-ties? What specific issues are going to beaddressed? What competencies will peopleacquire? What will be changed after the pro-ject as a result of it? What will be produced?

– Multiple. One project must and can bebroken down into several objectives. Thishas several advantages: it allows easierplanning and control of each objectiveand of all the potential that the project hasto offer. Furthermore, during the evalua-tions, it easier to evaluate the results if theobjectives are broken down. It helps tothink in terms of what will be achieved asdirect results and indirect results; of educa-tional and social objectives; of objectivesfor the institutions and for the participants;etc.

– Assessable. The more concrete the projectsare, the easier it is to evaluate them. If theobjective was to reach 500 people, I canhave an estimate of how many people havebeen reached, and to which extent I suc-ceeded or not. If I just wanted ’to reach asmany people as possible’, the evaluationwill be much harder and vague, because(hopefully) I will always manage to reachsomeone. At least some objectives shouldbe defined so that they can be measurable.

– Timed. The objectives may be distributed intime: short-term, medium-term and long-term, depending on the project. But in anycase all objectives must be set against anexpected time for achievement.

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Putting it down in the application form

• Some forms will ask you for the aims, but most commonly theyask about the objectives and then it is the writer’s duty to makesure that the aims are presented as an umbrella to the objectives.In other cases, the question may come from the description ofthe organisation’s priorities.

• But most often, the aims should be written as the logical step or con-sequence after the presentation of the context/needs analysis of theproject. The aims represent a priority in that sea of needs; in thoseshort sentences it is important that it all becomes clear

• The struggle will always come between how much to be specific andhow far to remain general. The aims are global objectives, but stillthey should identify:

– The target group addressed;– The issue to be dealt with or the changes proposed;– The area concerned by the project (e.g. a city, a district, the whole country...);– Some indication about the methodology or/and about the values transmitted.

• The aims do not need to mention the dates, nor the how – nor even the activities(except in rare situations). That will be dealt with in other parts.

Concreteobjectives

Law of project management No.1

“One advantage of fuzzy project objectivesis that they avoid the embarrassment

of estimating the corresponding costs.”

– Realistic. The potential for motivation andempowerment that the project may bringalong will not be realised if the objectivesare not achievable. Setting too high objec-tives may impress on paper but most of thetime your “bluff” is called and, in any case,it will show up in the evaluation. It is prefe-rable to set lower, concrete and achievableobjectives, where the achievement is notice-able and where you take the risk of achiev-ing more than stated.

– Flexible. The objectives and the whole pro-ject plan are an exercise in preparing andforeseeing several activities towards a com-mon aim. As the project implementationstarts, regular evaluations and check-upsare needed, formally or informally. As aresult, some adjustments may be needed,including possible revising or updating ofsome objectives (especially when somedepend on the success of previous ones).Flexible objectives does not mean that theycan change all the time, but that for thesake of realism and efficiency some changesare introduced, consciously. If the wholepoint of project planning is helping us stayin charge of the project, then it is better toadopt conscious changes – being able toweigh up possible alternatives – than beingforced to adopt them, without choice orreflection about the impact on the rest ofthe project.

– Recognisable in the activities. Objectivesare different from the activities. They re-present what one wants to reach, achieve orrealise with the project. They are differentfrom the activities in the sense that theactivities are the way to reach the objec-tive(s). All activities should be aiming toreach one or more objectives. All objectivesshould be directly or indirectly identifiablein one or more activities. Be aware of acti-vities for which you find no correspondencein the objectives and vice-versa!

Objectives are not an end in themselves; theproject is the end goal. Between the argumentsamong those favouring objectives (results) andthose favouring process (quality of humanand social relations) we would stress the factthat the improvement or development in thequality of human relations – including socialrelations and attitudes to learning, for exam-ple – can and should themselves be translatedinto objectives. Objectives are not only thingsto be produced, they are first of all targets tobe reached. Material and immaterial.

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Are your objectivesSMART?

SpecificMeasurableAchievableRealisticTimed

DO:

• Negotiate/discuss your objectiveswith those concerned (target group,partners, colleagues).

• Get second opinions about the waythey are formulated and defined.

• Ask yourself if they can ever beevaluated, how and when.

• Consider that if they are not clearfor you they will not be to theothers either.

• Write things down and use theobjectives in your communicationand presentations (it is not only afund-raising exercise)

DON’T:

• Hesitate to review your objectivesif you can justify it!

• Confuse the objectives with theactivities.

• Define objectives that you do notplan to achieve.

• Define only ideal, un-measurableobjectives.

• Become a slave of project for-malism! A project should live,and ultimately die. So, you mayand even must introduce changes(make sure you are aware of it!).

Concreteobjectives

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Putting it down in the application form

• Most forms would ask you simply what the objectives of theproject are. Others will ask you what you expect to achieveand others, sometimes cumulatively, will ask you what resultsyou expect as a result of the project.

• Once you have identified the objectives it should not be difficult to transcribethem into any application form. If they are SMART, they will suffice to give thereader/evaluator a clear picture of what you want to do and what it entails.

• The objectives should be simple and clear to understand. Don’t drown them inparagraphs of literature. If there are explanations to be made they should comein the needs analysis or else they should be kept short.

• Avoid repetition.

• Don’t expect the reader to know and guess what you want to do. Be clear. If youwant to produce a book and teach people to read it, say so!

• If you have the feeling that forms are repetitive (e.g. asking aims, objectives,programme, results expected...), make sure that you fill them all in, even if you havethe feeling of repeating yourself. If needed seek clarification from the institution.

• Make sure it makes sense with the analysis you made, with the organisationthat carries the project and the aims; that it is coherent.

• Bear in mind that the people evaluating project applications are normally expe-rienced in projects themselves. And therefore they would know that oftenwhat counts most as the real impression is the objectives. Their formulation oftenreflects everything else. So, do take your time to define them appropriately.

Concreteobjectives

In Ban Uppa!…:Matto and Dali wrotean application form!

Here is an extract: Aims andobjectives of your project

General aim:

To provide young people from Banville withhealthy alternatives for their leisure time andto prevent drug addiction in the neighbour-hood by raising their self-esteem and socialparticipation.

Concrete objectives

– To initiate a public campaign about the riskof drugs among young people;

– To provide and organise cultural youth acti-vities for the week-ends in Banville;

– To have a team doing detached street worktwo evenings a week between May andOctober.

– To create and train a group of 8 young peo-ple to act as peer educators and leaders intheir schools.

– To reduce by one third the number of delin-quency acts and criminal activities in the spaceof one year.

– To generate synergies and partnershipsbetween the police and school departmentsand the youth workers of Ban Uppa! in asfar as prevention policies are concerned.

– To support young people in developing mea-ningful activities raising their image in theneighbourhood.

– To establish close contacts with similar youthgroups in at least two other Europeancountries with a view to developing youthexchanges.

3.2.5 Strategyand methodology How?

Yes, but... how are we going to do that?

The methodology is the social, educationalor organisational process through which theobjectives will be pursued in a coherent man-ner; the way in which the different activitieswill build up on each other to reach the objec-tives.

Methodology and working methods are oftenconfused and confusing, but it is important totry to keep the distinction. The methodologyhas more to do with a global approach andconcept; the working methods are usuallyspecific to an activity, they are more the modusoperandi to do certain things or pursue con-crete objectives or steps. The methodologydetermines the type of activities to be orga-nised and their sequence. The working me-thods usually refer to one of the many waysof doing things in an activity.

The methodology is often not visible, eventhough it can be made explicit. If my objec-tive is to win over drug dealers, I have severalpossible methodologies, such as: get them allarrested; get the customers away from them;get all the customers arrested or get drugslegalised, for example. The methodology isusually determined by:

• The means available (instead of a TV cam-paign, we can only afford a poster campaign);

• The experience and expertise of the orga-nisation and carriers (we focus on what weare good at: organising holiday camps andsmall group activities, for example);

• The philosophy and values of the organisa-tion and the project (for example, we favoura direct personal approach that values theindividual person rather than large scaleevents);

• The calendar and the time available;• The type of public and social environment

we address (from small local group to ananonymous national audience);

• Our own approaches to young people, edu-cation and projects.

The methodology is important because it guidesthe planning and organisation of the project.The same methodology allows for variousalternatives in terms of activities, but it givesa first indication of how the objectives will bepursued.

It is also important that the strategy or metho-dology may be explained and understood byother people, especially your partners andparticipants. People need to understand theprocess that you invite them to go throughin order to benefit from it, contribute to it orchange it if needed. Confusion about themethodology will usually result in flaws in theprogramme and in difficulties in presentingor weighing up alternatives.

The most important elements to take intoaccount when we talk about methodology are:

• Coherence. The different components of ourprogramme have to make sense as a whole,

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Suggestions for training

So, concretely, what exactly are you goingto try to achieve with your project...

– To respond to the needs identified?

– To stay within the aims?

– To educate your target group?

– To make the project realistic?

– What are the core objectives?

– Can you identify objectives in the long,medium and short-term?

– How/when do you think you can evalu-ate them?

– Which objectives can be changed?Which ones should not?

– Can you relate your objectives to diffe-rent (alternative) activities?

– How and when will you be able to checkif the objectives have been reached?

– Is it clear, by reading your aims and objec-tives... That there is a coherence betweenaims and objectives?

Strategy andmethodology

and to respect the framework provided bythe aims and objectives. They also have tobe coherent in their timing (for example,first information, then training).

• Consistency. Despite the flexibility that makesthe project a “living” entity, what we dohas to be consistent with what we stand foror what we state as being our values. Forexample, my project of running a campaignagainst tax evasion will be in serious troubleif people find out that we are evading taxesourselves... In the educational field – even ifnon-formal education – consistency betweenspeech and practice are extremely important.

• Effectiveness. Whatever you decide to under-take in the form of concrete activities muststrive for effectiveness. Not only to makethe best out of usually scarce resources,but also to actually get the best out of thepotential generated by the project. Themethodology should secure for examplethat synergies are pursued, that results areavailable at the best moment, that the eva-luations are made in a way and at a timewhere the results can still be used, etc.

In Ban Uppa!…:Matto and Dali...

– So, how are we going to go about this?...– Well, we have to:– Organise activities for their spare time,

like sports or a youth café...maybe cam-ping out one week-end...

– We have to ask the young people whatthey want, but first we must show themthat we are ready to offer something... togive a good example.

– We also have to address the issue of drugsin a very clear manner...

– But if we want to raise their self-esteemand social participation... we need to involvethem and support them. Maybe they canactually do the work on drugs themselves.We can form a group...

– But this means that we need to train andsupport them!

– I think I have got it:

• We can organise some social activitieslike the camping and we open the youthcafé. This will get us to know more youngpeople and to identify those that aremost interested in working with us.

• We can also organise informal discus-sions about Banville and violence. Just toget a feeling of what kind of solutionsyoung people envisage.

• We can organise some leadership cour-ses for those that are most interested inworking with us – some kind of peergroup education stuff... in those coursethey should design what activities theywant to carry out.

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DO:

• Consider alternatives to the planand process of the activities pro-posed.

• Try to anticipate side effects orreactions to the sequence ofevents.

• Think if your participants or targetgroup understand the process youpropose them.

• Think about the approaches andvalues that should be visible in theway the project is planned andorganised.

DON’T:

• Just put activities together ho-ping that they will build on eachother by accident.

• Get confused if it seems too com-plicated. But make sure that yourplan makes sense and that you canexplain it.

• Confuse methodology and me-thods. Some people use the termsalternatively, but that should notbe the case if you know what ismeant by them.

Strategy andmethodology

• We can have a group preparing a cam-paign about drugs... for the schools andfor the families...

• And we can then start organising a pro-gramme of activities for the summerholidays. I don’t know what they maybe interested in, but probably a youthexchange is a good idea for some. Thesports festival interested quite a few.

• This is good because it brings in themedia and for once there may be posi-tive reports about these youngsters

• We must look for ways to support thepeer group leaders, both financial andmotivational. Need to see what BanUppa can do!

• We must contact the city about twin citiesabroad. This could be a good start toestablishing contacts with similar projectsand, possibly, start enquiring about thefeasibility of youth exchanges.

• Yes, that can be important in motivatingthe peers! I am sure that they wouldreally like to travel! All young peopledo!…

• So, first we get them interested. Then weconsult them. We train the peer leaders.We do the campaign. By then we shouldhave enough contacts and gained theirconfidence to engage on the youthexchange and on the sports festival. Weget them in the media. We involve themin Ban Uppa.

• This may be a great project! We need toforesee some kind of youth party or fes-tival towards the end. It would be goodto have their opinion on our work.

• Sorry, Dali. This is not our project. This istheir project!

3.2.6 Planning an activity What?When?

Where?Through what?

All that has been mentioned above in theproject must now be practically put togetherin a plan, with a calendar, assignment of acti-vities to place, etc.

The plan of activities is the part that is themost visible to the public at large. It is alsowhat we will think of the most when wethink of what the project consists of. The acti-vities are the means through which we willtry to get results for our project.

Of course each single activity may have itsspecific function and value. But what gives ita special relevance is that it is part of a pro-ject. Because it is a project, the activities needto be thought out and planned in relation toeach other. Similarly, the results of the previ-ous ones will influence the subsequent ones.The activities are the ways to carry out the pro-ject, to pursue the objectives, there are alwaysdifferent and alternative activities imaginablefor each objective (whose choice may be funda-mentally determined by the methodology).

3.2.6.1 Planning and timing

The most important and delicate issue in theplanning of the activities is time. Of coursethe financial, material and human resourcesare equally determining, but the most com-mon problem of the project planner andmanager is time. Because the activities areusually connected in some way, a delay inone may cause delays in all of them or mayhinder the synergies between them.When drawing up your plan of activities,consider:• A starting date and a closing date for the

project (a project has a beginning and an end).

• That preparatory activities are also part ofthe project, and therefore part of the calen-dar of activities. You must at least put themin your schedule.

• Checking that each objective defined isdefined and can be effectively pursued insome activity. Check also if each activitycorresponds to an objective.

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Plan ofactivities

Law of project management No.2

“A carelessly planned projectwill take three times longer to completethan expected. A carefully planned project

will take twice as long”

• Interaction between activities. How are theresults of one activity going to be used in thefollowing? Which activities depend on others?

• What does each activity need as preparation?That may have to be taken up separately asan activity of its own.

• Does the plan and calendar correspond tothe reality around you? Does it take intoaccount institutional schedules (e.g. schoolholidays)? Does it fit with imposed dead-lines (for applying, for finishing reports...)?

• Is it manageable? Is it feasible?

• Are you taking into account any previousevaluation of similar projects or activities toknow what may work better?

• What is the margin left for contingencies?Which alternatives have you considered?What will happen if an activity is cancelled?

Time plans and calendars

You can use a calendar for planning your pro-ject. It should have as many months as those

in your actual project. You can also put thedifferent activities into perspective by writingthe different activities and under each monthwhat needs to be done for each of them.

There is often a myriad of small tasks andjobs to do beforehand, which are usually nottaken into account (e.g. applying for funds,contacting partners, checking the interest ofyoung people, informing the media about it,booking places, etc.)

Similarly, even after everything has been closed,there are many tasks remaining: doing theaccounts, thanking people, writing reports,doing the evaluation, producing the docu-mentation, planning the follow-up etc.

