5 australia and the vietnam war eraweb2.hunterspt-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/studentshared/hsie/year 10...

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Australia and the Vietnam War eraAustralia and the 5

In this topic you will learn about:● Australia’s response to the threat of communism in Asia after WWII including:

— the Korean War— the ANZUS Treaty— the SEATO Alliance

● the response to the threat of communism within Australia including:— the referendum to ban the Communist Party— the Petrov Affair

● Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War● differing views of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War:

— supporters of the war— conscientious objectors— the moratorium movement

● the impact of the war on:— Vietnam veterans and families— Indo-Chinese refugees— Australian culture— Australia’s relations with Asia

In this topic you will learn to:● sequence the key events in Australia’s response to the threat of

communism in Asia after WWII● explain the purpose of the treaties Australia contracted during this period● outline the key developments in Australia’s response to communism

within Australia● explain the reasons for Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War● explain the reasons why different groups within Australia supported or

opposed Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War● select appropriate sources that reflect different perspectives about

Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War● assess the impact of the war on the chosen study

Inquiry questions5.1 How and why did the

Australian government respond to the threat of communism after World War II?

5.2 Why did Australians become involved in the Vietnam War?

5.3 How did various groups respond to Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War?

5.4 What was the impact of the war on Australia and neighbouring countries?

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Chronology1945 Australia is involved in establishing the United Nations. Australians part of the British Commonwealth Occupational Forces

(BCOF) of Japan.1946 United Nations approves Australian trusteeship of mandated

territories Papua and New Guinea. Churchill makes his ‘Iron Curtain’ speech, claiming Russian

communism was expanding across Europe.1947 President Truman announces USA would support the ‘free peoples’

to resist communist control. Stalin establishes Cominform to bring together communist states.1949 Creation of communist China. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) formed by USA and

European countries for protection against communist attack.1950 Australia joins United States and UN forces in war in Korea.1951 Australia, New Zealand and United States Treaty (ANZUS) is signed. Launch of the Colombo Plan, which sought to provide economic

stability in south and South-East Asia, based on the idea that poverty breeds communism.

1952 Australia signs the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) treaty; other signatories are the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, France, Thailand, Pakistan and the Philippines.

1953 End of the Korean War.1954 Australia signs the South-East Asia Collective Defense Treaty

against communist aggression.1956 First British atomic test in Australia (Maralinga, South Australia).1959 Australia signs the Antarctic Treaty.1960 Agreement is signed by the federal government to allow the United

States to set up satellite tracking stations in Australia.1962 Australia commits ‘military advisers’ to Vietnam, which marks the

beginning of Australian involvement in the Vietnam War.1963 Federal government approves establishment of United States naval

communication station at North West Cape, Western Australia; officially operational 1967.

1967 British withdraw from all countries east of Suez. Australian–United States space installation is established at Pine

Gap in the Northern Territory.1971 Australia signs defence pact with Singapore, Malaysia, New

Zealand and the United Kingdom.1972 Withdrawal of Australian troops from Vietnam. Australia gives China diplomatic recognition under federal Labor

government.1974 SEATO is dissolved on the grounds that it is a ‘vestige of the

Cold War’.

Austral ia in the 20th Century

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5.1 How and why did the Australian government respond to the threat of communism after World War II?

Communism, capitalism and the Cold WarCommunism is a political movement that originated in the writings of Karl Marx (1818–83). In the 1920s, believers in communism tried to influence trade unions and the Labor Party in Australia as a means of turning the country into a communist state. In a communist system there is no private ownership of business or property. All the country’s wealth is owned and shared among the population. Everyone, in theory, is equal and no-one profits from another person. Communism is an international movement that aims to spread from country to country and is viewed as a threat by democratic governments.

In 1917, Vladimir Lenin led a successful revolution in Russia resulting in the establishment of a communist state, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), known also as the Soviet Union. He established the Communist International, an organisation to assist the spread of communism throughout the world. The colour red and the hammer (representing the worker) and sickle (representing the farm labourer) became symbols of communism. You will note the use of two of these in source 5.4.

During World War II, the USSR and the USA worked together to defeat Nazi Germany and its allies. This cooperation ended in 1945, leaving the world divided into two opposing groups. On one side, led by the USA, were those countries that supported democracy and capitalism.

On the other side were the supporters of communism—initially led by the USSR—who believed in a system controlled by workers. Both sides were in constant conflict, but this rarely amounted to full-scale war because of the fear of the use of atomic weapons. It became a war of words and ideas—the Cold War.

Source 5.1Australian troops in Vietnam

Australian War Memorial EKN/69/0062/VN

Communism is a system of society in which all property is owned by the community.

Source 5.2Vladimir Lenin

Capitalism is an economic system that allows private ownership of property and a free market to operate.

Chapter 5 Austral ia and the Vietnam War era

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Working historically

The Cold War was about tactics, secret agents, bluffs, fear and propaganda. It also involved the superpowers of the USA and USSR ‘buying’ the support of smaller countries.

Australians were affected by the Cold War, fearing the spread of communism through Asia. Phrases such as ‘Better dead than red’ came into use and post-war governments signed treaties and engaged in other action, including sending Australian troops to wars, in an effort to protect ‘our way of life’.

Comprehension1 Write a definition of:

a communismb capitalismc cold war

2 Who was Lenin?3 What symbols are used to represent communism?

Analysis and use of sources1 Look at source 5.4. What symbols can you identify?2 What was the purpose of source 5.4? Explain in your own words the message of this

cartoon.

Perspectives and interpretationsWhat is the point of view expressed in source 5.4?

Source 5.3Capitalism versus communism

Australians were affected by the Cold War,

Source 5.4A fear-of-communism cartoon by Norman Lindsay

The Bulletin, 1950

Immediately after World War II, the Cold War focused on Europe. With the rise of communism in China in 1948, however, the Cold War came to Asia. Major changes were taking place in this region. Japanese invasions of parts of South-East Asia had set off a process of decolonisation and with it, social turmoil.

Decolonisation is the dismantling of colonial governments and the return of autonomy to Indigenous peoples.

CapitalismDemocracyFree economyProfits

NATO‘The West’

CommunismNo privateownership

Classless

Warsaw Pact‘Iron Curtain’

countries


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ResearchLocate information on one of the following Cold War events:• the Iron Curtain• Berlin blockade and the building of the Berlin Wall• NATO

The Korean WarFrom 1945, when Japan was forced out of Korea, the country became divided along the 38th parallel. The northern part was occupied by the Russians; the south by Americans.

The United Nations arranged for elections for Korea in 1947. These were allowed to take place in the south, leading to the establishment of the Republic of (South) Korea. Countering this, the Russians announced the creation of the Democratic Peoples’ Republic of Korea in the north. Each side wanted unity and control of the entire country.

On 25 June 1950, North Korean troops, using Soviet equipment, crossed the 38th parallel and invaded the south in the belief the Americans were no longer interested in Korea. They rapidly conquered the ill-prepared South and were soon in control of the most of the country, including the capital of Seoul. The Republic of Korea sought the assistance of the United Nations, resulting in soldiers from 15 nations, including Australia, becoming part of the Korean War.

Australian airmen were the first to provide armed support to the American troops already in Korea. Flying 240 km from the British Commonwealth Occupational Forces (BCOF) base in Japan, RAAF Mustangs from 77 Squadron arrived in Korea on 2 July 1950 to begin the defence against the communist North. This was appreciated by the USA as it made the action against communism in Korea appear to be more than an American war.

N

0 50 100 150 km

YELLOW

SEA

SEA

OF

JAPAN

38o N

Yalu River

Pakchon

Sinanju

Koto-Ri

Hungnam

Wonsan Pyongyang

Sariwon

Inchon Seoul

Chongju

Taejon

Chinju Pusan

Pohang

Kangnung

USSR

MANCHURIA

JAPAN

KOREA STRAIT

Imjin

River

Taed

ong Rive

r

ChongchonR

iver

Source 5.5Korea


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Prime Minister Menzies faced little opposition to the involvement of Australians in the Korean War. Most believed it was necessary to take action to stop the spread of communism and help ‘free people’ live in a democratic system of government. The Australian troops did not consider they were fighting just to save the Koreans. They were convinced the fight in Korea was related to the safety of Australia.

Source 5.7Australia’s involvement in Korean War

No one can deny that this occasion is of tremendous significance not only to the people of this country but also to the freedom-loving peoples throughout the world. It is indeed a momentous occasion, because for the first time in the history of this Parliament, we have been asked to support action by our Government in implementing the principles of the United Nations.

Percy Spender, Minister for External Affairs, July 1950, Current Notes on International Affairs, July 1950 www.dfat.gov.au/library/books.html

Source 5.8Why are we fighting?

The real issues are whether the power of Western civilisation as God has permitted to flower in our own beloved lands, shall defy and defeat Communism; whether the rule of men who shoot their prisoners, enslave their citizens and deride the dignity of man shall displace the rule of those for whom the individual and his individual rights are sacred … It has become, and it continues to be, a fight for our own freedom, for our own survival in an honourable independent national existence.

… In the final analysis the issue joined right here in Korea is whether Communism or individual freedom shall prevail … [If we don’t stop communism it will spread], step by step, to close in on our own homeland at some future time, however distant, to engulf our own loved ones in all its misery and despair.

