7 design perspective

8/9/2019 7 Design Perspective

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13/03/10 23:04NPTEL Online - IIT Delhi

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Design Perspective

In this chapter, design issues associated with analog and digital circuits will be discussed in brief. To appreciate the designissues, some of the important transistor parameters and their dependence on base and collector doping and thicknesses aresummarized below:

A number of important tradeoffs can be seen in the table shown above.Tradeoffs:

Eq. (1) shows that for a fixed base doping, an increase in current gain will be accompanied by an increase in baseresistance as well. Similarly, Eq. (2) shows that for constant base doping, an increase in early voltage will result indecrease in current gain.

Example 7.1 Design an NPN transistor that has a current gain of 500 at =0

Solution : What will be described here is a first pass at design. Various assumptions that are made will have to refined inthe next iteration.

We take The corresponding bandgap narrowing in emitter is

,

We take

We will take small doping in the base so as to obtain this high value of gain. As a result BGN in base can be neglected.

This gives . We have several choices here for base doping and the resulting base thickness. Let us take


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This is the effective base width. Let us calculate the metallurgical base width. For this we will have to calculate the depletionregions within the base due to emitter-base and collector-base junctions.

For the emitter base junction we assume a forward bias of 0.7 volts and built-in voltage of 0.95 Volts. Most of the depletionregion will lie in the base so that

Similarly, the depletion width due to collector junction can be calculated:

The metallurgical base width will be

The punchthrough voltage for such a lightly doped and narrow-base can be calculated using the expression

This is a very small voltage meaning that transistor can only be operated close to zero collector-base voltage. The earlyvoltage of the transistor is also very small.Thus a large current gain is obtained only at the expense of very smallpunchthrough and Early voltages. The base resistance is also very large.

Eq. (1-3) also show that overall transistor characteristics can be improved by increasing the doping level in the base.The base thickness has to be simultaneously scaled to maintain a constant current gain and to improve the basetransit time.

The transistor area should be scaled so as to reduce the emitter and collector junction capacitances.

A general guideline for improving the performance of a BJT would therefore be:

1. increase base doping2. reduce base thickness3. reduce device area4. minimize the extrinsic transistor region

These tasks have to be done such that:

1. punchthrough does not occur in the base2. high-level injection does not occur in the base3. high-level injection does not occur in the collector 4. collector-base breakdown voltage is adequate

In order to appreciate the design issues in more detail, let us first look at the demands imposed on the transistor by somecommon analog circuit blocks. The Figure below shows a common emitter amplifier(without the biasing network):


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The important characteristics of a common emitter include :

Eq. (6-8) can be combined to obtain a single equation:

Since a high voltage gain , a high input resistance and a low output resistance are the desirable characteristics of aCE amplifier, we would like to have a transistor with as high a current gain as possible.

To improve the upper cutoff frequency, the terms; .

Since :

Where its width (perpendicular to the plane of the paper)


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Eq. (15-17) show that frequency performance can be improved by reducing emitter length Le , increasing basedoping NA and reducing collector doping NDC. The base thickness has to be reduced even though it tends toincrease the time constants described by Eq. (15-16), so as to maintain a constant current gain.Eq. (16) shows that the collector-base junction area should be made close to the base emitter junction area byreducing the extrinsic transistor region.Since collector current is dictated by the circuit, the scaling of device dimensions to improve the frequencyperformance will be accompanied by an increase in collector current density. Therefore, steps should be taken so asto avoid onset of high levelinjection effects at the operating current density.The actual design of base and collector regions would depend on the relative importance of different time constantsin the expression of upper cutoff frequency.For example, if the amplifier is biased at low collector currents and voltage gain is small, then the time constantdescribed by Eq. (15) may be the most important. If we remember that:

then using Eq. (18) and Eq. (15)

In other words, increase in base doping will have little impact on the frequency performance. The best way of improving the performance will be via scaling of emitter length.Let us consider another situation where the amplifier is biased at large collector current so that the time constantdescribed by Eq. (17) is the most important. For this case,