In a project’s plan of activities you should ima-gine a succession of parabolic curves (activities)that partly overlap. This represents better thetasks-in-time dimension of a project. Failureto realise that usually leads to cancelled acti-vities, postponed projects or... never endingprojects.

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DO:• Check what may already be

planned in the community for thesame period.

• Consider what public and privateinstitutions may be eager to fundor support.

• Do put all the activities togetherin one calendar or plan and checkif it is realistic.

• Consider time for planning, prepa-ration, implementation and evalua-tion! And for writing the reports,too!

• Think of time for regular evalua-tions and check-points.

• Do a complete work timetable foryourself, even if the public willneed to see the activities timetableonly.

• A check list of objectives vs. acti-vities. You may need to review oneor the other

DON’T:

• Make your project dependent onone single activity.

• Overestimate time! Most likelyyou will miss it!

• Put too many activities in onesingle period!

• Overestimate your capacities. Youalso need energy and periods torecover!

• Stay forever at the level of plan-ning! You also need to startorganising and implementing.

• Forget the perfect plan does notexist.

Plan ofactivities

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Suggestions for training

1. What are the different parts ofyour project?

2. What is actually going to happen?

– When are you going to do what?

– With whom are you going to doit (colleagues, partners, partici-pants)?

– What is your role in each of theactivities?

– Who do you need to help/sup-port/assist you?

– How are they going to be pre-pared?

3. How does it fit into a coherentplan? (What is the role of eachactivity?)

– What are you going to startwith?

– What are you going to finishwith?

– Which activities are the core ofyour project?

– Which activities are secondary?

4. Are all your objectives covered bythe activities?

5. How flexible is your plan? Howclear is it?

6. How realistic is it? Where are yougoing to get the support for it?What do you need as support(resources)? What are you goingto do to get that support?

7. Do you seriously believe in yourplan?

Putting it downin the applicationform

• Most forms have a specific ques-tion about the activities or theprogramme. In any case, mostoften (and most unfortunately!)you probably need to make anapplication for each activity. Butwhether it is the programme ofactivities of a whole project orthe programme of one activity,you should provide sufficientindication and information aboutwhen, where, for whom, withwhom... at least the parts thatare visible. And you should alsoinclude some preparation andevaluation activities unless youknow that is pointless or if it mayharm your chances for support(e.g. because those activities wouldbe outside the time scope of theproject).

• Most important: make sure thatthe information is correct andcompatible with the budget (e.g.,if you mention that you will hirea video professional to film theshow, make sure that the show ispart of the programme and thatthe fee for the video operator isshown in the budget). Anythingless usually shows poor prepara-tion.

3.3 Implementingthe Project

With what? With whom?When? Where? How?

The project is more than a simple idea thataspires to become true. The project is an ideathat has been transformed and made feasibleby a careful planning process and that will beimplemented.

After the planning, it is time to start workingon it. Truly speaking these two phases oftenoverlap, because some planning is alreadyimplementation.

But if we take the project as being what isdescribed in the plan of activities, then it isclear that some day those activities will haveto be prepared and run.

We will address only two aspects of the imple-mentation because they seem to us those most

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In Ban Uppa!…:

Way up! Draft Plan A New project of Ban Uppa! of activitiesby Dali and Matto (Comments welcome!)

Feb-March: Contacting sponsors and funding institutions, foreignpartners and contacts Preparation of week-end out

April: Finalising the project and writing applicationsCamping out in the mountains during Easter holidaysPreparation meeting with the youth exchange leaders. Setting up of the “Youth exchange task force”

May: Opening of the Up Café in the evenings from Thursday to Sunday. Informal activities and discussions with young people

June: Preparation of leadership course for peer-group leaders

July: Sports festival

August: Youth exchange (hosting the youth exchange with thetwin cities)

September: Leadership courseReviewing the project in function of the results achieved

October-December: Campaign about drugs. In the school classes. Withfamilies in the cultural centre. Evaluation meeting ofthe youth exchange

December: Of course we’ll have also a New Year’s party!...

January-February: A lot more to come... wait and see!...... But the project finishes in July, when we finishour internship! Kindly send us you comments andsuggestions!

Dali & Matto

pertinent and relevant to address in a generalway (each project has of course it specific aspectsand needs regarding its implementation):

– the management of the resources involvedin the project

– the monitoring/evaluation of the projectimplementation.

3.3.1 Managing resources

Knowing what we intend to do, when andwhere, will help us determine what we need(and check what we have) in order to startpreparing and putting into practice the pro-gramme. The resources can be financial(money to run the campaign or to go on ho-liday), material or technical (a room to meet),human (staff or volunteers to actually runthe programme) or time-based (time to carryout effectively all the stages of the project).

Evaluating the resources available will allowthe project leaders to identify what additionalresources they need (and look for sources forfunding or support), which staff (and volun-teers) are needed and what kind of trainingthey must get.

But it can also determine the need to estab-lish partnerships with other institutions (theschools, other youth projects, etc). Identifica-tion of the resources is naturally made easieronce the programme of action has been con-cretely defined.

The resources might, in this respect, deter-mine changes in the programme which maynot be dramatic if the overall methodologyand objectives are respected. In the drugsproject, a TV campaign is too expensive, we donot have the necessary expertise to run it, sowe’ll do it in the schools and youth centres.

In reality, the resources are considered alreadyduring the first planning stages. The obliga-tion of realism in the project’s objectives forcesthose in charge to at least mentally take intoaccount the scale of their own resources andof those available in principle (i.e. those thatcan be applied for).

3.3.1.1 Time management(see also OrganisationalManagement T-Kit, chapter 2.3.3)

“O let not time deceive you,you can not conquer time”(W.H. Auden)

“Rien ne sert de courir;il faut partir à point”(J.de La Fontaine, the hare and the turtle)

Time is a key resource – and the best way toget the most out of your time is to manage it!

Some hints in controllingour time more effectively

To manage our time and our lives more effec-tively we should:• act, rather than react,

• avoid floundering in every direction ordoing nothing,

• plan our activities,

• vary our activities through our time table

• find a balance between work and pleasure,

• find a balance between professional, familyand personal activities,

• plan space in our daily time schedules for read-ing, dreaming, playing, laughing, thinking,being sociable, being alone, being happy,.....

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Some realistic thoughts of time

• time cannot be saved• time cannot be exchanged• time cannot be bought• time cannot be sold

• time can only be used

Implementationmanaging

resources…Law of project management No.3

“No major project is ever completed in time,within budget and with the same people that

started it. Yours will not be the first.”

Organising and planningour day

Some hints:• list your aims, set priorities• make use of planners (weekly,

monthly, yearly)

• make use of a diary or personal organiser

• make a daily plan

• make a TO DO LIST, prioritise and act on thepriorities

• when doing paperwork handle each piece ofpaper only once!

• at different times during the day we shouldask ourselves; “What’s the best use of my time– right now?”

• Learn to say NO

• Keep your desk clear – get rid of all theobjects/files not connected with the task inhand

• Difficulties first – tackle the most difficultjobs first not last

• What is the point? Why are you having acertain meeting or discussion, ask yourselfthis question and try to stick to the point

• Delegate where possible

Manage your time and don’t let time manageyou!And remember: the golden rule of managingtime is: “Effort not made is opportunity lost”

A guide to setting priorities

For many people setting priorities is a complextask which they try to avoid at all costs. Unfor-tunately, instead of trying to identify that whichneeds to be done and doing it, they compoundthe problem by refusing to come to terms withwhat can be a straight forward task if approachedin a systematic way.When setting priorities we have to take accountthe complexity of balancing:• that which is urgent with that which is impor-

tant• the interrelationship between all the things

that are waiting to be done• the amount of time needed to carry out and

finish the task.The following chart can help to make decisionsespecially when urgency and importance arethe primary considerations.This chart shows how different types of tasks,assignments, meetings, commitments etc canbe handled, depending on their urgency andimportance.

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High Urgency/Low Importance

Do it yourself if spare time is available.Otherwise, delegate,get someone else to do it!

Low Urgency/Low Importance

These items can be postponed,ignored, avoided completely,referred to someone else.

High Urgency/High Importance

These items shouldundoubtedly be handled by you

Low Urgency/High Importance

These items can be handled by youor at least delegated to someone elseso that work can begin on buildingthe foundation for solving the problemor meeting the opportunity

You know you’re too stressed if…

• Relatives that have been dead for years comevisit you and suggest that you should getsome rest

• You say the same sentence over and overagain, not realising that you have said itbefore

• The sun is too loud• Trees begin chasing you• You can see individual air molecules vibrating• You can hear mimes• You believe that if you think hard enough,

you can fly• Things become very clear• You say the same sentence over and over

again, not realising that you have said it before• You can skip without a rope• Your heart beat in 7/8 time• You and reality file for divorce• It appears to you that people speak to you

in binary code• You have great revelations concerning: Life,

the Universe and everything else, but can’tquite find the words for them before the whiteglow disappears, leaving you more confusedthan before

• You can travel without moving• Antacid tablets become your sole source of

nutrition• You have an irresistible urge to bite the noses

of people you are talking to • You say the same sentence over and over

again, not realising that you have said it before

Plan your time effectively:

To make the best use of available time is achallenge for everyone and one of the few waysof improving efficiency. Try to make better useof your available time. Everyone could do thisfor themselves on a regular basis with plan-ning activities on an agenda.

The method is based on working with forms.

3.3.1.2 Financial resources

Every project must have a budget. A budget isa calculated estimation of the value or priceof the project and is always composed of theexpenses – the costs of the project – and theincome – the resources brought into the pro-ject to cover the expenses. Budgets must bebalanced. They can not be negative (wherewould the money come from, then?). They cannot be positive (the projects we are talkingabout are non-profit-making).

Depending on the scale of the project, a globalbudget may prove difficult to establish at thebeginning, and often in medium and long-termprojects, revised budgets are regularly produced.Nevertheless, even with difficulty, a budget isimportant because it provides an idea aboutthe realism and dimension of the project.Without a budget it is impossible to control theproject, and it is impossible to know if it is fea-sible. If you don’t know how much it costs youdon’t know how much you need. Quite simple.

In addition to this global budget, you will mostlikely need to make a specific budget for eachof the activities, or at least for the most impor-tant (e.g. the youth exchange, the poster cam-paign, etc.). This is so for two main reasons:

• Often the sums involved (e.g. in an interna-tional seminar) are so large that theyrequire specific accounting and funding.

• Rarely is it possible to fundthe project as a whole. Fewsponsors buy that. Even thosewho do in principle, oftenhave such a list of exclusions(i.e. things that they don’tfund). It is often easier to findsponsors for one activity thanfor the whole – (“We supportsports activities, but as for trav-el, we never finance travel...”).

• Protect life and live longer. Save stress andheadaches. Have proper bookkeeping! Youare accountable for the money involved, ifnot legally, at least morally.

• Be truthful. Some people are aware of thereality of things.

• Be brave! Your project is good, it deservesthe money, but you still have to work hardfor it! It will pay in the end!

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But remember:

* Do not over plan your time,allocate only 80%

* You need self-disciplineto stick to your own plan

* Keep in mind the 80/20 ratio.80% of available time is oftenspent doing 20% of the necessary work

• Make sure that the commitments of yourorganisation are real commitments and putthose “up front” to start the fundraising.

• Ask for advice and opinions. Funders mayhave a particular interest in your project.They’ll become more committed if they aregiven the impression that their opinion counts.

• Try to spread the staff costs and other over-head costs throughout the budget of all theactivities (unless you apply for everything!).Otherwise you may find yourself in deficit as

everyone will want to contribute to the resultsof your work but not to pay your work!

• Bear in mind that you have to account forall the sums you receive.

• No matter how painful, the financial reportis still part of the project. Yes, it is also yourresponsibility!

• Don’t accept no for an answer. Try somewhereelse. Try other activities. Keep contact withthe sponsor you approached.

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Putting it down in the application form

Every application must be accompanied by a budget, in which isusually contained what you ask for from your sponsor or fundinginstitution.

Remember to:

• Keep your budget balanced (expenses are exactly the same as the income);

• Check how much the sponsor can sponsor (some funding institutions do havelimits by project or receiving organisation). Asking for more than they can givereveals bad financial planning.

• Get information about the funders’ criteria for selection, priorities, rules ofcalculation, etc. Follow them.

• Tell yourself that the purpose is not to get the money but to achieve the project’sobjectives.

• Diversify sources. Maybe they can be complementary.

• Show how much the organisation, volunteers and other sponsors are contributingwith.

• Follow the rules about how to fill in the application form, even if they seem sillyto you. Not following them is the shortest way to be rejected.

• Present a realistic budget! People usually know what things cost! Too low pricesindicates lack of seriousness or knowledge. Too high prices usually indicate risk ofbad management.

• Count all costs and contributions, including contributions in kind. If needed, checkif the sponsor has limits or regulations on how to count voluntary contributionsor in-kind income.

3.3.1.3 Fundraising

It is often difficult to raise the finance neces-sary to carry out a project. Sadly, there is noformula whereby the necessary funds can becollected in a few days, and yet money remainsthe key concern in bringing a project to fruition.Many are the projects which have been impos-sible to carry out for want of funds.

Fundraising is an activity in its own right andmust not be seen as merely incidental tothe project. It demands a very professionalapproach. This is because the project will facecompetition; it must be effective, convincingand innovative and offer funding organisationssomething in return.

Seeking and raising finance can be an absorbingbusiness. However, if it is poorly organised andplanned it can also be a frustrating and disap-pointing experience. The advice of professionalfundraisers employed by major organisationsis to draw up a long-term fundraising strategy,systematically gathering information on backerslikely to be sympathetic to your organisation’sactivities and goals, informing potentially inte-rested foundations and companies about the

organisation and, lastly, targeting applicationsaccording to the project to be financed.

There are various sources of funding (grants,sponsorship, humanitarian aid, individualdonations and contributions to expenditure)and various ways of supporting a project(besides money, other resources such as equip-ment, premises, staff, transport can be madeavailable). It is up to you to look into the differ-ent sources of funding and to choose thosewhich best reflect the needs of your project.

Some general principlesof fundraising

• It is a part of PR work and isconcerned with putting acrossthe image of a project and anorganisation.

• While fundraising must form part of the organisation’s over-all strategy, it must also be adapted to each project’s spe-cific needs.

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DO:

• Keep the contacts with the spon-sor, even if you did not get fund-ing.

• Ask for directions if you intend orneed to use the money for otheractivities than those asked for.

• Say thank you to sponsors.

• Invite them to be involved in theproject (somehow).

• Value each contribution (not only‘big money’!).

• Introduce changes if they makesense and secure the feasibility ofthe rest.

DON’T:

• Be discouraged by a no.

• Do it if you don’t have the money.

• Assume you have a natural rightto funding!

• Expect the funders to know theimportance of your project if youdon’t tell them.

• Underestimate the value of a con-tribution, no matter how small!

• Do it all by yourself. Accountants,treasurers and experts can also beof help.

• It is conducted by a single person workingin liaison with the entire project team and byagreement with the directors of the organi-sation.

• It must be planned, budgeted for and calcu-lated within a set timespan. During the pro-ject it must be regularly re-evaluated in orderto ascertain that all the necessary conditionsare being met.

NB: Major projects will probably benefit frombeing divided into “sub-projects”, with fundsbeing sought for each separately.

a – Finding sources of finance

The first step in fundraising is to make a list offunding opportunities, noting the variety ofpotential sources and types of resource.