Lt-Gen Ridgway, US Commander, 21 January 1951, quoted in Simmelhaig & Spenceley, For Australia’s Sake, pp. 130–1

United Nations forces, under the command of the American General Douglas MacArthur, launched a massive counterattack against the communists in September 1950 and soon captured the North Korean capital of Pyongyang. Russia was not prepared to become directly involved in the battle; however, the newly created People’s Republic of China was. The highly disciplined Chinese communist troops forced the US 8th Cavalry Regiment to retreat to the Chongchon River. They attacked in great numbers, prepared to sacrifice millions of lives if necessary. As the UN debated the problem, American, Australian and other UN troops were being pushed south.

Source 5.6RAAF 77 Squadron airmen with Mustang, Korea 1950

Australian War Memorial P00716.035


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When MacArthur unleashed a poorly planned offensive on 24 November, winter had set in. Conditions became so bad in Seoul it was decided to no longer defend the city. It was Australian troops who covered the Americans as they exited in January 1951. MacArthur was replaced by General Ridgway and fighting continued. By April, both sides faced each other along the 38th parallel, and for the next 15 months, while the UN attempted peace negotiations, the communist-backed North and the US-backed South fought a war in which it appeared neither side could win. Finally, on 27 July 1953, a truce was signed that left the country exactly where it had started—divided along the 38th parallel. The war had cost 359 Australian lives (including 34 RAAF pilots), and 1068 were wounded in action.

At home in Australia, the Korean War was portrayed as a battle between good and evil. Most Australians at the time believed the Cold War propaganda that communism was a disease spreading throughout the world and destroying freedom. Participation in Korea was seen as the right thing to do and Menzies used the war as an example of the communist menace in our region.

Comprehension1 Is the Republic of Korea known as North or South Korea?2 What led to the Korean War?3 What does BCOF stand for?4 Who were the first Australians to be involved in the Korean War?5 Who commanded the United Nations forces in Korea?6 How was the Korean War portrayed to Australians?

Analysis and use of sources1 How does source 5.7 help us to understand the Australian attitude to fighting in Korea?2 What care should we take when using source 5.8 as evidence about the Korean War?3 What was the purpose of source 5.8?

Perspectives and interpretations1 Whose perspective is presented in source 5.8?2 How does the author of source 5.8 try to persuade the reader that communism is bad

and must be stopped?

Empathetic understandingExplain the attitude of many Australians towards communism in the 1950s.

CommunicationOutline the events of the Korean War to July 1953.

ICTSearch the collections database at the Australian War Memorial website <www.awm.gov.au> to find images of Australians in action in Korea.

The ANZUS TreatyWhile the Korean War was being fought, Australia, New Zealand and the United States signed the ANZUS Treaty in 1951.

The treaty resulted from a fear of communist expansion in the Asia–Pacific region and Australia’s desire to have America as a strong and powerful ally. America saw it as an opportunity to have two more countries publicly take its side in the Cold War.


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Under the terms of the treaty, the partners declared their sense of unity and support of each other if faced by an armed attack. It was the first treaty Australia signed which did not have Britain as a member. It was done at a time when Australia began taking a ‘sympathetic interest’ in the problems confronting Asian countries and developing a diplomatic presence in the region. The actual terms of the treaty were very vague and did not force the partners to go to war to defend each other.

Source 5.9First meeting of ANZUS military representatives, 1952

Australian War Memorial 044320

Source 5.10Menzies on ANZUS

Prime Minister Menzies in Foreign Affairs, 1951

After the treaty has come into effect, our Australian defence preparations are not merely our own business; we owe them also to our friends, without whose help we cannot hope to maintain our freedom against a major challenge. In other words, our defence ceases to be merely of local significance, but becomes part of the concerted efforts of the free world.

Source 5.11Australia and South-East Asia


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SEATOBy the end of the Korean War in 1953, Communist China had established itself as a major power in the region. There were fears that countries in South-East Asia, with their large poverty-stricken populations, would rise up and be supported by China to become communist. This fear was being realised in Vietnam.

Vietnam had been a colony of France, but by the early 1950s, anti-French forces within Vietnam were gradually taking control. The Vietminh, with Chinese support, were able to defeat the French at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. On the day this happened, 7 May 1954, US Secretary of State John Dulles announced the need for collective security arrangements in South-East Asia.

Menzies also saw the need for a treaty that would provide Australia with security and a defence against communist expansion in South-East Asia. In August 1954 he announced that his government would be willing to be part of an agreement which, unlike the ANZUS treaty, included a promise of providing military support to fight communism. Such a treaty would need to include the USA.

Source 5.12Menzies on SEATO

In the past it has been one of the traditions of Australian government that commitments are not accepted in advance, that such matters are for determination by the government and parliament if and when war occurs …

We cannot gamble on this being our position any longer. If there is one thing that seems clear, it is there will be no pause, no period of stalemate, should the Communists determine to attack … it is for this reason that we have decided that in any great defensive organisation of the kind envisaged, we must accept military commitments.

Menzies to the House of Representatives, quoted in R.M. Younger, Australia and the Australians, p. 725

Negotiations began between Britain, France, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand and the USA to develop a ‘collective defence’ treaty. Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam, although not signatories, were named as protected states within the terms of the agreement that would create the South-East Asia Treaty Organisation.

The final treaty, which came into force in February 1955, was not as specific as Menzies had hoped. His preference was for a force to be created, under a single command, if military action was necessary. Instead, the treaty stated the partners would develop their own abilities to resist armed aggression but would assist each other. The treaty also promoted economic assistance to the region. It was hoped this would make communism less attractive to poor people.

Source 5.13Next Course, Please!

Catholic News Weekly, 21 July 1954


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Australia’s minister for external affairs, Richard Casey, described SEATO’s main purpose, in Australia’s eyes, as combating communism. He believed America saw this as its only purpose. Although the treaty did not make reference to communist aggression, Dulles said it was ‘understood’ the American commitment to resist armed attack only applied to communist aggression.

SEATO signalled a major Australian interest in the foreign affairs of South-East Asia. Troops were sent to Malaya to assist efforts against communist guerrilla campaigns in that country. It was the belief at the time communism would ‘swallow up’ Asian countries (see source 5.13) and eventually take over Australia unless it was stopped. Menzies saw SEATO as means of giving Australia protection from the external threat of communism but he also felt there was a danger within the country that must be stopped—the Communist Party of Australia.

Comprehension1 What does ANZUS stand for, and when was the treaty signed?2 Why was ANZUS created?3 What does SEATO stand for, and who were its members?4 Who was John Dulles?5 What was the purpose of SEATO?6 Copy the map of Australia and South-East Asia (source 5.11) into your workbook.

Analysis and use of sources1 How does source 5.10 help us to understand the purpose of ANZUS at the time?2 Explain what is meant by ‘In the past it has been one of the traditions of Australian

government that commitments are not accepted in advance, that such matters are for determination by the government and parliament if and when war occurs’.

3 What was Menzies’ purpose in source 5.12?4 Look at source 5.13. What does the snake represent?5 What events does source 5.13 refer to?6 What was the purpose of source 5.13?

Empathetic understandingHow would Australians at the time have reacted to source 5.13?

CommunicationExplain the message of source 5.13. In your answer, give your opinion of how successful this cartoon would have been at the time.

The response to communism within Australia: attempts to ban the Communist PartyThe influence of Cold War propaganda and the rise of communism in China heightened fears of the ‘red menace’ in Australia. Menzies made communism an election issue in 1949, promising to introduce legislation to ban the Communist Party of Australia (CPA) if he was elected to government.

The CPA was founded in October 1920 but split soon after into two factions. One of these was able to gain financial support from the Communist International (in Russia) and set about influencing trade unions and the Australian Labor Party. The CPA had little effect up until the Great Depression. At this time it began organising groups of


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unemployed and gaining leadership positions in mining, transport, metal and waterfront unions. Membership of the CPA was around 4000 in the 1930s.

When the USSR entered World War II on the side of Britain, the CPA gave strong support to the war effort and its membership grew to 20 000. In 1944, the CPA changed its name to the Australian Communist Party and was growing in popularity among workers and intellectuals.

Menzies raised fears among Australians that communists were gaining control of unions, political parties and government organisations. He said the communists were un-Australian, would destroy our democracy and must be stopped. To achieve this, he proposed legislation to ban the Communist Party and to outlaw anyone declared a communist from having a job in unions or government. Under his proposal, if a person was declared to be a communist, it was up to the person to prove they were not. This went against Australian justice in which a person was innocent until proven guilty.

On 27 April 1950, Prime Minister Menzies presented the Communist Party Dissolution Bill in the House of Representatives. In introducing it, Menzies claimed that the CPA hoped to take over the government violently and force communism on Australia. He hoped that the Bill would end the communist movement in Australia by making the CPA an illegal party. Menzies also blamed the communists for causing strikes and industrial unrest. By banning communism, there would be fewer strikes and less opposition to him and his Liberal Party. This, of course, would help him to remain in power longer. Extracts of Menzies’s speech to the House of Representatives are presented in source 5.14.

