Exam 2 Review – 2009Try to answer questions on your own and then go through notes and find the answers.

1. What are the functions of the respiratory system?

2. What are the types of respiratory systems and describe each?

3. What is responsible for a gas exchange?

4. There is high _____________ in the blood sytem and high _________ in the ___________

5. What three characteristics enhance gas exchange?

6. Define Paedomorphism.

7. What mechanism allows for gas exchange across the gills?

8. Lungs allow organisms to breathe in _______________ environments.

9. Why the switch from gill filaments to lungs?

10. In lungs, there is a high diffusion gradient due to the what? .

11. Most vertebrate lungs are __________ and lead to a _____________ _______.

12. There is a high / low amount of surface area in vertebrate lungs

13. True / False All vertebrates have lungs that lead to a dead-end sac

14. _____________________ is the oxygen transporting protein found in most vertebrates.

15. Describe factors that determine oxygen in blood

16. The Bohr effect allows for more _________ to travel to the __________. It helps get rid of more _________ at the cellular level.

17. The site of gas exchange occurs where in each of the following?Gills

Lungs

Cutaneous Respiratory II:

18. Name the three types of respiration systems.

19. What class has the greatest diversity in respiration?

20. What of breathing do frogs have?

21. True / False Amphibia is the only class to use cutaneous respiration.

22. In Amphibians, in which group is cutaneious respiration most common?

23. Why are plethodontids special?

24. Are reptile lungs more or less developed when compared to amphibians?

25. What is the structure that begins to separate the anterior portion of the respiratory tract from the digestive tract?

26. In turtles, where else does respiration occur – aside from the lungs?

27. Are mammalian lungs more or less developed than reptilian?

28. What structure within mammalian lungs is responsible for greater surface area in the lungs?

29. Why is more surface area important?

30. How do mammalian lungs work? By what system?

31. What muscle creates a vacuum in the chest when it contracts?

32. Where do diving mammals store oxygen?

33. Why don’t diving mammals store oxygen in their lungs?

34. From where do diving mammals derive ATP?

35. What type of respiration do birds have?

36. Mammals have a more or less efficient oxygen exchange than birds?

37. True / False The air sac system of birds can include bones.

38. Which air sacs does the air flow into birds when they first inhale?

39. How do locomotion and respiration compete?

40. Can a lizard respire successfully when running?

41. Can a dog respire successfully when running?

42. What is integument?

43. True / False Integument is not an organ system.

44. Name 3 functions associated with the integument system.

45. ________________ and _________________ are the two layers of the skin. Describe each.

46. In bony fishes, the ____________________ is the layer on the ___________ of

scales and has _____________ glands, while the _____________ is thicker and

produces _______________________, and contains ________________, which allow the fish to “change color.”

47. True / False Osteichthyes generally have a large amount of keratin in their integument.

48. Amphibians have both mucous and _________________ glands.

Evidence of keratin is found in ____________. Many amphibians produce

___________ from these glands.

49. Describe the dermis in Amphibians

50. Reptiles often shed their epidermis through a process called ______________

51. How do each of the following shed? (i.e. 2 pieces, 1 piece, etc.)

a. Turtle

b. Snake

c. Lizard

d. Crocodiles

52. The dermis is thicker / thinner in reptiles.

53. Some reptiles (such as turtles) have ___________ ____________.

54. In birds, the epidermis produces _____________, which are made of keratin. Birds also shed and replace feathers in a process known as __________.

55. What is the preening gland found in birds?

56. The main shaft of a feather is called a ___________ and ends in a quill or

______________. _______________ or hooklets branch off barbules and interlock.

57. Mammals have 4 types of glands. Name and describe them.

58. True / False Since mammary glands are paired, all mammals only have two mammary glands.

59. Describe three general characteristics of hair.

60. ______________ hair is what you generally __________

61. ______________ hair is a shorter layer, below the _________ hair.

62. _______________ are the whiskers and are used as ______________

63. True / False All female cervids are devoid of horns.

64. True / False Rhinoceros horns are true horns

65. Compare and contrast antlers and horns

66. Describe a rhinoceros tusk.

67. The endocrine system works with the ______________ system and has both

_______________ and ______________ responses.

68. Name 3 things the endocrine system controls.

69. Describe endocrine glands.

70. What are hormones?

71. ______________ is the “master center” of the endocrine system and is found in

the ___________.