Grants

These are available through programmes fun-ded from:

• public funds, which are funds made availableby the State to assist with the development of

certain areas of civil society. They are admi-nistered through programmes by govern-mental bodies (local or regional authorities,national ministries or international organi-sations);

• private funds, which are maintained by firmsor individuals wishing to “invest” in thedevelopment of civil society and adminis-tered by foundations (see also Sponsorship).

Programmes have goals which allow a frame-work to be set for the allocation of grants byspecifying types of project (by objectives), appli-cation and selection procedures, maximumgrant levels, the percentage of total cost andso on.

Whether administered by governmental institu-tions or by foundations, there are programmesoffering project finance in various sectors (byprogramme goals) and at different levels (local,regional, national and international).

Try to identify all programmes likely to becompatible with your project and the work ofyour organisation: Before sending an applica-tion, make a systematic list of programmeswhich might provide funding. Consider thevarious topics addressed by your project (thesocial sector, youth, health, environment, socialexclusion, human rights, etc), the level of acti-vity (local, regional, national or international)and whether programmes are run by ministries,local authorities, foundations or other bodies.

Once you have drawn up a list of possiblesources, you must select those programmeswhose aims and objectives reflect the aims andobjectives of your project. Choose programmesoperating in the same geographical area as yourproject (there is no point in applying for a grantunder a European programme if your projecthas no European dimension). To do this, makeout an information sheet (which should be ascomprehensive as possible) for each potentialsource of funding.

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Before beginning fundraising, check:

• that you know the project – and theorganisation – inside out;

• that you believe in the project and areprepared to argue its case;

• to what extent you are prepared / autho-rised to adapt certain aspects of the pro-ject;

• that you have a list of everything neededto carry out the project and the resourcesmade available by the organisation;

• that you have the support and agreementof the other partners in the project andthe members of your organisation; seek-ing individual donations or applyingto particular foundations sometimesrequires a policy decision.

Do not be afraid to contact the funding orga-nisation concerned to ask for this information.

There is no point in sending out applicationsat random: make sure to target your appeal.Your project must meet grant allocation crite-ria and be of interest to the potential donor.

In order to obtain information on programmesand/or foundations, you could approach localand regional authority or youth informationcentres. Lists exist with details of the variousopportunities available through foundations.The Internet too is a source of information onfoundations. Lastly, ask around to find outhow other projects have received funding.

Once you have made an initial selection, youcan send off an application, taking care of courseto comply with the procedure required by thefunding organisation (see below: Making anapplication).

Sponsorship

This is financial support given directly to aproject by a company, a bank or other body.

At present, most finance for youth projects isassisted by grants from programmes or foun-dations (especially in the international youthsector). The contribution of firms is often mi-nimal or even non-existent. This is probablydue to a mutual lack of understanding (firms are

not very familiar with youth work and projectorganisers do not always seek funding in theprivate sector) or to ideological resistance.

However, firms would appear to be growingmore interested in and open to participationin project funding for reasons of publicity (byfunding a project a firm gives a positive and“generous” image of itself and becomes asso-ciated with the image of the project) or tax(donations attract exemptions). It is interes-ting to note that large companies make a partof their annual budget available for fundingprojects. While some of this money is paiddirectly to foundations, some may be used tosupport projects financially.

A recent study shows that project supportcomes mainly from the finance, energy, elec-tronics (including new technologies), tobaccoand alcohol sectors.

However, besides these major sectors, smalllocal companies may also provide invaluablesupport. Remember that support does notnecessarily come in the form of money – afirm may sometimes prefer to provide help inkind (equipment, transport, staff, etc).

When you approach a firm, remember thatyou are becoming a player on the market andthat your “product” (the project) must be com-petitive. You are “selling” an image (communityaction, social change, youth work, socialprogress, etc). For the firm, donation is a vehi-cle for self-publicity and a way of puttingacross a new image of “generosity” and “socialconscience”. It is associating its image withthat of your project.

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Information on kinds of funding:

• Name and address of the organisation;

• Contact responsible for dealing with fund-ing applications;

• Kinds of project funded: how are prioritiesdetermined, by whom and for how long?

• Procedure for making an application: isthere a form? If so, how can it be obtained?Is there a deadline for applications? Whenis it best to apply?

• What is the selection procedure for appli-cants? Who decides how much to allocate?Are grants determined by a committee?What is the maximum amount/percentageof total project cost awarded per project?

• Should any further documentation beincluded with the application?

What do backers expect?

• An assurance that the project will be car-ried out successfully;

• Sound management of funds and their useas specified in the project description;

• Good publicity about the project … andthe use of their name in all public displays;

• A project that is clear and well structured;• Reliable accounting;• A “professional”, reliable and well-informed

team;• Previous success and/or prospects of growth;• Support from the community in which you

will be carrying out the project.

Managing money…and fundraising!

No list is available of firms which fund projects.Therefore:

• find out about companies which have alreadyprovided funding, why they have done soand what kind of projects have been chosen;

• be creative and make contact with companieswhich have never previously been approached;

• work at being persuasive and selling your“product”.

Individual donations

In order to gather the necessary resources foryour project, you could appeal for individualdonations. Fundraising from individuals maybe done in different ways:• collections (of money or equipment);

• raffles;

• local jumble sales and events;

• fundraising campaigns.

Collecting donations from individuals getspeople interested in your project, which con-sequently becomes more widely known. It isalso a way of involving people with the pro-ject. This can prove useful in the case of localprojects.

The problem with collecting individual dona-tions is that potential donors are dispersed andit is difficult to target the appeal.

In the case of national or international pro-jects a major information campaign is usuallynecessary. Make sure that the cost of such acampaign will not exceed the anticipatedresponse.

Having listed the various possible sources, youwill next have to apply for funding. At this first

stage of fundraising, remember to consult yourproject partners and those responsible formaking decisions in your organisation andcheck that you have their support.

b – Making an application

Once you have established a list of possiblesources of finance, you must make contact withthem in order to explain your project, yourorganisation and what support you are seeking.

Presenting your project

Prepare a presentation pack in which yourproject is fully, clearly and concisely described,each project stage is outlined and the project isshown to be realistic and to have every chanceof success.

In drawing up your application, check whetheran application form exists (most programmes,and many foundations, provide a form). Wherea form exists, it must be used, and the appli-cation procedure must be strictly adhered to.

Your application must explain in full what theproject consists of, in what context it is to becarried out, the size of the budget and howmuch funding is being requested.

People reading it must be able to check itscredibility and assess its chances of success.The clearer and more detailed the project, themore realistic it is likely to appear.

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Putting it down in the application form

Application

0 – Project title, location, duration and target group

1 – Reason for the project (needs analysis)

– What needs does the project meet? What statistics do you have in supportof the needs analysis? Why is it important to meet these needs?

– Do other members of the community share your view of the situation?

– How do you intend to proceed?(see also chapter 3 – Needs analysis)

2 – What do you hope to achieve through the project? (aims and objectives)

– What are the anticipated results?

– How will the project affect those around you?

– How will it affect the community?

– How do the project goals reflect those of your organisation?

NB: Project aims must be sufficiently clear and specific and capable of beingassessed.

(see also chapter 3 – Aims and objectives)

3 – How do you intend to achieve your aims? (methods)

– What form will the project take? Describe its structure and activities. Whythese activities? Does the activities programme appear practicable?

– Will there be a full-time project co-ordinator? Who is participating in theproject, and how?

(see also chapter 3 – Methods)

4 – What resources are necessary? (finance, materials, premises)

– Is the budget appropriate for the programme indicated? Are all costs accountedfor (travel, premises, materials, staff costs, etc)? Is the budget sufficiently detailed?

– How will these costs be covered?

5 – Who will co-ordinate the project?

– Identity of the co-ordinator (name, address, telephone number, fax and e-mail).

– What is his/her role in the project? Can he/she take decisions? How strong arehis/her links with other organisation members and decision-making bodies?

– Are participants involved in running and co-ordinating the project? If so, how?

6 – When will the project be implemented?

– What are the project start and finish dates? Give details of project stagesand deadlines.

– Which activities have already begun?

– At what stage will staff be taken on?

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7 – How will the project be evaluated?

– How and according to what criteria will the project be evaluated?

– Is any follow-up planned?(see chapter 3 – Evaluation)

8 – Budget

Be aware that funding organisations will treat the budget as the most importantpart of your application.

You must include the following information:

Expenditure

– List all expenses connected with the project.

– Estimate the cost of all outgoings (in the currency specified on the form).Your estimate must be realistic (show how you have arrived at the final sum).

– Expenditure must correspond to the anticipated programme of activities asdescribed earlier.

– Estimate the rental cost of any material loaned by the private sector andinclude it under expenditure (and receipts).

– Calculate your total expenditure.

Receipts

– Include all sources of funds necessary for the project (your organisation’s ownresources, participants’ contributions, grants, materials and services donatedor loaned and amounts requested from backers).

– Estimate the rental cost of material loaned or donated by sponsors.

– The total amount requested must be made clear (and must not exceed themaximum usually granted).

– Calculate total receipts. This figure must equal total expenditure (otherwiseyou will be indicating that you do not have all the necessary resources – andthat the project will therefore be impossible to carry out).

NB: Be aware that the budget is one of the first things that funding organisationswill look at. Therefore:

– your budget must inspire confidence and show your project to be both realisticand trustworthy;

– it must match your project description;

– although provisional, it must be as close to final figures as possible;

– draw up a fair and realistic budget (check your calculations and ask someoneunconnected with the project to do the same);

– round up/down your figures (no decimal points);

– do calculations in the currency specified;

– diversify your sources of funding (do not approach a singlesource for all your needs);

– indicate whether the amounts included under receipts havealready been allocated (confirmed) or whether confirmationis still pending.

Some advice on making an application• The application must be clear, expressed in

terms which are easy to understand andlegible (type or print it, and avoid using asmall typeface simply in order to fit moreinformation on the form!)

• It must be accompanied by a covering letterexplaining why the application is being madeand indicating the project title, how much isbeing requested and any further information(newspaper articles, statutes of the organi-sation, etc). However, all information on theproject must be included in the applicationitself or on the appropriate form;

• Have someone unconnected with the pro-ject re-read the application to check that itis clear what you are asking for.

Make contact with the funding organisation

• Do not be shy of making contact with thoseresponsible for running funding programmesin order to drum up support. The more infor-mation they have, the better equipped theywill be to argue your case.

• Do not hesitate to publicise your organisa-tion (especially to foundations).

• Do not hesitate to enquire by telephonehow your application is proceeding, whetherall selection criteria have been met and whena decision will be taken.

• Finally, invite the funding organisation toinspect your project at first-hand.

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To be avoided:

– Do not systematically send an identical project presentation to a large number of foundations,institutions or companies.

– Where there is a person responsible for dealing with applications, do not write direct tothe programme/foundation director.

– Do not send a copy of your application.– Do not request unreasonable amounts.– Do not send your application after the closing date.– Do not assume that the funding organisation is familiar with the circumstances in which

your project will be run or the needs which it is designed to meet.– Do not request funding for operational costs or the purchase of material for your organisation.– Do not beg.

Practical advice

– Target and select institutions/foundations/companies which are likely to provide fundingfor your project or organisation because their aims are similar.

– Make sure your projects are believable (unrealistic applications could damage your orga-nisation’s chances in the future).

– Do not forget to include your organisation’s full address and the name of the contact person.– Believe in your project.– Adapt your application to the priorities of the funding organisation.– Use personal contacts.– If you give the names of any experts consulted in connection with the project, remember

to inform the people concerned.– Draw up a detailed, realistic budget which is balanced and accurate.– Make your project presentation clear and concise.– Avoid abbreviations.– Keep records of all action taken. An activity report will be requested (so keep newspaper

articles, records of input by participants, etc), as will final accounts (keep all invoices).– Try to develop a long-term partnership with backers, especially those whose aims are similar

to those of your organisation.– Do not forget to thank backers for their support.

Briefly

Managing money…and fundraising!

During the project

Publicise the project – and don’t forget tomention where the money came from!

As mentioned above, financing a project is ameans for funding organisations to achievepublicity. Accordingly, during the project allpublic activities must draw attention to thesource of funding in one way or another (useof the logo, stickers, or simply the names ofthe backers).

In some cases funding organisations haveprecise requirements regarding the publicitythey want from your project. Check thereforewhat expectations they have and that thesecorrespond to those of your project or orga-nisation. But you must remain in charge – donot allow backers to dictate your priorities!

Remember to invite your backers to certainstages of the project – especially the final stage.

Think about your report: during implementa-tion of the project, remember to keep every-thing which can be used as a record of theproject and for preparing the report:

– for the activity report, keep newspaper arti-cles, posters, videos, participants’ reports,photos, etc;

– for the financial report, keep all invoices.

If for some reason you need to alter the run-ning of the project in such a way as to signi-ficantly affect project activities, it is vital toinform the backers. Remember that they willrequest a final activity and financial reportand that they will check whether the reportmatches the initial project description for whichthey contributed their money.

After completion: project report

Backers will request a report in two parts – onepart on the running of the project and the othera financial report. Although this is not an inte-gral part of fundraising for your project, it ispart of your long-term fundraising strategy. Theactivity report must be concise but the expen-diture report must be detailed and comprehen-sive. It must be possible to justify all outgoings.

The report will reflect your organisation’s seri-ousness in bringing the project to a success-ful conclusion. Your accounts will be indis-pensable to the backers, so make them clearand complete, and remember to attach copiesof invoices for all expenditure.

Check with your backers whether any moneyleft over after the project’s completion can bereallocated to follow-up. Otherwise, offer to payit back.

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Sponsorship

An application for funding through sponsor-ship will not be significantly different. Peoplecontrolling company funds need the same

information about your project as other foun-dations and institutions. However, you willneed to adopt a more “commercial” approach.

Practical advice

– Put yourself in the company’s shoes: why should put money into your project rather thaninvest on the stock market? Why your project and not another? What advantages can theyobtain from identification with your project? Consider these crucial questions when makingyour application.

– Think of your project from the company’s point of view.– Use all contacts which you have with the company.– Think of different kinds of support which the company could give you. Rather than give

money, it would pay the company better to loan you a vehicle, equipment or even a memberof staff for a couple of weeks.

– Even gifts in kind should be given an estimated value and included in the budget.– Do not deviate from the principle that you will receive the funding that you require, and

think of alternative sources.– Consider carefully whose signature it would be strategically best to put on the application

covering letter (yours/the chairman of your organisation, etc).– Stress the benefit which funding your project will bring to the company (especially in terms

of publicity).

Managing money…and fundraising!

The report plays a part in generally publici-sing your organisation among funding orga-nisations.

Maintaining good relations with backers willstand you in good stead when it comes tofuture fundraising.

3.3.1.4 Materialand technical resources

In many ways, material resources and financialresources are one and the same. If you havethe money, you can rent or buy equipment,products and expertise. All of these have aneconomic value that must be stated.

The material resources include things as dif-ferent as meeting rooms, copy machines orcomputers, vehicles for transportation, or foodand refreshments. What is interesting, espe-cially if you work at national or local level, is tofind partnerships and cooperation with othersimilar organisations. Some type of equipmenttends to be under-used or used very irregularly(e.g., a recording studio, video equipment, sportsfacilities). In some cases it should be possibleto explore what you can use free of charge orat ‘friendly’ prices. This may be also a goodopportunity to establish useful alliances withother organisations and institutions.These arerepresented in the budget as an income.