Source 5.14Menzies’ speech to parliament on banning the Australian Communist Party

At the last general election, 87 958 persons, a small fraction of the total number of electors, voted for Communist candidates. The importance of the Australian Communist is, therefore, not numerical but positional; these Communists are not to be ignored as if they were a mere handful. They occupy key positions in key organisations in the industries upon which this country would have to depend if tomorrow it were fighting for its life. The choice before us is a grim but simple one. We can do nothing and let the traitorous minority destroy us, as they most assuredly intend to do; we can leave the Communist free to do his work … or we can fight him wherever we find him, leaving him no immunity …

The security and defence of Australia are dependent not only on the valour of our troops in the time of war and upon the industry in which they are supported in the factory and on the farm … By strikes and sabotage, [the Communist Party in Australia] conducts its own cold-war … we would not have tolerated [them] in Australia from 1939 to 1945. We, certainly, do not propose to tolerate [them] in 1950, at a time when militant communism … is moving east and south-east [in Europe and Asia] to carry out its plans to put down democracy and to usher in revolution … It would be an act of criminal folly to leave revolutionary Communists in key positions in those industries so that with their smallness of numbers they may achieve destructive results …

Prime Minister Menzies, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 27 April 1950, Vol. 207

On 28 April 1950, the Royal Commission investigating communist activities in Victoria reported that the Communist Party aimed to use armed insurrection to seize power for the workers, and to smash ‘the State as we know it’. This report supported the action Menzies was taking at the federal level.

Armed insurrection is fighting authority using weapons.

unemployed and gaining leadership positions in mining, transport, metal and waterfront unions. Membership of the CPA was around 4000 in the 1930s.

support to the war effort and its membership grew to 20 000. In 1944, the CPA changed its name to the Australian Communist Party and was growing in popularity among workers and intellectuals.

unions, political parties and government organisations. He said the communists were un-Australian, would destroy our democracy and must be stopped. To achieve this, he proposed legislation to ban the Communist Party and to outlaw anyone declared a communist from having a job in unions or government. Under his proposal, if a person was declared to be a communist, it was up to the person to prove they were not. This


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Comprehension1 Outline the history of the Communist Party of Australia from 1920 to 1944.2 What was the membership of the CPA in the 1930s?3 How did Menzies try to create fear about communists?4 What did Menzies propose in his legislation to ban communists in Australia?5 On what date did Menzies present the Communist Party Dissolution Bill to the House of

Representatives?

Analysis and use of sources1 What do you think Menzies meant by ‘The importance of the Australian Communist is,

therefore, not numerical but positional’ (source 5.14)?2 How does source 5.14 help us to understand attitudes to communism in Australia in the

1950s?

Perspectives and interpretationsWhat do we learn about Cold War attitudes from source 5.14?

Communication1 Source 5.14 is a good example of persuasive speech. List the arguments used by Menzies

and explain how they try to persuade the audience.2 You are a political journalist in the press gallery at Parliament House. You have just heard

Menzies’ speech (source 5.14) and now must file your report to the newspaper editor.• What will your headline be?• You need to write in sentence–paragraphs. Your first paragraph needs to tell who,

what, when and where.• Your report can be up to 10 sentence–paragraphs.• You should include quotes from Menzies in your report. Here is a model to help you:

Menzies’ BillMenzies’ Bill was opposed in the House of Representatives by the leader of the Opposition, Ben Chifley, (see source 5.15) but because Menzies had a majority in the lower house, the Bill was passed.

Source 5.15Chifley opposes the Communist Party Dissolution Bill, 1950

Not only does the regulation before the House provide for the banning of communism and, in effect curtail free expression of opinion in this country, but it also strikes at the very heart of justice.

Ben Chifley, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, 27 April 1950

Your headline

Thursday, 27 April—Prime Minister Menzies, proposing legislation to ban the Communist Party, claimed in Federal Parliament that communists planned to ‘put down democracy and to usher in revolution’ in Australia.

Addressing the House of Representatives, Menzies stated … He argued that …


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When the Bill moved to the upper house, the Labor-controlled Senate proposed several amendments and returned the Bill to the Lower House. Menzies refused to accept the amendments and returned the original Bill to the Senate. If the Senate refused to pass it, Menzies could call a double dissolution.

The question of whether or not to pass the Bill divided the Labor Party. The Catholic faction was anti-communist and supported the Bill. Others in the Labor Party did not want to support the Bill, but feared a loss of seats in parliament if Menzies called a double dissolution. The Labor senators were instructed to pass the Bill. When the vote was taken, only 11 of the 34 Labor senators attended parliament, but the Bill was passed.

The Communist Party of Australia and several unions challenged the new Act in the High Court. In March 1951, five of the six High Court judges agreed that the Act was invalid under the Constitution.

While this was occurring, Menzies also had a Bill before parliament that aimed to prevent any nationalisation of banks. The previous Labor government under Chifley had tried to bring banks under government control, so Menzies was keen to ensure this could not be attempted again. The Commonwealth Bank Bill was passed in the House of Representatives but blocked in the Senate. Menzies’ reaction was to have the governor-general dissolve both houses of parliament.

The elections held on 28 April 1951 were strongly contested. Menzies’ campaign played on the fear of communists and the threat that communism posed to Australia. The tally of results gave Menzies and his

coalition government control of the Senate; however, he lost five seats in the House of Representatives. At the sitting of the new parliament, he was able to pass the Commonwealth Bank Bill.

Menzies remained strongly anti-communist. He moved to change the Constitution so that he could legally ban the Communist Party. On 22 September 1951, a referendum on communism was held. The federal government wanted the power to make laws about communism as it saw fit (see source 5.17).

Source 5.17Referendum on communism

[Do you agree to amend the Constitution to allow the Commonwealth Government the power] to make such laws with respect to communists and communism as the Parliament considers necessary or expedient for the defence or security of the Commonwealth or for the execution or maintenance of the Constitution or laws of the Commonwealth; and to make a law in terms of the Communist Party Dissolution Act 1950, with certain powers of amendment.

Constitutional Alteration (Powers to deal with Communists and Communism) 1951

Amendments are changes.

A double dissolution ends the term of parliamentarians in the House of Representatives and the Senate (‘the double’) and results in a new election.

Source 5.16Members of the Communist Party of Australia taking part in the Anglo–Soviet Unity Procession in 1942

Australian War Memorial 136742


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The outcome of the referendumMenzies was unable to obtain enough support to gain the power to ban communists in Australia (see source 5.18). This was because the majority of Australians believed that Australia was not being threatened by communism, and that the right of free speech and free association should not be restricted in a democratic country. Also, many workers saw Menzies as a greater threat and did not want him to take power away from unions—even if they had communists within them.

Comprehension1 Why was Menzies’ Bill to ban the Communist Party passed in the lower house in 1950?2 Why didn’t the Bill become law?3 What section of the Labor Party opposed communism?4 What happened in March 1951?5 When was the referendum on communism held?6 Describe the results of the referendum.

Analysis and use of sources1 Look at source 5.15. Why did Chifley oppose the Communist Party Dissolution Bill?2 Look at source 5.17. Rewrite the referendum question in simpler language, but keep the

same meaning.3 Source 5.17 mentions ‘security’, ‘defence’ and ‘communism’ together. Which of the

following does this suggest?• Communism would bring security to Australia.• Australia was threatened by communism.

Explain your choice.

Empathetic understandingAlthough many Australians feared communism at the time, they were not persuaded to give Menzies the power to ban communist activities in Australia. Why do you think this was so?

Communication1 The then Leader of the Opposition, Ben Chifley, has asked you to prepare a list of points

to help him respond to Menzies’ speech. Make a list of points and write how Chifley could use these to argue against Menzies.

2 Write a short recount to retell the events from 27 April 1950 up to and including the referendum on communism (22 September 1951).

3 Design a poster for either the ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ case for the 1951 referendum on communism.4 You are to prepare a one-minute radio address for Chifley or Menzies. This address is to

convince voters to vote either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ in the 1951 referendum. Using the exposition text type, write the address and then record it on a cassette tape.

ICTUse a search engine to find the Australian Electoral Commission website. Find information on this site about double dissolutions.

Source 5.18Results of the 1951 referendum on communism

Yes No

Number of votes 2 317 927 2 370 009

Percentage of votes (%) 49.44 50.56

States for and against QLD, WA, TAS NSW, VIC, SAMelbourne Herald, 27 September 1951

Courtesy of the Herald and Weekly Times


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The Petrov AffairThe defeat of the referendum to ban communism was bringing an end to public interest in the issue. Many people were turning their attention to the economy and saw the Australian Labor Party’s policies for social welfare as attractive. Menzies and his Liberal Party were losing support and, with elections scheduled for 1954, it was suggested

unless Menzies could ‘pull a rabbit out of a hat’, he would lose government.

On the night of 13 April 1954, Menzies produced his ‘rabbit’. Speaking to parliament in the last hours of the final session, he made the dramatic announcement that Vladimir Petrov, a Russian diplomat in Canberra, would be defecting and providing information about communist spies operating in Australia.

Menzies also announced the setting up of a royal commission to investigate Petrov’s claims and other information in the possession of ASIO (Australian Security Intelligence Organisation) about a Soviet spy ring. Cold War fears of communism attacking the Australian life from within had been reignited.

A week later came more sensation. Soviet agents forced Mrs Petrov into a car and drove her to Sydney Airport in an effort to take her back to Russia. Use the following guide to the people and events to learn more about the ‘Petrov Affair’.

The Petrov Affair: the people• Vladimir Petrov—a Soviet (USSR) ministry member attached to the Russian embassy

in Canberra, married to Evdokia.• Evdokia Petrov—wife of Vladimir.• Robert Menzies—Australian Prime Minister, leader of the Liberal Party, anti-

communist, facing an election.• Herbert Evatt—Leader of the Opposition (1951–60), Australian Labor Party.• Colonel Charles Spry—Director-General of ASIO (Australian Security Intelligence

Organisation).• Joyce Bull—airline hostess on the flight carrying Mrs Petrov out of Australia.• Kislytsin, Jarkov and Karpinsky—Russian agents who were to escort Mrs Petrov out

of Australia.