72. They hypothalamus produces _____________ _____________ which stimulate the _____________ ___________.

73. What are the two portions of the pituitary gland?

74. Name and describe the hormones produced in the anterior pituitary.

75. Name and describe the hormones stored in the posterior pituitary.

76. What produces the oxytocin and vasopressin?

77. Which gland is located in the neck? What hormone controls it? What hormone is produced by this gland?

78. Which hormone is a key to metamorphosis in amphibians?

79. Describe the Parathyroid gland and its products.

80. _______________ gland is found next to the kidneys in mammals and is

controlled by _________________________.

81. Name and describe the two areas of the adrenal gland.

82. __________________ is another name for epinephrine and _________________

is another name for norephinephrin.

83. What hormones are produced in the Islet Cells of the pancreas? Describe them.

84. ________________ is caused by a lack of insulin.

85. The _______________________ secretes _______________ during dark, thus it

is negatively light sensitive. It is responsible for __________________ in lizards

preceeding dormancy. It is linked to _______________ _______________

____________ in humans.

86. What are the functions of the immune system?

87. The lymphoid organs consist of _______________ organs and _______________ organs.

88. Define and list primary organs.

89. What are secondary organs and provide an example.

90. Monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophils are types of _____________________,

whose job is to engulf ___________ particles and ___________ them

91. __________________ release granules containing chemicals that damage invaders.

92. What causes allergies?

93. What are the two types of lymphocytes?

94. B-cells produce _________________ that bind to invaders.

95. True / False Antibodies are very specific but cannot recognize many different pathogens.

96. What is an example of how antibodies work?

97. What are two types of T-cells?

98. T-helpers aid in activation of ______________ and ______________________

99. ________________________ recognize tumor cells or virus infected cells and kills them with toxic chemicals.

100. Both B- and T-cells ________________ when they encounter invaders

forming a whole army of cells (a___________) that can eliminate the invader more efficiently.

101. What are the two types of immunity?

102. True / False Acquired immunity is found in all animals while innate immunity is only in vertebrates.

103. What are the main components of each type of immunity?

104. Fill in the chart appropriately for the blank section of either acquired or innate immunity.

Innate Immunity Acquired Immunity

line of defense line of defense

Activated upon infection (therefore slower)

Not antigen-specific

Exposure to antigen does not result in immunological memory

105. Describe recognition of specific antigens.

106. This is the reason for why many times you get sick only once with a given disease.

107. What causes immunological memory?

108. What mediates recognition of self vs. foreign cells.

109. Describe Major Histocompatibility Complex.

110. What happens when MHC fails?

111. What type of feeding is important in aquatic vertebrates?

112. What is the function of the digestive system?

113. What are 3 things important to terrestrial vertebrates that enable them to eat successfully?

114. Describe invertebrate digestion.

115. Describe the differences present in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.

Fill in a word that fits the definition.

116. _______________ : “dis-assembly line”; transport along the gut after collection

117. __________________ : mouth begins particle size reduction; size must be further reduced to facilitate chemical attack

118. ___________________ : breakdown of potentially useful materials to molecules used by cells

119. ____________________ : after breakdown, useful products absorbed and circulated to cells and storage areas

120. What are the types of teeth found in mammals (mentioned in lecture)? What are their purposes?

121. True / False True mastication only occurs in mammals.

122. How is homodont dentition used?

123. How do beaks work for pre-processing?

124. In the _______________ _____________ or throat, food can be moved by cilia but is mostly through ______________ muscular activity also called __________.

125. What type of muscles make of the remainder of the digestive tract?

126. What is peristalsis?

127. True / False The esophagus is well defined in both fish and tetrapods.

128. In which groups is the esophagus sometimes ciliated?

129. Name the modification(s) of the stomach found in birds & crocodiles and in ruminants.

130. What esophageal adaptation is found in birds?

131. What is chyme?

132. In ruminants, ______________ make amino acids, proteins, vitamins, and

fatty acids, which are absorbed by the _________. Larger solids are

_______________ and ____________ in the mouth. Then are ______________ and

pass to the _____________ for physical breakdown. The ________________ is the

“true stomach” and contains the 4 usual stomach ____________.