The purchase of technical equipment is madedifficult by some programmes and sponsors,afraid that their money will end up in thestructure and not in the activities. Apart fromthe hypocrisy of such policies (including thosethat don’t accept buying but accept leasing),the fact remains that it usually gives a badimage if part of the project / activity’s budgetis too large in comparison with the other parts.Should that be the case (and in some cases itcan be justifiable), make sure that you havereally exhausted all possibilities for hiring, bor-rowing and leasing. If not for anything else,simply because a project may never be repea-ted again, and some equipment may just beleft to rot afterwards.

Technical expertise is also a resource. Just likematerial equipment, always check for possibi-lities to use volunteers or people who mightbe eager to share their knowledge with other

people. But you as a project manager may alsoneed to develop your technical competenciesin some areas (or the young people, for thatmatter). Make sure that the effort that theorganisation or project puts on one personis justified – in which cases it is justifiable –namely by the probability of repetition offuture actions.

3.3.1.5 Managing people

Success raises admiration. Success also stirsjealousy. Managing people (often called “humanresource management”) in project managementis, in first place, to manage the team in chargeof the project (see next chapter, for that). Inaddition to that, managing people is very muchbeing able to get the best out of people and thebest in people for the benefit of other people(and of themselves, of course). Among manyother people, the following are likely to influ-ence the implementation and outcome of yourproject:– Your colleagues – Volunteers or activists in your organisation– The young people in your project.

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Putting it downin the applicationform

• Make sure that contributions in kindand loans of material can be pro-perly accounted for in the budgetand in the financial report.

• Don’t give the impression that thewhole project is about buying thelatest state-of-the-art computer withincorporated micro-oven and a 3Dvideo system.

• Consider (budgeting the costs of)leasing instead of buying.

• Ask volunteers/technical experts howmuch their services are valued.

• Remember that “there are no freelunches”. Somebody has to pay for itat the end of the day. That is income.And it is an expense if you have topay the lunch

Recommendations for managing…

Colleagues (see Teamwork section for more)• Respect their concerns and try to overcome

them. Involve them in as far as they want tobe involved, but do not overload them withresponsibility that they did not ask for.

• Use their experience and see which syner-gies can be created between their projectsand your project. Look for allies in them, notfor rivals.

• Give them responsibilities if they want toaccept them. Involve them as resources, ifthey want. Consult them if they are affec-ted by changes that the project creates.

• Accept that colleagues may not be as enthu-siastic as yourself about your project. Andconsider for a moment the validity of theirobjections or reservations.

Volunteers• Give them responsibility and consult with

them on matters that they are knowledge-able about. Don’t seek their opinion orcommitment on matters in which they arenot competent – you may be forcing theirresponsibility.

• Involve them early in the process, usually inproportion to the commitment you expectfrom them.

• Be clear about your expectations and recep-tive to their concerns (and expectations).

• Value their work and thank them. Always.• Investigate ways through which they may

benefit from the project (e.g. further training,qualifications for the curriculum, professio-nal experience, etc.).

• Accept that a volunteer may want to berewarded (even if not financially). Considersupport systems for them.

• Volunteering has also a political and socialvalue, beyond the financial side. Make sureyou acknowledge it. Especially if it is com-patible with or part of your own project.

• Consider the costs of training and prepar-ing volunteers in your project preparations.

The young people

Most of the time the young people will be theobject and the subject of your project. Maybeyou don’t think of them as your partners orcolleagues. But the fact is that the young peo-ple are also a resource for your project, possiblythe most important of all, for without youngpeople... it is difficult to make a youth project.

Young people may be a resource if and pro-vided that:• They are seen and taken as partners and not

simply as consumers or participants in a won-derful project of which I am the irreplaceabledirector (!);

• Their opinions are effectively taken intoaccount – and acknowledged as such – forthe planning and management of the pro-ject;

• They are seen as an asset and not as a prob-lem;

• Their experiences are valued and validated.It is hard to believe, but young people mayknow more about young people than adults.

• The project is steered by them – even if ma-naged by you and your colleagues.

• The project is made for them and with them.Not about them or on them. Check this partcarefully. Ask yourself: what do the youngpeople get from it? Is it good enough? WouldI be satisfied if I were them? How manystereotypes (mine and society’s) am I con-veying through my project? What role do theyhave in the project? How can they influ-ence it? What can they learn through theway that the project is being implemented?

3.3.1.6 Teamwork

Good teamwork is as stimulating as black coffee,and just as hard to sleep afterwards(adaptation of a saying by Ann Lindberg )

Teamwork is important in developing a pro-ject. It stops the project from being too close-ly identified with one person, it brings in dif-ferent skills to the project and can strengthenit. But a project must make progress, it hasdeadlines to reach and work to be done. Theteam at the centre of the project needs to beable to juggle many different activities. Teamsneed to be able to make decisions on organisa-tional and financial issues and at the sametime to create a feeling of energy and excite-ment around the project. In other words, teamshave to work effectively. Working togetherwith different people, with different ideasand personalities, different backgrounds andcultures, different skills, sometimes even speak-ing different languages,... it all sounds nice,but often it is hard work.

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Managing people…and team work

The first part of this paragraph will focus onteamwork as such.It includes:• problems about cooperation• a model for effective team work• a model of team development• six points that can help the development of

an effective team• a framework for decision making in teams• a project team and the outside worldTeam work is hard but exciting and it is evenharder and more exciting when working in amulticultural team.It is clear that effective team work does notjust happen. The development of good teamwork needs to be encouraged.The second part of this chapter on team workwill focus on the specificity of multicultural teams.It includes:• why multicultural team are valuable• specifics and pitfalls• suggestions to help work in multicultural teams

A team, a team,my kingdom for a team !

Co-operation – the magic word:the 4 poles of co-operationOne of the key elements in team work is effi-cient co-operation. Co-operation however iseasy to talk about but very difficult to do.Most of the problems to do with co-operationhave to do with relational aspects (together-problems) and task aspects (work problems).

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Together

Working

StructureIndividual

TeamObjectives

Source: Drs. A.P.R. van Veen from Frank Oomkes, Trainingals beroep. Deel 3, Oefeningen in interculturele vaardigheid,Amsterdam: Boom 1994)

Problems at individual levelThese problems have to do with the three basicsocial needs: the need to feel involved in theteam, to have influence on the teamwork,and affection. Their importance for indivi-duals depends on the time the team has toco-operate and how profound the co-opera-tion is. If the teamwork is very important forthe team members they will try to fulfil moreof this basic needs. These needs influence theteam. E.g. Individuals who want their needfor influence to be met, will compete with others.People who do not feel involved will cry forattention,...To be aware that team members have theseneeds and the openness to discuss these topicscan reduce the tension between individualsand the team.

Problems at team levelThe fact that a team is not able to create acertain team cohesion, can be the result of toogreat a heterogeneity, a lack of contact betweenteam members, opposite ideas on objectives,a too task-orientated leadership, etc...An open and honest discussion can help toresolve these problems on team level.

ObjectivesProblems or conflicts appear when the objec-tives of the team are not clear or well defined.Clear objectives make it possible to measureand evaluate the progress of the team work.If the objectives are too vague or not clear any-more, stop the work and re-discuss the objec-tives.Co-operation gets stronger if team membershave to work together to reach the objective.

StructureTo reach the objectives, a team needs a certaintask structure. This is about the rules, methods,strategies, division of tasks and power,... Fora team to work effectively, this structure hasto be accepted by all team members.Again this needs discussion and open commu-nication.

Together problems Tasks problems

Managing people…and team work

A model for effective teamwork

The product-procedure-people triangle –the 3’Ps’

“The project must make progress, it has dead-lines to reach and work to be done. The peoplesteering the project need to become an effec-tive team......” (Lawrie, 1996 )

The 3’Ps’ triangle symbolises the fact that fora team to become effective, there has to be abalance between the product, the procedureand the people in the team.

The triangle symbolises that in an efficient teamthere has to be a balance between these threepoles:

• Too much attention to procedures, too strictrules will kill the creativity and the spontane-ity of the people. People will feel less goodand this will have an effect on the product(result)

• Too much attention to the people side, toomuch talking about how we feel, how we likeor dislike each other will take the focus awayfrom the result, a project team is not a the-rapeutic growth group ;

• Too much focus on the product (result) willhinder the team in finding good working

procedures and will have an effect on thepeople side ( there is less time to listen to eachothers ideas, to evaluate the work and theprocess)

Many teams are strongly focused on the prod-uct (result). They don’t take the time to get toknow each other, to think about procedureson how to work together, to evaluate howpeople feel in the team mostly because a lackof time. “We only have two days for this prep-meeting…”

At the first sight it looks of course more effi-cient to put all the attention on the task, theproduct; if you don’t have to take the time tolisten to different ideas you have more time toexecute the task. But in the longer term lis-tening to each other, taking time for each otherwill be much more efficient. For example, thereal cause of a problem can become clear orreally listening to each other can help to moti-vate that person ( listening = giving attention= recognise the person, you are important forthis team = motivation to work better )A dynamic balance between product – proce-dure – people will help a team function muchbetter in the longer term.

The 3’Ps’: a method to reflect on your team-work

This model can help you to work togetherefficient, but it can also be used as a methodto evaluate your teamwork.

Ask all the team members to give a score from1 to 5 on the three elements of the model.Discuss afterwards the different scores and askpeople why they gave this score.What can be changed to have a higher score?

A team development model

Like all groups, teams develop while workingtogether. It takes time and effort to become aneffective team. The orientation, the awarenessof the team members and the state of the teamare in a continuous process. To be effective,groups have to grow through this process. Fora team it is important to know that the teamhas to go through this process, to be aware ofit and to know where you are in the process.

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For a team to be successful and efficient thesefour poles have to be in balance. Not easy ina team with different people with differentneeds, expectations, capacities, social skills andsometimes with a different background and cul-ture. It helps to be aware of these differencesand to discuss them. It takes time but in thelong term it will help the team more forwards.

Managing people…and team work

Product

PeopleProcedure

(the objective, the task)

(the structural sideof the co-operation

rules, methods, strategies,division of tasks and power)

(human side of co-operation,relations between individuals,

feeling accepted,feeling important)

In the beginning most teams are almost exclu-sively focused on the task, the result or thegoal. Everyone wants to have their input withtheir ideas and very soon co-operation becomesvery chaotic. Team members are willing to letthis chaos exist for a while but soon therewill be a need to bring order. The team willneed to bring more structure to the co-ope-ration process, to look for role clarity: ‘Who willtry to co-ordinate the meetings? Who will bethe time manager? The orientation of the teamwill be much more towards procedures to bringstructure to the chaos: How do we channel allthese ideas, inputs, etc?. Co-operation becomesmuch more formal, people only speak whengiven permission from the co-ordinator, deci-sion making procedures are strictly followed,etc. Once the team members have the feelingthat they are able to work flexibly with theseprocedures, the team can proceed to the nextphase: to give feedback on each other’s beha-viour and to talk about emotions and feelings.The co-ordinator can step back. People are notlistening anymore because they have to, butbecause they trust and respect each other’sideas, capacities, strengths and weaknesses.The focus of the team is now much more ori-entated on the people in the team.The fact that feedback on behaviour and talk-ing about emotions is situated on the top of thepyramid doesn’t mean that this has to be theultimate goal of every team. Many teams, how-ever, are not able to get to this phase.

Again this doesn’t mean that the other ele-ments of the pyramid are not important butteams who can give feedback to each otherand are able to discuss emotions and feelingsare, in the longer term, much more effective.

Effective team work does not just happen.The development of good team work needs tobe encouraged. The following points are keyelements for high performance teams.

A few rules can helpIn youth work, some people are allergic to strictrules and want to work flexibly and informally,it is good to have some clear rules. Withoutsome rules things fall apart and become chaotic.At the start of the teamwork it is important tothink about some commonly agreed rules ondecision making, responsibilities, communi-cation and time. Of course, if necessary rulescan be changed according to the needs of thegroup.

A framework for decisionsIn project teams many decisions have to be made.The following “DECIDE” framework may makeit easier to approach problems or difficult sit-uations. (it is taken from pages 36 and 37 inSandy Adirondak ‘Just about managing, effectivemanaging for voluntary organisations and commu-nity groups’, 3rd ed., 1998, ISBN 1-872582-17-6© Sandy Adirondack and London VoluntaryService Council).

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Process / PeopleEmotions

Behaviour

Structure

Roles

Skilful

Procedure Formal

Product / Result Result Chaotic

This model shows the process through which every team has to go.

Managing people…and team work

A framework for decisions: “DECIDE”D: DEFINE– the problem or situation and stick to the

definition. Don’t keep compounding it ormaking it more complicated.

– clearly who must be involved in the processand in what way

– a time limit or deadline, at least for a tentativedecision

– what information is needed to solve theproblem, and who will get it. Informationincludes opinions as well as facts

– Make a clear note of everything that hasbeen defined and ensure all relevant peoplereceive a copy.

E: EXPLORECollect the information without judging any-one’s view of the problem or suggested solu-tions

C: CLARIFYMake sure everyone involved in making thedecision has and understands the necessaryinformation.

I: IDEASThink of all the possible solutions: silly as wellas serious. Use creative problem-solving tech-niques such as brainstorming, small groupdiscussion instead of simply discussion in thewhole group. Make the different ideas visual.

D: DECISION– Accept that no solution or decision will be

able to satisfy everyone; any decision will beimperfect and have limitations. Be preparedto compromise!

– Evaluate the suggestions in a clear, calm way!– Make a decision, by voting if that is your way

or if it is necessary, or preferably by comingto an agreement that everyone is willing toaccept.

– Check that everyone directly involved in thedecision making is willing to see the deci-sion implemented even if they disagree withit. If some are not, decide whether to go aheadanyway (and risk sabotage) or repeat thewhole exercise.

– Clarify who will ensure the decision is car-ried out or the solution put in practice, whenand how it should happen and when it willbe reviewed.

E: EVALUATE– Assess whether the problem has been com-

pletely solved or if other aspects now needto be considered.

Working with multicultural groups requiresa multicultural team

When talking about multicultural teams thefocus should be on how these teams can bestwork together, how to deal with cultural dif-ferences, how to share beliefs, behaviour, va-lues and assumptions to create a coat of manycolours.In fact it is much easier to talk or to write onmulticultural teams than to work with or inthese teams. There are many challenges formulticultural teams to become effective. It isnot easy to deal with differences, to discussdifferent values, backgrounds, to identify otherbeliefs, assumptions and behaviours.

Multicultural teams: potential for greaterdiversity

Given the greater complexity and the changesin society and thus also in youth work, it seemsobvious that bringing together people with dif-ferent cultural backgrounds will enhance thequality of the project.

Given the greater complexity and the increas-ing focus on intercultural aspects in youthwork projects, these cultural differences pro-vide a bigger range of perspectives and options.Cultural differences can also contribute to newways of looking at old problems, creating theopportunity for greater creativity and innova-tion (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997).Multicultural groups can also help to minimisethe risk of uniformity and pressures for con-formity that can occur in groups where there aretoo many like-minded individuals (Janis, 1972).

Research made on team performance byMeredith Belbin (Belbin, 1981) indicates thatteams composed of members with differentprofiles were more effective than teams madeup of members with a similar profile.

Recent research has further demonstratedthat, once settled multicultural teams per-formed better than monocultural ones inidentifying problem perspectives and gener-ating alternatives.