The Petrov Affair: the events• Early 1954—Vladimir Petrov faces charges from the Russian embassy for improperly

dealing with a secret document. He risks being sent back to the USSR and imprisonment there.

Defecting means changing loyalty from one country to another.

Source 5.19Evdokia Petrov being escorted from Australia, 1954


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• 10 February 1954—Colonel Spry informs Menzies that Petrov is considering defecting.• April 1954—Menzies calls a federal election (to be held on 29 May 1954). Polls

already predict a Labor victory.• 3 April 1954—Petrov is granted political asylum and is paid $10 000 by ASIO to

‘assist’ his decision to defect.• 13 April 1954—Menzies announces to the House of Representatives that Petrov has

provided details of a Soviet spy ring operating in Australia. A royal commission is to be established to investigate those named in the documents provided by Petrov.

• 19 April 1954—Russian agents Kislytsin, Jarkov and Karpinsky force Mrs Evdokia Petrov to board a flight out of Australia. An angry crowd demonstrates against this at Sydney Airport (see source 5.20). During the flight, Mrs Petrov is asked by Joyce Bull if she is leaving Australia of her own free will. Mrs Petrov does not give a direct answer. Joyce Bull is of the opinion that Mrs Petrov wants to remain in Australia. This opinion is radioed to ASIO.

• The aeroplane with Mrs Petrov on board lands at Darwin. ASIO directs federal and Northern Territory Police to remove Mrs Petrov from the plane so she can speak to her husband by telephone. After doing so, Mrs Petrov requests political asylum in Australia. The Russian agents are ordered to reboard the plane and leave. Mrs Petrov is taken to her husband.

• 17 May 1954—The Royal Commission into Espionage (also known as the Petrov Royal Commission) commences. Menzies selects the judges to run the royal commission.

• 29 May 1954—Menzies wins the federal election. Evatt claims Menzies has staged the whole Petrov Affair to scare Australians into voting for the anti-communist Liberal Party.

• 14 October 1955—Royal Commission report is discussed in federal parliament. Some evidence of espionage between 1945 and 1948 is found; however, not enough to lead to charges against any Australians. Evatt defends several of the people called to give evidence but his moody, obsessive performance makes him unpopular, even in his own party. The tension between Evatt (who appeared to be a supporter of communism) and the anti-communist ‘movement’ (mainly Catholic members) within the ALP leads to a split within the party. The Democratic Labor Party (DLP) is formed which, in elections, gives its preferences to the Liberal Party.

• 10 December 1955—federal elections are held. With the ALP split and the DLP giving its preferences to the Liberals, Menzies wins the election. The DLP becomes a new force in Australian politics, reflecting a commitment to anti-communist Labor ideas.

One thousand struggling, fighting and screaming people at Kingsford Smith Airport last night attempted to stop Mrs Evdokia Petrov from returning to Russia.

The Federal Member for Mackellar, Mr W.C. Wentworth, who was at the airport, has taken statutory declarations from a number of people who declare that they heard Mrs Petrov say in Russian: ‘Help me’ and ‘I don’t want to go’.

A Russian courier, Mr V. Karpinsky, and a Russian embassy official dragged Mrs Petrov, who

was weeping and dazed, for 200 yards along the tarmac and pushed her up the gangway.

Ground staff first ran a gangway up to the pilot’s cabin for her to go aboard. The mob surged round the gangway and barred Mrs Petrov’s path, and attempts to use the gangway were abandoned …

Two airport fire engines arrived to connect up hoses ready to turn them onto the crowd. By the time the hoses were fully run out Mrs Petrov had entered the plane and the crowd fell back.

Source 5.20The Petrov demonstration

The Sydney Morning Herald, 20 April 1954Reprinted with permission of the Sydney Morning Herald

Political asylum is the protection granted to a defector.


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Comprehension1 Place these events in correct chronological order:

• Mr Petrov is granted political asylum.• Mrs Petrov is forced onto a flight by Russian agents.• Royal Commission report is discussed in federal parliament.• Royal Commission commences.

2 Using the information in ‘The Petrov Affair: the events’, outline the events from early 1954 to 14 October 1955.

3 How did the Petrov Affair help Menzies to stay in government?4 In your own words, define ‘defector’ and ‘political asylum’.5 What led to the formation of the DLP?6 Why would Evatt have believed that Menzies arranged the Petrov Affair?7 Why did the ALP split and the DLP form?

Analysis and use of sources1 Study source 5.19. What does it show? How would Menzies have used this scene for his

own political advantage?2 Read source 5.20. What effect would the words ‘dragged’, ‘weeping and dazed’ and

‘pushed her up’ have on readers of this newspaper report?3 The image of communist Russia in the 1950s was a country where there was no

democracy, people lived in fear and lives were controlled by the secret police. Does the report in source 5.20 support or contradict this image? Explain your answer.

ICTIn 1984, many of the ASIO secret files relating to the Petrov Affair were released to the public. Your task is to research the Petrov Affair and the Australian government’s response to communism in the 1950s. Use the following research guide to plan your research. Present your results in a Microsoft PowerPoint® presentation.

Research guideAs a historian, you will need to conduct your own research into issues. This requires information skills and knowledge of a suitable process for researching. Use this guide to help you to develop the skills to define, locate, select, organise, present and assess.

Step 1 Defining• What do I need to find out?• What is my purpose?• What instructions have I been given?• What are the key words in the task?• Do I need to pose a question to investigate?

Step 2 Locating• Where can I find the information I need?• What do I already have?• What else do I need to find out?• What sources can I use?• Can technology help me?

Step 3 Selecting• What information is really useful?• What information can I leave out?• How reliable/factual is the information?• Have I used a variety of sources?


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Step 4 Organising• Do I have enough useful information?• How can I best use this information?• In what order will I present my slides?• How do I combine information from different sources?

Step 5 Presenting• How can I present this information using PowerPoint?• What will I include on each slide?• Did I acknowledge my sources?• Who is my audience?

Step 6 Assessing• Did I achieve my purpose?• Did my presentation suit my audience?• What did I learn from this?• Where do I go from here?

A quick guide to Microsoft PowerPoint®

PowerPoint is a product for creating multimedia presentations. Most schools have this software. To create a presentation from scratch, follow these steps:1 On the Standard toolbar, click New, and then select the layout you want for your

title slide.2 Type the title and any other content you want on the title slide.3 Click Common Tasks on the Formatting toolbar, and then click New Slide.

Scroll to see more layouts, and then select a layout for the next slide.4 Add the content you want.5 Repeat steps 3 and 4 for each new slide.6 Change the presentation to suit your needs.7 When you finish, click Save on the File menu.8 Name your presentation, and then click Save.9 To see how your slide show will look, click Slide Show at the lower left of the

PowerPoint window.

Source 5.21PowerPoint demonstration


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5.2 Why did Australians become involved in the Vietnam War?

Chronology1860s Vietnam becomes a French colony after military conquest.1941 Japanese occupation of Vietnam.1945 French presence is restored by Allied forces.1946 French Indochina war begins.1954 Vietnam is divided into North (communist) and South (pro-Western).1956 French withdraw from Vietnam.1960 National Liberation Front is established in South Vietnam; Viet Cong military arm.1962 24 May, Australia declares its intention to send 30 military advisers to South Vietnam.1963 1 June, William Hacking, first Australian military adviser, is killed.1964 6 July, Kevin Conway is the first Australian killed in action in Vietnam. 10 November, conscription for national service is introduced by federal Liberal government.1965 First round of conscription registration. May, combat troops arrive in South Vietnam. December, Bill White is the first conscientious objector; he is jailed the following year.1966 July, Prime Minister Harold Holt gives ‘All the Way with LBJ’ speech in the United States. October, President Lyndon Johnson visits Australia.1968 Australian troops in South Vietnam reach highest level: 8300. Draft Resistance Movement is established.1970 May, reduction of Australian forces in South Vietnam is announced by Prime Minister Gorton. 8 May, first moratorium on the Vietnam War, a second is held on 18 September and a third

on 30 June 1971.1972 February, remaining Australian troops depart South Vietnam. December, remaining Australian advisers leave Vietnam; conscription is abolished and jailed draft

resisters are freed.1973 January, USA and Vietnamese ceasefire. February, Australia establishes diplomatic relations with North Vietnam. March, remaining American troops withdraw from Vietnam.1974 South Vietnam re-declares war.1975 25 April, closure of Australian embassy in Saigon. 30 April, North and South Vietnam reunited under communist government.1978 ‘Boat people’ begin to arrive in Australia from Vietnam.

During World War II, the control that Britain, France and Holland had over their colonies in the Asia-Pacific region was removed by the advancing Japanese. At the end of the war there was view the colonies should be allowed to have independence.

In Indochina (an area comprising Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos), France agreed to allow self-government but expected her former colonies to remain part of the French Union (like the British Commonwealth). Vietnamese nationalists and communists opposed this restriction and began action to overthrown their French rulers.

A moratorium is an agreed suspension of an activity.