133. Esophagus means “__________________________” in Greek and is made of __________ material that resists scouring.

134. Describe the crop.

135. What does mucus do? Where is it from?

136. True / False Stomachs are not found in all vertebrates.

137. Describe the stomach.

138. Name the 4 stomach epithelia and describe them.

139. ____________ is a digestive enzyme that breaks down protein. ____________ breaks down fats. ________ decreases the pH, making it more acidic and more favorable for __________

140. Where does most chemical digestion occur?

141. What is the major site of nutrient absorption?

142. How is interal surface area of the intestine enlarged?

143. True / False the pancreas is the glandular outgrowth of the intestine.

144. The large intestine is the major site of ___________ _________________ and ___________ wastes. It is most developed in ______________ vertebrates that need to _________________ water.

145. What does the large intestine terminate into in each of the following?a. Mammals b. Birds c. Reptiles d. Amphibians e. Many Fish

146. True / False The anus and cloaca both discharge feces.

147. The _____________ is a pouch in the wall of the digestive tract that usually contains _______________ that help in digestion.

148. Teleost fish have several cecae or appendices, called ___________ ___________

149. True / False The majority of reptiles have cecae.

150. Where is the cecum located in most birds and mammals?

151. Which has the most well developed cecum?a. Lion b. Rabbitc. Grizzly Bear

152. The appendix in humans is vestigial, but the function is well understood and functions along with the immune system.

153. What are the three accessory organs of the digestive system?

154. The____________ is the largest gland in the vertebrate body and overlies the

_____________.

155. What functions does the liver perform?

156. The __________________ is a blind storage sac that stores _________, which is used to breakdown fats, and is also rich in bicarbonate.

157. True / False Without Bile, fat passes through the digestive tract unabsorbed.

158. True / False The pH of stomach and bile are very similar.

159. What is the function of the pancreas?

160. What is the purpose of bicarbonate? In what “juices” can it be found?

161. Where does most true absorption occur in the vertebrate body?

162. ______________________ and ____________________ are the two major parts of the intestine.

163. The small intestine plays a major role in _________________ of nutrients.

164. How is the surface area of the intestine increased?

165. In mammals and many fish, the intestine terminates into a _____________ and _________, but into a _____________ in sharks, amphibians, reptiles, and birds.

166. What is the difference between a cloaca and a rectum?a. Cloaca b. Rectum

167. What factors influence gut size?

168. Compare and contrast the efficiency of different diets in fish.

169. In general, what type of diet was largest in terms of gut size? The smallest?

170. What generally consumes more energy? (Homeotherms or Poikilotherms) Why?

.171. True / False Lamprey have a stomach.

172. Why is water / salt regulation critical for life?

173. What is the purpose of water balance?

174. True / False Osmoregulation and salt balance are synonymous words.

175. What is the purpose osmoregulation?

176. Name methods of minimizing evaporative water loss.

177. What are other ways of reducing water loss in terrestrial vertebrates?

178. Approximately how much water do Kangaroo rats consume?

179. Is water loss proportionally greater in large or small animals?

180. True / False All organisms regulate their salt/water balance.

181. What is dialysis?a. Artificial filtering of the blood in people with kidney failure. Takes

several hours a day?

182. The ____________ is the primary organ of salt / water balance in reptiles, birds,

and mammals and receives _____________% of blood flow, though is less than

______% of body mass of the animals.

183. What are 3 functions of the kidney

184. The functional unit of the kidney is the _________________.

185. How is waste in the blood converted to urine?

186. In what type of environment do animals with the longest loops of Henle reside?

187. What vertebrate groups face challenges when it comes to osmoregulation?

188. What are three ways marine fish combat their tendency to lose water and gain salts due to high osmolality (salt content) of environment?

189. How do bony fish osmoregulate?

190. What is a problem associated with living in fresh water for fish and amphibians?

191. How is the above problem solved?

192. Describe the regulatory mechanism utilized by fresh water bony fish (in reguards to osmoregulation).

193. Describe how freshwater amphibians osmoregulate.

194. What does stenohaline mean?

195. What does Euryhaline mean?

196. What does Diadromous mean?

197. ______________________ organisms live most of their adult life in fresh and spawn in saltwater. ___________________ organisms live most of their adult life in salt and spawn in freshwater.