In this case, scaling will not have any impact but increase in base doping and scaling of base width will considerablyimprove the circuit performance.What this example shows is that different transistor characteristic and therefore different designs are required for different circuit applications. In discrete circuits, this can be handled by using different kinds of transistors for differentcircuits but for monolithic circuits, the same transistor has to be used in all the circuits thereby complicating the transistor design.The importance of high base doping stems largely from the reduction in base resistance that it leads to. Suppose theamplifier shown in the earlier Figure is driven by a resistance RC which is considerably larger than the baseresistance as shown below:


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To improve the upper cutoff frequency now, the terms; have to be minimized. Fromthe transistors point of view, this means that the capacitances and the base transit time should be minimum. Asearlier, for low collector currents and small voltage gain, the term involving emitter junction capacitance will be themost important term. Since, , a base with low doping level will be better !

Let us consider another circuit which is commonly used in analog circuits: an amplifier with an active load:

The voltage gain for the CE amplifier with an active load can be written as:

is the Early voltage, where the subscript N & P denote N and p-type transistors respectively.Similarly,

As before, so that a high current gain is desirable. But now, Eq. (21) shows that a high early voltage is also

required to obtain a high voltage gain. The importance of high base doping is even larger here.

The upper cutoff frequency may be dominated by the collector junction capacitance due to very high voltage gain


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As a result, the collector junction capacitance acquires the highest importance. Eq. (16) along with the expression for currentgain give:

A high doping in the base and low doping in the collector are the requirements now. The base thickness needs to be onlyslightly scaled so as to maintain a constant current gain.

Example 7.2 Figure below shows an CE amplifier with an active load. Design a transistor for such a circuit such that it has.The transistor should be able to handle a collector current of 1mA.

Solution : As in the previous example, We take

The corresponding bandgap narrowing in emitter is

We take

We will take small doping in the base so as to obtain the given value of gain. As a result BGN in base can be neglected.

This gives . We have several choices here for base doping and the resulting base thickness. Let us

take

Suppose we take

This gives =14.66Volts which is much smaller than the target value. We cant increase the base width or the base dopingbecause that will decrease the current gain below the specified value of 100. The only option is to decrease the collector doping. If it is reduced by a factor of 10 to .This gives=43.66Volts, which is still short of the target. We could try and decrease the collector doping further but that would createproblems. Even for collector doping of the high level injection in collector would limit the collector current density to

. A smaller value of collector current density directly impacts the unity gainfrequency:

So far we have calculated the early voltage at zero collector-base bias. If the voltage is calculated for volts which meets the target. Thus the shortcoming of the transistor can be met through

circuit techniques. We also need a base resistance less than 1K so that


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where is emitter length and its width perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Taking =280, we find that / =0.1should be satisfactory.

The current handling capability should be better than 1mA so that . The current density is limited byKirk effect rather than Webster effect and its value has been calculated earlier. As a result we find that Area =should be satisfactory.

Since Area = x . we obtain =3 and =30

Final design:

Only the effective base width is given above. With all the doping values available, the corresponding metallurgical base widthcan be easily determined.

Since a resistively loaded CE amplifier may be fabricated side by side with an active load CE amplifier, transistor characteristics will have to be optimized keeping the requirements of both the circuits in mind.

In the front amplifier stages, the voltages are low and breakdown is not as important as in the output stages where voltageswings are larger.

Let us next consider the design issues associated with a BJT in a digital circuit. For this we shall take an ECL gate as anexample:

For the 10K series gate these values=4mA and total power dissipation . A circuit containing just 500gates would therefore have a power dissipation of 2 W!

Among the important characteristics of an ECL gate are:

1. propagation delay2. power dissipation3. noise margin4. Area

The propagation delay is a complicated function of various capacitances and resistance in the transistor. It can be modeled

as:


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The various time constant and the multiplying factors are listed below:

Example 7.3 Consider an ECL circuit fabricated using a 6 x 6 non self aligned BJT having the following

characteristic:

The ECL circuit had =400 and a load capacitance of =100fF and a voltage swing =400mV ,corresponding to acollector current of 1mA.Calculate the gate delay and also give a breakup of different factors in terms of their relativecontributions to the delay.

