5.1

People themes in information systems development

IMS5006 - Information Systems Development Practices

5.2

The role of people in ISD importance of user involvement/participation in systems

development:

user/developer communication and cultures

the developer as “technical expert”

lack of user satisfaction and commitment

technical success is not enough

user vs IT department relations

5.3

Some potential solutions:

Participative approaches Management commitment/leadership Improved human-computer interfaces Training and education: developers and business

users End user computing JRP and JAD sessions

The role of people in ISD

5.4

People themes in IS development

User participation End user computing Stakeholder analysis JAD (Joint Application Development) Groupwork and groupware

5.5

• in what ways have information systems development methodologies been influenced by these “people themes”?

• how have techniques and tools relating to these “people themes” been incorporated into information systems development methodologies?

People themes in ISD

5.6

User participation

early systems development approaches:

- focus on technical aspects of computer systems

- little actual decision-making by users

problems:

- users resented developers as “outsiders” with little understanding of the business environment

- systems “imposed” on users and not “user friendly”

- systems did not adequately support business needs

5.7

User participation: definitions

participation as user involvement in systems design:

“ a process in which two or more parties influence each other in making plans, policies or decisions. It is restricted to decisions that have future effects on all those making the decisions or those represented by them”

(Mumford 1983, p. 22)

participation may have different meanings for different groups:

e.g. morally right, employee commitment, management tool, empowerment of employees etc.

5.8

User participation: definitions

Barki and Hartwick (1989) distinguish between:

user participation

a set of activities and behaviours performed by users

user involvement

a subjective, psychological state when a user considers a system to be both important and personally relevant

How do these affect system usage and user satisfaction?

How can we define and measure user satisfaction?

5.9

three levels are identified by Mumford (1983): consultative

all users are consulted about/contribute ideas to the design process but the design task is carried out by systems analysts

representative

design groups formed from elected or selected representatives take design decisions

consensus

design group members constantly discuss ideas and solutions with all users

Mumford’s three levels of user participation

5.10

expected benefits of user participation: improved system quality:

more complete, accurate requirements

provides expertise about the organisation

avoids development of unacceptable or unimportant features

improves user understanding of the system increased user acceptance:

realistic expectations

“arena” for conflict resolution

users more committed to the system

decreased user resistance

User participation

5.11

Avison and Fitzgerald (2003)

user participation has been growing:

managers should provide leadership by example better user / developer communication systems analysts need to understand business areas Improved human - computer interface Enid Mumford’s three levels of participation (ETHICS) potential problems: fragmentation of user groups,

developer resentment, power relationships

User participation

5.12

User participation and ISD methodologies Structured analysis

user walkthroughs, users select implementation option SSADM

user walkthroughs, user representation in development teams, users select technical option,

Information Engineering

users active in design activities, management involved in ISP and BAA, user reviews

SSM

users part of team: problem owners and solvers ETHICS

users do the design

5.13

End-user computing Enabled by PCs and application packages for non-IT

people

e.g. spreadsheets, database, VisualBASIC etc Users in business organisations were able to build their

own business applications, either stand-alone or integrated with organisational systems

Definitions of end-user computing:

e.g.

“the practice of end-users developing, maintaining, and using their own information systems”

(Mirani and King 1994)

5.14

Early 1980s: user-driven computing

-end-user computing enabled by introduction of PCs

-decentralisation of computing resources

Resulted in user satisfaction:

-met needs unlikely to be satisfied by IT departments

-some pressure off IT departments

-end-users “close” to the business problems

-systems resourced/costed within user department budgets

End-user computing

5.15

problems of control:

validity and integrity of data

lack of documentation

security issues

maintainability

application “islands”

duplication and inconsistencies

assistance required by users

End-user computing

5.16

A “solution”: Information Centres

-Staffed and run by IT department

-Provide consultation, software and tools, liaison with vendors etc. to assist users in developing their own departmental information systems

Significant in 1980s and early 1990s Increasingly sophisticated users of today have no need

for Information Centres Users today need support from IT corporate specialists

when developing customer-oriented systems in particular

i.e. change from the tactical, problem-solving role of the past to a strategic, consultant role

End-user computing

5.17

Stakeholder analysisStakeholder: Those groups either “vital to the survival and success of

of the corporation or whose interests are vitally affected by the corporation”

Smith and Hasnas (1999) in Avison and Fitzgerald (2003), p. 278

Seven primary stakeholders: Shareholders and investors Employees Customers Suppliers Trade associations Environmental groups Public groups (government, communities etc.)