198. True / False Terrestrial vertebrates need not worry about their salt / water balance because they do not live in aquatic environments.

199. How is osmoregulation accomplished in terrestrial vertebrates?

200. What are the functions of the nervous system?

201. The ______________ ______________ ___________ (CNS) and ______________ ______________ _____________ (PNS) are the two major subdivisions of the nervous system.

202. What are/is the main portion(s) of the: CNS? PNS?

203. __________________ is the basic cellular unit in the nervous system.

204. ____________ and ______________ are the two different kinds of processes. Describe each.

205. Name the 3 classes of neurons and describe them.

206. Which neuron class corresponds to each of the following?

Motor

Sensory

207. True / False All classes of neurons are within the central nervous system.

208. What cells “covers” the axon?

209. What structure along the axon allow a signal to be passed along the axon so quickly

210. True / False Usually all nerves fire at once, but sometimes only a selected group fire.

211. What are the characteristics of a nerve impulse?

212. Describe the resting state of a nerve cell.

213. Describe the conduction of an Action potential, which is also called a ___________ _____________.

214. During the depolarization stage, the inside of the cell becomes ___________ and __________ during the repolarization stage.

215. Small axons conduct ___________ because resistance to current flow is high and axons with quick responses are _____________.

216. In what other way do vertebrates increase conduction speed in an axon? This increases _____________ conduction.

217. Name and describe the two types of nerve synapses.

218. Describe signal transmission in a chemical synapse.

219. In vertebrates and invertebrates, the nervous system displays a

______________ _____________ in complexity from nerve net to linear to

_______________ ____________ __________, which includes a brain and spinal column.

220. Vertebrates display ____________ of axons, which connect the spinal

cord and brain. Unlike most invertebrates, vertebrates have a _______________ nervous system. The _________ __________ changed little over vertebrate evolution

221. There is an increase in ____________ and _________________ of brains when comparing birds and mammals to earlier lineages.

222. Larger animals tend to have ____________ brains(in proportion to body size).

223. Birds have enlarged _________ lobes, but reduced __________ portions of the brain.

224. True / False Effernt and afferent neurons are sometimes bundled in the same nerve.

225. Describe the peripheral nervous system.

226. The _____________ nervous system includes skeletal muscle, while the ______________ nervous system includes muscles and glands.

227. The parasympathetic system increases / decreases heart rate while the sympathetic system increases / decreases heart rate.

228. True / False Most reflex arcs include the central nervous system of both the spinal cord and brain.

229. What must vertebrates be able to detect from the environment?

230. Sense organs are more advantageous with a more _____________ environment.

231. What do sense organs enable vertebrates to do?

232. What are the three general types of sense organs?

233. Give an example of each of the above types of sense organs.

234. Most vertebrates can taste sour, _________, bitter, and ___________. The _________ _______ last between 5 and 10 days. ___________ tastes are important in warning of _____________.

235. What are the four basic tastes?

236. Which type of sense is most ancestral and most universal among classes?

237. True / False Taste is more complex than smell

238. Where are taste buds located?

239. Where are smell receptors located?

240. There are about 20 million ____________ receptors in a human nose.

241. How many odors can humans detect?

242. What information can chemical scents convey?

243. Describe how mechanoreceptors detect tough/pain.

244. Most touch receptors are found in the ________ and ______________________.

245. Distant touch receptors used for detecting ___________ vibrations and currents in water are known as __________ ____________. These are present in ________, _____ _________________, and frogs.

246. Mechanoreceptors are generally used to detect nearby movements of what and are found where on the vertebrate body?

247. In a lateral line, sensory cells are called ____________ and are a collection of hairs embedded in gelatinous wedge-shaped mass called _________.

248. What is sound?

249. Compare sound in air to sound in water.

250. The ___________ of a (sound) vibration determines the pitch, while the ____________ determines the loudness.

251. What is the external structure for sound in vertebrates?

252. External vibrations __________ vibrations membrane vibrations move _________ cells nerve impulses to _____

253. True / False Most invertebrates inhabit a silent world.

254. Describe the origin of the vertebrate ear.

255. In vertebrates, information about balance comes from _____ small chambers and three _______________ ___________, which give information about head position and _____________.

