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Homo Sacervs. Homo Soccer Mom: Reading Agamben and Foucault in the War on TerrorAuthor(s): Halit Mustafa TagmaSource: Alternatives: Global, Local, Political, Vol. 34, No. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 2009), pp. 407-435Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40645284 .

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Alternatives4 2009), 07-435

HomoSacervs. Homo SoccerMom:ReadingAgambenand FoucaultintheWaron TerrorHalit MustafaTagma*

In the ast ecade here ave een ffortsounderstandhewaronterrorhroughhewritingsfMichel oucault ndGiorgioAgamben.ome nalyseseifyertainonceptsmployedy ou-cault ndAgamben.thers o not ccuratelyepresenthe c-tual ccurrencefviolencetgroundevel.Withoutlaimingopresentsovereignaze n the iteraturendthe eadingf ov-ereigniolencenplaces uch sGuntanamo,his rticlerguesthat herere at east hree entrallementshat hilosophersandtheoristsight ant oreconsidern connection ith ov-ereignty,iopower,ndsubjectivity:hat here s a Derrideanlogic tplay etweenovereigntyndbiopower;hat here s aconnectionetweenovereigntyndsubjectivitynformedy"dangerousonnection"etween ower ndknowledge;ndthat overeigntys informedy classifyingndhierarchizingregimeharacteristicf regimeftruth. lthoughgambenclaims o orrectoucault,ebetraysmportantethodologicalandepistemologicallementsfFoucault's ork. evertheless,there re lementsnAgambensworkhat an hape urunder-standingf "biopoliical eading"f ur ontemporaryra.Key-words: oucault,gamben,iopower,overeignty,untanamo

After S President arackObamasigned hesymbolicallyowerfulexecutive rder o closetheprison amps t Guntanamoayby heend of2009,many opedthat twould ignal brighteruture or n-ternationalolitics. owever,he fateof theprisonerstillheldatGuntanamo emains nclear,s do the fates f others eld n themany ecret IA detainmentacilitieshat ontinue ooperate ela-tivelynnoticed.1 orevisiblehan he ecretlyetained risonersn*School of Politics nd Global Studies,Department f PoliticalScience,Arizona StateUniversity,empe,AZ,USA. E-mail:[email protected]

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408 Homo acer s.Homo occer omundisclosedocations,ome of theprisonersf Guntanamo ayhavebeen transferredothirdountries,nd others avebeengiventheopportunityo be triednUS court.2 espite ll thecampaignpromises ortransparency,he Obama administration'sontinuedsecrecyn suchfacilitiesn the nameof"nationalecurity"s remi-niscent fthepreviousdministration'solicies. his uggestscon-tinuationf statepractice hat s of interest othfortheoristsfsovereigntyswell s for ctivistshoareconcernedwith he treat-ment f uchbodies.At uch uncture,t stimelyoreflectna body f cholarshipthat ontributedoa growingiteraturen Guntanamoay,he waronterror,"ndourmore eneral nderstandingetweenovereigntyandpolitical iolence. his iteratureas offeredariousnterpreta-tions f thedifferentorms fpolitical iolence hathavecome beknown s indefiniteetention,orture,ndextraordinaryendition.In thegrowingody fpopular ndscholarlytudies n the"war nterror,"hemostnterestingndpopularizednalogysedto dentifythe status f Guntanamorisonerss thefigure f homoacer. d-vanced yGiorgio gamben,heconcept fhomo acer eferso "abody hat anbe killed utnot acrificed."nmost tudies f he waron terror"hisnalogys taken s obvious. or xample, uoting USsenator,lavoj izek nderlines ow heprisonersreregardeds ex-pendablebiological reatures:The inmates t Guntanamowerethose hatweremissed y hebombs."3 evertheless,mportantues-tions an be raisedwith espectothis astyonnection etweenheconcept fhomo acer nd theprisionersnGuntanamo,nd nthisarticle want oengage na careful heoreticalnalysisfaspects fGuntanamo hat roblematizeheassociation. oreover,want osuggesthatwhileAgambenstryingoboth orrect ndbuilduponFoucault's nderstandingfbiopower,isneglect f thedetails ndnuances fFoucault's ork as ead him obetraymportantompo-nents fFoucault's nderstandingfbiopower.Foucault's isdplinendPunish tarts ith strikingepictionfsovereign unishmentn thebodyofDamien, prisoner ho of-fended he aw.4 oucault ollowshis ividtoryf overeigniolencewith detailed utline fpunishmentroceduresn themodernprison centuryater hanDamien's orture.y xamininghese erydifferent odesofpunishment,oucault eeks oillustratewodif-ferent odes fpower ccurringndifferentras: rchaicovereigntyand modern isciplinaryower.n a similarpirit,etmebrieflyon-sider wo thermodes fconduct hat avebeen dentifiednGun-tanamo ay.Aleakedogbook f he nterrogationfMohammedl-Qahtani,a high-valuerisoner,ecords hefollowing:


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HalitMustafa agma 409

[al-Qahtani] as nterrogatedor 8 to20hours dayfor 8of54days; e wasdousedwithwater ndkeptna room ir-conditionedto nducehypothermia;e washooded nd menaced y dog;hewas njected ith luidsnd forced o urinaten himself.5Violence in this ense,remindsone of theopeningpages of Dis-dpline nd Punish nd the classicforms fsovereign iolence.6Let usnowread thedetailed and nuanced regulations ound n the unclas-sified tandardOperatingProceduresforGuntanamo:Detaineeswill eceive wo wenty inute ecreationeriods week.. . . Detaineeswill eceivewo iveminute howers week. . . Theexceptiono thispolicywillbe detainees eing nterrogated.. .The detaineewillreceive water ottlewhenhis rewardevel schanged oa one or he hascompleted isdisciplineor estroyingordamagingwater ottle... At imes,ersonnel ill ive ut pe-cialrewardsutside f henormal ewardystem.or he pecial e-ward f roll f oilet aper,he ollowingrocedure ill pply: ivethedetainee heroll fpaper,f hedetainee ries o force herollinto he oilet rpassestoutto other etainees,onfiscateherolloftoilet aper... Ifmedical ays heymust e at the ppointment,theyannot efuse.fmedical aystreatment]anwait nother ay,allow he detainee orefuse; owever;heywillbe disciplinedorfailure oobey.7These twomodes of conductsuggest hat perations fpower recomplexand requirefurthercrutinyather hana straightforwardapplicationof theconceptof homo sacer.Sovereign ower, iopower,and disciplinary owerare all deployed n thecamp. The prisons nGuntanamoBayare not like Auschwitz as chambers, nd a Gun-tanamoprisoner s not simply homo sacer that"can be killed but

not sacrificed." his said,however,ven fwe weretodeploythe con-cept of homo sacer in our thinking f Guntanamoprisoners, hiswouldrequire ookingat the cultural nd historical ontexts hapingtheconceptof homo sacer.In this rticle offer hreerelatedarguments.8irst, arguethatbiopowerhas alwaysneeded sovereign xceptionalism o demarcatebetweenthose citizen-subjects ho are domestic/domesticizedub-jectivitiesnd thosesubjectswho are to be cast outside. On thebasisof an examination f the inkbetweenbiopower nd sovereign owerI argue thatAgamben's argumenton Foucault's understanding fbiopower s similar o a logic ofsupplementariy. orAgamben, ov-ereign power, hatwhichhas the violentmonopolyto produce andexcludebodies,seems to be the "privilegedignifier"hatmakes the"polis," hebiopoliticalbody,possible. n otherwords,Agambenthe-oretically rivileges he importanceof exceptionalsovereignpower


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410 Homo acer s.Homo occer omover he ype fpower hat oucault heorizeso be operatingn andproducinghe"everydayife" f a normalizingociety. iopowern-volves heentryf thebiologicalife fa given opulationnto hecalculationsfthe tate,nd ofthediscoursesf cience ndterrito-rializationnforminghe mplementationfthe trategiesndtacticsofpower. reversehe theoreticalrioritygamben ives o sover-eignpowerndargue hat iopowernformsndshapes heviolenceof overeignower.Second, argue hatlthough gambeneems obetraymportantaspects fFoucault's ork, is rgumenthould e taken eriouslynorder odevelop betternderstandingf therelation etweenub-jectivityndsovereignty.hepoint fconvergenceetweenndividu-alization nd totalizationsin need offurtherxplorationnlight fwhatnternationalelationsheoryffers. orespecifically,arguethat ne canmakeAgamben'seadingmore oucauldiany xploringhow ubjectormationscloselyelatedo overeigntatehoodnd theviolentxclusionaryiscourseshat ut t nto ffect.Third, evaluatehepopular ssociationfthe oncept fhomosacerwithGuntanamorisoners. brief valuationftheongoingdetainmentnGuntanamouggestshat here reserious roblemsinusing he oncept fhomo acer n this ontext.especiallyrguethat heproductionfthebiopoliticalodyhas ongoperatedn tan-demwith regime ftruth hat roduces demarcationf self ndother, process hat s marked y ulturendhistory.he sovereignpower o putbodies ntoa zone of indistinctionoes not followAgamben's ccount.Rather, istoricalelationships,ulturalnter-actions,ndracial ndgender ifferencesavemuch o do with heproductionf a so-called omo sacer. urthermore,ubject orma-tion ndsovereigniolences nformedy regimef ruth hat ier-archizes nd classifies odies.This regimeof truth nd subjectformationsrequired orAgambenobe able tooffer is nalysisfsovereign ower.n providinguch theoreticalnalysis,extrapo-latefromhecaseof Guntanamondother episodes"f the "waron terror."he implicationf this nalysiss that lthough oliticalviolences conductednthenameofthe overeigntate,t sat themicro-levelhat overeignubjectsometo decideon whom iolenceistobe inflicted.