209

Ho Chi Minh became the leader of the Vietminh, a political group that was both nationalist and communist. When the Japanese left in 1945, he declared Vietnam independent from France. French troops were sent to maintain rule, leading to a 10-year guerrilla war with the Vietminh. At the Battle of Dien Ben Phu in 1954, France was finally defeated and the matter was referred to a conference in Geneva to determine a peace settlement. Here it was decided Vietnam should be divided at the 17th parallel. Ho Chi Minh established a capital in Hanoi and controlled North Vietnam. His government was supported by both the USSR and China. In South Vietnam, an anti-communist government under the leadership of President Diem was created. It was friendly to America and received support in return.

Source 5.22Ho Chi Minh

Source 5.23Dien Ben Phu

Source 5.24Geneva Conference

This action did not bring peace to Vietnam. Diem’s government was viewed by many Vietnamese as being corrupt and a puppet of America. Within South Vietnam were the Viet Cong, a group of pro-communist terrorists who aimed to bring down Diem. They were supported by Ho Chi Minh with arms and equipment.


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To help Diem’s government resist the communists, America sent money, equipment and advisers to South Vietnam. By 1961 there were 10 000 Americans in the country teaching the South Vietnamese how to defend themselves. A year later Australia provided equipment and a group of 30 army instructors to assist this program. Meanwhile, Ho Chi Minh’s army and the Viet Cong were inflicting increasing damage on Diem’s government. Indirect aid to South Vietnam was not preventing the spread of communism.

In July 1964, America’s president Lyndon Baines Johnson approved secret raids by the South Vietnamese navy against North Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin. On 2 August it was claimed by the Americans that their destroyer, the Maddox, while undertaking surveillance in the Gulf, was fired upon by North Vietnamese gunboats. A second attack was said to have occurred two days later. Johnson used this as an excuse to begin the bombing of North Vietnamese oil storage depots in Haiphong. He next gained US Congress approval to take ‘all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States’. Thus began the official involvement of America in the Vietnam War.

Australia soon followed. Agreements such as ANZUS and SEATO (see pages 196–9) had tied the country to support American action to stop the spread of communism in the Asia–Pacific region. Australia’s involvement was also linked to a belief in the ‘domino theory’—if communism was not stopped in Vietnam, then Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore would fall like dominos and eventually Australia would be next. Menzies explains his belief in this theory in source 5.29.

Source 5.25Female Vietcong fighter

BURMA

CHINA

THAILAND

PhnomPenh

Saigon

Me ko

ng

Riv

er

SOUTH CHINA

SEA

Gulf ofTonkin

Gulf of Thailand

NORTHVIETNAM

SOUTHVIETNAMCAMBODIA

(Kampuchea)

17th parallel

LAOS

Haiphong

HanoiDien Bien Phu

French Indochina

Source 5.26French Indochina


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Source 5.29Menzies on the domino theory

I subscribe to the domino theory … because I believe it obvious … that if the Vietnam War ends with some compromise that denies South Vietnam a real and protected independence, Laos and Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia will be vulnerable … this domino theory … has formidable realities to Australians who see the boundaries of aggressive communism coming closer and closer.

Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, 21 April 1965

Source 5.30Menzies announces Australia’s involvement in Vietnam

There can be no doubt of the gravity of the situation in South Vietnam. There is ample evidence to show that with the support of the North Vietnamese and other communist powers, the Viet Cong has been preparing on a more substantial scale … to destroy South Vietnamese Government control, and to disrupt by violence the life of the local people … We have not, of course, come to this decision without the closest attention to the question of defence priorities. We do not and must not overlook the point that our alliances, as well as providing guarantees and assurances for our security, make demands upon us … Assessing all this, it is our judgement that the decision to commit a battalion in South Vietnam represents the most useful additional contribution which we can make to the defence of the region at this time. The takeover of South Vietnam would be a direct military threat to Australia.

Prime Minister Menzies, Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 29 April 1965, Vol. 45, pp. 1060–1.

Australia’s involvement in Vietnam was small compared to that of the United States with its commitment of over 500 000 troops. Australian troops in Vietnam peaked at 8300 in 1968. Overall, 5190 Australians served in the war; 496 were killed and 2398 were wounded, although innumerable service people and civilians suffered physical and emotional injuries. Vietnam was Australia’s longest war, and spread over a decade from 1962. It was also the most divisive military involvement in Australia’s history.

Source 5.27American Defence Secretary Robert McNamara

Source 5.28The domino theory


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Comprehension1 What countries make up Indochina?2 Who was Ho Chi Minh?3 When was the Battle of Dien Ben Phu and what was the result?4 Who were the Viet Cong?5 What happened between July and August 1964?6 What was the ‘domino theory’?7 Why did Australia become involved in the Vietnam War?

Analysis and use of sources1 How does source 5.29 help to explain the domino theory?2 How does source 5.30 help to explain why Australia became involved in the Vietnam

War?

Perspectives and interpretations1 How was Menzies’ perspective of events in Vietnam similar to that of the American

government at the time?2 In what ways is Evan Whitton’s interpretation of Australia’s involvement in Vietnam

(source 5.31) different from Menzies’ view?

Empathetic understandingWhy would many Australians at the time have supported Menzies’ attitude to involvement in the Vietnam War?

CommunicationPrepare a 40-second ‘news flash’ for radio announcing Menzies’ decision to involve Australia in the Vietnam War.

ResearchCan you find any information to support the view that Menzies planned to involve Australia in the Vietnam War much earlier than April 1965?

The [Menzies] government had a total misconception of what was happening in Asia, and particularly in Vietnam. [It believed] Communism … [was] a menace [a threat to Australia] …

Our vital strategic interests would therefore be well served and we could sleep easy in our beds, if the US could persuade itself, or be persuaded, to interpose [place] large military forces between us and China.

It’s a great little scenario, except for a few major holes. China … would have settled for Vietnam as a buffer against both the US and Russia.

North Vietnam, whose antipathy [dislike] to China … was the last place to open the gates to China …

Australia’s motives for entering the war were thus certainly foolish, in that they rested on inadequate knowledge and false perception of reality.

Source 5.31Evan Whitton on Australia’s involvement in Vietnam

Evan Whitton, National Times, 28 April 1975


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5.3 How did various groups respond to Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War?

In April 1965, the Menzies Liberal government announced that a combat battalion, the First Royal Australian Regiment (1RAR), would be sent to fight in Vietnam. Most Australians supported this decision as being the right thing to do in the war against communism, as shown in source 5.32.

Menzies retired from politics in 1966 and was replaced by Harold Holt. At the same time, the United States president, Lyndon Johnson (known as LBJ), increased America’s involvement in Vietnam and paid a visit to Australia. Many Australians enthusiastically welcomed the visiting president and agreed when Holt declared Australia was ‘all the way with LBJ’. Opposed to this was Arthur Calwell, the leader of the Labor Party. In the November 1966 elections, Holt and the Liberal–Coalition government was returned to power in a landslide victory.

Here is an active struggle against the southward spread of Communist domination in Asia. Here is an immediate need to maintain the independence of new nations. Here is an urgent cry to stop murder, sabotage and terror.

Source 5.32Australia’s involvement

Paul Hasluck, Minister for External Affairs, quoted in The Australian, 7 November 1964

Source 5.34All the way with LBJ

The Australian, October 1966

Source 5.33Ladybird Johnson, Harold Holt, Lyndon Johnson and Zara Holt

National Archives of Australia/A1200, L 56295


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Groups such as the Returned Services League (RSL) supported the policy of involvement in Vietnam. However, others were beginning to question it, particularly when conscripted soldiers were used. Conscription of 20-year-old males, based on a lottery system, had been introduced in 1964. It was never mentioned at the time that those conscripted into ‘National Service’ would be sent to fight in the Vietnam War. When the first birth date was drawn from the barrel on 10 March 1965, the Save Our Sons, Youth Against Conscription, Australian Communist Party and other groups increased their protests. By the early 1970s there was a dramatic division in Australian society over involvement in the war and the conscription issue. Sources 5.36 to 5.40 reflect the different perspectives of the time.

Source 5.35Federal Liberal Party election advertisement, 1966

The Sydney Morning Herald, 22 November

Source 5.36Save Our Sons: oral account

I convened the first meeting of SOS [Save Our Sons, in May 1965] …

The issue of being against the war came later. These [women] were mainly against conscription as such … Our aims were that we were against conscription for overseas service … SOS was mainly a women’s group … at its height we had 500 people on our mailing list in Victoria and we had many more supporters … Some joined because they were politically aware, some because they were worried about their sons, and there were some like me with very young children but who objected to the whole idea of conscription … Every month we were at the barracks. We had to get there at some ungodly hour like 5 a.m. for the intakes, and then we’d march around with our flag and wearing ‘Save Our Sons’ sashes. We got continuous coverage in the media for eight years for doing that …

Our first arrest was under by-law 418. This was at Richmond Barracks and occurred because we were becoming effective … by-law 418 was a Melbourne City Council by-law which said that you weren’t allowed to hand out printed information in the street. It had been on the statute books for a hundred years and nobody had ever been arrested under it …

Jean McLean interview in Gloria Frydman, ProtestersBy kind permission of HarperCollins


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Source 5.39National service register, an oral account

In 1969 I went up to Hurstville, that’s where I lived, and I had to register by 31 January.

You just went to the post office, got a yellow form, filled in your name and address, date of birth, and just posted it back to the national service.