256. What are the three subdivisions of the mammalian ear?

257. What does the outer ear do?

258. What is the name of organ of hearing in mammals?

259. What detects movement of the liquid in the cochlea and sends information to the CNS?

260. Describe how equilibrium is detected.

261. __________, ______________, and ___________ are the 3 bones of the middle ear.

262. Sound is amplified up to _____ times by ossicles.

263. Pitch discrimination depends on the _________ of hairs stimulated and __________ depends on the number of hairs stimulated.

264. Name and describe the different types of auditory specialization in vertebrates.

265. Fish hear _______ sounds best, the aquatic salamander uses bones and _______ and tiger salamanders use their __________. Snakes hear through _____ & __________ bones. Birds have a ___________ range and mammals detect sound better than ___________.

1. What is the organ of vision?

2. What is another name for photoreceptors?

3. What are the three layers of the eyeball?

4. ____________ is transparent and bends light and the __________ regulates the light opening or the ___________. The ______ is behind the iris and helps focus.

5. What are the types of photoreceptors found in the eye? Describe each.

6. Where is it rhodopsin?

7. How is light detected?

8. What wavelengths (colors) do photopigments generally respond to?

9. What is the wavelength range most vertebrates can see?

10. Violet is _________ while red is ___________.

11. What is the area that is scanned by eyes?

12. Describe monocular vision.

13. Describe binocular vision.

14. True / False It is impossible for vertebrates to have both monocular and binocular vision.

15. How is the visual field different between prey and predators?

16. Name some aquatic adaptations.

17. Describe the differences in pupils shape.

18. Describe the third eyelid.

19. Color vision is found mainly in ___________ animals.

20. Which vertebrate groups have good color vision?

21. True / False It is difficult to determine if an animal has color vision.

22. Color vision increases ___________ and ______________________

23. Some vertebrates can sense heat and cold with ___________ receptors.

24. Pit vipers have a pair of _____ organs to detect heat which are the most / least sensitive receptor in animals (fill in the blank and circle one).

25. True / False Most pit vipers can, in one second and at half a meter, detect a mouse

that is 10C warmer than the surroundings.

26. True / False rattlesnakes are deterred by California ground squirrels waving their tales, thus producing an infrared signal.

27. True / False The ground squirrels in question 25 are aware of the infrared signal they produce.

28. How do fish that can receive and emit electromagnetic signals use their “electricity”?

29. True / False Magnetism is well understood, though it is not often demonstrated.

1. What type of reproduction do most vertebrates exhibit?

2. What is parthenogenesis?

3. What is the goal of reproduction?

4. What is hermaphoditism?

5. True / False Hermaphrodites can be sequential or simultaneous.

6. True / False Generally hermaphrodites self-fertilize.

7. ___________________ is when an individual is born one sex and then switches to another. In this type of hermaphroditism, when an individual is male first, it is called __________________. When the individual is female first, it is ____________________.

8. ___________________ is when both sets of sex organs are present but do not function at the same time.

9. For some species, sex is partially (or completely) determined by

_________________ influences, and may display ________________________

______ _________________, while many (especially mammals and birds)

display ___________ ______ determination.

10. ______________________________________ is where temperature determines

the sex of offspring. This is common in alligators, turtles, and fish.

11. _________________ species produce many offspring with low survival rate.

Can be found in fish and some amphibians.

12. _________________ species produce few offspring with a high survival rate. Generally found in ________-lived species such as primates, whales, seabirds.

13. Most vertebrates have ____________ fertilization.

14. In ___________ fertilization, ova and sperm combine outside the female’s body.

15. What are adaptations to increase the number of ova fertilized

16. Name the copulatory structures mentioned in class.

17. When few ova are released, they are released _________ at a time. When many

are released, there is often ____________ offspring mortality.

18. Generally, species with few offspring display _________________ parental

care, while species with many offspring provide ____________ parental care.

19. How much do each of the following display in terms of parental care?a. Mammals b. Birds c. Some snakes d. Fish

20. What does oviparous mean?

21. What does viviparous mean?

22. What does Ovoviviparous mean?

23. The three types of pair bonding are _______________, ________________, ________________. Describe each.

24. True / False Monogamy is common in mammals.

25. ______________ are when there is 1 female with many males and is

____________ in vertebrates.

26. _____________ is when there is 1 male with many females and is

____________ in vertebrates.

27. In ______________ no real pair-bonds are formed.

28. True / False Promiscuity is most likely the most common pattern in vertebrates.

29. True / False Most vertebrates do not have a distinct breeding season.

30. True / False Natural selection determines when breeding season occurs.

31. Name 3 proximate factors affecting breeding season?

32. Name 2 ultimate factors affecting breeding season.

33. In fish, there is a great deal of _________ ______________ , especially in color, forehead crests, and hooked jaws, etc.