The problem is ‘how to get settled’ or how toarrive at common ground. Diverse groups haveto confront differences in attitudes, values,behaviours, background, expectations and evenlanguage.

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Specifics and pitfalls for multicultural teams

Different expectations on how the teamshould function

In order for teams to be effective, they needto find solutions to problems of internal inte-gration. This means developing strategies formanaging the team’s primary task, to managea project, as well as its process, meaning howto work together.This is all the more difficult when team mem-bers have different cultural assumptions abouthow the team should function. For teams to create effective solutions in aninternational context, there as to be an appre-ciation of the impact of culture on the efficiencyof these teams.“For multicultural teams to deliver on the promiseof better performance through diversity, there is aneed to develop culturally appropriate strate-gies to manage the task as well as the process.”(Schneider and Barsoux, 1997) Multicultural teams must be willing to identifyand negotiate differences in expectations regard-ing the task strategies and the process of inter-action. The aim is not to neutralise differencesbut to build on them. If differences are notrecognised they cannot be valued or utilisedand can become a handicap when we pretendthat they don’t exist.“The promise of multicultural teams lies inusing the differences, not just living with them”(Schneider and Barsoux, 1997)

The failure to address these cultural differencesand to agree on the task and the process cansabotage any group effort. Many newly formedteams jump immediately into a discussion.These teams don’t devote enough time to think-ing about the interactive process: what patternsor style of communication is needed, how rela-tions are built, how decisions will be made, whichbackground do people have,....in neglecting todeal with these differences, teams are storingup problems for later on.

Putting cultural differences on the table

Cultural differences are expressed in differentexpectations about the purpose of the team andhow the team is supposed to operate. Some ofthese expectations are related to the result,what are the objectives, do we need clear objec-tives, do we have to spend time discussingthem. Other expectations are related to the

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• Teams welcome and use diversityTeam work is not about all being thesame. People frequently join or arerecruited to a project because theylike, identify or fit with the other peo-ple. This is inevitable, but done toexcess it create an inward looking‘clique’ feel to the project. Good teamshold a common commitment to theproject’s vision and values, but aremade up of people with differentskills, backgrounds and experience.Good team work is not abouteveryone thinking and operating thesame all of the time.

• Teams need to know and exploiteach member’s skills

A useful team development tool is toinform each other about your skills,experience and contacts. Don’t be toohumble! This can be an enormous help,it can bring to light resources thatwere unknown and identify particulargaps that the project will need to fill.

• The size of the team is importantResearch on effective teamwork sug-gests that with more than ten to fif-teen people a group finds it hard tooperate as team. It is much more dif-ficult to communicate, to shareresponsibilities, to make decisions,to feel accepted, etc. It is harder toget agreement about how to work.

• Commitment and involvementAll team members understand thegoals and are committed to achievingthem. Everyone feels a high degreeof involvement in formulating tasksand accomplishing them.

• A climate of comfort and trust isnecessary

The team creates a climate where peo-ple are comfortable and informal.There is genuine trust so people areable to take risks. Members are sen-sitive to the needs of others.

• Conflict managementConflict and disagreement are con-sidered natural and dealt with. Theemphasis is on problem resolution,not personalities.

procedures; how the task is structured, roles orwho does what and when and how decisionswill be made. Expectations are also related tothe people (process) side of the team work –team building, language, participation, waysof managing conflicts, how do we feel in theteam. These expectations have to be negoti-ated before the team can jump into the task.This does not mean that a team has to findanswers for all these questions, but that someof these different expectations are spoken, thatteam members know them from each otherand that team members are aware that theyhave different expectations.

The purpose of this ongoing discussion is todevelop a shared strategy on how the team willwork together. It provides the opportunity toname the cultural differences and to allowthem to be discussed, rather than ignored, inthe hope that they will go away. “By puttingcultural differences on the table rather thanpushing them under the table, the potential prob-lems can be anticipated and addressed and thepotential opportunities can be brought to light.”(Schneider and Barsoux, 1997).

Suggestions to help work in multiculturalteams

“Discussing cultural differences, however, is a highrisk activity for the team since all sorts of value-laden preferences and prejudices are exposed.This requires a high level of sensitivity, trust andreal commitment to integration. The differenceshave to be identified, discussed and channeled,rather than accommodated, absorbed or ignored.

Sometimes this means that if these differencesare truly integrated, everyone ends up feelingsomewhat uncomfortable, as they have had togive up some of their taken for granted assump-tions. High performing multicultural teams are

those, however, that risk identifying their dif-ferences to create more intricate and colourfulpatterns of interaction.... The promise of multi-cultural teams lies in using differences, not justliving with them” (Schneider and Barsoux, 1997).

It is obvious that a starting team can not fulfilfrom the beginning all these requirements, butit is important that from the beginning a teamtries to create an open and respectful atmos-phere where differences can be discussed.Here are some suggestions to help work withcross – cultural issues in teams:

Take time to get to know each other, especial-ly in multicultural teams it is essential to taketime to get to know each other better beforejumping into the task. To get to know eachother better does not mean a formal roundon name, work, hobbies. Try to find out fromeach other more about background, ideas onhow different people see team work, how theysee the project, what are their previous expe-riences in working in teams, in projects.Thisdoesn’t have to be very formal, it can be doneby games, co-operation activities, by having adrink together. To build up a team takes time,the informal time sometimes is more valuablethan the formal working time.

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Important for a multicultural team is:

• creating a common objective

• setting specific goals on how towork together

• establishing task andprocess strategies

• evaluating andproviding feedbackon the way the teamperforms

Managing people…and team work

Create a sense of purpose: before jump-ing into the task, take time to discusssome elementary issues on differentlevels:

• Task result: What are our objectives?Do we agree on these objectives?How clear do the objectives have tobe?

• Procedures: Do we need clear pro-cedures to organise our team work?Which procedures do we need?Should a co-ordinator be assigned?How will work be divided? What canbe done together? apart? How dowe make decisions? How should timebe managed? Do we need an agen-da? Who does what? Who is incharge of what?

• Process (people): How can we ensureparticipation of all members? Howcan we ensure that everybody feelsgood in the team? Is this an impor-tant item for the team? How do wedeal with conflicts? How do weorganise continuous evaluation?

Accept differences: Working effectively in ateam doesn’t mean that we always have toagree. Discussions are healthy and help theteam to move forwards. What is important isthat efforts are made to motivate people tocontribute to the team work. Given differencesin how people perceive team work, their lan-guage ability, how language is used, efforts toelicit participation needs specific attention.Making sure that all members are heard, thattheir views are properly considered requiressensitivity and courage. However this is need-ed to identify and confront underlying diffe-rences and prejudices which could excludecertain team members. Thus some restraint ofdominant team members and encouragementof quieter members may well be needed.

Sometimes cultural differences are interpretedas ‘personality problems’: a team member maybe considered difficult or sabotaging groupefforts (perhaps by remaining silent or by force-fully arguing their point of view) when thatperson is merely responding to a different setof cultural norms. The person is then treatedas deviant and ignored and is pressured toconform. By conforming they loose their poten-tial contribution. Furthermore in blaming theindividual, one fails to blame the situation, wherethe dominance of one teamwork culture overthe others, or the nature of the conversation, maydiscourage participation of some team members.

Meaningful participation does not mean thateveryone has to speak, the same amount. A per-son may speak occasionally and yet regularlycome up with a crucial input. Meaningful partic-ipation means that everyone has helped tomove the team forward in their own way.Multicultural teams should not fall into thetrap of trying to force contributions. (Schneiderand Barsoux, 1997).

– In fact the team can define, before startingand also during the work, the meaning of‘meaningful participation’ and how to ensureit happens.

– meetings can be structured in such a waythat there are more opportunities for peopleto speak:- persons working in smaller groups and

bringing the results together- persons listening to each persons’ ideas

before jumping into a discussion- persons giving time to each person to write

down some of their ideas- persons hanging two posters pro/contra:

everybody can write his ideas on bothposters, the discussion can be done after-wards

- persons trying to explore the underlyingmeaning of behaviour. Why is somebodysilent all the time? Why does somebodyalways disagree ?

Language issuesThe way in which teams ‘talk’ createsthoughts and feelings, enhancing or inhibit-ing relationships, problem-solving and learn-ing. ‘Team talk’ also reveals how issues ofidentity, interdependence, power, social dis-tance, conflict and negotiation are managed.Thus being able to decide on the languageand communication is extremely importantto negotiate strategies for working together.

The choice of language in multicultural teamshas a lot of consequences for the team mem-bers. Those who don’t speak the language usedin the team that well are somehow handicapped.It is much more difficult to intervene, to fol-low the discussions, to influence the work.

Continuous evaluationTo ensure effectiveness, teams have to evalu-ate their progress continuously, both in termsof task and process. It is necessary to provideopportunities to reflect and learn as a team. Thisrequires time to evaluate how the team and itsmembers are doing, to discuss the dynamicsand resolve potential conflicts. While not easy todo in any culture, some cultures are more pre-pared to give and receive feedback than others.This makes the process of evaluating the teamperformance a potential cultural minefield.It’s necessary therefore to agree upon waysof giving feedback and discussing the group’sinteraction.

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Important for a multicultural team is:

• Some suggestions for dealing withlanguage issues :

• before starting, check the languageabilities of the team members

• speak slowly• don’t be afraid to ask for clarification

at any point• make things visible by using a flip

chart, drawings etc.• if you are not able, or too frustrated

to make a point in the chosen language,you can always revert to your nativelanguage, if someone can translate

• be aware that you have a lot of power ifyou are a native speaker or if you speakthe language very well

• respect the slowness of non-nativespeakers

ConclusionSuccessful multicultural teams are those whichhave found ways of integrating the contributionof their members and have learned to findsolutions that add value due to the diversity,not in spite of it. They also have learned to havefun, to experience the discovery of cultural dif-ferences as opportunities for surprise, learningand shared laughter. (Schneider and Barsoux,1997).

3.3.1.7 Ongoing monitoringand evaluation

The project plan is an estimation. It is like aroute that you trace in a map to go frompoint A to point C, not forgetting to pass bystop B. Once you start the journey, you mayhave to make changes, extra stops, take alter-native roads. However, your destination is thesame. Project management is very similar.With your objectives in mind you will have tosteer your project past obstacles, shortages,ambitions, offers, changes etc.

The importance of project planning is to allowyou to understand what you may need tochange and why. It is to allow you to be incharge. But the plan is not a scripture to befollowed line by line.

How to steer the project through changes isvery much the role of monitoring and evalu-ation. We tend to do these things instinctive-ly: we make financial estimations, payments,changes, adaptations and evaluations in notime, usually without calling it that. The pro-ject as a tool allows you to do it in a con-scious and reflected manner. That’s all.

During the implementation you may – andprobably you should – think of using twoimportant tools for the management of theimplementation: monitoring and evaluation.

Monitoring

To monitor means to ’check, record, track orcontrol something on a regular basis’5. Appliedto project management, monitoring means tokeep track of the progress of the project, of theimplementation of the plan, of the manage-ment of the resources, of checking whetherwhat is being done is within the frameworkof the aims and objectives.

Monitoring is done throughout the project,when it is still possible to introduce changes,change course and adapt better to reality.

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5 American Heritage Dictionary

Law of project management No.4

“When things are going well, something willgo wrong. When things can’t get any worse,they will. When things appear to be goingbetter, you have overlooked something …

Murphy was an optimist!”

Law of project management No.5“Project teams detest progress reporting because

it so vividly manifests the lack of progress.”

Evaluation means (1) ‘to determine or fix thevalue of something’ or (2) ‘to determine thesignificance, worth, or condition of – usuallyby careful appraisal and study 6’. In projectmanagement, evaluation means also to take note of what is happening and why it is hap-pening. It is not looking only at results butalso at the process leading to those results.

At this stage we are interested in regular orintermediate evaluations. Final evaluation willbe the subject of our next chapter.

To use the full potential of monitoring and eva-luation you should consider:

Checkpoints in your project plan. Monitoringalso needs to be planned. Foresee momentswhen you will review the progress accom-plished and how it scores against your targets.You can do this on a regular basis (e.g. everymonth), but you can also have monitoringpoints after each major activity (to take onboard the impact of the activities).

Have a monitoring team. You should not mo-nitor the project alone, namely because youwill not be able to have a perspective fromoutside or above. Of course you must involveyour team in the monitoring, but considerinvolving other people from the organisationnot working directly on the project. In somecases, it may be wise to involve people hav-ing nothing to do with the management ofthe project: sponsors, users, experts.

Keep track of results. The best way to secure aregular and useful evaluation is to take timeto take note and record what you achieve. Itmeans also writing your objectives down foreach activity. It means asking people’s opi-nion about what has been achieved.

Diversify sources of information. Just as it isuseful to involve external people in the mo-nitoring of the project, it is also useful to asso-ciate other people with providing informationand opinions about the course of the project.To start with, the users and young people them-selves. But also each activity’s public and part-ners should participate in the evaluation (thisdoes not need huge paper work). Not only do

you secure a probably more objective basis ofinformation, you also involve and motivatepeople to stay committed to the project.

Involve colleagues in defining objectives andprocedures. Each activity may have its ownspecific objectives, and you may set specific pro-cedures (for recruitment, information, financialmanagement, etc.), in order to evaluate them;they should be clear or understood by everyone.

Adapt objectives and activities. If the plan doesnot correspond to the reality, change the plan,don’t expect reality to change by itself. Oftenthis is a matter of reorganising the time sche-dule or changing activities. But in some casesyou may have to review objectives, too.

Change only what needs to be changed. Do nothesitate to adjust and change what needs to bechanged. But don’t rush to change everythingjust because some things are working diffe-rently from expected. Too much change atonce may be de-motivating and spread confu-sion.

Look for reasons and patterns. Try to find outwhat may have produced the changes. What isbad planning altogether? Was it inadequacyof means, of approaches or...? Finding out thesewill help you in focussing the areas of changeand improvement.

Setbacks are normal. Especially if the project isa starter in a given area or domain of work, itis normal that time is needed for things to startfunctioning. Do check whether the changesare to be done in the procedures, methods,organisation or in the project as a whole!

Appreciate and motivate. Monitoring and eval-uation are not only about what is going wrong.It is also about taking note of progress. Andacknowledging it. This way you can keep yourcolleagues and partners motivated and recep-tive to changes or adjustments.

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Law of project management No.6

“No system is ever completely debugged.Attempts to debug a system inevitably introduce

new bugs that are even harder to find.”

6 Webster English Dictionary

Human relations are also results! Looking atthe process of work and management of theproject you can learn about management andother colleagues may also learn. In many ways,the process of running the project is itself aproject. It is not only the results that count, itis also the relationships with people and howthey evolve. The project is a tool, it does notoften deserve that you sacrifice everything forit. Help people learn from it.

Act in time. Make sure that the evaluations andmonitoring steps are done in appropriate timespans so that they can be useful. They shouldserve to improve and adapt and not only totake note of what has happened.

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Law of project management No.7

“If project content is allowedto change freely, the rate of change

will exceed the rate of progress”

Writing it down inthe application form

Some sponsors andinstitutions will wantto know who is theteam in charge of theproject, what theirqualifications are (sometimes curriculavitae have to be provided), how theproject will be evaluated and when.

Especially for larger sums, the spon-sors will want to monitor the evolu-tion of the project, hence demandinginterim reports before releasing fur-ther payments.