Solution : The gate delay turns out to be ~316ps. The contributions of some of the important time constants is given below:

The examination of the table shows that among the capacitances, the most important one for this transistor is the extrinsiccollector-base capacitance. About 44% of the delay is due to this capacitance. Similarly, terms involving the extrinsic base

resistance account for about 42% of the delay.The emitter junction capacitance accounts for about 25.6% of the delay and is the next important capacitance.

The forward transit time, which is basically, the base transit time accounts for about 14.4% of the overall delay.

As a result, the approach for reducing the overall delay would be to :

i. reduce the extrinsic collector-base area to reduce the extrinsic collector junction capacitanceii. reduce the extrinsic base resistanceiii. scale the area to reduce both the collector as well as emitter junction capacitancesiv. scale the base width to reduce the base transit time

The transistor described above was a non-self-aligned structure typical of transistors used in

Through use of self-aligned techniques, both the extrinsic base resistance, as well as extrinsic base capacitance canbe sharply reduced resulting in overall improvement in delay.


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These self aligned structures are described below:

The oxide spacer layer shown in the self aligned structure is very narrow so that the base contact is very close to theintrinsic base region as compared to the non self aligned structure shown in the first Figure. The use of polysilicon facilitates formation of the spacer to isolate emitter and base contacts and also improves the current gain.

Note that the base contact is formed on the Poly which makes the contact with the extrinsic base region.As mentioned earlier, use of self aligned techniques will improve the transistor characteristics and ECL propagationdelay through reduction in extrinsic base and collector resistances.

Example 7.4 Calculate the ECL gate delay and determine the relative contributions of different factors for a self alignedtransistor described below Also shown for comparison are the characteristics of a non self-aligned transistor.


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Both the transistors have dimensions of 6mm x 6mm and are quite similar to each other except for the fact that base is self aligned to the emitter in the second case.

Solution : The overall ECL delay reduces to 157ps. The relative importance of different time constants becomes differentnow!

Examination of the table shows that emitter junction capacitance is the most important one accounting for almost 32% of theoverall delay. The extrinsic collector capacitance accounts for only 8% of the delay.

The base transit time now represents 27% of the delay.The most important resistance is the load resistance of the ECL gate accounting for almost 46% of the delay.The next important resistance is the intrinsic base resistance accounting for about 13.4% of the overall delay.

The ECL delay can now be improved through the following techniques:

Scaling of transistor size to reduce the emitter junction capacitance.Reduction in base width to reduce the base transit time.Increasing the base doping to reduce the intrinsic base resistance and to avoid punchthrough and high level injection in

the base.

On the circuit side, reduction in load resistance will pay rich dividends but it would increase the supply current according tothe expression.

where is the voltage swing. Increase in supply current would increase the already high power dissipation in ECL gatesand would therefore be counterproductive.

The other way of avoiding an increase in current is by scaling the voltage swing along with scaling of load resistance.This would result in decrease of noise margin. Nevertheless, voltage swing has been reduced in ECL circuits over the years.An increase in supply current may not result in increased power dissipation if the supply voltage is scaled. This trendcan also be seen over the years.Even if current is maintained constant, due to scaling of device size, the collector current density inside the BJT willincrease so that steps to avoid high level injection in base and collector have to be taken during the design.

The table below shows the relative contributions of different time constants for an ECL circuit fabricated using a selfaligned


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transistor of dimensions

The overall delay is ~20ps

The base transit time is the most important factor now. It accounts for nearly 47% of the delay.The emitter junction capacitance now accounts for less than 4% of the delay as a result of scaling.The extrinsic collector junction now accounts for about 7% of the delay and is the most importance capacitance nowafter the diffusion capacitance represented by base transit time. The renewed importance of extrinsic collector-basecapacitance is because the extrinsic region does not scale as fast as the intrinsic region.The other important capacitance is the load capacitance. Its contribution to delay has jumped from 9.5% to 22.2%.The most important resistance is the load resistance again accounting for about 34.5% of the delay. Next to it is theintrinsic base resistance accounting for nearly 14% of the delay.The trend seen so far indicates that with continued improvement in BJT characteristics, the eventual ECL delaywould be decided by the term!

The values for various resistances and capacitances for the example under discussion are given below:

These results suggest that delay can be further reduced by:

1. scaling the base thickness to reduce base transit time2. increasing the base doping to reduce the intrinsic base resistance and avoid punchthrough and high level injection in

the base.