Sovereign ower, isciplinary ower, ndBiopowerWhereasiberal ndMarxistnderstandingsfpower end oemployan "economism"fpower nd attributegencyo ndividualsr col-lectivities,Foucauldian nderstandingfpower ecognizesdentity


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HalitMustafa agma 411andagencysalreadyapturednd containedn a networkfpower.Forexample, iscourses boutfreedom nd liberation re alreadysubdued ypowernd n fact re the nergetic echanismsywhichpower irculates. orFoucault, he firstechnologyfpower hatemergesutof lassical rchaic overeigntysdisciplinaryower. is-ciplinaryower as the ndividualody ndertsgaze; tobserveshebody ndproduces nowledgebout hebody, nlynorder opro-duce docilebodies.The secondtechnologyhat oucault xaminescenters n the ife f the pecies.Biopower,his econd echnology,rests ponthe rticulationf elf-governmentbe itthroughndivid-ualismndemocracyrcollectivitynauthoritarianegimes)This at-tertechnologyses statisticsin Foucault's erms science f thestate" and othermeasuresnorder o calculate nd forecastandomorprobableventshat reexpectedohappenna given opulation.It does so in order o intervene,ompensate,rpreventndesiredoutcomes.9 hile heformerechnologyfpowers ndividualizing,oras Foucault uts t, s concernedwith themanufacturingf ndi-viduals,"10he econd echnologystotalizingnthat tbrings ogetherand amasses ocilebodies, hen bserves nd actsuponthis ssem-bledbody nowns thepopulation/species.hebeginningfmodernmedicinendbiologys sciencesnd the ntryf hehuman odyntothecalculationsfpoliticsmarks hedawn fbiopolitics. hereastthemicroevel ndividualsreproducedhroughisciplinaryetworks(prisons,chools, nd so on), at a macro evelthepolitical ody sconstitutedntheform fpopulation/species.11othdisciplinendbiopower,ogether,ake control f ifengeneral with hebody tonepoleand thepopulationt theother."12Foucault sedtheterm biopolitics"t theend ofhis ectures tCollege eFrancen1975-1976.13owever,odayhe onceptsusedinvarying ays. s PaoloVirnopoints ut: "Theconcept fbiopoli-ticshasrecentlyecomefashionable:t soften,ndenthusiastically,invokednevery ind f ontext.We should void his utomaticndunreflectivese ofthe erm. et us askourselves,hen, ow ndwhylife reaks hroughhecenter f thepublic cene,how ndwhyheState egulatesndgovernst."14 lthoughoucault voided ivingcleardefinitionfwhat e meant ybiopower,t sworthwhileo ad-dressVirno' concern.Matthew oleman nd KevinGrove, fterlengthyiscussion,larifyheconcept n line with oucault's wnwork. hey rgue hat Foucault'spproach o thetermbiopower]sees the ife hat s theobject fpower, hichstypicallyeferredoas population',ut,.. [it] s more ccuratelybout range fformsof ndividualnd collectiveifemplicatedy hediscipline-biopoliics-racismriplets an effectfpower/knowledge."15he reader houldkeep n mind hat hroughouthis ssay,will eemployingbiopower


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412 Homoacer s.Homooccerominthis ense": s rationalitiesfgovernmentndregulationhat reinformedy egimesftruth.Agamben ays hat theproductionf a biopoliticalody s theoriginal ctivityf overeignower."16overeign ower,y n "inclu-sionaryctof xclusion,"ecideswhichndividualubjects to be ad-mittednto hepolis ndwhichubjectstobe cast utside. gambenreminds s of medieval horttoryf "dangerous" edieval ere-wolf hatskept t a strategicistance rom hepoliticalommunityonly o testifyo therighteousnessf thesovereign. e points utthatwecan discern he ogic f overeignxceptionalismn a similarway.What gambensstudyings the onjunctionfbiopowernd aw.Agamben rgues hat lthoughoucault nventedheterm biopoli-tics," e did notexplore heconcept o thefull xtent.WhatAgam-ben does s toprovide hat e believesobe themissingink etweenthe ndividualizingndtotalizingspects fpower:

If Foucaultontestshe raditionalpproacho theproblemfpower,hichsexclusivelyased n uridical odels ron nstitu-tionalmodels,nd fhe calls or "liberationromhe heoreticalprivilegef overeignty"norder oconstructnanalyticfpowerthat ould ot ake aw s tsmodel nd ode, henwhere,n thebodyfpower,sthe one f ndistinctiontwhichechnologiesfindividualizationndtotalizingroceduresonverge?nd,moregenerally,s there unitaryenternwhich hepoliticaldoublebind" indsts easonsobe? Confrontedithhenomenauchas the owerf he ocietyf he pectaclehatseverywhererans-forminghe oliticalealmoday,s t egitimater ven ossibleohold ubjectiveechnologiesndpoliticalechnologiespart?17

Agamben ringswo entral riticismsgainst oucault. he firstsFoucault'spparent eriodizationf the two orms fpower: over-eignpower enteredponthe erritoryndbiopowerenteredponthepopulation. gamben ays hatwhatwe read n Foucault s a tran-sition romheformero the atter,nd lessabouthow hese ormsare ntertwined.18econd,Agambenrgues hatwhatwedon't ead nFoucaults theproblemf overeignillingnbiopolitics,r thanato-politics. e stressesoucault'spparent eglectf the ower o takelife" n a mass caleexemplifiedn theformfthe amp.Agamben rivilegesovereignower ver heFoucauldiannter-pretationfbiopower.eadthroughn alternativengle,what gam-ben spointingut gainst oucaultshis assumption"hat here aneverbe a domesticatedociety, priori sovereign ower,hatde-cides n the xception, hichreateshebiopoliticalody. gambenargues hat he nsertionf"biologicalife"nto he calculationsfsovereigntyatesbacktothebeginningfpolitics. he entryf the


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HalitMustafa agma 413

biological ody, oth nthe ingularense nd thecommunalenseofthebody olitic,nto heconsiderationsfa political rojects asold as WesternoliticsndmetaphysicsorAgamben. orAgamben,Foucaultwronglyssumes hat he ntryf hebiological ody f ub-jects ntopoliticalalculationss a modernnvention.orAgamben,the ntryfbiologicalifentopoliticalalculationsasalwayseentheoriginalctivityf overeignty.19In fact, owever,oucault ever rgued hat hiswas omethingmodern. oucault oesacknowledgehat ven n themedievalge,sovereignsesired hehealthyeproductionnd efficientovernanceoftheir iven opulationssuch sthevast rmies hat adto beputon thebattlefield)Inorder oproduce ast rmies,he ultivationfland ndeffectiveolicingfthepopulation asrequired. iopower,which oucault eesas emergingnmodernity,asalways equiredsovereignrticulationf theboundaries fthepopulationthat s,who ounts sa citizen)ndatwhat ointsovereigniolenceuspendsthe awto resolverises. hese two orms fpower, lthoughnalyti-cally istinguishable,re notmutuallyxclusiveorms fpower p-eratingn differentistoricaleriods. istorically,his s most videntindeclarationsf mergency,herehe xistingechnologiesfpowercannot egulatendgovern given ociety. eknow rom oucaultthatwhereverhere s power,here s resistanceopower,nd thateven n disciplinarynstitutionsuch as thebarracks,chools, ndhospitalshere s thepossibilityfrevolts,iots,nd alternativeeansofpolitical esistance.20t is in suchperiods f crisis hat overeignpower's xceptionalismsclearlyeen, or tdemarcatesomains hataresubjecto "normal"aw nd conduct rom omains hatwould eregardeds "foreign"ndexceptional.hus, or xample,MarkNeo-cleous rgues hat istorically,overeignmergencyowerswere n-acted toward hosewhocould not be "governed"n radical imes:laborunions nstrike,acial qualitymovementsnapartheidouthAfrica,nd soon.21Ifbiopowers concernedwith heregulationndhealthyepro-duction f given opulation, ith ertain acticsndstrategiest tsdisposal,hen hequestion f thepopulationnditsboundaries e-comes ne ofparamountoncern.Where he echnologiesfpowercannot esolve he poriaof theboundariesf thepopulationwhoqualifiess a citizen-subject,r whenwidespreadrises reventhehealthy egulationndproductionfgoods nd ives)one observesa sovereignxceptionalism.overeignower emarcatesetweenhoseformsf norm-abiding"itizens-subjectsnd those ubjects homustbe externalizedrom hebodypolitic. he casesthatNeocleousdis-cusses reallperiods fsignificantinancialrisis,mass abor trikesthat hreatenhecontinuityfproductionnd circulationfgoods


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414 Homoacer s.Homoocceromandservices,r mminenthreatsfdomestic r nternationalar.22During uch rises, here heboundariesfthepopulationre radi-cally uestionednd undecidable,nd where hehealthynd effi-cient unctioningftheeconomys atstake,overeignxceptionalpower s enacted.Christineylvesterassimilarlyrgued hat ost-colonialAfricantates averoutinelyubjectedheir opulationsosovereigniolencen times fpolitical istress,ll nthenameof co-nomic evelopment.23Whilemost isible uringuchperiods fcrisis, owever,over-eignty,heviolentxceptional ower o demarcate ertain orms flife,salwaysnoperationn a normalizingociety.t sduringrisesthat he"norm" f normalizingocietymeets ts imit. he average"normal"itizen-subjecthat echnologiesfpower roduces,nd re-lieson tooperate,sonly ossible y ettingheboundariesf givenpopulation.n domesticized) normalizingocieties,etentionndconfinementavebeen an ongoing rocess ver ince he "birth fthe linic" nd the birth ftheprison."nthe ontemporaryrticu-lation fsecurity,overeignower onstructsomains outside" flaw nd "normal"ociety,uch s inGuantnamoay,whichn turnmakes ossible normal"aw nd "normal"ociety. normalizingo-ciety, hich overnstselfccordingo ts elf-referentialorms ndstandards,sonlymadepossible y n anteriororce hat,n thefirstplace,makes ossible heboundariesfthepopulation.Taketheparadigmaticxample f thePanopticonhat oucaultusesto llustrateheworkingsfdisciplinaryower.t s an architec-tural esign hat onfinesubjectsnto paces. ordisciplinaryowertowork,here ave o be thewalls ftheprisonhat egregatehe n-mates rom normal"ociety.n otherwords,heremust e,to useaDerrideanerm,n initialoupde forcethefoundationf awby nactof elf-referentialounding)hatmakes hewalls f hePanopticonpossible.t s a founding oment hat onstituteshe aw hroughninterpretivend performativeiolence.24his s thegeneralpointwith egardso the theoreticalrivilegingfsovereign ower verbiopower. overeignxceptionalisms thatwhich emarcateshosesubjects ho reself-governedy he echnologiesfpowern a bio-politicalocietyrom hose obeviolentlyast side.Thetragicventsof9/11,whereubjectsransformedheir odies nto ethalweapons,meant hat he ndividualody hat s to be regulated,ostered,ndcared or ccordingothediscoursesfnormalizationsalways oten-tiallyroblematicnd"dangerous."fterll, heBush dministration'sreason or eeping risonersnGuantnamos that heprisonersre"madmen ho rewillingokill hemselvesnd other opulations."25Political iberalism nderstandshesubject s a utilitarianationalsubject,ut he elf-transformationf he odynto weaponffectively