I don’t know where the card went from there, but then they used to bring the marble out. Certain numbers would be drawn from a lottery barrel and if your birthdate corresponded to the number on the marble then you were called up for national service.

The chances of going in were supposed to be one in seven by the marble, but my birthday came out every year from ’65 to ’71. In my class at Kingsgrove High there were 28 blokes and 28 were called up.

I got a letter to say I’d been posted to Puckapunyal [a military training camp]. I didn’t even know where bloody Puckapunyal was … I can remember that year, 1969. It was when Whitlam nearly got into government and we couldn’t even … vote.

Wayne, interviewed in Stuart Rintoul, Ashes of Vietnam: Australian Voices, William Heinemann, Melbourne 1987, pp. 5–6

Source 5.37Protesters in George Street, Sydney, May 1970

Source 5.38Eastern Suburbs Moratorium Committee flyer


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Source 5.40An ex-national serviceman’s view

My experience of being drafted to serve in Vietnam can only be described as bitter-sweet. The bitterness lies in the fact that as soldiers we lacked total support for a war to which we had been committed by politicians; there was misunderstanding and a lack of support from a divided civilian populace; and there was criticism and a lack of government recognition for our efforts once involvement was complete.

I learnt a lot about soldiering, combat, other men and most of all myself … I have a bond and comradeship with all of those men which can never be broken. All that is sweet.

Gary McKay, In Good Company, Allen & Unwin, 1987, p. 190

Comprehension1 Who replaced Menzies as prime minister in 1966?2 Who was LBJ?3 What do you think was meant by ‘All the way with LBJ’?4 How were national servicemen conscripted?5 Which groups supported Australia’s involvement in Vietnam?6 Which groups opposed the use of conscripted soldiers in Vietnam?

Analysis and use of sources1 What reasons are given in source 5.32 for Australian involvement in Vietnam?2 Look at source 5.34 and answer these questions:

a Which figure represents LBJ?b Who is in the pouch?c What symbols are used to represent Australia and America?d What is the cartoon’s message?

3 Look at source 5.35 and answer these questions:a What was this source originally?b What was happening at the time this source was created?c How does this source try to persuade the audience?

4 Look at source 5.36 and answer these questions:a What was Save Our Sons?b Why did people join Save Our Sons?c What sort of activities did Save Our Sons engage in?d What was the response of the authorities to the Save Our Sons campaigners?

5 Study source 5.37. How are people in this source responding to Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War?

6 Read source 5.38.a What group published this flyer?b What is the source asking people to do?

7 Read source 5.39.a How were people selected for national service?b When was Wayne called up?c What was Wayne’s response to being called up?

8 Read source 5.40.a What is the ‘bitter’ part of being drafted to serve in Vietnam that the soldier is

referring to?b What is the ‘sweet’ part?


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Perspectives and interpretations1 What perspectives are presented in sources 5.36, 5.38, 5.39 and 5.40?2 How was Jean McLean’s perspective (source 5.36) of conscription different from that of

the Liberal government of the time?

Empathetic understandingHow do sources 5.39 and 5.40 help you to understand the feelings of conscripted men at the time?

Research1 What is a ‘moratorium’?2 Research the Australian Moratorium Campaign. Write separate paragraphs on:

a why it was heldb who was involvedc what it achieved

3 Write a two-page discussion text giving reasons for and against the use of conscription during the time of the Vietnam War.

The end of involvementAt first, the anti-war movement had little impact on Australian society. Many Australians supported Australia’s involvement in the war, but few understood the political realities of the war. Many people did not even know the geographical location of Vietnam.

Opposition to compulsory overseas military service in Vietnam brought the first wave of protest. Announced on 10 November 1964, conscription began in January 1965. The women’s group Save Our Sons was established in May 1965 as a direct response to conscription. Over the next seven years, 63 740 men were ‘called up’, of which 15 542 ‘Nashos’(conscripted national servicemen) were sent to Vietnam.

Many men eligible for conscription protested by refusing to register. Under the National Service Act 1964, all men who were turning 20 had to register for possible enlistment or face imprisonment. Enlistment involved two years’ army service with a chance of being sent to Vietnam. Annual intakes of conscripts were selected in a strange manner. Marbles with birth dates on them were picked from a lottery barrel. Men registered for national service whose birth dates matched those on the marbles were conscripted, subject to passing medicals and 12-weeks’ training. Federal Labor opposition leader Arthur Calwell labelled this ‘the lottery of death’. Approximately 12 000 men did not register. Source 5.42 shows a march in support of John Zarb, a Melbourne man imprisoned for refusing to go to Vietnam. Some men burnt their draft cards in public as a sign of protest. Others tried to prove they were pacifists in order to be exempted from national service. This involved having a conscientious objection to war.

Conscientious objection is a refusal to take part in military service based on moral or religious beliefs.

Source 5.41The drawing of the first conscription lottery in 1965


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The anti-war movement was radicalised by university students who conducted open acts of defiance. Some academics, unionists, veteran pacifists and others were also involved. Seminars, lectures, non-violent protests and sit-ins were held. Some conservatives also opposed the war. Sydney businessman Gordon Barton, a Liberal Party supporter, formed the Liberal Reform Group in 1966 after American President Johnson’s visit. Opposed to Australia’s

involvement in Vietnam, the group was renamed the Australia Party in 1969. Most conservatives, however, supported Australian involvement in the war. This included conservative university student bodies such as army cadet corps.

By 1969, anti-war sentiment had strengthened. The media, especially television coverage of the horrors of the war, had a critical role in changing public opinion. ‘Ratbag’ protesters came to be seen as champions of a just cause.

The anti-Vietnam War movement reached a peak in 1970. On 8 May that year, the first national demonstration calling for a moratorium on sending conscripted soldiers to Vietnam was held. About 150 000 protesters took to the streets (see source 5.37) and, although this march was enormously successful, the tide was already turning against involvement in Vietnam. In April, the Australian government had announced plans for the withdrawal of troops. Similarly, in the United States the government faced strong opposition to continued involvement and was looking for an honourable way to pull out of what was becoming an unwinable war.

By March 1972, the last of Australia’s main force had returned home. The election of the Whitlam Labor government in December that year led to the final 150 Australian military being withdrawn, thus ending our

Source 5.43Opinions polls

Nov 1966 Poll find 63% are in favour of conscription, but only 37% approve of sending National Servicemen to Vietnam.

May 1967 Poll finds 62% in favour of continuing the war in Vietnam.

Aug 1969 Poll finds 55% want Australians brought home from Vietnam.

Morgan Gallup Polls, quoted on VVA website

Source 5.42Andrew Bunden, 20, burns his national service registration card outside the prime minister’s residence

Veteran pacifists were enlisted people who had served in Vietnam but returned with anti-war attitudes.

Conservatives do not favour change; they prefer to keep with tradition.

Source 5.44A poster for the 18 September 1970 moratorium protest

Australian War Memorial V895


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involvement in the Vietnam War. Almost 500 Australian soldiers had been killed and 3000 were casualties. Three years later, South Vietnam, without the military support of SEATO countries, was no longer able to defend itself against the North. The capital Saigon fell in April 1975 and the country was unified under communist control.

Comprehension1 When did conscription for national service begin?2 What could happen to a person who refused to register for national service?3 Explain how conscription worked.4 What was a ‘conscientious objector’?5 What occurred on 8 May 1970?

Analysis and use of sources1 What is shown in source 5.42?2 How could source 5.43 be useful to historians investigating Australian attitudes to

involvement in the Vietnam War?3 Explain the message in source 5.44.

CommunicationExplain how and why Australian involvement in the Vietnam War ended.

ICTGo to the State Library of NSW website at <www.sl.nsw.gov.au>. Find the PICMAN database (a searchable collection of pictures) and download three images related to the subject ‘Vietnam Moratorium’.

5.4 What was the impact of the war on Australia and neighbouring countries?

Australia was involved in the Vietnam War for nearly 10 years. It coincided with an era in history that became known as the ‘swinging sixties’, a time of rapid change in society. Traditional values were challenged and young people rebelled against the older generation. The election of the Whitlam Labor government, after 23 years of conservative rule, was a further sign change.

Vietnam veteransThe unpopularity of involvement in the Vietnam War had a negative impact on the soldiers who had served in it. When they returned home there was little recognition and celebration of their service. Many found it difficult to return to civilian life because of the hostile treatment they received from anti-war protesters. Others were affected by the experiences of fighting in Vietnam and received little or no treatment for the stress they suffered. Often they would turn to alcohol or drugs in an effort to escape the mental torment. Some suffered from exposure to chemicals such as ‘Agent Orange’, a defoliant sprayed in combat zones.

The Vietnam Veterans Association of Australia (VVAA) was formed in late 1979 to get action for those veterans and their children who were experiencing health problems related to Agent Orange. These problems ranged from skin blisters, itching, flushes,

A defoliant is a chemical that causes leaves to fall from trees.


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nasal problems, blurred vision, respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, gastro-urinary, muscular and nervous system disorders, cancers and tumours. Many veterans were also suffering psychological disorders caused by what was later diagnosed as post-traumatic stress disorder. Source 5.46 shows the association’s homepage located at <www.vvaa.org.au>. Source 5.47 is from their web page ‘A Short History of the VVAA’.

