Shikha Gupta

27 March 2008

Analysing Sports in Cultures through Print Advertising

Clifford Geertz has said of culture that culture in simply the ensemble of stories

we tell ourselves about ourselves (qtd. in Sardar; Loon 5). The stories told speak of

values attached to various aspects that in combination constitute culture. Sports are one

such aspect. This paper therein is an attempt at understanding the values attached to

sports in cultures through the analysis of visual (verbal and non-verbal) communication

in print advertising.

It’s Not Just a Game

An analysis of sporting culture will present us with what can only be termed as

irony. This is especially so if the analysis takes place at the level of language. Often,

“sports” is used in relation with “playing a game”; something which is frivolous and an

activity meant for leisure. Thus, play is seen as the opposite of work (Rubio; Sandell:

1997). Although, etymologically speaking this would be true (sport meaning “pleasant

pastime”), a closer involvement with sporting culture would reveal quite the opposite.

Sports are not just an activity for diversion, but also a rather engaging and involving

activity. As observed by Rubio and Sandell, “Play is not only an escape from… but also

escape into. Because of this, how we play is a vital way in which we think about who we

are.” (1997) Advertising often explores this idea of what the consumer thinks about

himself as well. The following advertisement is one example of the same.

This is an advertisement for Total Sports, a store for tennis gear. As opposed to

most advertisement for sporting goods, this advertisement is blatantly devoid of in-your-

face stereotypical images that exude aggression. However, this advertisement is still

responsible for making its audience believe something about sports.

I Play, Therefore I Am

The above advertisement employs a popular advertising idiom - the “before and

after”. This is a popular method of depicting product benefits, where use of the product

brings about drastic changes in the user’s life. In the case of this advertisement, however,

it is not so much what the advertisement is selling but what the product is selling that

becomes important. That is to say, it is not the tennis gear that is important but what

tennis sells that becomes important. What is being sold then is an identity. What the

advertisement is trying to tell its audience is that engaging in sports provides a person

with an identity that was non-existent before (note lack of an indication of what you were

before you played tennis).

When we speak of identity here, we speak of personal identity, “the way you see

or define yourself… a property that you might have for a while and then lose: you could

acquire a new individual identity, or perhaps even carry on without one.” (Olson: 2002,

2007) The new individual identity that is being projected here is that of the sportsman; a

dimension associated with self-esteem, which is integral in the process of self-concept

and identity formation. Why the advertisement lacks images is not surprising then as

Patrick Rafter’s name more than makes up for the lack of it. Simply put, the audience is

made to believe that there is a small gap between a common man and a legend, and the

gap can be bridged by sports. Of course, to arrive at the status of a legendary sportsman

one would first need sporting equipment.

Not Lies, Just What You Think is True

This brings us to an important question about advertising and popular media and

culture. If culture is really an “ensemble of stories”, then to what extent is the media

responsible in the generation of these stories? More importantly, do media texts, such as

the advertisements under study, create stories in given cultures or do they only help

articulate existing stories? For instance, does the advert for Total Sports create a new

myth in saying that sportsmanship helps acquire a celebrated status or does it only play

with what has been told to its audience where they have come to believe that sports build

character?

This mechanism of meaning making is thus a double-edged one, where both the

media text and the receiving audience work in conjunction. That both the media and the

audience must arrive at some common understanding of the message would imply that

there is a common frame of reference for both the creator of the text and the receiver of

the text. This frame of reference is heavily reliant on existing ideologies of the culture

within which it functions. If ideology is “a system of meaning that helps define and

explain the world and that makes value judgements about that world” (Croteau; Hoynes

159) then it would mean that advertising, which is primarily about getting the audience to

buy something, will always pull something out of a culture’s trajectory of hopes, fears

and beliefs to sell that certain something. Of course, several ideologies function at the

same time within a certain space. In this case, ideologies stemming from the discourse on

sports, gender roles, consumerism etc are all responsible in process of meaning making.

Much is the case with the following piece.

The above is an advertisement by Adidas, part of the campaign that centres on the

Beijing 2008 Olympics. This advertisement offers interesting scope to further understand

the concept of ideology within the framework of countries.