34. Describe reproduction in fish, as discussed in class.

35. Describe amphibian reproduction, as discussed in class.

36. Describe reptilian reproduction, as discussed in class.

37. Describe avian reproduction, as discussed in class.

38. Describe mammalian reproduction, as discussed in class.

Locomotion

1. ______________ was the earliest form of locomotion.

2. What are the two forces generated during this locomotion? Describe them.

3. Locomotion in water must overcome ________ and _____________.

4. Name and describe ways that lift is provided.

5. How are swimming types classified? (by what means?)

6. How is swimming locomotion usually accomplished?

7. Name and describe the types of movement in swimming locomotion.

8. What are the three types of instability?

9. What counters instability?

10. What force counteracts thrust?

11. ____________ drag is friction between the water and body. ________________ drag comes from turbulence as fish moves, displaces water.

12. How is drag reduced?

13. Name the four swimming types.

14. Describe Anguilliform swimming.

15. Describe Carangiform swimming.

16. Describe Ostraciiform swimming.

17. Describe appendicular swimming

18. Name and descrive the two types of appendicular swimming?

19. What is the general difference between efferent and afferent neurons?

20. True / False Flight is similar to swimming, but in a different medium.

21. What forces must animals generate for both aerial and swimming locomotion?

22. What forces must animals reduce or counteract in both aerial and swimming locomotion?

23. How is the wing shaped?

24. How is lift accomplished by wings?

25. True / False Air traveling under the wing moves faster than air over the wing.

26. The high pressure zone __________ the wing produces ___________. Thus, the air pressure pushes the bird _____.

27. With increased speed comes ________________ lift.

28. What happens with an increased attack angle?

29. How is thrust accomplished with wings?

30. What are the three parts of the flight stroke?

31. How do asymmetrical primary feathers assist with thrust?

32. What are causes of drag in aerial locomotion?

33. Define instability as it is defined for aerial locomotion.

34. What shape do wing tips make during a flight stroke?

35. What is surface friction?

36. What is pressure drag?

37. What is induced drag?

38. How are drag and instability reduced?

39. What are the types of flight? Describe each.

40. Name groups with gliding fliers.

41. What is a patagium?

42. Name groups with powered fliers?

43. What is the only group of actively flying mammals?

44. True / False All active flyers utilize a patagium.

45. What are the type birds glide extensively?

46. What are the types of soaring? Describe each.

47. Describe Hovering

48. Why do birds utilize flight formations?

49. What are some of the types of flying formations?a. V-shape b. Pelicans

50. What are the five general types of terrestrial locomotion?

1. _______________ means good at running.

2. Describe plantigrade foot posture.

3. Describe digitigrade foot posture.

4. Describe unguiligrade foot posture.

5. How does an increase in limb length increase speed?

6. Name several speed adaptations.

7. What is another name for jumping locomotion?

8. What is ricochet locomotion?

9. What are physical characteristics of jumpers, especially those with ricochet locomotion?

10. What is another name for climbing locomotion?

11. What are various adaptations that allow vertebrates to climb?

12. What is the name of the small hairs in lamellae that bond with the surface of whatever they are climbing?

13. How are opposable digits useful and in what groups are they found?

14. What vertebrates display crawling locomotion?

15. What are the four types of crawling?

16. Lateral undulations or _________________ is ____________________ movement on land.

17. Rectilinear or ___________________ is movement in a _______________ line. The belly scales or __________ grab a surface and push the body ____________.

18. Concertina is where a part of the body is ______________ in an ____-shaped coil. The body is pulled forward, through the _______, and then anchored again.

19. _________-winding is throwing the body ___-____ coils at a time. The snake tracks _____________, but the body is at an angle to direct travel.

20. What is another name for digging?

21. Name some adaptations for digging.

22. Why would limb loss be advantageous to digging animals?