For all these reasons, do take themanagement of the project and itsmonitoring seriously! Rememberthat often the intention of the spon-sors is not so much to control yourproject as to make sure that theirmoney will be used for the best pur-poses and to be sure that those pur-poses will be reached.

Even if not asked, and you feel that itis important, provide details aboutany ways of monitoring the project.

If possible, invite thesponsor to join themonitoring team, orshow yourself readyto discuss the pro-ject progress withthem.

DO:• Allow time for results to show.

• Adopt an honest approach toreality.

• Also value results that were notforeseen.

• Take into account the financialmanagement of the project.

• Value young people’s opinion andcontribution to the evaluation.

• Seek allies in your monitoringteam for improving things.

DON’T:• Be afraid of resistance

• Postpone inevitable decisions

• Act as if you were the only ownerof the project.

• Let others dictate what youought to do.

• Underestimate the risk forfinancial problems.

• Let yourself fall into pessimism!

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Back to Ban Uppa!

To: Robert P., Markka Z., Rosita L (Ban Uppa!); John A. (Banville city councilyouth department); Fabbio K. (school events coordinator); Mario P. and Raïsa X.(group leaders).

Dear friends,

Please find enclosed the agenda for our next meeting on Saturday afternoon. You may knowthat we have encountered problems in organising the sports festival. We need to decide whetherto cancel or postpone it. On the positive side, the activities have picked up very well since theyouth exchange became feasible. The young people are now very active in preparing it. There issome jealousy from other young people (of course those that did not find it interesting at thebeginning), but we may use this as a factor for developing other activities with them. We needto recruit a project assistant to deal with the finances and help in the secretariat. Interesting asit may seem, we have received a phone call and a letter from the police office inviting us for ameeting to study ways in which ‘we can cooperate, for each other’s sake’. This is getting reallyinteresting!

Many things to decide and discuss. We are busy preparing brief reports and trying to finish theprovisional accounts.

Anyway, have a nice day. Please don’t show up late. We may have Lunch together, if no-oneobjects.

See you!

Dali and Matto.

Agenda

Feed-back from the youth exchanges and perspectivesfor the return trip.

Preparation of the campaign on drugs.

Follow-up of the leadership training.

Support measures for volunteers.

Budget reports and analysis.

Feed-back from the press.

Alternatives to the sports festival.

Cooperation with the police.

Recruitment of project assistant.

Any other business.

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3.4 Evaluatingthe project

Towards the end of the plan of activities theproject is becoming complete. But before for-mally “closing it”7, a final evaluation is neces-sary. The evaluation marks the end of theproject by defining the time frame underconsideration. Remember: a project musthave a beginning and an end.

Truly speaking, however, the end of the pro-ject usually carries with it a new project oreven just the continuation of the previous assuch. The evaluation should in fact considerthe follow-up of the project.

The final evaluation can be described as theprocess of collecting information and estab-lishing criteria leading to:

• An assessment of what has been achieved;

• An explanation of how it happened;

• A better planning of future projects.

Evaluation is different from justifying theway money was spent, from public relationspolicies, from funding strategies and fromfinding excuses for one’s own weaknesses.However, evaluation is very often confusedor limited to one or several of those points,because evaluation is also related to them.

Evaluation is a powerful tool for planning andespecially, for improving our abilities, our pro-jects and our activities. It should also be under-stood as a fundamental tool in processesaimed at social change, because the mainstrength of evaluation is in preparing us tomake things better than we have done previ-ously. Generally, we should conduct evaluationsbecause:

• We want to learn further and develop ourown capacities and skills;

• We want to check what has been achievedas a result of our efforts and actions;

• We want to consolidate and validate a learn-ing experience;

• We want to check how effective we are;

• We want to see where we can improve;

• We want to commit people to their learning;or development process;

Evaluation is sometimes a difficult and frigh-tening task when:

• We are forced to do it;

• We are afraid of the results it could produce;

• We don’t know how to do it properly;

• We know that nothing will be done withthe; results, that no change can occur.

The final evaluation of a project should include:

• The results achieved;

• The objectives reached;

• The financial management;

• The impact on the organisation;

• The process.

Evaluating results

We are now taking stock of what has beenachieved through the project, directly andindirectly. We should evaluate the resultsachieved (at all levels), distinguishing thosethat have actually been planned from thosethat were not planned and happened anyway.Of course, an important factor will be to deter-mine or assess to which extent the resultshappened as a consequence of the project (orshould they have been achieved anyway?).

By results, we are talking about changes inthe social reality that we intended to addressin the first place, but also changes in people(social educational processes), in organisationsand partnerships, in the community relations,etc.

Evaluating objectives

The natural implication of a final evaluation willbe to confront the results with the originalobjectives, provided that these were concreteand assessable. The more concrete the objec-tives were the easier it will be to evaluate them.More than achieved / not-achieved the evalu-ation will look at what extent they have beenmet. Many educational objectives are by de-finition difficult to evaluate, because they arehard to quantify, to measure and even to

7 Formally, because in reality the activities generated by theproject may still run; Still, the project must have an end.

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assess. Hence the importance of defining atleast some measurable objectives at the timeof elaborating the project. When presentingthe evaluation you will have then some figures,some quantitative aspects, to back up yourqualitative evaluation.

Evaluating financial management

The evaluation of the financial managementis important in any project, not least becauseusually you will need to provide a financialreport to your sponsors, organisation, etc.More than just finding out the extent of thedeficit (if there was one), the report is alsogood to check whether there are now newsources of funding for the organisation, wheredid most money go, etc. And it is of courseuseful to check how some money or resourcescould have been used differently.

Evaluating the impact on the organisation

It is interesting to evaluate the impact on theorganisation for projects which represent asignificant innovation. The impact on the orga-nisation may come through new experienceand expertise, new members, new partnerships,accrued reputation, additional resources, abi-lity to reach new people, etc.

Evaluating the process

Then results are not only tangible aspects.They may also be learning results, experienceacquired in a certain field or area. In order totake note of them and to understand them itis necessary that the process that people wentthrough in the planning and management ofthe project is evaluated. What would have beendone differently? What could be learned aboutproject planning and management? What couldpeople learn through the process of runningthe project?

3.4.1 Preparing and conductingan evaluation

The success of the evaluation, in any of its forms,depends of three fundamental conditions:

Time

Every project must have a starting and an endpoint to allow for an evaluation. This does not

imply that the project has to be stopped, butthat “stop and look back” points have to beestablished. This applies as much to final eva-luations as it does to intermediate evaluations.Inadequate time management will lead to theimpossibility of introducing changes in theproject at the relevant moments or to a loss ofcontrol of the evaluation process and purpose.Time is also important to take into account sothat the evaluation is prepared in time to gethold of important information or data.

A good definition of objectives

Defining concrete objectives (and being able todifferentiate them from the general aims) is oneof the most crucial steps in defining a projectand in implementing evaluation. Lack of clari-ty about the objectives always implies a loss ofcontrol of the project in its educational and prac-tical dimension as the end result will be theconfusion between the results achieved and theobjectives intended. The objectives can (andshould) be changed, namely as a result of inter-mediate evaluations. They should, however,always be as clear as possible, be written downand made explicit to all those involved in theproject.

A good planning of the evaluation

Evaluating is easy but it can be made easier andmore effective if planned from the beginning.Planning may not mean actually preparing it,but at least being aware that evaluations will beneeded and that information for it needs tobe secured. Indeed, some of this informationmight only be possible to get at the beginningof the project (if I am carrying out a project onliteracy, it is useful/necessary to know at thebeginning of the project the literacy levels ofthe target group).

The conclusions of the evaluation should beused to decide on the follow-up or continua-tion of the project, by looking again into thesocial conditions and what needs to be donefurther. To finish with our example, the drugsawareness project has been very successful(drug use by youngsters has been cut downby half) but now we realise that the needexists to provide young people with opportu-nities to spend their leisure time differently,that the peer-group leaders need assistancefor their projects, or that action needs beingcontinued in a particular district of the town.

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3.4.2 Evaluation and project planning

In the process of planning and running a pro-ject, one of the main functions of the evaluationis to allow us to see the relevance and adequa-cy of the project and of the activities to thesocial needs that determined the objectives ofthe project.

The natural implication of a final evaluationwill be to confront the results with the origi-nal objectives but also with the reasons thatmotivated the project (social, institutional,personal) in order to draw the relevant con-clusions (the social reality has changed, theproblems persist and the project needs to beextended, my motivation increased, etc.). It isthe result of this analysis that should deter-mine the follow-up of the project (its nature,form, extent, etc.).

3.4.3 Planning an evaluation

Planning an evaluation can be done like plan-ning a project: determining the objectives,working methods, action plan, etc. The fol-lowing graphic8 illustrates some of the stepsof an evaluation process. Evaluations are notalways planned or conducted this way (andneed not to be) but implicitly these elementsare and should always be present.

PreparingPreparing the evaluation is first of all settingits aims and purpose: why is the evaluationnecessary? Who needs it? Who should beinvolved in doing it?

DesigningOnce we are clear what the purpose of theevaluation is, we need to define its objectives,namely what is going to be evaluated (the useof resources, the educational methods, theresults, the impact, etc.). These objectives willdetermine the indicators or criteria (qualitative,quantitative) and the time when evaluationshould start.

Collecting the informationThe indicators and criteria being established,the next process is actually getting the infor-mation (data) needed (how many people par-ticipated, what did they learn, what did theydo afterwards, etc.). The criteria and the objec-tives will determine the way of collecting theinformation (written records, interviews, du-ring the project or after, etc.).

Interpreting the informationWhat does the data and information that wepossess mean? The interpretation, like thestages that follow reflect the most difficultchallenge in evaluation: objectivity. Reality canalways be interpreted in different ways andpeople can also influence the evaluation bytheir own interests and concerns. An awarenessof the need to be objective is neverthelessessential.

Interpretation can be made easier (and showingthe path to the conclusions) if the informa-tion can be compared with other experiencesof the same nature.

Assessing and conclusionsThe assessment is actually the process of draw-ing the relevant conclusions out of the infor-mation acquired. It is looking for the reasonsfor what happened, highlighting the resultsand putting them into perspective with theoriginal aims and objectives of the project.

Implementing resultsAll the information and the conclusions drawnfrom it are, in a way, meaningless if nothing isdone with them. The function of evaluationtowards social change is lost if there is nodesire to change, to admit the results of anevaluation, etc. The sources of resistance tochange are many (institutional, personal, poli-tical, etc.). They can be limited by the objec-tivity of the evaluation as well as dependenton who has been involved in. carrying it out.8 Inspired from Warren Feek, Working effectively, 1988

Collectinginformation

Assessmentand conclusions

Implementingresults (follow-up)

Designing

Preparing

Interpreting

Theevaluation

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DO:• Involve different people in the eva-

luation, and take them seriously• Look at results of similar projects.

Are there any trends or things thatcan be compared?

• Recall the original needs analysis,aims and objectives.

• Remember that there is no suchthing as an ‘objective’ evaluation.But you may limit the level of sub-jectivity (by diversifying sourcesand methods).

• Run through the results and impactof the project with the young peo-ple. This way you will help themunderstand the change in them.

• Think about the evaluation whileplanning and running the project(not only towards the end!)

• Show possible discrepancies ordifferences of opinion in matterswhere there is no clear conclusionor data.

• Expect to be misunderstood!

DON’T:

• Get stuck in the negativity of someevaluations. Do bear in mind thatmany people still believe thatevaluating is stating what didnot work or what went wrong.Honesty does not mean nothighlighting the positive aspects(especially to sponsors)

• Use the evaluation as a way tosort out conflicts (although it canbe a starting point...).

• Feel attacked if some things didnot go exactly as you planned orfelt. Respect the other people’sevaluation.

• Keep the results for yourself!

• Focus on what can not be changed;focus on areas where change ispossible.

• Run an evaluation without plan-ning it first.

Suggestions for training

The following evaluation grid was designed for the Long Term Training course “Parti-cipation and Citizenship”. It has been used to prepare participants for the evaluationof their projects.

Evaluation: self-reflection grid

This list of questions is meant to help you review different aspects of your projectplanning, management and evaluation. They are not complete and you do nothave to answer them in writing. They are meant to help you understand andrecall what happened with/during your project and why, in order to be betterprepared to explain the rest of the group and to evaluate it with them. Feelfree to take all the notes that you want, and to add other elements, too.

My project evaluation so far...

1. In relation to the project plan

The social analysis

– Was it pertinent? Notes:– Was it adequate?– What was new?– Was it shared by others?– Is it still valid now?– What has changed since?

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The project and my organisation

– Did the organisation embrace it? Notes:

– Did it fit within its programmeof activities?

– Which obstacles did I find?

– Were colleagues involved?Where and how?

– What resistances did I meet? Why?How were they overcome?

– Who were my allies? What could they get out of the project?

My motivations

– Have they been fulfilled? Notes:

– Have I found new ones?

– What have I gained?

– Would I do it again?...

The social and educational objectives

– Were they clear and coherent? Notes:

– Did they correspond to my partnersand my target group/s?

– What has changed?

– Which other people have engagedon the project?

– What have they learned?

The concretes objectives

– Were they concrete? Notes:

– Did they change, and why?

– What was actually achieved throughthe project that would not have been done otherwise?

The timetable of my project

– Could I keep to it? Notes:

– Was it realistic?

– If it changed, what consequences(positive/negative) did this have?

The programme of activities

– Was it realistic? Notes:

– Was the response / participation the wayI had imagined?

– Who supported me?

– Was it participative?

– Where did I find allies?

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2. Talking of some management skills…

The financial side of the project…

– Was it a problem? Notes:

– Who paid for it?

– Was the money used in the bestpossible way?

– How much did/does the project cost?

– Did I use all the possible contacts and support that I had foreseen?

Team management

– Who else did I involve in the project Notes:management? Who else got involved?

– Did they have clear roles?

– Did I check their motivationsand expectations?

– How were they supported?

– How were they selected or trained?

– How were they rewarded?

Other resources…

– Which other resources, other than money, Notes:could I generate for my project?

– Which skills have I gained from the project?

– Did I manage to involve the communityand other organisations around me?

– Could anybody else contribute to the project?

3. Evaluation– Which evaluations have I conducted Notes:

during the project?

– Who was involved or took part in them?

– What conclusions were drawn from that?Who drew them?

– What changes were implemented asa result in the project?

– Did I evaluate the project with my colleagues?With my organisation leaders? With the participants? With my partners?

4. More…–

–

–

–

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Putting it down in the application form

Not all institutions will ask you in the application how the project willbe evaluated (but sometimes they will ask you to describe it afterwardsin the final report). Nevertheless, a growing number of organisationsand institutions have become aware of the importance of appropriate and thoroughevaluations. Especially for projects of a certain dimension (in time or money) not onlywill you be asked about monitoring and interim evaluations you will also be asked todescribe how you plan to evaluate the project, who will do it, etc.Often they will ask also what steps have you foresee for the evaluation before the startof the project. This is a concrete example of how much project evaluators may knowabout evaluation. If you come across one such form for the first time, don’t be put off! Inmany ways they save you time, because they press you to do something that you shoulddo anyway. So, think about it and write it down! Got stuck? – Call a friend or one of yourtrainers or advisors. Don’t give up. There are also sometimes silly questions about evalua-tion, especially transferring into the field of non-formal education. But don’t worry aboutthem. If you are confident you can justify why the question does not make sense.