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Ha'iMustafa agma 415

problematizeshe pistemologyf he iberalystemfgovernment.26Inthis ense, his elf-transformationhreatenshe pistemicounda-tion f iberal apitalistiscoursend tsunderstandingftheutilitar-ianreasoningubject. nderstoodnthisway,necan better valuatethe xceptional easuresakennthepost-9/11eriod,nd thegov-ernmentpparatuses'iometrie easures o solate otentialthreat-ening odies."What suniqueaboutmodernity,orFoucault,s thescale andscopeof themultiplicationfthedisciplinesnd technologieshatcenter pon thebody. ubsequently,odernitys characterizedsthetransferf such ocalized echnologieso a macro evel,whereinwhich he peciess ofconcern. gambenrgues hat oucaults un-able toprovidenexplanationfkillingnbiopoliics.However,ou-caultnotonly oesto some engthndescribinghe overeignrighttokill" ut lso maintainshat his right"oes notfall y hewaysideofhistoryith hedawn fbiopolitics.27gambens correctionouldthus eemredundant.oucault ays: From hepoint fview f ifeanddeath, he ubjectsneutral,nd t s thanks o the overeignhatthe ubject asthe ightobealive, rpossibly,he ightobe dead."28AccordingoFoucault,hen,he ubjectf overeignower as lwaysalready eena body hat anbe killed. ontraAgamben's weepinggeneralizations,oucaultwould ather ocus n discoursesfnormal-izationhatwork okill, rexpose odeath,ubjects ho redeemedinferiorasedonrace, lass, ndgender.

A Coalition fKilling:TheSovereign ubject nd the StateAn mportantuestion emainsnexplored:When nd where o thetechnologiesf ndividualizationonverge ith otalizingechnolo-gies? hough do not ntend oprovide full xplanationa task twhichAgamben ails I willhint fa possible irectionotravel.n-ternationalelationscholarsspeciallyave rgued hat n analysisof overeigntyndsubjectivityequiresttentiono their nteraction.29Following discussionf Kant ndFoucault, ickAshley rguesthat heres a happy oncord etween he overeigneasoningmanand the overeigntate: Ifmedievaltatecraftas npart n art ffix-ing n interpretationfGod that heking ouldmirrornd serve .. thenmodern tatecrafts in significanteasure n artoffixingparadigmaticnterpretationfsovereign an that he tate anmir-ror nd serve."30AccordingoAshley,hispactbetweenovereignman and thestatemarks hedawn fmodernity.o hint t a possible esponse o


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416 Homo acer s.Homo occer omthequestion osedabove,one might aythat mancraft"s wheretechnologiesf ndividualizationndtotalizationonverge.f "mod-ern tatecrafts modernmancraft,"hen overeignubjectivityouldbe that orm fsubjectivityhat he state reates nd fosters.n re-turn,uch ubjects oon toproduce he tate ndconductts iolentbusiness. hishelps salsounderstandhework fJudithutler, hoargues hat here s a reemergencefsovereigntyt the ocal levelwhere ne seespettyureaucratsavingmportantay n mattersflife nd death.31his ocalized acet fsovereignower, think,salso a good extension f Foucault's hesis hatpowerworks t thelocal evel. oucaultwrites:Sovereignty'sld-righto akeife r o et ivewas ot eplaced,utitcame obecomplementedy new ight hich oesnot rasethe ldrightutwhich oespenetratet,permeatet.This ech-nologyf oweroesnot xcludehe ormer,oesnot xclude is-ciplinaryechnology,ut tdoes ovetailntot,ntegratet,modifyit o ome xtent,nd bove ll, se tby ort f nfiltratingt, m-beddingtselfnexistingisciplinaryechniques.32Althoughoucault shintingt the ocalnature fdisciplinaryowercomparedwith rchaic entralizedovereignty,think here s alsoanother ossible heoreticaloint o be developed. he localizationof overeigntys close owhat thinkWilliam onnollyefersowhenheargues hat here s an "ethos f overeignty"hat sembeddednsociety,hichmakes he state fexception ossible.33onnollyr-guesthatwhat ccurs odaysnot simple ecisionmadeatthetoplevel,where sovereign igure ets odecide on who counts s theenemy,nthe chmittianense.nstead, orrowingrom eleuze ndGuattari,overeigntys not a force peratingt thetop evelbut ssupplementedy: rural ascismnd city rneighborhoodascism,youth ascism,ndwarveteran'sascism,ascism ftheLeft nd fas-cism ftheRight,ascismfthe ouple, amily,chool, nd office."34Fascismworks t themicro evel n theactions f soccerhooligans,nationalist ilitias,rigger-happylackwater ercenaries,acist ar-tenders,ndbigoted artyeaders.What oeson nprison amps, n-derstoodnthis ense, s not usttheproduct f a pureandsimpleSchmittianecision;nstead, rison amps respacesthat re con-structednd maintainedt themicro evel. rison amps re"legiti-mated" y regime f truth ndclassificationntrinsicobiopower,which rovides ettyureaucrats,order atrol gents,ntelligenceinterrogators,nd soon,withhe uthorityo mplementovereigni-olenceonphysicalodies.The local decisionsnd violencere com-mittedypettyureaucrats hodecideon a case-by-caseasiswhichbodieswill e triednmilitaryribunals.


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HalitMustafa agma 417This sexactly hat appenednthehearingsfthedetaineesnGuantnamoay yAdministrativeeviewoardsARBs)establishedon 11 May2004bythe US DepartmentfDefense.These boardswould eterminen an ndividualasiswhetherprisoners tobe re-leased,to be extraditedo a third ountry,r to remain etained.Kristine uskey,s an expert n thesubject,ndicateshearbitrarynature ftheprocessnd how twasup to a pettyureaucrat'snter-pretationf he aw.35ven f heboards ecommendedhe elease fa prisoner,pettyureaucratwithoutverhavingmet hedetainee,to determine hetherhedetaineewastellinghe ruthr ying ur-

ing heproceeding. . can gnore heARBrecommendation."36t sentirelyp to thesubjectiventerpretationf a bureaucratf con-cepts ike, enemyombatant,"r "threato the US and itsallies,"which llows or hecontinuedxceptional etainmentfmany fthese risoners.uch ninterpretation,owever,oesnotoccur n aculturalndpolitical acuum, or s texternalo theplay fpower/knowledge.t snot matterf Schmittianecisionism.nstead,hetakingf ife nd ndefiniteetainmentrethemselvesroductsfregime f truthnd a regime f classification.yhierarchizingndclassifyingertain aces nd typesfpeopleas lessworthyf iving,racist iscoursenables iopowero conduct iolence or he ontin-uation ndprotectionf the pecies. he takingf ife y overeignpowersalwaysnformedy regime f dentifying,lassifying,ate-gorizing,ndprofiling.t sthishierarchizingndterritorializings-pect fbiopowerhat llows ertain odies obeexposed odeath.AsPaul Pattonrgues: InanapparentnticipationfAgamben'shesisconcerninghebiopoliticalharacterfpoliticsoday,oucault ug-gests hat hemodern tate canscarcelyunction ithoutecominginvolved ith acism t somepoint.'"37Despite hesecrecynd security,heprisonersf GuntanamoBayhave ttracted uch ttention.he more ragicasesofthe waron terror"re nottobe foundnsuchprison amps, atherheyreto be foundn theremote illages fAfghanistanndPakistan.Wemay ead about hem n theunnoticed rticle verytherweek hatreportsf drone ttackcollaterallyamaging" et notherixtyrseventyodies n remote arts f Pakistan nd Afghanistan.uchdeadly irstrikesavealso targetedomalianvillages uspected fharboringfew errorists.38arelys themoralityfkillingcores finnocent eopleto "get few adguys" uestioned.Morerecently,

on4 September009, GermanommanderntheKunduz rovinceofAfghanistanalledn n airstrikentwo uel ankershatwere tolenby heTaliban. he immobilizedankers ere urroundedy pprox-imatelynehundred fghaniillagersryingoget ree uel.When nF-l et dropped wo 00-pound ombs, he crowdwas mmediately