On 3 October 1987, fifteen years after the last national servicemen and regular soldiers had returned from Vietnam, a ‘Welcome Home’ parade was finally held for the veterans. This was a turning point in attitudes towards those who had participated in an unpopular war. It would be another seven years until the government acknowledged that Agent Orange was the direct cause of cancer and other illnesses suffered by the veterans. Today Vietnam veterans enjoy respect in the community; however, many still feel bitterness over the impact the war has had on their lives.

Source 5.45Vietnam Veterans Association of Australia badge

www.vvaa.org.au

Source 5.46Vietnam Veterans Association of Australia homepage

www.vvaa.org.au

Source 5.47Vietnam Veterans Association of Australia

The Association lobbied against government indifference, including the bitter disappointment of the now discredited 1983 Evatt Royal Commission on the Use and Effects of Chemical Agents on Australian Personnel in Vietnam. At the same time there was a very real feeling that the RSL had not accepted the Vietnam veterans, and nor would it pursue the concerns of this group with the vigour they believed that those concerns warranted. This feeling was never stronger than during this period, when the VVAA and the RSL were absolutely opposed.

The gradual successes of the V VAA in the following years came as a result of much hard work and lobbying. The Vietnam Veterans Counselling Service was established as a direct result of the action of the V VAA, and it is now an integral part of treatment regimes, not only for veterans, but also for the survivors of traumatic events such as the Port Arthur Massacre.

This was followed by the establishment of the Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Clinic in Heidelberg, which now extended its treatment to St John of God Hospital in Sydney, together with visiting services to various rural locations. Lifestyle courses permit veterans to contribute to their own well-being, learning how to cope with problems and adapt their lifestyle to best suit themselves …

Current issues involving the Association include the recently released results of the Vietnam Veterans’ Mortality Study (commissioned by the Department of Veterans Affairs) following through on the self-reported issues revealed in the long-delayed Vietnam Veterans’ Health Study, including spouses and children. The Mortality Study revealed that Vietnam veterans have a death rate 7% higher than the general male population, with deaths from cancer 21% higher, prostate cancer 53% higher, lung cancer


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29%, ischaemic heart disease 10% and suicides 21% above the general male population. This is a cause for grave concern, and work continues to ensure that the results of this study are reflected in Repatriation Medical Authority and Departmental documents …

Over the years there has been a persistent media presentation of Vietnam veterans as ‘victims’. The Association believes that this is counter-productive. This is not an image that the V VAA wishes to perpetuate either for itself or for its members. Rather, it sees Vietnam veterans as achievers. Vietnam veterans have reached the highest level of business, professional and political ranks within Australia, and every one of them who has overcome psychological or health problems in order to raise a family and live a relatively normal life has overcome adversity in order to achieve. Vietnam veterans aren’t victims, they are achievers.

www.vvaa.org.au

When blokes came back from the Second World War they were heroes, tickertape receptions and the whole bit. With us I don’t think they wanted to know … people just pretended the whole thing never happened,’ said one of the men who regard themselves as Australia’s Forgotten Diggers …

Like 50,000 other Australians, they went to Vietnam as young men and came back veterans to a society that first rejected them, then forgot

them. They came home without obvious physical or psychological injuries, but with a bitter resentment that ‘the job’ they were sent to do was not recognized …

Says one: ‘I’d like to say to these people who opposed us in Vietnam: “All right – you have your right to criticise the war, but why attack us? We were only doing our job”.’

Source 5.48Australian diggers forgotten

The Age, 12 May 1979

Source 5.49A veteran’s perspective

The veterans … searched for a word, one word, to describe how they now felt about even saying to others that they had been involved in Vietnam.

Most of them had never mentioned it to their outside friends, unless it had come up by accident …

Eventually the word came out, a word they all agreed upon, to describe that they had been in Vietnam.

That word, and they agreed on it, was embarrassed.What a terrible indictment of what these now middle-aged men had allegedly done. They had

risked their lives in a foreign war, fought on behalf of their country. Now, at home, years later, they were embarrassed to talk about it.

Michael Frazer, Nasho, Aries 1984

Comprehension1 Describe the treatment of Vietnam veterans when they returned to Australia.2 Why was the Vietnam Veterans Association of Australia formed?3 What occurred on 3 October 1987?4 What was ‘Agent Orange’?

Analysis and use of sources1 What is source 5.46?2 How does source 5.47 help your understanding of issues related to Vietnam veterans?


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Perspectives and interpretationsWhose perspectives are presented in sources 5.48 and 5.49?

Empathetic understandingExplain the attitude of the Vietnam veterans expressed in sources 5.48 and 5.49.

CommunicationDescribe the impact of involvement in the Vietnam War on the soldiers who served in it.

ResearchLocate further information on Australia’s Vietnam veterans. Begin your search at <www.vvaa.org.au>.

Indochinese refugeesAfter the fall of South Vietnam in 1975 and the reunification of the country under the communists, thousands of Vietnamese people feared persecution under the new government. In neighbouring Cambodia, similar fears developed when Vietnam helped Cambodian rebels to overthrow their government in 1979. Ongoing fighting led to a growing number of Indochinese refugees seeking asylum and resettlement in peaceful countries such as Australia.

Nearly two million Indochinese refugees would leave their war-torn homeland, often undertaking a dangerous journey by sea in overcrowded and poorly equipped boats. Between 1975 and 1987, 673 000 (120 000 from Vietnam, 228 000 from Cambodia and 325 000 from Laos) arrived in Thailand and remained in crowded refugee camps until a ‘third’ country would accept them. Over 120 000 came to Australia with the first ‘boat people’ arriving in Darwin in 1976. A conference was held in Geneva in 1979, aimed at reducing the refugees coming from Vietnam. The number was lessened until a new wave of persecution of those from Chinese background occurred in 1984.

Source 5.50Refugees boarding a transport plane. An American official punches a man to try to remove him from the doorway of the already overloaded plane.

Source 5.51Vietnamese boat people, rejected by Malaysian authorities, look for refuge on the Indonesian archipelago of Anambas.


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The accepting of Indochinese refugees resulted in divided opinion. On one side were those who believed Australia would be ‘swamped’ and efforts should be made to limit the number of refugees entering Australia. On the other side were those who saw refugees as a global and humanitarian problem that required Australia taking a role to solve. As the controversy developed, an increased number of refugees were refused entry or sent back. Many were forced to remain in camps in South-East Asia awaiting assistance.

In 1989, another conference was held in Geneva to address the question of Indochinese refugees. A plan was introduced whereby refugees escaping from Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos no longer had automatic refugee status. Only those who could prove they faced persecution in their homeland would be classed as refugees. If it was determined they were fleeing to seek a better standard of living, they would be forced to return to their home country. It was felt this would deter most ‘boat people’ from trying to reach places such as Australia, Canada and America.

Indochinese refugees who were able to remain in Australia faced adjustment problems and often racism. Many had spent years in camps where educational services and opportunities to learn the English language rarely existed. These factors contributed to a high unemployment rate (20–30%) and a feeling of alienation once these people settled in Australia.

The number of refugees from Indochina declined in the 1990s. By 2000, most refugees coming to Australia were from Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, China and the former Yugoslavia. The issue of accepting refugees, often referred to as asylum seekers, remains.

Source 5.53Boat people

Perhaps as many as a quarter of the boat people who fled Vietnam after the war ended in 1975 drowned at sea or were murdered by pirates. Every country in the region prepared an excuse for rejecting them … Thailand did nothing to discourage the rapacity of its pirate fishermen whose treatment of the boat people seemed at times unbelievable … In Hong Kong and Taiwan Chinese fat cats … made fortunes by supplying unseaworthy craft …

Since the end of the war in 1975 the United States has taken 560 000 refugees, Canada 94 000 and Australia 91 000.

John Pilger, Heroes, Pan,1986

Source 5.52Vietnamese refugees arrive at Darwin


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Comprehension1 What led to people fleeing Vietnam and Cambodia?2 How many Indochinese refugees landed in Thailand between 1975 and 1987?3 When did the first ‘boat people’ arrive in Darwin?4 What did the Geneva Conference on Indochinese Refugees decide in 1989?

Analysis and use of sources1 What is shown in source 5.52?2 How does source 5.53 assist our understanding of Indochinese refugees?3 How useful is source 5.54 when investigating Indochinese refugees coming to Australia?4 What was the purpose of source 5.55?

Perspectives and interpretationsHow does the perspective in source 5.55 differ from that held by people who believe Australia should not accept refugees?

CommunicationHow did the outcome of the Vietnam War affect the number of Indochinese refugees coming to Australia?

ResearchFind out more about Pol Pot and the ‘Killing Fields’ in Cambodia.

Australian cultureAlthough ‘the sixties’ was a time of great change, a number of aspects of Australian culture remained the same. Sport continued to hold an important position, maintained by strong performances in international tennis, cricket, swimming and at the Rome (1960), Tokyo (1964), Mexico (1968) and Munich (1972) Olympic Games. Australia won the Davis Cup seven times between 1960 and 1968 and Rod Laver won Wimbledon in 1961, 1962, 1968 and 1969; Dawn Fraser won gold in the pool at three successive Olympics; Herb Elliott broke the world athletics record for 1500 metres; boxers Johnny Famechon and Lionel Rose won world titles; Geoff Hunt won the world squash title three times; Linda McGill set a new record for swimming the English Channel; and Jack Brabham won the World Drivers’ Championship for the third time in 1966.