– Among the things not to forget in the application, is who will be involved in evaluationsand when, as well as what will be evaluated. Sometimes who conducts the evalua-tion does matter.

– Do note that many sponsors and institutions accept that you budget the costs ofevaluation (meetings, studies, etc.). So, money is not an excuse.

– Since the approach to the evaluation is an expression of the approaches to the projectand to its values, some forms may ask you directly “how will young people be involvedin the preparation, running and evaluation of the project”. Don’t be afraid to answer.

Way Up!Project Evaluation Report

Table of contents Page

1. Purpose of this evaluation ............................................................................... 52. Methodology followed in the evaluation ....................................... 103. Recalling the origin of the project ......................................................... 144. The aims and objectives of the project .............................................. 165. Evaluation by activity ........................................................................................ 186. The teams7. The participants8. Echoes from other sources9. Overall results achieved .................................................................................. 32

– Regarding delinquency and participation– Awareness raising on drugs– Alternatives for healthier life-styles– Youth-lead projects– Partnerships with twin cities– Visibility of the project– A new attitude towards Europe– Synergies between institutions

10. The impact on Ban Uppa! .............................................................................. 4211. Management and implementation ....................................................... 4412. Finances and support ........................................................................................ 4813. Media coverage and impact ........................................................................ 5214. Conclusions and further changes required ..................................... 5615. Proposals for follow-up. .................................................................................. 6016. Acknowledgements and thanks ............................................................... 65

Back toBan Uppa!

3.4.4 Finishing and Reporting

Indeed, when the rhythm of work starts todecrease and the level of administrative andpaper work increases, it seems as if there is alaw that prevents us from finishing and actu-ally closing. And yet, in many instances theresults of the project may be hindered if it isnot properly finished.Before closing the project, the results of theevaluation need to be consolidated, writtendown or recorded in some manner. Often there

are also financial reports to finish. And in manycases there are also other types of reports anddocumentation to be secured.

Of course these must be considered in the plan-ning of the project. One of the most commonproblems in the planning is the fact that rarelytime (and resources) are foreseen for finishingup. The result is an unpleasant accumulation ofwork that no one wants to feel responsible for.

So, when you plan the project consider allowingtime and people to:

• Close the accounts and prepare financialreports;

• Write and send reports to donors and sponsors;• Thank the partners, sponsors and participants;• Write the documentation of the project.

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Putting it down in the application form

• Follow-up enquiries and informing peo-ple of how the follow-up will be pursued.

• Every institution that supports a projectfinancially wants a report. It is only fairthat be informed of how their moneywas used and spent, what it generatedas results, etc. Some institutions providerather strict report forms – more or lesscomplex and detailed. Others will justprovide a list of questions to be answeredto.

• Whatever your case may be, beforeaccepting a grant, make sure:

- That you know what kind of reportsand documentation you are commit-ting yourself to provide (if possibleread it before);

- The deadline for submitting it

- The form (and sometimes the language).

• In the case of financial reports, proceedsimilarly. Make sure that your accountsmatch and are correct. Often you needto provide copies of vouchers or bills forthe main expenditure. But even if youdon’t you still need to keep the financialdocuments and proofs of expenditurefor a period that can go from 5 to 10 years.So, be prepared for a visit by the spon-sor’s auditors.

• Respect the deadlines forreports.

• Say thank you andacknowledge the sup-port provided in moneybut also voluntary workand contributions in kind.

Strategy orMethodology

ConcreteOBJECTIVES

AIMS

Institutionalpriorities

Personalmotivations

NEEDS ANALYSIS

community - young people

Implementation

MonitoringEvaluation

ResourcesPlan of activities

Final Evaluation

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“Projects progress quickly untilthey become 90% complete and then they

remain 90% complete forever.”

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DO:• Consult the young people – and

your partners – about the changesyou propose in the follow-up.

• Consider different alternatives whendrafting your conclusions and pro-posals for follow-up.

• Try to secure continuity in processesinitiated by the same people.

• Stay realistic but not fatalist.

• Dare!

DON’T:• Be discouraged by initial reactions.

• Stay stuck in your proposals. Be readyto listen and to improve.

• Bet everything on a single horse!(Keep different alternatives).

• Ignore the alliances you have created.

• Expect everyone to be as enthusias-tic as yourself!

• Give the impression that you aredoing it for your personal benefit.

Suggestions for training

Anticipating possible follow-up is usually a sign of good planningwhen you submit the application for the original project. Sponsorslike to know if the actions they will be supporting can be sustainedafterwards or whether the project is one-off event or effort. Theextent to which you can anticipate and prepare follow-up dependsof course on the duration of the project, in the first place.

Use the interim or progress reports to prepare your sponsors for thepossible follow-up. Involve them in the evaluation so that they canalso give their opinion and at the same time feel the reality of theproject a bit better.

Even if at the moment of applying you do not know yet what thefollow-up could consist of, you can at least provide a good pictureof the changes that the project will bring, and how that may influ-ence the follow-up. Avoid giving the impression that you will thinkabout that only later. Sponsors are usually not eager to fund one-offactivities or even projects. They like to know that it can be pursuedafter (even if without their support). They like to make a difference...and to be visible in their effort.

Way up!

12. Proposals for follow-up

In view of what is explained aboveand of the excellent results so far,Way up! needs to be continued anddeepened. Its continuity should beguaranteed by a close cooperationand interaction between Ban Uppa!,the city and civil society. Theseinstitutions should consider:

– Keeping the youth café open afterschool hours as it has proven tokeep young people away frombad influence and gives them aplace to play and socialise.

– Developing a youth exchangeprogramme with the three citiestwin of ours in Uzbekistan, Maltaand Finland.

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– Integrating the youth and sportsfestival in the festivities of thecity, of which it could becomethe main feature.

– Passing a motion creating theBanville Advisory youth council

– Securing funding for the post ofWay Up! project coordinator foranother two years.

– Provide meeting facilities andeducational assistance to thepeer-.group leaders.

– Extend the peer-group trainingprogramme to the other sec-ondary schools in Banville.

– Research ways to introduce voca-tional training and apprentice-ship into schools system.

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Evaluating,monitoring,

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Follow-up and reports

The evaluation represents the closing of thecircle of the project, and in many ways it re-presents its end. The evaluation must lead toconclusions, as we saw earlier. The conclusionsmust address the different stages, dimensions,objectives and aims of the project. They mustespecially take into account and refer to thechanges brought about or the impact had inthe community and in the young people.

• Were there any changes created by the pro-ject?

• Are there new trends in the situation?• Are there new problems, now?• What needs further development and con-

solidation?

• Which changes are needed in the way ofplanning, managing and evaluating the (new)project?

In many ways, it is a new project that startsto be planned and is grafted onto the one justbeing closed.

The follow-up needs to be seriously addressedat the end of the project, even if those whostarted it are not able to continue. In someways it is also their own responsibility tomake sure that the expectations generatedand the social dynamics brought about bythe project are not abandoned. In some situa-tions this could have a very negative effecton the community, besides tarnishing what-ever good results may have been achieved.

The first answer that comes to mind is thatthose who want to think from a Europeanstandpoint no longer only see things from anational point of view. This implies an obli-gation to approach matters from a broad per-spective, or at least lean in this direction, andabove all to refuse to submit to dogmatic andnarrow thinking.

According to Article 128 of the MaastrichtTreaty, “the Community shall contribute to theflowering of the cultures of the Member States,while respecting their national and regionaldiversity and at the same time bringing thecommon cultural heritage to the fore”. Theestablishment of co-operation, leading to bet-ter communication, highlights the importanceof cultural enrichment based on diversity andexchanges of experience. Initially, this couldmean identifying our shared cultural heritage,and then fostering and strengthening amongall Europeans the idea that they share commonvalues.

Our altered perceptions and values are clearsigns of the cultural changes that we are cur-rently experiencing; they affect the ethnocen-tric image of so-called developed societies andare slowly but surely leading them towards amore polycentric vision – the discovery of diver-sity and otherness – which possibly indicatesthe search for another identity – perhaps aEuropean one.

As in the case of society, Europe has to con-sider itself both unified and multi-faceted.Encouraging the incorporation of the Euro-pean dimension means putting forward cer-tain values, a certain idea of society, a certainconcept of human beings. It means showingrespect for individuals and for human rights.It also means helping to integrate young peo-ple into a multicultural world.

European programmes all aim to make youngpeople aware of their shared cultural heritageand their common responsibilities as Europeans.In other words, to offer them the knowledge,skills and attitudes they will need to deal withthe major challenges of European society andprepare them for greater mobility and dailylife in a border-free Europe.

In the context of European Voluntary Service,this amounts to:1. Offering young people a new type of expe-

rience of intercultural learning;2. Contributing to the development of local

authorities;3. Encouraging active citizenship among young

people…, it also means that volunteers’ ownculture and their allegiance to particularcountries must give added value to a pro-ject’s activities.

In the case of Youth for Europe, it means:1. Extending the field of learning, experimen-

tation and innovation to the European scale;2. Enabling young people to see the European

Union as an integral part of their historical,social, cultural and political environment.

Turning to the Youth Initiative Project, it meansthat:1. Youth projects can focus on subjects that

concern those involved, directly benefittheir peers and influence their immediateenvironment. The programme will encou-rage them, either directly via the particularsubject matter, or through their formingpart of a network, to see their projects in aEuropean context.

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Example taken from the EVS userguide: Two volunteers, one fromFrance and the other from Belgium,visited the small Swedish town ofLidköping to undertake their volun-tary service in a youth centre offeringmany activities, including trainingworkshops. The centre also tries tofind places where local groups canput on plays and where young peo-ple can produce videos. The two vol-unteers took part in some of theseactivities but also carried out their ownproject, which was to design, in con-junction with a local junior secondaryschool, an exhibition on combatingracism, entitled “I had a dream”. Theylater plan to mount this exhibitionin their home towns, and to create aCD-ROM and an Internet page.

Europeandimension

2. The European dimension is particularlyimportant in the case of locally or regio-nally based youth initiatives.

3. Projects must be transferable or adaptableto young people living in similar environ-ments in other participating countries.

In the case of the European Youth Foundation,it means:1. Encouraging active citizenship among

young people in Europe, promoting youth

participation in the building of Europeand the development of youth work as animportant element of civil society,

2. Encouraging youth co-operation in Europeand stimulating mutual aid in the develop-ing countries for cultural, educational andsocial purposes,

3. Providing support to develop activities pro-moting peace, intercultural learning andmutual aid in a spirit of respect for humanrights and fundamental freedoms.

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Example: A project which uses dance andmusic to bring together young peoplefrom different social backgrounds andproduce a mix of cultures. The aim is toproduce a dance show which will be per-formed in a variety of locations. The pro-duction is based on the links betweenAfrican and contemporary dance.

The project is entirely initiated, designedand implemented by the young peoplethemselves. It originated in a meetingbetween young musicians and dancers,and in a shared commitment to give freshimpetus to local cultural life by creatinglinks between Montpellier and Marseille.Each young person in the group will havea specific task, such as communication,publicity, choreography, costume design,creating sets, financial management andso on, for which they will be responsible.Professionals from the dance field willoversee the operation to offer an outsideview. A certain number of contacts havebeen established with local authority bod-ies and festivals, such as Art fantaisie, theEus festival and les jeudis de Perpignan,where the production can be presented.

Seventy young people will take part inregular dance workshops and in the pro-duction itself. There will be a photogra-phic exhibition of the production by threeyoung photographers and the sets will beproduced by students from the Perpignanschool of fine arts.

But where is the European dimension inwhat is a “traditional” project?

The takings from the performances willbe donated to a humanitarian organisa-tion working in the countries of easternEurope. The dance troupe already workin collaboration with a theatre and danceassociation in Girona in Spain. A Spanishchoreographer will be involved in theproject, as well as students from BarcelonaUniversity, particularly in the video pro-duction. A member of the group took partin a study visit to Finland on the subjectof dance, music and production with youngpeople. A number of Finnish organisationshave since proposed exchanges. The groupof young people has also had contact witha Slovakian organisation working in thesame field. A network may also be esta-blished at some time in the future.

At the seminar for national agencies in Viennain April 1999, it was established that giventhe context and objectives of the europeanyouth programmes, strategies and trainingactivities needed to be developed in a broaderframework.The objectives should therefore be directlylinked to the work of the organisers, havingregard to the development and use of euro-pean youth programmes.

The aim of the training strategy is to incorporatea European dimension into local or national

contexts. This means integrating Europeanprogrammes into participants’ daily activities,thus strengthening the development of youthprojects.The general principles of the European dimen-sion are to:• enable young people to see the European

Union as an integral part of their historical,social, cultural and political environment;

• develop awareness of the dangers associatedwith exclusion, including racism and xeno-phobia, through educational measures forand involving young people;

Europeandimension

• encourage autonomy, creativity and a spirit ofenterprise among young people, particularlyin the social, civic, cultural and environmen-tal contexts.

How far is it possible to measure the Europeanadded value in a European project? Is it theresult simply of adding partners or does it entailthe development of a joint project?The answers are not simple. Account may haveto be taken of the young people’ characteris-tics, such as their social and cultural origins,the partner countries and the topics covered,as many factors that influence youth partici-pation in European construction.The aim of

all european youth programmes is to facilitatecontacts and as such the active involvementand participation of young Europeans will bea fundamental aspect of projects’ Europeandimension. However, what about activitieswhere there is no obligation to undertakeexchanges or automatic physical mobility?

On the principle that if you can do the moredifficult things you can manage the easier ones,if it is possible to produce the outline of a de-finition of the European dimension for suchprojects, it should be possible to apply it toother projects.

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Europeandimension

The following table attempts to assess the European dimension of projects according to eightkey criteria:

European dimension

Criteria

Europeancitizenship

Partnerships

Transferability

Examples of opinions following project assessment

The project focuses on education for local, regional,national and European citizenship, particularlythrough the establishment of an Internet site toinform other European countries of the project’screation so that they can develop it in their owntowns and cities and communicate with otheryoung Europeans. There should eventually be anexchange with young Germans.

The collaboration with Italy should be strength-ened by an exchange of young people, leadingto the establishment of a youth council in themunicipalities of Grugliasco and Collegno. AnInternet-based network could be set up withGermany, Finland and the Netherlands, whichhave already undertaken experiments in this field.

The objective of the project “workshops and fa-shion parades in a rural setting” is to enable youngpeople from immigrant backgrounds experiencinglabour market difficulties to become practicallyinvolved in garment making workshops (ma-nagement, organisation and the design of clothes)and meet local, regional, national and internationalfashion industry specialists – designers, hairdressers,make-up artists, photographers and models – atan international fashion fair. The project will pro-vide impetus to the locality concerned, with theinvolvement of traders, elected representatives andother interested young people. The project, whichinvolves young people from immigrant backgroundsin a rural setting, could be transposed to otherEuropean Union countries.

Questions

What has been doneto foster youngpeople’ sense of theirEuropean citizenship?

Does the projecthave the potential toestablish partnershipswith or networks ofsimilar activities invarious Europeancountries?

Is the project’sapproach applicableto similar contexts inother countries?

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Criteria

Europeantheme

Interculturallearning

Problem ofcommonconcern

Projectmobility

Links withotherEuropeanactivities orprogrammes.

Involvementof youngEuropeans

Questions

Does the project’sEuropean themereflect topics ofcurrent Europeaninterest, such as theEuro, Europe andemployment or theEuropean elections?

What has been doneto provide space formutual understandingand co-operation?

