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STRUCTURED

QUERY

LANGUAGE (SQL)

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Database Language

Allow user to:

create the database and relation structures

perform basic data management tasks, such as theinsertion, modification, and deletion of data from therelations

perform both simple and complex queries

perform the above tasks with minimal user effort

command structure and syntax must be easy tolearn

must be portable; which conform to some standard

SQL

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SQL

is an example of a transform-oriented

language, or language designed to use

relations to transform inputs into requiredoutputs

has 2 major components:

DDL: for defining the d/b structure andcontrolling access to data

DML: for retrieving and updating data

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SQL

It is a non-procedural language: you

specify what information you require,

rather than how to get it.

Free-format

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SQL

Consists of standard English words: CREATE TABLEStaff(staffNo VARCHAR(5),

lName VARCHAR(15),

salary DECIMAL(7,2));

INSERT INTO Staff VALUES ('SG16', 'Brown',8300);

SELECTstaffNo, lName, salary

FROM Staff

WHERE salary > 10000;

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SQL

Can be used by range of users including

DBAs, management, application

developers, and other types of end users.

An ISO standard now exists for SQL,

making it both the formal and de facto

standard language for relational databases.

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Writing SQL Commands

SQL statement consists of reserved wordsand user-def ined words.

Reserved words are a fixed part of SQL andmust be spelt exactly as required andcannot be split across lines.

User-defined words are made up by user

and represent names of various databaseobjects such as relations, columns, views.

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Most components of an SQL statement are caseinsensitive, except for literal character data.

More readable with indentation and lineation:

Each clause should begin on a new line.Start of a clause should line up with start of

other clauses.

If clause has several parts, should each appear

on a separate line and be indented under startof clause.

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Literals

Literals are constants used in SQL

statements.

All non-numeric literals must be enclosed

in single quotes (e.g. London).

All numeric literals must not be enclosed in

quotes (e.g. 650.00).

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Use extended form of BNF notation: Upper-case letters represent reserved words.

Lower-case letters represent user-defined words.

a vertical bar (|) indicates a choice amongalternatives.

Curly braces indicate a requi red element.

Square brackets indicate an optional element.

an ellipsis () indicates optional repeti tion (0 ormore).

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SQL: Data Defini tion

ISO SQL Data types

Integrity Enhancement Feature

Data Definition

Views

Transactions Discretionary Access Control

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I SO SQL Data Types

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I ntegr i ty Enhancement Feature

facilities provided by SQL to protect the d/b frombecoming inconsistent.

Consider five types of integrity constraints:

Required data.

Domain constraints.

Entity integrity.

Referential integrity.

Enterprise constraints.

These constraints can be defined in the CREATE andALTER TABLE statements (as we will see shortly).

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I ntegr ity Enhancement Feature -

Required Data

position VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL

specify that column position cannot be null

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I ntegr i ty Enhancement Feature -

Domain Constraints

(a) CHECK

sex CHAR NOT NULL

CHECK (sex IN ('M', 'F'))

(b) CREATE DOMAIN

CREATE DOMAIN DomainName [AS] dataType

[DEFAULT defaultOption]

[CHECK (searchCondition)]

For example:

CREATE DOMAIN SexType AS CHAR

CHECK (VALUE IN ('M', 'F'));

sex SexType NOT NULL;

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Domain Constraints

searchConditioncan involve a table lookup:

CREATE DOMAIN BranchNo AS CHAR(4)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT branchNo

FROM Branch));

Domains can be removed using DROP DOMAIN:

DROP DOMAIN DomainName

[RESTRICT | CASCADE]

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Entity I ntegr ity

Primary key of a table must contain a unique,non-null value for each row.

ISO standard supports PRIMARY KEY clause inCREATE and ALTER TABLE statements:

PRIMARY KEY(staffNo)

PRIMARY KEY(clientNo, propertyNo)

Can only have one PRIMARY KEY clause pertable. Can still ensure uniqueness for alternatekeys using UNIQUE:

UNIQUE(telNo)

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Referential I ntegr ity

Foreign Key (FK) is column or set of columns thatlinks each row in child table containing the FK to

the row of parent table containing matching PK. Referential integrity means that, if FK contains a

value, that value must refer to existing row inparent table.