It was the younger generation that drove major social and cultural changes. Much of their action occurred as a result of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War and challenged existing, often conservative, ways. The period was marked by the:■ rise of the ‘baby boomers’ and a youth revolution■ impact of American popular culture and the protest movement■ introduction of new technology

Source 5.54Indochinese refugees to Australia

April-June 1975 691

1977–78 7077

1980–81 15 004

1984–85 7215

1989–90 3736

Source 5.55Australia and refugees

Officially there are 15 million refugees in the world and another 6 million living in refugee-like situations … the number of refugees Australia has accepted from Indochina is a drop in the ocean when one considers the total number of displaced persons in the world.

Australian Refugees and the World, 1990, (Amnesty International)


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The youth of the 1960s had not faced the hardships of the Great Depression or World War II. They grew up in a time when material goods were plentiful; most homes had a television set and the car was more affordable. New freedoms became available and old rules were challenged. For some, ‘sex, drugs and rock’n roll’ became a lifestyle. The availability of female contraceptives (‘the pill’), marijuana (‘grass’) and mind-altering drugs (‘acid’) plus the message of protest songs all led to a youth revolution. This revolution in Australia was accelerated by the impact of American trends communicated via television, music and movies.

Reaction to the rules and regulations of the older generation was most obvious in the fashions of the time. In opposition to the ‘short, back and sides’ haircut associated with army regulations and being a ‘square’, males began growing their hair to shoulder length and longer. Females wore mini skirts and for both sexes, blue jeans became standard dress. Accessories such as beads became another sign of the hippy or flower-power generation. By watching American television shows and movies, Australians quickly followed non-conformist fashions.

The rise of the guitar, transistor radio and LP (long play) record ensured the message that the times were changing was heard by the youth throughout the land. In 1969, at the height of the Vietnam War, one of the most significant events in

world history occurred—a person from Earth walked on the moon. Australians were able to watch this as it happened; satellites and other advances in technology had removed Australia’s isolation allowing us to experience news as it happened.

The impact of the Vietnam War on traditional Australian culture was demonstrated by the election of the Whitlam government in 1972. His campaign slogan ‘It’s Time’ reflected a shift in attitude of the community away from conservative values.

Source 5.56Fashions of the late 1960s

Source 5.58A 60s anti-conscription protest

Source 5.57Bob Dylan


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Comprehension1 What led to a youth revolution in the 1960s?2 Describe changes to fashions in the 1960s.

Analysis and use of sourcesHow do sources 5.56–5.58 help an investigation of life in the 1960s in Australia?

Research1 Interview a person who lived in Australia in the period 1966 to 1972. What questions

would you ask them to find out more about the impact of the Vietnam War on Australian culture at the time? Record your interview and use it to complete the Communication question below.

2 Bob Dylan wrote a number of songs in the 1960s that captured the mood of the times. One of them was called ‘The times they are a-changin’ ’. Locate the lyrics in a book or on the internet. What issues does he raise in the songs you located?

CommunicationUsing your response to Research activity 1, plus additional research, assess the impact of the Vietnam War on Australian culture.

Australia’s relations with AsiaFrom colonial times to the outbreak of World War II, Australia maintained a close relationship with Britain. Our mainstream culture was European in nature yet our geographic location was the Asia–Pacific region. From the 1850s, when the gold rushes attracted 50 000 Chinese people to Australia, the fear of the ‘yellow peril’ grew. One of the first actions of the new federal parliament in 1901 was to pass the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, preventing the settlement of non-white people.

Most Australians viewed Asia as undeveloped, with little to offer. The rise of Japan in the early 20th century was to have a major impact on Asian politics, and ultimately on Australia. In 1931, Japan began a period of military expansion that led to control of parts of China and the weakening of European colonial power in Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Indochina. After the defeat of Japan in 1945 and the success of independence movements in South-East Asia, Australia was no longer in a region dominated by Europeans.

Added to this was the emergence of communist governments in China, North Korea and North Vietnam. Source 5.60 provides evidence of the impact of this on Australia’s beliefs about Asia. The renewed fear of being conquered led to Australia signing defence agreements such as ANZUS and SEATO (see pages 196–9) and to involvement in the Korean War, Malaya Emergency and Vietnam War.

The ‘yellow peril‘ was the supposed danger that people from Asia would over-run Australia.

Source 5.59Australia and Asia


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Australia recognised the importance of good relations with Asian countries before its involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1950, as part of the Colombo Plan, Australia agreed to provide aid to Sri Lanka (then known as Ceylon), India, Pakistan, Malaysia and North Borneo. The plan aimed to improve regional prosperity and thereby enhance Australia’s security. By 1970, Australia had provided $300 million in the form of education, equipment, food and special projects to recipient countries.

Closer to home, relations with Indonesia proved a challenge. From 1945 to 1949 Australians supported Indonesians in their struggle for independence from the Dutch. However, once self-government was achieved, there was a view that Indonesia now posed a threat to Australian security. This threat was heightened by Indonesian ambitions in New Guinea/West Irian and Malaysia (see sources 5.61 and 5.62) and a fear the communists might gain control of the Indonesia government.

As Australian involvement in the Vietnam War drew to a close, civil war broke out in the Portuguese colony of Timor. Indonesia refused the country independence and in 1975 sent additional troops to secure control. At the time, the Australian government placed higher importance on relations with Indonesia, therefore accepted the situation. It was not until the Dili Massacre of 1991 that Australia began to officially protest about the treatment of the Timorese.

The Vietnam War coincided with an anti-conservative spirit in Australia. The Whitlam government was elected in 1972 and immediately began to implement major changes. One of its first steps was recognising the communist government in China and developing relations with this regional giant. Increased opportunities for Australians to study and visit Asian countries in the 1970s and 80s increased understanding of our

neighbours. Furthermore, the emergence of Asian economies as potential trading partners influenced Australia’s regional relations. The failure to be invited to join ASEAN (Association of South-East Asian Nations) in 1976 was a blow to Australia. However, diplomacy continued, resulting in Australia’s involvement in the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum in 1990.

Negative reaction to Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War eventually led to the collapse of SEATO in 1977. Since that time, Australia has formed political and economic relations with Asian countries, including Vietnam. In 1996, Prime Minister Keating made it clear Australia’s future prosperity was linked to our relationship with Asia.

Source 5.60A cartoon published in 1954


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Source 5.61Indonesian ambitions in the region

The Courier-Mail, 19 August 1958

Source 5.62We’re here because we’re invited

The Sydney Morning Herald, 21 April 1964

Source 5.63Gough Whitlam and Mao Zedong

‘Post-war immigration, the demise … of White Australia, the introduction of a non-discriminatory immigration policy, the influx of migrants from the region, the transformation of the Asia–Pacific from a region of military threat to one of economic dynamism … fading historical allegiances … all of these things have rendered much of the old Australia – the one established by the Australian settlement and still deeply embedded in the psyche

of many of us – no longer relevant or useful.’Mr Keating said Australia was at the crossroads.

‘We can work to sustain the momentum and expand the opportunities for our kids. Or we can regress. We can retreat … We can say this is too hard for Australians … In the best traditions of the old Australia, we can call a national smoko. We can relax and be comfortable …’

Source 5.64Prime Minister Keating’s view

‘Keating warns against retreat’, The Age, 12 November 1996Louise Martin/The Age


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Comprehension1 In your own words, define ‘yellow peril’.2 When and why did the first large numbers of Chinese people come to Australia?3 What was the Colombo Plan?4 When did Indonesia become independent from the Dutch?5 What does ASEAN stand for?6 What does APEC stand for?

Analysis and use of sources1 Look at source 5.60.

a When was it created and what was happening about this time?b What is the message and purpose of this cartoon?

2 Explain the message in source 5.61.3 Look at source 5.62. The figure in sunglasses represented the Indonesian president of the

time, Sukarno. What do you think is the message of this cartoon?

Perspectives and interpretations1 Read sources 5.64 and 5.65. What perspective is presented in each?2 Source 5.64 was written nearly 30 years after source 5.65. Does source 5.64 indicate

there had been any change during that time?

CommunicationWhat impact has involvement in the Vietnam War had on Australia’s relations with Asia?

[In Australia there] is a new cosmopolitanism, with a special stress on Asia, that is wholly good. The most remarkable change in the last 10 years is the degree to which Australia has reoriented itself towards Asia. Asian languages are beginning to take the place of European languages in the schools and universities. Goods from Japan, China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore fill the shops. A young man will be proud to own a Japanese sports car and [have] a Thai friend. Middle-class women study Japanese flower arrangement or Indian yoga. Rather unexpected for a country which still practises the White Australia policy. Sydney and Melbourne always seem full of Asians – Malayan students, Japanese businessmen, Indian journalists. They add a colour to our streets and a new interest to our life. The old suspicious

racialism has nearly gone to be replaced, in some cases, by a slightly alarming naivety.

Still, the change is wholly for the better. Rarely now does one hear our Asian neighbours referred to disparagingly as Boongs or Nips or Yellow Bastards. Most people are slightly ashamed of the White Australia policy even though a majority still support it. The same tolerance is extended to our own coloured minority, the Aborigines, though it has yet to be expressed in practical measures to improve their miserable lot … Aggressive nationalism is dying, except, perhaps in sport.

Australia today is a smoother, pleasanter, more polished country with a smoother, pleasanter, more polished people – but as always in the process of polishing, some of the old character has gone.

Source 5.65A new cosmopolitanism

John Douglas Pringle, The Times, London, 23 January 1968. © Times Newspapers Limited, 23 January 1968

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