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418 Homo acer s.Homo occer omincinerated.39ince the nceptionf the "war n terror"uchnewshas become weeklytandard,meanwhileitizen-subjectsooktheotherway nder he ssumptionhat heymust avebeenbadguys.Still o nquiryasbeenmade nto he nnihilationf whatswidelyargued y ocals obe) a remote akistanichool nd the chool hil-dren n tby Pakistani/USelicopteraid n2006.40What s mpor-tant okeep nmind or ur heoreticalurposessthat uch iolenceis notonly erpetratedy hosewhopulla triggerrpush button.Instead,thas a background:ctions, ecisions, iscourses,ndprac-tices onducted t themicroevelbycitizen-subjects.t is these iti-zen-subjectshat tate iolence s carried ut nthenameof, nd t stheir odies nd wealth hat s mobilized ndput ndanger ofightan enemy.t s this orm fsubjectivityhat overeignower apital-izesonwhen heyonduct illingsn remote laces.41My ointhere s that overeigniolence eeds ndcapitalizesnsovereignubjectsnorder oproduce eadly ffects.hekillingndviolence tselfmaybe conducted nd administeredybureaucrats,but trequiresitizen-subjectso mobilizehewill nd resources ec-essaryor he overeigniolence.42 ithpologies o Edmund urke,hispopular uotationouldberephraseds:All ttakes or overeignviolence o kill s thecitizen-subjecto eitherpplaudor enlist. ov-ereign iolence apitalizesn thefascisticesire oundnthedocilebodies fmodernity:For s tosurvive,hose olksar waymust ie."Ofcourse, those olks ar way" avehistoricallyften een the olo-nial ubjectsfEurope.Where odaymart ombskill iviliansnre-motevillages,olonial ttemptsodiscipline ativesncluded erialbombardmentsfremote illagesnfarawayands. n 1920,WinstonChurchill,s Britishecretaryfwar,wrote memoon the uncon-trollableillagesn Northernraq:"I amstronglynfavourfusingpoisoned asagainst ncivilisedribes. he moral ffecthould e sogoodthat he ossof ife houldbe reduced oa minimum."43on-sistently,overeigniolence as beenparticularlyrutal owardinfe-rior ar way eople."

HominesSacriThe controversyurroundingheprison amps n Guntanamo ayhas attracted uch ttention. umerousrticles, ooks, nd docu-mentariesavebeenpublishedn the opic. hosewhohavewrittenon thesubjectnclude awyers,44nternationalegalexperts,45our-nalists,46hilosophersf thics,47uman ightctivists,48edical oc-tors,49nternationalelationsheorists,50ilitarynterrogatorsndservicemen ho served t thebase,51ndformerrisoners.52hey


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HoXiiustafaagma 419havepublished etailed ocumentationfdaily ife, iaries, ssess-ments fthe egal tatus fprisoners,ccounts f nterrogationech-niques,ndeven documentaryovie ased n thepersonalccountsofformerrisonersnown s theTipton hree.53Theprison ampsnGuntanamo ave ccommodatedver 00prisonersrom t east 3 countries.he firstrisoners ere roughtto the sland n 11January002.Of these 00prisonersnly 0 areawaitingrial, hile 20prisonersavebeen released.54n ndepen-dent nalysisasedonDepartmentfDefense ata howshat 5per-centof theprisoners avenot committednyoffensegainst heUnited tates r ts llies.55hosewhowere ortunateo be releasedafter ears fdetention wedtheir uck ohavingivedna Westerncountryhosentelligencegencies ere ble oprovidelear ecordedevidence f their nnocence.56owever,ventheirWestern itizen-shipdid not save them rom eingapprehendednd thrownntoGuantnamoay. herewere thermarks fdifferencenscribedntheir odies hatwerenoticed y nexceptional azeand ogic.Followinggamben,everaltudies ave uggestedhat hepris-ons nGuantnamo ay xemplifyhe ogicofsovereignxception-alism. hebody fa prisoners ikened o a body bandoned y helaw hat an be killed utnot acrificedhomo acer.57he nfamousimages f hackled risonersnorangeumpsuitshow ow hepris-oners avebeendeprivedftheirenses hatmake hem uman. hepictureshowedmuffstrappedo theprisoners'ars,goggles hatblock heirightsnd masks hat over heirmouths.trippingubjectsfrom heir uman enses, esultsntheblurringf the inebetweenhumanndanimal.Wecanalsodiscern rom heprisoners'tatementsthathey ere educed o omethingowerhan nanimal;ftern ex-tensivetayn the amp, heprisonersegan o ask he ightshat er-tained o animals:My agewasright ext o a kennel ousing fanAlsatianog.He hadawooden ousewithir onditioningndgreengrass o exercise n.I saidto theguards,I want isrights,'ndtheyreplied:Thatdog s a member ftheUS army.'"58urthermore,cci-dentallykillingniguanan Guantnamoaywouldmean $10,000fine ecause tgoes gainsthe rotectionf ertainpeciesn inewithUS environmentalaws, hereasittingprisonersreferredo s mildnon-injuriousontact' nd therere noconsequences."59Thus nsomerespects,risonersfthe"war n terror" ight eunderstoods homo sacer.However,here re alsoparticularitiesntheway heprisonersre handled hat all for criticalvaluationofthe non) paceofGuntanamo.f nthe lassical oucauldian er-minology overeign ower s about "takingr grantingife," ndbiopowers about lettingive ndmakingife,"henwhat an be saidabout hepower peratingnGuntanamohat forceso ive"when


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420 Homoacer s.Homooccerom

prisonersrecarefullyontrolledopreventhem romommittingsuicide.ndeed, heprisonersfGuntanamore force ed nd evengivenmandatoryealth hecks o as toinsure heyrekept, arely,alive.Unlike hehomo acerwhomay ekilled utnot acrificed,heprisonersnGuantnamo aynotbe killed rsacrificed.nfact,x-tensive ffortsrespent okeeptheprisonerst Guantnamolive,such s the reationfoperatingooms ormajor ealthmergenciesas well s facilitiesor entistry.heprisonersregiven ealth reat-ment imilarothat rovidedo the roopst thebase.60 odoubt hedisplayf such"health enefits"ouldbe read as window ressingconducted ythecampadministrators.owever,tis importantonote hat herere ndeed eriousffortsokeep heprisonersoftenbarely,utnevertheless)live. urthermore,unishmentnd nterro-gation re orchestratedo that heuse ofviolence oes notresultndeath. xtensiveffortsre madetopreventheprisonersrom om-mittinguicide.nother ases, unger-strikingnmates avemetwithbrutal orced eeding.61hus, n a strikingnclassifiedrmy ocu-ment hat utlines roceduresn Guntanamo ay, uards re or-dered o "defendetainees syouwouldyourselfgainst hostile ctor ntent,eath, r serious odily arm."62hereforet scorrect osay hatwhat oes n Guantnamoays neitherlettingive" or tak-ing ife,"ut nsteadmakingive," r even forcingo ive."Agambenrgues hat amps replaceswhere overeignpowerconfrontsothing utpure life."63 uantnamo ay,declared sbeing eyondhe each f aw, s, nfact,egulated ymany ettyeg-ulations hat re characteristicfdisciplinaryower. eading here-ports ftheJoint askForce ndprisonerestimonies,necomes otheconclusionhat here sa plethora frules ndprocedureshatgovernhe reatmentfGuntanamorisoners.64hereas gamben'sstatementn "zones f ndistinction"ould eadus to think hat ny-thing oes n thecamp, his s far romherealityf Guntanamo.Everyminusculelementfthe ives fGuntanamorisonerseenplanned nd is,for he mostpart, egulatedy written code ofconduct.Many oreseeablendprobable ccurrenceshatwouldbeexpectedna prison opulation avebeenforethoughtnd writteninto manual. itled tandardperatingrocedureshis 50-pageman-ual outlinesherules, egulations,ndproceduresor reatmentfprisonersn many robable ircumstances.65he manualoutlines,for xample, hat odo if heres a pettyiot, hen nd how ospraypepper praynrioters,eligiousurials ituals or risoners,nd soon.66 hisclearly ints hat t is not ustan exceptionalovereignpowertworknGuntanamo,sexemplifiednRumsfeldianhetor-ical alvos n "exceptionalimes equiringxceptional easures."n-stead,hereremultipleechnologiesfpowerhat reatworkn theday-to-daydministrationfthis pace.67


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HalliMustafa agma 421

Culture,dentity,nd ColonialismTheproductionf homo acer s not ccomplishedy roguishov-ereign ecision.nstead,uchdecisionsresupplementedy regimeof ruthhatdentifiesertain arks fdifferenceandcarriersf hosemarks)s inferiornddangerous. houghnthisway heprisonersfGuantnamoay renotustvictimsf rationallyraftedogic f e-curity,r a sovereignecision.nstead,heir aptivitys a result f aregime f truth roduced hroughulturalnd colonialnorms. norder oargue o,however,firsthow ow nAgambenianeadingfGuntanamorisonerseglectsulturalnd historicalimensions.l-though gamben ould rgue hatoday veryonesa homo acer,t shard to imagine flag-wavinguburban occermom n the UnitedStates eing hrownnto prison amp longwithheTipton hree.In hisattemptoaccount or he structurefgovernmenthathas embodied he ntireWesternoliticalradition,gambenouldbelistedlongwithhose hinkers ho nchor hefoundationsf heWestn ancientGreece nd Rome. nlocatinghefoundationsf ov-ereigntynancientGreece,Agamben eifies particulararrativeftheWest hat s constitutivef tself, ithoutnteractionith r ref-erence otheworld outside"f tself.uch move orecloseshepos-sibilityf howingow heWestwas culturalndhistoricalonstructthat ame out of variousnteractionsf differentultures.68his sstriking,ivenhatAgamben, howantsobuild nFoucault,orgetsthat oucault imselfavoredn "anti-Romanistory"f overeignty,a reading fhistoryhat ocuses n local circuitsfpower nd nter-actions fdiscourses.Whereas ower orFoucault s alwayselativeandoperatesocallyncircuits,gambens work eveals structureothe perationf overeignower. gambennderstandsontemporarypoliticss a continuationfthefundamentaliopoliticaltructure:binaryppositionfbare-life/politicalxistence.o takeAgamben'sfundamentaltructurefpoliticseriously eans oforego ontin-gency, istoricity,nd chance ntheplay fpolitics, hereasoucault,as a genealogist,oughto trace ower ndsubjectivityn ts ransfor-mation,onditionsfpossibility,nd radical uptureshroughoutis-torynorder to ntroduceiscontinuitynd the onstraintsf ysteminto hehistoryf themind."69n this ense,Agamben etraysou-cault's nderstandingfpower othmethodologicallyndepistemo-logically.urthermore,sMarkMazower oints ut,Agambenisnotinterestedn historicalhange ut nwhat esees sthedeepermean-ing, hepotentialityhatnterpretationay leanfromertain istor-icaloccurrences."70ordoesAgambeneem o take he nternationalorder nto onsideration,ven houghwe earnfrom hecaptivesnGuntanamo aythat ome states' itizens reput n indefinitee-tention,hereas ther odies regivenome orm fudicialprocess.