Building a Nation

Culture is often associated with and limited by certain measures, tangible and

intangible. The concept of “nation” is one such concept. Here we understand nation as a

“human group conscious of forming a community, sharing a common culture, attached to

a clearly demarcated territory, having a common past and a common project for the future

and claiming the right to rule itself” (Guibernau: 1996, qtd. in “The Politics of

Devolution”: 2008). Thus it is believed that members of a certain nation would share a

certain common culture and other subcultures. Sporting culture becomes one such

subculture. For the sake of discussion, let us now reverse the supposition so that a culture

shares a common nationality. Therefore, we move from understandings such as “Indians

play kabadi” towards “Kabadi is an Indian sport”. Which would then mean that a culture

or subculture would have the power of adding to the concept that is nation and creating a

national identity. The idea may seem preposterous at first, but it is not altogether untrue if

one were to look at it in the context of sports.

Getting back to the advertisement for Adidas, we see how true this is. Note, first

of all, that neither a product nor a service is being sold to the audience. Not a single

product of Adidas appears in the advertisement, except for maybe the swimming trunks,

and one cannot be entirely sure of that either. Yet, the advertiser does not hesitate in

making use of the brand’s logo and slogan in promoting the Olympics. By doing so, the

brand comes off as supporting Team China. It is only an added advantage that the slogan

already reads “Impossible is Nothing”, which leads us to believe that there is a certain

unattainable quality to victory in the first place that Adidas endorses. It is the task of

trying to achieve this “impossible” feat that makes sports seem like a worthwhile activity

beyond its immediate benefits. It is also the same task that lends a nation-state an aspect

of national identity when pursued by a mass audience. “Sport in modern societies is one

of the means by which nation-states socialize their citizens, transmitting their symbolic

codes of the dominant culture and inducing citizens toward conformity to beliefs and

values that prevail in the wider society. At the same time, sport is one of the most salient

moulders of national collective identity.” (Sage 116)

The process, however, calls for the presence of the other. Here we look at the

other not as a binary opposite but as an opposition. To revert to the point about how

sports helps generate identities seems appropriate now for the simple reason that one of

the primary methods of doing so is with the help of the opponent. As opposed to other

skills or activities picked up to aid personal growth (such as singing or sewing), a sport is

one such activity where the gauge of one’s competence comes primarily from a point of

comparison with the other, by defeating the other. “The modern athlete is often defined

by his or her achievements… At the heart of all athletic accomplishment is the

competition.” (Ting). To say “I am a cricketer” would then mean I play to win and in

order to win, someone else (the other) must lose.

By extension, the same can be applied to the process of creating national

identities. The process in this case is somewhat more obvious where a team, national or

otherwise, is concerned. The vocabulary of sports is therefore always someone versus the

other. Therefore, India gains an identity as a cricketing nation as “India versus Pakistan”

implies India is not Pakistan, just as it is not Australia, not Sri Lanka and so on. Further,

these countries become parties that must be defeated so as to help the nation attain laurels

or a victory that is worth celebrating. “Sport provides athletes with opportunities to

celebrate a national identity that is different from and, in some cases, opposed to, their

ascribed nationality…nationality is what matters to athletes since this guarantees the right

to compete on behalf of a nation.” (Allison 91)

As mentioned earlier, in the context of the nation, sports acquire relevance when

pursued by a mass audience. This brings into picture two categories. First is the category

of those actively engaging in the sport. The second is the category of people who arrive at

a sense of belongingness by supporting the former group. This group is perhaps all the

more important, consisting of fans and spectators as is evident in the advertisement under

discussion. “Sports spectators are usually sports fans. They see themselves as active

participants, inspiring the home teams with their cheers and demoralizing the visiting

team with their taunts.” (Guttmann 111) The act of cheering and chanting at matches

again lends to the notion of a shared identity- of fandom, of a nation. By reduction then,

individuals themselves adopt a national identity wherein “I cheer for team India because I

am an Indian” and not necessarily because it is the best team.

The sense of belongingness is so strong in some situations that a team becomes

answerable to the nation. Acts of vandalism, which are widespread when a certain team

performs badly, then become justified to the extent that the masses are only demanding

their (the nation’s) right to victory that the team is responsible for achieving. “Fans also

demonstrate a process called deindividuation where people lose their self-awareness and

have decreased concern for how others around them evaluate their actions” (Mann, et al.:

1982 qtd. in Hansen et al. 1998)

To further illustrate the instilling of patriotic fervour through sports, let us

consider the following advertisement for Nike, which reads, “Being Spanish is not an

excuse, it’s a responsibility”.

The copy of the advertisement reads like a call to action. Considering Nike is a

brand for sporting goods, the words seem misplaced. By contrast, place the same words

around the following image.