ISO standard supports definition of FKs withFOREIGN KEY clause in CREATE and ALTERTABLE:

FOREIGN KEY(branchNo) REFERENCES Branch

I t i t E h t F t

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Any INSERT/UPDATE that attempts to createFK value in child table without matchingcandidate key value in parent is rejected.

Action taken that attempts to update/delete acandidate key value in parent table with matchingrows in child is dependent on referential actionspecified using ON UPDATE and ON DELETEsubclauses:

CASCADE - SET NULL,

SET DEFAULT - NO ACTION

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CASCADE: Delete row from parent and delete matchingrows in child, and so on in cascading manner.

SET NULL: Delete row from parent and set FK column(s) inchild to NULL. Only valid if FK columns are NOT NULL.

SET DEFAULT: Delete row from parent and set each

component of FK in child to specified default. Only valid ifDEFAULT specified for FK columns

NO ACTION: Reject delete from parent. Default.

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FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES

Staff ON DELETE SET NULL

FOREIGN KEY (ownerNo) REFERENCES

Owner ON UPDATE CASCADE

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General/Enterpr ise Constraints

The ISO standard allows enterprise constraints to

be specified using CHECK/UNIQUE in CREATE

and ALTER TABLE and also the CREATE

ASSERTION statement with following format:

CREATE ASSERTION AssertionName

CHECK (searchCondition)

which is very similar to the CHECK clause.

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General/Enterpr ise Constraints

CREATE ASSERTION StaffNotHandlingTooMuch

CHECK (NOT EXISTS (SELECT staffNo

FROM PropertyForRent

GROUP BY staffNo

HAVING COUNT(*) > 100))

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Data Defini tion

SQL DDL allows database objects such as schemas,domains, tables, views, and indexes to be createdand destroyed.

Main SQL DDL statements are:CREATE SCHEMA DROP SCHEMA

CREATE/ALTER DOMAIN DROP DOMAIN

CREATE/ALTER TABLE DROP TABLE

CREATE VIEW DROP VIEW

Many DBMSs also provide:

CREATE INDEX DROP INDEX

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Data Defini tion

Relations and other database objects exist in anenvironment.

Each environment contains one or more catalogs,

and each catalog consists of set of schemas. Schema is named collection of related database

objects.

Objects in a schema can be tables, views, domains,

assertions, collations, translations, and charactersets. All have same owner.

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Data Defini tion - CREATE

SCHEMA

CREATE SCHEMA [Name |

AUTHORIZATION CreatorId ]

DROP SCHEMA Name [RESTRICT | CASCADE ]

With RESTRICT (default), schema must beempty or operation fails.

With CASCADE, operation cascades to drop

all objects associated with schema in order

defined above. If any of these operations fail,

DROP SCHEMA fails.

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TABLE

CREATE TABLE TableName

{(colName dataType [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]

[DEFAULT defaultOption]

[CHECK searchCondition] [,...]}

[PRIMARY KEY (listOfColumns),]

{[UNIQUE (listOfColumns),] [,]}

{[FOREIGN KEY (listOfFKColumns)

REFERENCES ParentTableName [(listOfCKColumns)],

[ON UPDATE referentialAction]

[ON DELETE referentialAction ]] [,]}

{[CHECK searchCondition)] [,] })

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TABLE

Creates a table with one or more columns of thespecified dataType.

With NOT NULL, system rejects any attempt to

insert a null in the column. Can specify a DEFAULT value for the column.

Primary keys should always be specified as NOTNULL.

FOREIGN KEY clause specifies FK along withthe referential action

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Example 6.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE DOMAIN OwnerNumber AS VARCHAR(5)CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT ownerNo FROM Owner));

CREATE DOMAIN StaffNumber AS VARCHAR(5)

CHECK (VALUE IN (SELECT staffNo FROM Staff));

CREATE DOMAIN PNumber AS VARCHAR(5);

CREATE DOMAIN PRooms AS SMALLINT;

CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 1 AND 15);

CREATE DOMAIN PRent AS DECIMAL(6,2)

CHECK(VALUE BETWEEN 0 AND 9999.99);

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Example 6.1 - CREATE TABLE

CREATE TABLE PropertyForRent (

propertyNo PNumber NOT NULL,

rooms PRooms NOT NULL DEFAULT 4,

rent PRent NOT NULL, DEFAULT 600,

ownerNo OwnerNumber NOT NULL,

staffNo StaffNumber

Constraint StaffNotHandlingTooMuch,

branchNo BranchNumber NOT NULL,

PRIMARY KEY (propertyNo),FOREIGN KEY (staffNo) REFERENCES Staff

ON DELETE SET NULL ON UPDATE CASCADE);

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Data Defini tion - ALTER TABLE

Add a new column to a table.