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422 Homo acer s.Homo occer omWhat s theroleof culture ndhistoryhat oes nto hemakingfthehomo acer?Whats theroleofculture nd dentityn themak-ingofhomo acer?These requestionshatAgamben ouldhave okeep t an arm's engths a result fhisneglect f the nternationaldimensionhat oes ntomakingfthehomo acerIfone bringsnto considerationhe nterculturalnd interna-tional actors,henwegeta morenuancedunderstandingfwhatgoeson in settingsikeGuntanamo ay.Practicesf exclusion reinformedy culturalackground,nd thosewhoget xcluded romthebody oliticre those eemeddangerousy regime ftruthna society.he details f thesepractices ecome nvisiblenAgam-ben sanalysis,hich elies n vast eneralizationsrom broad naly-sis of Westernmetaphysics. oreover, s variouspostcolonialliteraturesoint ut,neither gamben,or ven oucault,alkmuchabout he ntersubjectiveonstructionf the dentityftheWest is--vists thers).Thedisciplinaryechniquesndregimefmodernitydid notemerge rom urope tself utfrom he nteractionsntheperipheryuring urope's mperialdventures.ayatri pivak, orexample, asargued hat oucault's nderstandingfpowers eth-nocentricnd hissubject fpowersdistinctlyestern, adepossi-ble "by certaintagenexploitation,or hevision fgeographicaldiscontinuitysgeopoliticallypecificotheFirstWorld."71ethodsofdisciplinen sugarcane ields,choolingn Calcutta, he emer-genceofnationalismsa source f the in) ecuredentityfhybridSpaniardsn theCaribbean: hese ndmany ther xamplesuggestthatmodern isciplinaryocieties id not pringuigenerisrom u-rope.They prang rom he nteractionsfsubjectsn differentet-tingshat esultedn the onstructionf dentitiesuch s "Western"and the peripheralther."72

I do notwish ocontend hat heWest rasps hat appensntheperipheryndbringst backto themetropolis;uchan argumentwouldreifyhe "West-non-West,"center-periphery,"nd so on.Rather,heverynteractionfthe mperialistiscourse ithts therhas constructedhe dentityfthe nvolvedartiesthats, heEuro-peanand the ubaltern)Today, acism nd remnantsf colonialistthoughthat layed pivotalole n the onstructionfnation-statesare still tworkndetermininghogets o be counted s a govern-ablesubjectna liberalapitalistlobal rder. omo acer s not sim-ple byproductfa roguish overeignecision.Homo sacer s theproduct f historicalnd cultural orcestplay n theformationfwhat ountss a rational itizen fthepolis.73ostcolonialiteraturehaspointedhat hediscoursef iberalism,uringhe mergencefEuropeancolonialism, ade possible he distinctionetween u-tonomousiberalubjectsnd mmatureubjects.his iberal iscourse


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HalitMustafa agma 423created hegrounds or heviolentubjectionfnon-Europeansocolonial ule.74 his s especiallylearwith espect owhat ormsflife re thrownnto zones of indistinction.should note that l-though point uttheracial nd colonialegacies' ffectn whogetsto be regarded s a homosacer,Ewa Ziarekreminds s that hebiopoliics fgender lsoplaysn importantole.75

Violence ndBiopoliticsTherightf overeigntyas he ighto take ife r et ive.Andthen his ew ightsestablished:he ighto "make"ive ndto"let" ie.76Excluded odies, orAgamben,re madepossible y overeignpower hat roduces are ife. orFoucault,overeignowers asso-ciatedwith hetakingf ife,whereas iopowers associated ith hereproductionf ife. hisputs oucaultna difficultpot s thepowerto kill nd make ive n the geofmodernityas seen ts xtremes:If he owerf overeigntys ncreasinglyn the etreatnddisci-plinaryowers on the dvance,ows tpossibleokill? ow anmurderunctionnthis echnologyfpower, hichakesife sbothts bjectnd ts bjective?iven hat his ower'sbjectivesessentiallyomakeive, ow an t etdie?How anthepowerfdeath,he unctionfdeath,e exercisedn politicalystemen-teredpon io-power?77Foucault'responses that acisms the"preconditiono theex-ercise f such power: herighto kill."78tate acisms ntroduced

inorder o eparateivableife romife hat anbe killed.Wars f heearlywentiethenturyave mployeduchreasoning,here statistdiscoursexternalizesnd racializes hedanger osocietyhat ughttobe defeatedor he ake f he ommunity.oucault,nSocietyustbe efended,ad nmind hebiological ariant fracist iscoursehatwasportrayedn NaziGermanynd Fascisttaly. owever,he hemeisalive ndwell ntoday'sacism, hichanbelooselyabeledhere s"cultural"acism.79ultural acismnderstoodnthis ense sarticu-latedtoday hrough discourse f"civilizations":ourvalues," ourmodeof iving,"nd"proper"uman overnance.ultural acismx-hibitstselfnSamuelHuntingtonsbinaryramingf civilized orld(theWest) acingn uncivilizedorld. rientalistiscourseosteredEuropean mperialismneighteenth-ndnineteenth-centuryuropethroughherepresentationf MiddleEastern eoples s an inferiorrace.Similarlyoday,hecontemporaryepresentationsf raqis nd


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424 Homo acer s.Homo occer om

Afghanissthreateningubjects,nable ogovernhemselves,elp e-gitimizexternalmilitarynterventionsn those ocieties.80n launch-ing war gainstnternalnd externalhreats,nethereforeotonlybettershe inferioreople's ives" ut lso ensures the egenerationofone's race" hrougheroic itualsnd nationalisteremonieshatparade hegoodWesternation nd ts alues.81Noneof this s a recent nvention. sTimothy itchell as ar-gued, heEuropean olonizationfEgyptested n the bilityopro-duce not usta neatly rganizedocietymodeled fter hemilitarybarracks,ut he bilityftheEuropean o maginend disseminatea form frepresentationnd dentityhatwas olonizingynature.82The articulationftheEgyptianstheraciallyndculturallynferiorother o theWesternational cientific anthroughn Orientalistdiscourse,oth nEurope ndEgypt, as t the oreofEgyptianol-onization. he Orientwas houghto ack echnologicalndmilitarysuperiorityndwas een s a culture hat acked he bilityoproducea rational, rderly ociety. he imperial ncounterwithEurope'sotherwasnotusttokeepthe nativesntheir uts," ut lso to"wintheir earts nd minds." Frenchmilitaryfficerfteruppressingrebellionn 1845-1846nEgyptaid:"Whenwehavethemn ourhands,we will henbe able to do many hings hich requite m-possible or stodayndwhichwill erhapsllow stocaptureheirminds fterwe havecapturedheir odies."83 his ogicechoesre-centnewswhen US commandern Iraqwhoworks ith ocial ci-entistsays,We'reookingt this rom human erspective,romsocial cientist'serspective. e'renotfocused n the nemy.We'refocused nbringingovernanceown othepeople."84The regime f truth f a given ociety,nd themarks f differ-ence on a subject's ody, as ong nformedovereign ower boutwhat orms f ife re to be excluded. he USArmy'secruitmentfsocial scientistsn Afghanistannd Iraq undera program itled"Human errainystem"HTS) exemplifieshewaynwhichocalizedsovereignecisionsre nformedy scientificiscourse. nder hisprogram,eams f ocial cientists,ost otablynthropologists,reembeddedncombat rigadesohelpthe ommanders akebetterdecisionswith espect o thepopulationnwhich hey re operat-ing.85hefollowingtatementftheoverseerfthis rogramervesas an excellentxample f the relation etween heproductionfknowledgenthehuman ciences nd ts tilizationy bureaucraticapparatus:Culturalnthropologistsrefocused n understandinghow ocietiesmake ecisions nd how ttitudesreformed.hey iveusthebest ision o see theproblems hroughhe yes f thetargetpopulation."86avidPrice's ommentn this elationervesmy ointon this ower/knowledgeexus:


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HalitMustafaagma 425In observinghat culturalnderstandings an endless ndeavorthat must be overcome leveraginghateverssets reavailable," hemilitary'shoice f"leveraging"eautifullylarifiesow hemili-taryonceptualizesnthropologistsnd thersrovidingccupyingtroopsn raqwithulturalnformation:heyre een spriersfknowledge;ools obeused or he xtractionnduse fknowledge"assets"nwayshatmilitaryommanderseefit.87As Mitchelloints ut, heuse ofthe cientificazetodiscipline,classify,ndcontrolhe ocalpopulation oesback o the olonial e-riod.Todaywe see theuse of cientificiscoursen the heUSArmy'sProfessionalritingollection.n an article etailingheHTS,thead-ministratorsf thesystemraw rom he essons f theFrench ndBritishxperiencen colonizinghe ocalpopulation:Conclusionslogicallyemandthatpast experience uideourunderstandingfhowbest omeet,na manner hat upportsurownmilitarybjec-tives,heexpectationsnd desires fthepeopleat theheart f uchstruggles."88hat hismeans s that hecolonial essons f thepastare usedtoday obring governanceown o thepopulation."Besides hemanual tandardperatingrocedureshat ictates heminute-to-minuteetails n discipliningrisonersnd HumanTer-rainSystemso classifynd discipline opulations,here s also amushroomingsychiatricisciplinehathastheprisonerss itsob-ject.Allison owell rgues hat hepsychiatriciscourse,s a regimeoftruth, as pathologizedhe Guantnamo risonersuch that t"play[ed] part ntheconditions fpossibilityor ndefiniteeten-tion."89 owellshowshow the scientificiscourse n the mentalhealth ftheprisonersas constructedhem s "crazy,anatical ad-men"who redangerousothemselvesndsociety.90heargues hatthis egime f truth aslegitimatedhe ndefiniteetentionf the

prisoners.hissupportsmy entral rgumenthat he"regime ftruth" fbiopower upplementsovereignower. his meansthattactics fpower reate he conditions fpossibilityor heustifica-tion f xceptionalovereignractices.notherwords,echniquesfpower hat ttempto ndividualize,ivide,nddisciplineodies eedback nto nd ustifyheconditions fpossibilityor heexceptionallogic nthe rticulationfemergencyowers a logic f upplemen-tarityar xcellence. ll his s not o ay hat heres a simplehronol-ogy o thisogic, nd that uch ffairsccur nabstraction,xternaltochance, ontingency,istoricity,nterpretation,nd theregime ftruth fa given ociety.nstead,hetechniquesfpower ohand nhandwith heregime f truthna given paceand time. xclusion-ary racticesndtheproductionfbare ife o notoperate,sAgam-benwouldhaveusbelieve,na uniformnduniversalmanner hatgets eplicatedcross ime ndspace,be it ntheGreek ity-stater


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426 Homo acer s.Homo occer omNaziGermany.gamben eclareshat hanks osovereignowerVeareall Homo acer" istoricallyndtheoretically,owever,he rticu-lation ftheVe" is at the oreoftheproblem.Theprisonersf thewaron terrorrealsosubject o standardsofclassification,ategorization,nd profiling.n thecase ofJohnPhillipWalkerindh, he onof whiteuburban Sfamily,howascapturedn theopeningof the war n Afghanistan,justice"wasmeted utswiftly,ndhe wasgiven twenty-yearentence. n theotherhand,JosePadilla, anAmericanitizen fcolor,"nd inthecase of thousandsfother ubjects uton indefiniteetention,or-mal aw sputon hold.91What ccounts or hisdifferencerethemarksfdifferencena subject's ody race, eligion,ational ack-ground,nd ideology) hat ll come n toplay t thegroundevelwhenpettyureaucratsettodecidewho s to be treatedccordingto what tandard foperation.heworkingsfracisman be identi-fied nthe peeches fpettyureaucratst the ocal evel, s in thisstatementrom neoftheTipton hree:

I recall hatne f hemaid you illedmy amilyn he owersndnowt's ime ogetyou ack." hey eptallingsmotheruckersand thinkver he hreerfour ours hatwas ittinghere,mustave een unched,icked,lappedr truckithrifle uttat east 0or40times.t ame o pointhatwas implyoonumbfromhe old ndfromxhaustionorespondo he ain.92AlthoughheThreewereBritishitizensnd hadnothingodowith he9/11terroristttacks,heywere uicklyssociated ith er-rorism ecauseoftheir acialbackgroundnd apprehensionnAf-ghanistan.espite he act hat hey adnothingodo witherrorism,

astheir elease rom uantnamoay uggests,heirreatmenttandsas an indication ot of senseless overeign engeancebut of avengeancenformedy certain acist ias.Their apture,orture,andtreatmentas llmadepossible y priornitial acial rofilingthat esultedn innocentmenbeingheld ncaptivity.overeignio-lencedoes notoperaten the bsence f regimeftruthhatden-tifies hose whose bodies could be subjectedto violence.Asdevelopednparticular,herewas nunmistakableacist ispositiontowardhe"different"odiesoftheprisoners.sReid-Henryointsout, heflesh f theOriental,oth s an exotic ndan inferiorub-ject,probablyadsomethingo do with he trippingndbeatingfMiddle astern risoners.93Itmay eargued hat hedecision ottoapply heGenevaCon-ventionnd other tandardsf egaltreatmento theprisonersap-tured nAfghanistans representativefan exceptional ecision.However,n inewithwhat havebeenarguing,uch resolutions


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HalitMustafaagma 427nota simple ct ofdeciding n thepart f the eading oliticomili-taryadres fa state. his snot todeny he mportancefsubjectsinkey ositions; owever,uchdecisions o nottake lace n a spaceexternalo nterpretation,ulture,ndhistory.urthermore,uchof thesovereign ecisions,uchas "who s to be detained ndefi-nitely,"re made at the ocal evelbased on interpretationfpettybureaucrats.Sovereignecisionsrealwayslreadynformedyhistoricalndculturalnderstandingss towhocounts s a member f the"goodspecies." he "good pecies,"the nside,"ndthebodypolitic avebeenconstructedy olonial iscourse. sRoxanne oty aspointedout,colonialdiscourse as had a vitalrolein the constructionfWesternations. he furtheroints ut that ace, eligion,nd othermarksfdifferenceaveplayed n importantole nnational lassi-fication.94he treatmentffarawayeopleas inferiorndexotic asplayedn mportantole n nation uildingn ts lassic ense. here-fore,who ounts s a citizen, "legitimate"ember f "legitimate"nation,s theproduct nd effect f centuries f nteractionf theWestwith ts others.Understoodn this ense, overeignecisions(whether ade t the oporbottomevel) re nformedndshapedby culturalndcolonial istory.his sneglectednAgamben's randanalysisf Western olitics. herefore,overeign owerneeds theclassification,ierarchization,ndotheringrovidedy regime ftruthnorder o conduct ts iolent ower. nly ertainypesfpeo-ple couldbe rendered s bare ife nd thrownnto zone of ndis-tinction.nderstoodhisway,t s easier ocomprehendhe smooth"productionfhomines acri ut ofMiddleEasternubjects.In theearly tages f thewar nAfghanistan,s MichaelRatnerand EllenRaypoint ut, ens f thousands fpeoplewere ollectedby heNorthernlliance.95monghe ollected ere rdinaryoreignaidworkers,efugees,nd probable ightersf theTalibanregime.Theywere old from 50 to$5,000perhead to Coalition orces.96Eventhough herewasno real nvestigationasedon tangiblendconcretevidence,ome these aptives ereflowno Guantnamo.As Foxpoints ut, f heprisoners erewearing Casiobrandwatch,thismeant n higher rize n theeyes f the nterrogators,s itsig-naled that heprisoner as probableAIQaeda bombmaker.97hesmall ifferenceetween earing Casiowatchn someparts f theworld,sopposed oothers,s at thegroundevelwhatmakes tpos-sible or body obebecome homo acer. hey anthen e flownoff oanunknownlaceto face n unknownuture.Atthe ocal evel t s a pettyureaucratr members f militarytribunalhat ecide n whogets obe detainedndefinitely.owever,their ecisionsre nformedy racesf dentityn thebody. ationalorigin,kin olor, eligious elief,deology,re marks f difference


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428 Homoacers.Homooccer omthat et ead nd nterpretedypettyovereigns.uchdifferencesn-form he decisions hatrenderbodies as homo sacer,which rethrownnto zone of ndistinction.n the modern ge,no doubt,Agamben ould rgue hat ven hebody f soccermom an obe-dientnational lag-wavingubject has enteredntopolitical ndstrategicalculations.owever,he occermom s not xposed o theviolence fhomo acer.Regimesftruthnddisciplinesroduce i-erarchicallyrderedsubjectpositions, nd this s an aspectofbiopower.he theoreticalriorityhatAgamben ives o sovereignpowersreversedhent s shown hat iopowermakes tpossible orthepettygents fthe tate o conductovereigniolence. overeignpowers nformedndshapedbybiopower.

ConclusionIn his nalysisf ecurityheckst theborder, ark alterrgues hat"contemporaryoliticalubjectivitysexpressed rimarilynrelationtosovereignty.ith ll ofthe ttendantimitsnd exclusionshat n-tails."98imilarly,oxanne oty, ocusingnvigilante roups n theUS-Mexicanorder, ints t the ignificancefpettyovereigneci-sionshavingife-and-deathonsequencesor heundocumented i-grants."nkeepingwithuch nalyses,have rgued hat iopower,whichdministers,egulates,ndgovernshe elationsfproduction,exchange,nd ife f a given ociety,sthenecessaryupplementosovereignower. gamben' argumentshouldnot be disregarded.He hasmade mportantontributionso ourunderstandingfpower.We hould, owever,e carefulnapplyingis onceptsnd anguage.TheprisonersfGuntanamoay re notequivalento whatAgam-benportraysn hiswork,ndtheyrecertainlyotthe ubjects hoexperiencedheviolence f Nazi concentrationamps.Thissaid,however,here re essons o be learned rom gamben's ork. uchprisonersre notto be taken s evidence f mysticalaradox obefoundnWestern etaphysicsnd aw.Guntanamorisonersouldneither e explained y nAgambenian aradoxicalityorthrougha Foucauldian anopticismlone. Such occurrencesouldbe betterunderstoods an effectf culture aturatedyhistoryndracism.It s this ulture hatnformshedecisionsfpettyureaucrats.A look at "normal" domesticized)"society ints tthe upple-mentaryelation etween iopowerndsovereign ower. overeignexceptionalism,osomedegree,s about the creation fextralegalspaces hat re he therf normal"ociety.ouryearseforehe /11attacks,nd theexceptional owers sedbythepresident,he USArmywasalready lanning o constructertain amps nside the


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HalitMustafaagma 429United tates. uchcamps respecifieds "civiliannmate aborpro-gramsnd civilianrison amps nArmynstallations,"erminologyunambiguouslyuggestivef concentrationamps.100orerecentlytheDepartmentf Homeland ecurityasagreed o a $385millioncontract ith heHalliburtonompany. n contract orthis um,Halliburton ould onstructmergencyetainmentacilitiesn USsoil.101 lthoughheseconcentrationamps re notyetoccupied,thisdevelopments importantorthe theoreticalointdevelopedhere. uch nstallationshow hatGuantnamo ay snot an excep-tionto theeverydayrticulationfexceptionalovereign owers.Sovereign xceptional owershavealways een ongoing nd con-structingxceptionalpaces odomesticociety,venwithinhebor-dersof theUnited tates, here henormal ule of awreigns verthe and.Sovereigntysalwayslready xceptional.think gambenwouldagree.A normalizingocietys always xceptional,s thespread fexceptional laces"inside" nd "outside" omesticizedo-ciety uggests. normalizingociety eeds its dangerous thersagainst hom omobilize.When oday amps reconstructednsidetheterritory,t s due to a regime f calculationor nunknowno-morrowauntingoday's iopolitics.heexceptionalpaces nd thehomines acri roducedn such paces, owever,onotoperaten avacuum. he "normal"itizen-subjectasalwayseenhistoricallyndculturallyhaped, ndaccordingly,overeign owerhasalwayseeninformedy colonial nd Orientalistiscourse.