Would the signifier seem misplaced? Chances are it seems quite natural to call a

person to defend his country by telling him that it is his responsibility. It seems natural

because cultures have had a history of glorification of war. “The glorification of war is so

pervasive that, generation after generation, young males are drawn into proving their

manhood by going into battle… The masculine traits of dominance and competition for

position and status are expressed in a wide range of behaviour, from sports and business

to the way males make conversation.” (Levy; Sidel 193). If the Nike advertisement does

not shock the audience, then it is only because sports have been meted out the same

treatment of glorification and the advertiser is fully aware of this. “An essential part of

the sport experience for many men is the glorification of violence- a glorification that

encourages them to equate their hyperphysicality with behaviour that demeans,

intimidates and sexualises others.” (Benedict: 2004; Curry: 1998; Kane & Disch: 1993

qtd. in Parks; Quaterman; Thibault 409) It is this commonality between the glorification

of violence in war and a sport that is observed in the instilling of nationalistic pride.

Adopting a Stance

The entire advertisement in fact comprises of signs that narrate a tale of the nation

and the patriot. Take for instance the positioning of the model, Spanish tennis player

Rafael Nadal. One need not know the science of body language in-depth to understand

what is being communicated here. The way the model’s hand is positioned points towards

a spirit of aggression. So much so, that the front of the racquet is most prominent in the

advertisement. Again, replace the racquet with a piece of weaponry to fully understand

the significance of such a stance. The racquet thus becomes the weapon in this case; the

empowering, overwhelming piece that challenges the viewer to take up the cause. Or at

least a sport.

Research would say that deliberate choices made with regard to the model’s body

language could be deciphered. First, there is the concept of arm-wear. Notice the

wristband in Nadal’s hand that is devoid of the racquet, a symbol of masculinity.

“Ornaments (e.g., bracelets and wristbands) (are) worn to attract notice, and to accent the

arm's masculine or feminine traits.” (Givens: 1997) Nike knows that not everyone who

will wear its wristband will go on to achieve international fame. Most might not even

engage in a regular fitness culture. But wearing a wristband would add to what would be

known as the “sporty look” in fashion; a definitive masculine style statement. At the other

end is arm-show, where a man’s showing of arms means the showing of his physical

strength. “Thicker, more muscular male arms may be displayed to challenge rival men.

Clenched fists signal an aroused emotional state, as in anger, excitement (e.g., to cheer on

a team)…” (Givens: 1997)

Although not all the features of the face are clearly visible, the more obvious

aspects of it are that the face tends more towards an angular and therefore domineering

face. The most striking aspect of the image is the open mouth that seems to depict a cry

made as warning before attack.

What is interesting to note is that though by choice of art direction Nadal has been

distorted considerably and is less overpowering than his racquet, the message could not

have been communicated without him as the model. The “him” in this case is not Nadal

per se, but a Spanish, sports icon known for winning international fame and thereby

adding to the nation’s pride. The use of a sports hero becomes important in advertising as

“sports as a social myth is often found embodied in the heroes of sport, who are really

purveyors of myth rather than heroes of sport… a hero in any society will embody some

of the attributes of the myth: He will affirm the myth; he will illustrate its reality.”

(Yianakkis; Melnick 261)

If all is Fair in War, Then it must be so in Sports

The visual discourse of advertising places importance on the use of colour and its

significances. “In designing advertisements, managers must make decisions as to which

color(s)to use… An important goal of an advertiser would be to select colors that

maximize attention, provide a more realistic and appealing portrayal of the product or

service, and arouse appropriate feelings (Wells et al.: 1992 qtd. in Gorn et al.: 1997) In

the advertisement for Nike, red is the most predominant colour. “Red colour has many

shades, from dark reddish brown to bright crimson or scarlet. These shades symbolize

fire, heat and passion. It is the colour of blood and wounds, but also the bloom of good

health. Red is, of course, fierce, blatant, dynamic and irritating. It is a colour of war. It

symbolizes the vitality of energies and passions. The red colour also symbolizes violence

and hatred.” (“Meaning of Colors in Dreams”)

In addition, in advertising and visual culture, the colour, when used in the

background, is known to bring other images to the foreground. It is also known to aid

quick buying decisions and increase chances of impulse purchases. (“Color Meaning”)

More than just the use of red, however, it is important to look into how the colour is used.

In this case, the advertisement is extremely similar to the following one.