The collector current density for the above example is ~4x10 4 A/cm 2 !. The current density for onset of high level injectionin collector is ~7x10 4 A/cm 2 for a collector doping of As a result high level injection would also begin tobecome important now and has to be taken into account.

The scaling of transistor area may not yield much improvement in delay because of the small contributions of areadependent junction capacitances. However, as base doping is raised along with scaling of base thickness, the emitter

junction capacitance will increase which can be kept in check through suitable scaling of transistor area.

As a result major improvement in transistor performance will now come as a result of reduction in forward transit time

through scaling of base width and simultaneously increasing the base doping to avoid punchthrough, high levelinjection and reducing the base resistance. The collector doping will also have to be raised to avoid high levelinjection in the collector and to reduce the collector transit time which becomes increasingly more important as base


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transit time is continually reduced.

As the base doping is increased, the emitter-base junction tends to become of type. This junction begins tohave a very low breakdown voltage and high leakage currents associated with tunneling. As a result of this, the basedoping is limited less than about .This has very serious consequences. If base doping cannot be increased beyond a limit, then base thickness canalso not be scaled beyond a limit otherwise punchthrough would occur. The base resistance would also becomeconstant due to limitation on base doping.This means that transistors performance cannot be improved beyond a certain point.

Example 7.5 Suppose the base doping is limited to What is the minimum base width we can have such thetransistor can handle a reverse collector voltage of 5 volts?(b) Will this value of base width be useful for transistor operation?

Solution : Using the expression for punchthrough voltage:

We obtain

(b) Such a small base width will first of all be difficult to fabricate. But besides that let us look at other consequences. Thedepletion region due to emitter junction calculated to be 98.5 and that due to collector junction for a collector doping of

Thus the effective base width will be This would yield a base transit time of only 0.156 pswhich is good but really not necessary when for example the collector transit time for is itself 1.6ps. The currentgain for an emitter doping of and thickness of 0.1 can be evaluated to be 590 which is also good.

However, the early voltage is only 16 Volts at zero collector-base bias. Further the sheet resistance of the base can becalculated to be :

.

For a minimum geometry transistor where the base resistance will be , which is very large.

Increase in effective base thickness to will decrease base resistance to but decrease current gain to 210which is all right. The base transit time will also increase to about 1.2 ps. The Early voltage will improve to 45 Volts. Thusthis would be a betterchoice. But of course it all depends on the application.

The source of this limitation is stemming from the emitter base junction becoming heavily doped junction on bothsides. This can be avoided by making the emitter lightly doped to say a doping of around The basedoping can be increased now without increasing the tunneling leakage currents. The base thickness can also bescaled now. But a lowly doped emitter and heavily doped base will have a current gain less than unity !. Such adevice would be useless for all applications.

The expression for current gain shows that there is a way of making a transistor with lightly doped emitter andheavily doped base and still get a high current gain:

Normally due to heavy doping in the emitter as compared to the collector, the bandgap in emitter is smaller than thatin the base so that the first term is much less than unity.

However, if we now make the emitter using a material which has a larger bandgap as compared to the material usedin the base then a very high current gain can be obtained despite a low emitter doping and a high base doping level.

For example, if the difference in the bandgaps of emitter and base is 0.4eV, then for emitter doping of andbase doping of the current gain for comparable emitter and base thicknesses turns out to beA BJT which is fabricated using different semiconductors in emitter and base is known as a heterojunction bipolar


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transistor or simplyIn an HBT the base doping can be made very high and base thickness very small so that very low intrinsic baseresistance and base transit times can be obtained.

Example 7.6 Suppose the base is heavily doped to the tune of and emitter lightly doped but current gain is

maintained at a reasonable value through use of wide bandgap semiconductor emitter. What will be the resulting changes inTransistors characteristics as compared to the previous example?

Solution : For a similar effective base thickness of and for the moment ignoring the reduction in mobility as a resultof increased base doping, the base resistance will reduce to 260 and Early voltage will increase to 800 !. The unity gainfrequency will be determined by collector transit time because the base transit time is so small.

7 design perspective

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