NotesI am indebted omydiscussion ithAndrew eal,TimRuback, ill

Wolfgram,nd RichardK.Ashley. ny hortcomingf this rticle s minealone.1. While articularttentionsdrawn o theprisonersnGuntanamoBay, should ote hat hat herere tens f housandsf ubjects ho revi-olently utilatednd cast nto hadowy ungeonsndcells, ll nthenameofexceptionalmeasures. untanamo, hile n exceptiono the norm fprisons,s not an exceptiono themushroomingpaces beyondhe aw."Modern rison amps nder onsiderationouldncludemanyf heundis-closed ecret IAprisons,swell sBagram irBase nAfghanistan,nd theAbu Ghraib risonn raq,which reviouslyoused he dangerousthers"to SaddamHussein's egime.2. AsJudith utler oints ut,militaryureaucratst the US Depart-ment fDefenseDoD) notoriouslypply trategiesntheir se of anguage,referringocaptivess "detainees"nd not"prisoners."fthedesignationf"prisoner"ere o be accepted y heDoD this ould heoreticallyegitimatetheprisoners'rgumentf their aving eendetained,nfactmprisoned,withoutue egal ights.argue hat textual esistanceo such iolencemaybe advanced y voidinghis acticallyraftederm f "detainee"ather han


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430 Homo acer s.Homo occer om"prisoner."udithButler Precariousife:ThePowersfMourningnd Violence,London and New York:Verso, 003).3. See back coverofGiorgioAgamben,State f xceptionChicago: Uni-versityfChicagoPress,2005).4. Michel Foucault,Displineand Punish:The Birth fthe rison NewYork:VintageBooks,1979).5.Andrew ullivan,InsideGuntanamo," heAtlanticJanuary-February2008),online thttp://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200801/Guantanamo-photos.6. For a differentoucauldian take on Guantanamo see AndrewNeal,"National,Sovereign,Disciplinary xceptionalism," 005, online at http://www.libertysecurity.org/articlel99.html;ndrewNeal, "Foucault nGuntan-amo: Towards nArchaeology f theException," ecurityialogue, 7 (2006):31-46.7.JointTask Force -GITMO, "CampDelta StandardOperatingProce-dures,"28 March, 2003): 27. Online.8. Some of the deas I develophere havealso been developed n a chap-terwrittenor forthcomingdited book.9. Michel Foucault, Security,erritory,opulation: ecturest College eFrance 977-1978 (NewYork:PalgraveMacmillan, 007), p. 101.10. Foucault,DistolinendPunish, ote4, p. 172.11. Michel Foucault, SoetyMust Be Defended: ectures t theCollege eFrance, 975-76,translatedyDavidMacey NewYork:Picador, 003),p. 243.12. Ibid.,p. 253.13. Ibid.14. Paolo Virno, GrammarftheMultitudeNew York:Semiotext(e),2004), p. 81.15. Mathew olemanand KevinGrove, Biopolitics, iopower,nd theRe-turnofSovereignty,"nvironmentndPlanning : SocietyndSpace27 (2009):489-507.16.GiorgioAgamben,Homo acer: overeignower nd BareLife Stanford:StanfordUniversityress,1998), p. 6.17. Ibid., pp. 5-6.18. Ibid.,pp. 82-83.19. Ibid.,p. 6.20.TimothyMitchell,ColonizinggyptBerkeley:Universityf CaliforniaPress,1991), p. 171.21. It is importantopointout thatNeocleous arguesthat emergency"constituteshe structurefcolonialrule as well.MarkNeocleous, The Prob-lem withNormality: aking Exceptionto 'PermanentEmergency,'" lterna-tives 1 (2006): 191-213.22. Ibid.23. Christine ylvester,Bare Life as a Development/Postcolonialrob-lematic,"Geographicalournal72 (2006): 66-77.24. Jacques Derrida, "Force of Law: The 'Mystical oundationof Au-thority,'"ranslated y MaryQuaintance, n GilAnidjar, d.,Jacques errida,Acts fReligionNewYork:Routledge,2002).25. AllisonHowell, "Victims r Madmen?The Diagnostic CompetitionOver Terrorist' etainees atGuantanamoBay,"nternationalolitical odology1 (2007): 29-47.26. For more on suicide bombingsand biopolitics ee StuartMurray,"Thanatopolitics: n the Use of Death forMobilizingPoliticalLife,"paperpresented t theAnnualMeetingof theAmericanPoliticalScienceAssocia-tion,1-4 September2005.


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HalltMustafaTagma 43127.Foucault, isciplinendPunish,ote4,p. 240.28. bid.29.Richard .AshleyndR. B.J.Walker,Reading issidence,WritingtheDiscipline: risis nd theQuestion fSovereignty,"nternationaltudiesQuarterly4 (1990),pp.367-416. ennydkins ndVronique in-Fat,ds.,SovereigntyndSubjectivityBoulder, O: Lynne ienner,999).30. RichardLAshleyLivingn Borderlines: anPoststructuralismndWar,"nJames er Derian nd Michael hapiro, ds., nternational/Intertex-tualRelations: ostmoderneadings fWorldoliticsLanham,MD: Lexington,1989),p. 303.31.Judith utler, recariousife:The owersfMourningnd ViolenceLon-don and NewYork: erso, 003).32.Foucault, isplinendPunish,ote4,pp.241-242.33. William onnollyThe ComplexityfSovereignty,"nJennydkinsandVroniquePin-Fat, ds. Sovereignives:Power n Global oliticsNewYork:Routledge,004),p. 33.34. GulesDeleuzeand FelixGuattan, Thousandlateaus: apitalismandSchizophreniaMinneapolis: innesota niversityress, 987),p. 214.35.Kristineuskey,Standardsnd ProceduresorClassifyingEnemyCombatants':ongress, hatHaveYou Done?"TexasnternationalawJour-nal43 (2007):41-54.36. bid.37. Foucault,Security,erritory,nd Population, ote 9, p. 208. Originalquote nFoucault, isciplinendPunish, ote4,p. 254.38. See for xample strikearried utby heavilyrmedAC-130USgunship,nline thttp://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/africa/6243459.stm.39. Online thttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8237287.stm.orthe ideo f his trike,eeonline thttp://www.bild.de/BILD/politik/2009/11/26/bomben-video-kunduz-in-afghanistan/verschwieg-minister-jung-die-wahrheit-ueber-die_20bombardierung.html.40,Such "unnoticedews couldbe kept t arm length nder he s-sumptionhathosewhodied n the ttack ere possibly"ssociated ithhe"badguys." ee online t http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/outh_asia/099946.stm.41.This orm f ubjectivitysnot onfinedocitizensf he ountriesar-

ticipatingn the coalitionf hewilling."he"intellectualureaucraticlite"oftargetountriesometimes elcomesndhelps nthekillingftheir wnpopulation,venf t he iolencescommittedy foreignountry.n a strik-ing uote bout ownsettingiped utdue to irstrikes,e re old y he x-ecutive irectorftheCenter orResearchndSecuritytudiesn slamabadthatsurveysave hown hathe eopleunder ttack,hosenWaziristan,el-comethe drones ecausethey re attackingheright uys,"aid FarrukhSaleem, nline thttp://news.yahoo.eom/s/mcclatchy/3268368.imilarly,heSomaliannterimresidentbdullahiusuf,nresponseo thekillingf So-malian own'sizable opulation,ays:The US has rightobombarduspectswho attackedts embassiesn Kenyaand Tanzania," nline at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6243459.stm#Somalia.42.The eliminationfbodiesbygunshipsnddrones,nd theingoistspectatorshoopenlyelebratehis iolence,reviewablenyouube. uchvideos reofficiallyaken rom he kill-cam"fthemilitaryureaucrathatpushes he utton.or uch nexampleeehttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UsA9VtQ__uLgnd http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkODv9wzgDg&feature=related.