While in the Nike advertisement the red has the appearance of being smeared, in

the above advertisement it has the appearance of being splattered. What is common to

both however is that both pieces bear the overt semblance of a bloody affair. “There is a

strain toward consistency in each culture, with similar values and behavior patterns, such

as aggressiveness, tending to manifest in more than one area of the culture. Behavior

patterns and value systems relative to war and to warlike sports tend to overlap and

support each other's presence… we find a recurring hope that sports and warfare might

act as alternatives to each other; that possibly our intergroup problems could be resolved

on the playing field rather than on the battlefield.” (Sipes: 1973)

Neither of the above two advertisements explicitly state what the advertisement is

actually for. The product is overshadowed by the concept of sports. But both

advertisements elevate sports, or at least help maintain sports, at a level higher than what

it actually is. The advertisements thus bring forth a change in the perception of sports and

sportsmanship. Where a true sporting culture would encourage accepting defeat

gracefully, there such advertisements go to change it enough to say that winning is

everything. According to Pierre Bourdieu, the aristocratic tradition of athleticism would

encourage winning within the rules. A culture that places winning over fair play is a

culture of the plebeians. “ ‘Fair play’ is the way of playing the game characteristic of

those who do not get so carried away by the game as to forget that it is a game…”

(Bourdieu 430) However, when the meaning of the game itself has changed,

remembering that “it is a game” would not warrant that the game would just be played

when it can be fought.

It was a Pleasure Losing to You

Although Bourdieu’s argument holds true in the aristocratic tradition, we now

need to look at sports from the point of a more familiar culture. In certain ways, the

function of sports remains unchanged. Sports are still seen as disciplining and character-

building activities functioning on “a belief that sport helps to make better people — that

it promotes excellence (what the Greeks called aretê) in individuals, excellence which

can be applied to almost any endeavor in life.” (Reid)

However, a change occurs when sports moves out from a limited, elitist circle

towards a larger, more involving audience based on a “shift whereby sport as an elite

practice reserved for amateurs became sport as a spectacle produced by professionals for

consumption by the masses.” (Bourdieu: 1991 qtd. in Washington; Karen: 2001) In this

case, sports are no more just an activity for the cultured to engage in neither for its

immediate health benefit nor as a sign of social superiority. It now becomes a mass

activity, the end of which is winning. Thus, accepting victory with modesty is not what is

called for. In fact, boasting of one’s achievements on the court is seen as almost integral

to sportsmanship now as “the temptation to make sportsmanship an all-embracing moral

category” becomes lesser and lesser so and as the distinctions between sports and

athletics seem to blur. Which means that we have now redefined the concept of

sportsmanship where it is no longer a mandate for a sportsman to “be a sport” and accept

defeat as part of the game. It is this understanding that makes advertising, such as those in

discussion, so heavily reliant on aggression where belligerence becomes not only an

accepted quality but also a desired quality, one that can supposedly be acquired from

wearing the right brand of shoes. (Keating: 1964)

They Never Let Poor Rudolph Join in any Reindeer Games

Specific qualities such as ferocity apart, one reaction that a lot of brands try to

evoke through their advertising is a sense of “family” amongst their owners or users. That

is to say, a person belongs to a certain family or community because he and that

community use the same product. Sports seem to serve the same function in certain ways.

Take the following advertisement for instance, which featured as part of Adidas’

“Brotherhood” campaign. What the advertisement offers is strong evidence towards the

proposition that there exists a sense of shared community in a shared activity. “Sport is

more than just a result of socialising influences. It can also be an agent of socialisation,

i.e. an influence on the development of social attitudes, values and behaviour.” (Jarvis 87)

This advertisement strongly makes this point when it says, “Basketball is a

brotherhood”. Note that through the entire campaign, all the models are African

Americans and the advertisement was created by an American advertising agency. The

choice of models here is again deliberate in trying to underscore the point of a shared

community. As a minority community with a history of oppression, the Black community

in the States experiences a much stronger sense of this “brotherhood”. Sports as a

socialising agent plays other functions in the minority ethnic group in the creation of

‘black spaces’ and in using sports as an indication of community identity. (Carrington

267)

Sociologically, the idea is not a new one. Children use games and sports as the

primary socialising activity to fit in. “As social organisms, humans have a basic need to

belong to and feel part of a group and to learn how to live and work in groups with

different compositions and for different purposes. Play serves several functions in

satisfying these needs and developing these social and emotional life skills.” (Isenberg;