Does the projectconcern a problemshared by mostEuropean countries,such as combatingexclusion, drug abuseand alcoholism orcrime?

Is the project itinerantand does it covervarious Europeancountries?

Do links exist or couldthey be establishedwith other Europeanactivities orprogrammes?

Is there activeparticipation byyoung people indifferent Europeancountries?

Examples of opinions following project assessment

The central theme of the theatrical productionis Europe: from mythology to the Euro, drawingon historical figures, the testimony of men andwomen talking about their work today in Europe,wars and acronyms such as GATT, CAP, OPEC, PESCand Schengen. The young people hope, at somestage, to put on their show in Romania, to com-pare their vision with another European country.

This is a project on the situation of young Romawomen in society in Europe run by a network ofRoma young people. It is planned to share expe-riences and different realities of the situation ofyoung Roma women in Europe, confront menand women’s opinions on the role of women inroma and non-roma communities, to realise thattraditions differ from country to country and tohelp women become active in the developmentof different projects in order to open the Romacommunities to the majority society.

The creation of the Internet site will be a meansof disseminating information on the history ofgypsy communities in France and communicatingwith other communities in France and Europe.Visits to three cities in Catalonia will be necessaryto collect material for the CD-ROM.

This is an itinerant project covering seven Europeancountries, the purpose being to exchange experi-ence and information on theatrical practices inEurope.

For three years, the association has been organis-ing, in co-operation with the Franco-German YouthOffice, exchanges with Berlin. Recently, it orga-nised a Youth for Europe multilateral exchange withthe countries of the east. The project is modelledon existing centres in Berlin and Cologne, withwhich it is planned to collaborate. Links have beenestablished with other European associations withsimilar objectives in Berlin, Cologne, Bologna andAmsterdam.

Hip-hop is currently the in-music for all youngEuropeans. It is planned to organise a meetingwith European rappers, who might take part inthe workshops. However, the relationship betweenthe partners and European networks is still not clear

Europeandimension

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In 1953, Mary McCarthy said that Europe wasthe uncompleted negative of which Americawas the test. Things now appear in a morepositive light. The path is long and difficult,but what makes Europe distinctive is the factthat it is under permanent construction, bothfiguratively and in reality.

In “l’abeille et l’architecte” (1978), FrançoisMitterrand said that Europe did not need any-one in order to be nothing, but it should beborne in mind that this was before he was

elected president of France and one mightsimply add “yes, but everyone needs Europeto exist”. Naturally, the levels of necessity andthe areas of involvement are very varied, buton the day when all Europeans, irrespectiveof the continent’s geographical dimensions,accept and recognise the twelve stars of theflag, not as the number of member countriesbut as the symbol of harmony and perfec-tion, we will have crossed the threshold thatseparates a geographical dimension to a realEuropean one.

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Appendix 1: Glossary of termsProject

ManagementT-Kit

Depending on the professional area or environment in which the project is managed, theterminology may change. Here are some of the terms used in this publication. Most of them aredefined in more detail in chapter 3.

• Emergence, genesis of the project: the initial idea, generally in response to the identificationof a specific problem or need. This idea is the starting point for the design and drawing upof the project.

• Implementation: this is the “doing” part of the project, involving all the practical aspects:material and technical arrangements, organising human and financial resources, prepar-ing the persons who will be conducting the project, ensuring the right material conditionsfor the smooth running of activities and so on.

• Assessment: final phase of the project. The assessment makes it possible to measure itsimpact on the environment, what has been achieved and how, and to plan any follow-up.The results of the assessment are generally documented and contribute to the projectreport.

• Intermediate assessment: a certain number of intermediate assessments are carried outto make sure that the project continues to reflect its environment, its target group and theobjectives set. Intermediate assessments help to keep projects in line with reality and assuch form part of the monitoring process.

• Consolidation: final project activities, publicising and exploiting the results, recognisingand securing recognition for the value of the project, thanking the partners and celebrating.

• Context: social and geographical environment in which the project will take place. Thecontext is one of the main parameters in drawing up the project.

• Aims: the final goal of the project. Aims are defined according to an analysis of needs orthe identification of a set of problems in a particular environment.

• Objectives: these are a project’s goal or goals put into operational form. Projects alwayshave several objectives which must be practical, measurable, limited in time, realistic andflexible. A distinction may be drawn between:

• social/general objectives, which lead to social changes;

• educational objectives, which have a didactic element and refer to changes in people;

• measurable practical objectives, which are more intermediate activities to be under-taken.

• Objectives are in turn broken down into activities.

• Activities: the different stages associated with a specific objective which help to achievethe aim.

• Action plan: plan of the various activities that make up the project, with a precise indicationof what those activities are, their location and timing and the resources involved.Such plans need to be modified to take account of the situation on the ground and theintermediate assessments. *

• Monitoring: this takes place throughout the project’s life and consists of checking whetherthe action plan still reflects reality and whether the planned activities, objectives and aims arestill consistent with the needs, context, target group and available resources, with a viewto modifying them where necessary.

• Partners: the persons or institutions collaborating in the project. They may offer financial,material, technical or political support.

• Project members: all those involved in carrying out the project.

• Project carrier: the individual(s) or organisation initiating the project.

• Project manager: person(s) responsible for managing the material and human resourcesinvolved in the project.

• Project sponsors: individuals, institutions or companies financing the project.

• Resources: all the available and necessary means for completing the project (equipment,finance, staffing and so on).

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We hope you have found this first version of the Project Management T-kit helpful and useful.This is the first time that such a publication has been produced within the PartnershipProgramme and we would welcome your feedback and suggestions for future editions. Youranswers will also be used to analyse the impact of this publication. Thank you for completing thisquestionnaire, your comments will be read with great attention.

How far did this T-kit help you to find theoretical foundations and practical advice to run yourproject(s)?

From 0% ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... to 100%

You are…(You may tick more than one option)

■■ A project manager●● Local level ●● National level ●● International level ●● Other

Did you use the T-kit help in stucturing your project? Yes ■■ No ■■

If yes…

In what context or situation? .................................................................................................................................................................

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Which parts helped you the most? ..................................................................................................................................................

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Which parts did you find least useful? .........................................................................................................................................

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■■ A Trainer●● Local level ●● National level ●● International level ●● OtherDid you use the T-kit for any of your training activities? Yes ■■ No ■■

If yes…

In what context or situation? .................................................................................................................................................................

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With which age group(s)? .........................................................................................................................................................................

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Appendix 2

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Which ideas did you use or adapt? ..................................................................................................................................................

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Which ideas did you find least useful? ........................................................................................................................................

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■■ None of the above – Please specify ..................................................................................................................................................

What do you think of the overall structure of the T-Kit?.............................................................................................

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What do you think about the layout of the T-Kit? ...........................................................................................................

Where did you obtain your copy of this Project Management T-kit? .....................................................................

What recommendations or suggestions do you have for future editions? ................................................

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Name: ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Title: ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

Organisation/establishment (if applicable)..........................................................................................................................................

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Please return this questionnaire by surface mail or e-mail to:

Project Management T-kitDirectorate of Youth & Sport – Council of Europe – F-67075 Strasbourg Cedex E-mail: T-Kits@training-youth.net*

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Adirondack, Sandy (1992)Just about managing : effective managementfor voluntary organisations and communitygroups, London: London Voluntary ServiceCouncil

Adams, Scott (1996) Fugitive from the cubicle police, (A Dilbertbook), Kansas City: Andrews and McMeel

Alonso Oritz, Nieves (1996) ‘El trabajo social en los procesos de inte-gración y de exclusión’ Actas del Congresode Animación Socio-Cultural, Sevilla

Angst, Doris et al. (eds.) (1995) Domino: a manuel to use peer groupeducation as a means to fight racism,xenophobia, anti-semitism and intolerance,Strasbourg: Council of Europe YouthDirectorate

Bergeret, Jean-Marie and Meisch, Nico andOtten, Hendrik (eds.) (1995)

Projet communautaire d’elaboration demodules de formation pour animateurs,Luxembourg: Service national de la jeunesse

Bloch, Arthur (1992) La ley de Murphy, Madrid: Temas de Hoy

Committee of Ministers (1998) Resolution (98) 6 on the youth policy of theCouncil of Europe, Strasbourg: Council ofEurope

Daun, Åke and Ehn, Billy and Klein, Barbro(eds.) (1992)

To make the world safer for diversity:towards an understanding of multiculturalsocieties, Tumba: Swedish ImmigrationInstitute and Museum; Stockholm:Ethnology Institute

European Commission (1998) Vademecum of the Youth for Europeprogramme, DG XXII, Brussels: EuropeanCommission

European Communities ‘Common position (EC) no.22/1999 with aview to the adoption (…) the ‘Youth’Community Action Programme’, OfficialJournal of the European Communities,22/07/1999

Feek, Warren (1988) Working effectively: a guide to evaluationtechniques, London: Bedford Square Press

Feld, Kristen et al. (1991) Training courses resource file. Vol. 11, Pro-ject steering, Strasbourg: European YouthCentre

Gomes, Rui (ed.) (1997) Navigare necesse est, Luxembourg: ServiceNational de la Jeunesse

Gomes, Rui (1998) Mudança d’Aires, Coimbra: MovimentoCristao para a Paz (YAP Portugal)

Lauritzen, Peter (1998) ‘Intercultural learning: one big bluff or alearning strategy for the future’ EuropeanJournal of Intercultural Studies Vol.9supplement

Lawrie, Alain (1996) The complete guide to creating and man-aging new projects: for charities and volun-tary organisations, London: Directory ofSocial Change

Phillips D.C. and Soltis, Jonas F. (1998) Perspectives on learning, New York: Teach-ers College Press

Siurala, Lasse (2000) Discussion paper on the theoretical frame-work of ‘non-formal learning’, citizenshipand ‘participation’, Strasbourg: Council ofEurope Directorate of Youth and Sport

Vassileff, Jean (1990) La pédagogie de projet en formation dejeunes et adultes, 2e éd., Lyon: ChroniqueSociale

Managing People

Belbin, R.M. (1981) Management teams: why they succeed orfail, London: Heinemann

Janis, I.L. (1972) Victims of groupthink: a psychologicalstudy of foreign-policy decisions and fias-coes, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin

Appendix 3Bibliography

Managing Projects

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Oomkes, Frank (1994) Training als Beroep. Deel 3, Oefeningen ininterculturele vaardigheid, Amsterdam:Boom

Schneider, Susan C. and Barsoux, Jean-Louis(1997)

Managing across cultures, London: PrenticeHall

Snow, C.C. et al.Transnational teams – a learning resourceguide, ICEDR, Report

Watson, W.E. and Kumar, K. and Michaelsen, L.K ‘Cultural diversity’s impact on interac-tion process and performance: compar-ing homogenous and diverse task group’,The Academy of Management Journal

Fundraising

Clarke, S. and Norton, M. (1997) The complete fundraising handbook,London: Directory of Social Change

Feek, W. (1988) Can you credit it: grant givers' views onfunding applications, Leicester: NationalYouth Bureau.

Smith, Mark (1981) Organise!, Leicester: National Associationof Youth Clubs

Villemur, Anne (1996) Applying to a grant making trust: a guidefor fundraisers, West Malling: Charities AidFoundation

Young People Now, July (1993)

INTERNET RESOURCESFor help with searching for funding andfor information on existing foundations(March 1999). This list is not exhaustive!!

Charities Aid Foundation - http://www.chari-tynet.org

Information, resources, publications.Includes an international section.

Deutsches Spendeninstitut - http://www.dsk.deInformation in German and English onGerman charities, hints for donors, links tofunding organisations in other countriesand to international sites.

Eurodesk – http://www.eurodesk.org/Information on European programmes

European Foundation Centre - http://www.efc.beLinks to other funders' sites and many cor-porate funders in Europe.

The Foundation Center - http://fdncenter.orgBased in the United States. Information oncharities and private foundations. Advice onapplication writing and links to other sites.Includes an online bookstore and possibili-ty of submitting questions to a referencelibrarian. Also gives information on fund-ing outside the United States.

Fund-raising.com – http://www.fund-raising.com/Concrete practical ideas and resources forfund-raising.

Funders Online - http://www.fundersonline.org/A project of the European Foundation Cen-tre and other international partners pro-viding access to a range of European fund-ing and grantmaking resources. TheFunders Online Directory gives profiles offoundations and lists corporate funders'web sites. The Directory is searchable byfunder's areas of interest, indexed by sub-ject focus, geographic focus, populationfocus and types of support.

Soros Foundation - http://www.soros.orgPrivate foundation operating in manyEuropean countries.

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The authors of the Project Management T-kit:

Bernard Abrignani (writing): Civil servant at the French Ministryof Youth and Sports and project officer at the National Institutefor Youth and Community Education. Specialised in youth par-ticipation, community development, education, prevention ofdelinquency, intercultural learning and international youth work.

Anne Dussap (co-ordination, editing): tutor works at theDirectorate of Youth and Sport – Council of Europe.anne.dussap@coe.int

Rui Gomes (writing): freelance trainer and consultant at thetime of the writing of the T-Kit, with wide experience in project-based European training courses and a particular interest inintercultural education, minority rights, Human Rights andevaluation. Since March 2000 Rui Gomes works at the EuropeanYouth Centre in Budapest, in charge of the Programme andTraining. rui.gomes@eycb.hu

Dirk de Vilder (writing): freelance trainer and consultant at thetime of the writing of the T-Kit. Specialised in experiential learn-ing, multicultural teamwork, communication and leadershiptraining and international project management. Now workingfor “Outward Bound” Belgium as a trainer and consultant forprofit and non-profit sector. dirk.devilder@outwardbound.be

Peter Merry (editing, proof-reading): freelance trainer and con-sultant based in the Hague, specialising in intercultural learning,human ecology, theatre in education, conflict management, andgroup facilitation.

… and the following person has also contributed to the elabo-ration of this T-Kit:

Alain Roy: is Professor of teacher training at the Institute ofReligious Training within the Faculty of Theology at the UniversityStrasbourg. For a period of 10 years he worked at the Council ofEurope as Secretary to European Steering Committee for Youthand as a freelance trainer of project management and develop-ment in Central and Eastern Europe. His voluntary activitiesincluded responsibility for the Young European Christians in theAlsace-Lorraine region.

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The T-Kit series – year 2000 (available in English and French)

T-Kit 1:Organisational Management

T-Kit 2:Methodology in Language Learning

T-Kit 3:Intercultural Learning

T-Kit 4:Project Management

Planned for the year 2001:(provisional titles)

T-Kit 5:How to Organise a Training Course

T-Kit 6:Voluntary Service

T-Kit 7:Citizenship Education

www.training-youth.net

Project Management

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No.3No.3

No.3

In 1998, The Council of Europe and the European Commission decided totake common action in the field of European Youth Worker Training, andtherefore initiated a Partnership Agreement. The aim of the Agreement,which is laid down in several covenants, is “to promote active Europeancitizenship and civil society by giving impetus to the training of youthleaders and youth workers working within a European dimension”.The co-operation between the two institutions covers a wide spectrumof activities and publications, as well as developing tools for furthernetworking.Three main components govern the partnership: a training offer (long termtraining for trainers and training on European Citizenship), publications(both paper and electronic versions of training materials and magazine)and networking tools (trainers pool and exchange possibilities). Theultimate goal is to raise standards in youth worker training at aEuropean level and define quality criteria for such training.