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432 HomoSacervs.HomoSoccerMomAlso s anexample,ee une pectatorommentsn a viaeo matnas naamore han ne millioniews,howingrigger-happylackwaternipersxecut-ing cores f, resumably,bad raqis" rom safe istance,nline thttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PpbEjdwLQgo&feature=related.43.Winstonhurchill,Winstonhurchill'secret oisonGasMemo,"Centre orResearch n Globalization,nline thttp://globalresearch.ca/articles/CHU407A.html.44.JosephMarguilles, uantnamond theAbuse fPresidentialower(NewYork Simon ndSchuster,006).45.James ilkenatnd Mark hulman, hemperialresidencynd he on-sequencesf /11: awyerseacto heGlobalWar n Terrorismol. (Westport,CT: Praeger/Securitynternational,007);FleurJohns,Guantnamoay

and theAnnihilationftheException,"he uropeanournalfnternationalLaw16 (2005):613-635;46. DavidRose,Guantnamo:merica's ar nHumanRightsLondon:Faber ndFaber, 004).47. Clark utler,d.,Guantnamoay nd the udicial-Moralreatmentjthe therWest afayette,N: PurdueUniversityress, 007).48. MichaelRatner ndEllenRay,Guantnamo: hat heWorldhouldKnowWhite iverunction,T:ChelseaGreen ublishing,004).49. StevenMiles,Oath etrayed:orture,edical omplity,ndtheWarnTerrorNewYork: andomHouse,2006).50. Andrew eal, "National,overeign,isciplinaryxceptionalism,"2005, nline thttpy/www.libertysecurity.org/artcle .html;ndrew eal,"Foucaultn Guantnamo:owardsnArchaeologyf theException"ecu-rityialogue7 (2006):31-46;Howell, ote25;ClaudiaAradau, LawTrans-formed: uantnamond the Other'Exception,"hirdWorlduarterly8(2007):489-501.51. ChrisMackeyndGregMiller, henterrogatorsInsidehe ecret arAgainstl-QaedaNewYork Little, rown ndCompany,004);James ee,ForGod ndCountry:aith ndPatriotismnderireNewYork: ublicAffairs,2005).52. In a compositetatement,hreeBritish itizens fPakistaniack-ground aveoutlinedheirreatmentn thehands f coalitionorces.Thisstatement115pages]ointlymadeby hem onstitutesnattemptosetoutdetails f heir reatmentt thehands fU.K. ndU.S.militaryersonnelndcivilian uthoritiesuring he timeof theirdetentionn Kandahar nAfghanistann lateDecember 001andthroughoutheir imen Americancustodyn Guantnamoay, uba.This tatements a compositef he xpe-riences fall three."heTipton hree: hafiq asul,Asifqbal, ndRhuhelAhmed, ompositetatement:etentionnAfghanistanndGuantnamoay 004,online thttp://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/docs/Gitmo-compositestatementFINAL23julyO4.pdf.53. For thedocumentaryovie hat ppears o closely epresentheoccurrencesee TheRoad oGuntanamo,nline thttp://www.imdb.com/tide/tt0468094/.54.The classic rgumenthathasbeen articulatedn theadministra-tion'sogichasbeenrepeated ver nd over gain.To remind hereader fthe rgumento usemilitaryommissionsn non-US oil s best apturednthefollowingassage: Themilitaryommissionsere stablishedn thebasis f November3,2001Presidentialilitaryrder. he basic imwastoplace prisonersapturednthe war n terrorism'utside heAmericancriminalourt ystem,ith ll ofthedueprocess ightsndprotectionsor


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HaMiMustafaTagma 433the ccusedprovidedorwithin hat ystemy heUS Constitutionnd USand nternationalaws. he order xpresslytated hat risonersouldhaveno recourseoanyUS,foreignr nternationalourt, ith he inal ecisionon the entence r convictionying ith hepresidentr the ecretaryfde-fense." Online at http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/jul2005/guan-jl9.shtml55. MarkDenbeaux andJoshuaDenbeaux, Report n GuantanamoDetainees:A Profile f 517 Detainees hrough nalysisfDepartmentfDefenseData," n Seton allPublic aw Researchaper,6 (2006),online thttp://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=885659.56. Ofthedetaineeshatwere eleased y he ime f hiswriting,uratKurnaz a Turkish itizen lived n Germany,hereas heTiptonThreelivedn theUK.Allof hemwere eleased fterooperationetween S andEuropeanntelligencenstitutions.s exploreaternthe rticle,his intsat the ssueof differentevels fvulnerabilityubjectsmayhave.There reongoing ebateswhetherthermistakenlyncarceratedrisonersuch s agroup fUyghurshould e releasedn theUnited tates.57. Christineylvester,BareLife s a Development/Postcolonialrob-lematic," eographicalournal72 2006):66-77;ClaudioMinea,The Returnof heCamp," rogressnHuman eography9 2005) 405-412; owell, ote 5.58.JessWhyte,TheHuman sa Battleground,"nline thttp://stateofemergency.nomasters.org/eader/human.html.59.Clive mith,Inside uantanamo,"ew tatesman,ovember1,2005,online thttp://www.newstatesman.com/200511210007.60.Online thttp://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/Guantanamo-bay_x-ray.htm.61.Force-feedingunger-strikingrisonersy overeignnterventionsnot new dea.King dward II also ordered unger-strikinguffragettesobe brutallyorce ed nAugust 909.For a discussionfresistance,ender,andhomo acer,ee EwaZiarek,Bare ife n Strike: otes n theBiopoli-tics fRace andGender,"outh tlanticuarterly07 2009):89-105.62.Joint askForce-GITMO,ote7.63.Agamben, ote16,p. 171.64. TheTipton hree, ote52.65.JoshWhite,NowOnline, Guide oDetainee reatment,"ashing-ton ost, December 007,A19.66. Reuterseportsow his etailedGuantanamoOperating anual"was eaked o the nternety whistleblower,nline thttp://www.reuters.com/article/internetNews/idUSN142420702007lll4?pageNumber=l&virtualBrandChannel=O.67. n an unclassifiedctionmemo, umsfeldimselfiscusseshe copeof these etty echniquesfdetainmentndinterrogation.rguinghathestands-10hours day, esuggestshat he engthf nterrogationsouldbeproperlyengthened.nline thttp://www.defenselink.mil/news/Jun2004/d20040622doc5.pdf.68. Edwardaid's tudyfOrientalistiscourses a reminderf his ar-ticularoint; ee Edward aid,OrientalismNewYork: intage ooks, 979).69. Michel oucault,Politicsnd theStudyfDiscourse,"nGrahamBurchelland Colin Gordon, eds., TheFoucault ffect:tudies n Governmental-ityLondon:Harvester heatsheaf,991),p.53.70. MarkMazower,Foucault,gamben: heorynd theNazis," ound-ary ,no. 35 (2008):23-34, tp. 32.71. Gayatri pivak, Can the Subaltern peak?" n CaryNelson and


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434 Homo acer s.Homo occer omLawrenceGrossberg, ds.,Marxism nd thenterpretationfCultureUrbana:Universityf llinois Press. 1988. n. 289.72. TimothyMitchell, The Stage ofModernity,"n TimothyMitchell,ed., QuestionsfModernityMinneapolis:MinnesotaUniversityress,2000).73. Anotherreadingof bare life s to argue thatbare life s the "consti-tutive utside" of the body politic,which determines he extent to whichpowerrelations xtend n thepolis.74.BarryHindess,"Metropolitaniberalism nd ColonialAutocracy,"nJeanHillierand Emma Rooksby, ds., Habitus:A Sense fPlace (Burlington,VT:Ashgate,2005).75. Ziarek,note 61.76. Foucault,Displine ndPunish, ote4, p. 241.

77. Ibid.,p. 256.78. Ibid.79. EtienneBalibar, Is There a 'Neo-Racism?"n EtienneBalibar, ds.,Race,Nation,Class:AmbiguousdentitiesLondon and NewYork:Verso,1991).80. There is also an initialdiscursive iolence where all ethnic and reli-giousdifferences ithin hose societies re erased,such that n imaginedna-tional dentitys ascribed to all subjects ivingn those areas of the world.81. Foucault,DisciplinendPunish, ote4, p. 257.82. Mitchell, ote20.83. Ibid.,p. 95.84. Online athttp://ww.nytimes.com/2007/10/05/world/asia/05afghan.html?incamp=articleopular_4&pagewanted=print.85. ParaphrasedfromMontgomeryMcFate, enior ocial science adviserwith he US Army'sHuman Terrain ystem.AcademicEmbeds: ScholarsAd-viseTroopsAbroad" aired on National PublicRadio on Talkof heNation,October2007.86. Online athttp://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/low/americas/7042090.stm.87. Online athttp://www.counterpunch.orff/price03182008.html.88. Online at http://www.army.mil/professionalwriting/volumes/vol-ume4/december_2006/2_06_2.html.89. Howell,note25,atp. 44.90. Ibid.91. For a peculiarracistbias of the aw see Natsu Saito,FromChinese x-clusion oGuantnamoay:Plenaryower ndthe rerogativetateBoulder,CO:UniversityressofColorado,2007), p. 7.92. The TiptonThree,note 52.93. SimonReid-Henry,Exceptional overeignty?uantnamoBayandthe Re-ColonialPresent,"Antipode9 (2007): 627-648.94. Roxanne Doty, "Sovereigntynd the Nation: Constructing heBoundaries of National dentity,"n Thomas Biersteker nd CynthiaWeber,eds.,State overeigntys SocialConstructNewYork:CambridgeUniversityress,1996).95. Ratner nd Ray,note48,p. 9.96. Ibid.97. Ben Fox,"CasioWatch sTerror Evidence'atGuantnamo," eattle-1,10March2006,onlineathttp://seattlepl.nwsource.com/national/262432_gitmol0.html.98. MarkSalter, ImaginingNumbers:Risk,Quantification,nd AviationSecurity,"ecurityialogue, 9 (2008): 243-266.99. Roxanne Doty, Fronteras ompasivasand the Ethics of Uncondi-tionalHospitality,Millennium:ournalfnternationaltudies 5 (2006) 53-74.


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HalitMustafaTagma 435100.This s a phrase sed n US Army egulation1-35,UnclassifiedDocument,nlineat http://www.army.mil/usapa/epubs/pdf/r20_35.pdf.Thiswas riginallyrittenn1997, utwas ater evisedn2005.This uggeststhat overeignxceptionalismas lreadyt work efore heSeptember1attacks.101. KatherineHunt,"KBR AwardedHomelandSecurity ontractWorthp to$385M,"Market atch,4January006,online thttp://www.marketwatch.com/News/Story/Story.aspx?guid=%7B62C8724D%2DAE8A%2D4B5C%2D94C7%2D70171315C0A0%7D&dist=SignInArchive&param=archive&siteid=mktw&dateid=38741%2E5136277662%2D858254656.

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