5.18

Stakeholder analysis

Unstructured identification of potential stakeholders e.g. brainstorming

Consult/involve those identified Problems:

primary stakeholders easy to identify accountability to stakeholders Establishing legal, moral rights e.g. privacy, risk Stakeholder interests difficult to define e.g.

subjective, unclear (interorganisational/global) Balancing of stakeholder interests

A managerial imperative: leads to “successful” systems

5.19

can be for analysis and/or design originated in late 1970s at IBM bring together key users, managers, systems analysts in a group

meeting with a specific structure of roles and agenda JRP (Joint Requirements Planning): key system requirements JAD: specify the system’s design (external design only) group meeting:

avoid distractions

identify areas of agreement and conflict

resolve conflicts during the period of sessions

JAD (Joint Application Development)

5.20

JAD participants:

facilitator: organise and run the sessions scribe(s): takes notes on a PC, CASE tool etc users: understand the system requirements managers: organisational overview systems analysts: technical knowledge,

learn about the system sponsor: senior executive who commits and funds

the process

JAD sessions: roles

5.21

JAD sessions: from one to five days structured meeting room with white boards etc.,

CASE tools located away from users’ workplace outcome is documents detailing the system:

workings of/requirements for the system/design

Joint Application Development (JAD)

5.22

Preparing for JAD sessions:

JAD leader prepares and distributes agenda and documentation about scope and objectives

Agenda specifies issues to be discussed and time allocated to each

Ground rules for running the sessions are made clear Ensure users who attend are knowledgeable about their

business area

Joint Application Development (JAD)

5.23

Conducting JAD sessions:

Avoid deviating from the agenda Keep to schedule (time for topics) Ensure scribe takes adequate notes Avoid using technical jargon Use conflict resolution strategies Allow ample breaks Encourage group consensus Encourage participation vs individuals dominating Ensure ground rules are adhered to

Joint Application Development (JAD) sessions

5.24

JAD sessions

benefits: reduced time to move requirements/design forward

(group vs one-on-one, details worked on between meetings)

key people work together to make important decisions commitment is focused and intensive, not dissipated

over time conflicts and differences can be understood and

resolved

improved quality and productivity

5.25

Groupwork and Support Systems

a group (or workgroup)

2 or more people (up to 25?) whose mission is to perform some task and who act as one unit

group support systems

systems which support organisational group activities, improving their effectiveness and efficiency

includes: CSCW (computer-supported co-operative work) -

groups of people working together, especially professionals working on creative tasks

GDSS (group decision support systems) - groups of people involved in decision-making tasks

5.26

Group Support Systems

related and overlapping concepts/technologies:

groupware

software products designed to support groups of people engaged in a common goal or task

office automation

technology designed to improve the functioning of the office,

e.g. word processing, LANs

computer conferencing

electronic communication allowing two or more people at different locations to have a conference or collaborate on a task, an aid to discussion

electronic meeting system

IT-based environment supporting a group meeting that may be distributed geographically and temporally

5.27

Time/Place Communication Support

Same Time Different Time

Same Place

Different Place

e.g. meeting room e.g. team room, shared offices (e.g. shift work)

e.g. meeting e.g. group task

mutimedia presentation systems,keypad-based voting systems,facilitated meetings using networked PCs

e-mail,messaging

screen sharing,video conferencing

e-mail, data and file sharing,group authoring tools, workflow software

from DeSanctis & Gallupe (1985)

5.28

Group Support Systems

working in groups:

e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force

advantages a group has more information than any one member

working in a group stimulates the process, ideas, problem solving

risk balance: moderate high riskers and encourage conservatives

better at finding errors

synergy, accountability, commitment

5.29

working in groups:

e.g. committees, teams, review panels, task force

disadvantages

groupthink: pressures to conform

tendency of group members to rely on others to do the work

time-consuming, expensive

inappropriate influences: domination, fear of speaking up

difficulties of co-ordination, and need for planning

non-productive time, e.g. socialising, waiting for people

compromise, poor quality decisions, lack of participation

Group Support Systems

5.30

Groupware

software tools that support and help co-ordinate the activities of a group require their users to be connected to a network of computers and databases:

intranets

provide access to internal organisational information and facilities e.g. e-mail, corporate databases, directories, software

the Internet

provides access to external information and communication and collaboration facilities

groupware products can be used as separate packages or as integrated systems

5.31

groupware is an ambiguous term, 100s of products on the market integrated systems:

e.g. Lotus Notes, Netscape Communicator separate applications:

browsers, intelligent agents, search engines

electronic mail

bulletin boards and newsgroups (email-based discussion groups)

messaging systems

workflow software: accessing, tracking, and directing documents and information

screensharing: same material shown on participants' screens

(e.g. manuscripts, spreadsheets)

integrated conferencing services: teleconferencing, video conferencing

Groupware

5.32

Groupware

Lotus Notes: an integrated system groupware product

A group communications environment for users to access and create information that is collected, stored, organised and disseminated on one or more networks

Direct web access and access to we browsers

Provides workgroup email, distributed databases, bulletin boards, text editing, document management, application development tools, and workflow capabilities all integrated using a graphic menu-based interface

(Windows interface in client/server architecture)

5.33

References

Prescribed text:

Avison, D.E. & Fitzgerald, G. (2003). Information Systems Development: Methodologies, Techniques and Tools. (3rd ed), McGraw-Hill, London.Chapters 1, 7, 16

Turban, E. and Aronson, J. (1998) Decision Support Systems and Intelligent Systems, (5th ed) Prentice-Hall

DeSanctis, G. and Gallupe, R. (1985) “Group Decision Support Systems: A New Frontier”, in Database

Jessup, L. and Valacich, A. eds (1993) Group Support Systems: New Perspectives, MacMillan