Quisenberry) “In later childhood and early adolescence, children's play is more organized

and structured as their passion for orderly thinking manifests itself through games with

rules and in organized sports. Winning becomes important as they begin to internalize

that winning means following the rules. This is the age when team sports become

important. As children grow in social awareness, their focus moves from the family and

school to the peer group… they better understand how they will fit into the significance

and structure of their social, political, and economic systems” (Hughes: 1999; Manning:

2002 qtd. in Isenberg; Quisenberry)

In elitist circles, sports such as Sunday golf at the country club becomes a

substitute for this childhood socialising activity. The “doing something together”

becomes a way of arriving at a spirit of togetherness. “Joining a golf club is not an

innocent activity: it activates (and requires) a whole network of social contacts and

badges of status.” (“Sport Culture”) In many urban cultures, the Sunday golf activity has

been replaced by such other activities as going to the gymnasium or attending yoga

classes as the territory of the sporting culture is being encroached upon by the fitness

culture, and as distinctions between the upper-class and upper-middle class merge. But

they continue to serve as modes of inclusive-and-exclusive patters in social circles.

But the Ball is still in your Court

Despite how sports can serve as an including activity, there is a certain category it

chooses to exclude and that is that of the woman. A gender study of sports would reveal

that sport is still considered predominantly a male activity. “Sport is a social and cultural

process in which social constructions of masculinity and femininity play a key role. Sport

is traditionally associated with masculinity. In many societies, it is considered

inappropriate for women to engage in sports, and women who do may be perceived as

masculine. Conversely, men who do not engage in sports or who are not talented in sports

may be labelled as unmanly.” (“Gender & Sport”)

Hence few, if any, advertisements that centre on sports have a woman

sportsperson or are directed towards women. When they are, the result is something like

what is found in this advertisement.

So far we have seen how sport advertising thrives primarily on passion and

fierceness. Yet, as soon as the target audience shifts in sex, so does the tonality. The

above advertisement is for “Ladies Professional Golf” on ESPN. Notice how the golf

shoe has been combined with a very female symbol of high heels. The aggressiveness of

sports has now made way for a more toned down, subtle tone that is typical of

advertisements directed at women. This presents two trends in such advertising.

First is that as with all other advertising, the woman is still primarily an aesthetic

object first, followed by anything else. This is perhaps because sport has been a construct

of naturalising male dominance and female subordination in many cultures. (McKay;

Messner; Sabo 1-2) Therefore, the female sportsperson will most likely be portrayed as a

sports model as opposed to a winner. The advertisements now are devoid of assertive,

fist-pumping, challenging, open images but are replete with demure, coy, somewhat

suggestive images. The physical aspects that are accentuated are not muscles that depict

strength but rather a toned body, which is inviting rather than intimidating.

At the other end, there is a conscious effort to try and project the New Woman as

empowered. “The New Woman typically values self-fulfillment and independence rather

than the stereotypically feminine ideal of self-sacrifice; believes in legal and sexual

equality… is athletic or otherwise physically vigorous…” (“Hedda Habler”) In women’s

sport advertising this is brought to the fore by using acclaimed sportswomen so that it

becomes easier to sell the athlete as an athlete, rather than create an athlete. Which is

what has been tried here with the help of Serena Williams.

The language is now more masculine, more “sporty”. There is an attempt to

project sports as an acceptable activity for women to engage in. Even when no actual

sport comes into play, the effect is somewhat similar as in the following advertisements.

The above adverts all seem to create the myth that the New Woman has arrived.

Yet a paradox exists here that cannot be ignored. These seemingly empowering

advertisements still sell the woman based on her physical attributes strongly subject to

the male gaze. “There is very little difference between ads in fashion magazines, sports

magazines, and pornography.” (“Women’s Bodies in Sports Ads”) Hence, the accentuated

physical aspects are very typically the most often sexualised ones. The word

“ATHLETE” appears just above the woman’s chest, the woman’s rear is ironically

voluptuous and the knees look anything but scraped and bruised. What is arrived at is the

belief that women’s advertising has changed and met with success, while all the time

remaining unchanged.

Game Point

Advertising thus opens up different areas to explore the cultural significance of

sports with reference to various vantage points. What advertising does in trying to sell a

host of commodities to the market is sell it coupled with things that the market actually

wants to buy; most often, these are intangible qualities that product tries to associate itself

with. Thus, the analysis of sports advertising becomes important to understand what other

roles sports plays in different societies, how much is taken for granted and how much is

yet to be understood.

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