Drop a column from a table.

Add a new table constraint. Drop a table constraint.

Set a default for a column.

Drop a default for a column.

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Example 6.2(a) - ALTER TABLE

Change Staff table by removing default of

'Assistant' for position column and setting

default for sex column to female ('F').

ALTER TABLE Staff

ALTER position DROP DEFAULT;

ALTER TABLE StaffALTER sex SET DEFAULT 'F';

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Example 6.2(b) - ALTER TABLE

Remove constraint from PropertyForRent that

staff not allowed to handle more than 100

properties at time. Add new column to Client table.

ALTER TABLE PropertyForRent

DROP CONSTRAINT StaffNotHandlingTooMuch;

ALTER TABLE Client

ADD prefNoRooms PRooms;

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Data Defini tion - DROP TABLE

DROP TABLE TableName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

e.g. DROP TABLE PropertyForRent;

Removes named table and all rows within it. With RESTRICT, if any other objects depend for

their existence on continued existence of this table,

SQL does not allow request.

With CASCADE, SQL drops all dependent objects

(and objects dependent on these objects).

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Views

View

Dynamic result of one or more relational

operations operating on base relations to

produce another relation.

Virtual relation that does not necessarily

actually exist in the database but is

produced upon request, at time of request.

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Views

Contents of a view are defined as a query on one

or more base relations.

With view resolution, any operations on view are

automatically translated into operations onrelations from which it is derived.

With view materialization, the view is stored as a

temporary table, which is maintained as the

underlying base tables are updated.

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SQL - CREATE VI EW

CREATE VIEW ViewName [ (newColumnName [,...]) ]AS subselect

[WITH [CASCADED | LOCAL] CHECK OPTION]

Can assign a name to each column in view. If list of column names is specified, it must have

same number of items as number of columnsproduced by subselect.

If omitted, each column takes name ofcorresponding column in subselect.

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SQL - CREATE VI EW

List must be specified if there is any ambiguity ina column name.

The subselectis known as the defining query.

WITH CHECK OPTION ensures that if a rowfails to satisfy WHERE clause of defining query, itis not added to underlying base table.

Need SELECT privilege on all tables referenced in

subselect and USAGE privilege on any domainsused in referenced columns.

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Example - Create Horizontal View

Create view so that manager at branch B003

can only see details for staff who work in his or

her office.

CREATE VIEW Manager3StaffAS SELECT *FROM StaffWHERE branchNo = 'B003';

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Example - Create Vertical View

Create view of staff details at branch B003

excluding salaries.

CREATE VIEW Staff3

AS SELECT staffNo, fName, lName, position, sex

FROM Staff

WHERE branchNo = 'B003';

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Example - Grouped and Joined Views

Create view of staff who manage properties for rent,including branch number they work at, staff number, and

number of properties they manage.

CREATE VIEW StaffPropCnt (branchNo, staffNo, cnt)

AS SELECT s.branchNo, s.staffNo, COUNT(*)

FROM Staff s, PropertyForRent p

WHERE s.staffNo = p.staffNo

GROUP BY s.branchNo, s.staffNo;

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SQL - DROP VI EW

DROP VIEW ViewName [RESTRICT | CASCADE]

Causes definition of view to be deleted from

database. For example:

DROP VIEW Manager3Staff;

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SQL - DROP VIEW

With CASCADE, all related dependent

objects are deleted; i.e. any views defined on

view being dropped.

With RESTRICT (default), if any other

objects depend for their existence on

continued existence of view being dropped,

command is rejected.

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Advantages of Views

Data Independence

Currency

Improved Security Reduced Complexity

Convenience

Customization Data integrity

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Disadvantages of Views

Update restriction

Structure restriction

Performance

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