40 chapter 3 the media and processes of art

40 CHAPTER 3 The Media and Processes of Art

� FIGURE 3.1 This artist has developed new ways to use the process of glassblowing to createlarge sculptures and installations. He calls the objects in this window installation “flowers.” Compareand contrast these glass flowers to the flowers painted by van Gogh in Figure 7.8 on page 178.

Dale Chihuly. Malina Window (detail). 1993. Handblown glass and steel. 4.87 � 4.87 m (16 � 16�). Detroit, Michigan.

Traditionally, glass hasbeen a medium of the

craftsperson used to make small, decorative works of art.Americanartist Dale Chihuly (b. 1941) has revolutionized the process of glass-blowing to create monumental forms. His works appear in some 200 museums worldwide. His creations have been grouped into series.These include handblown glass baskets, sea forms, flowers, chandeliers,and huge installations, which include the 16-foot-square window inFigure 3.1. The window graces the lobby of a corporate headquar-ters. Its purpose, according to the artist, was to make “a difficult view beautiful.” What do you think he meant by this statement? In otherwords, what do you think is the view outside this window?

Compare and Contrast. Examine Figure 6.2 on page 136. LikeFigure 3.1, these windows were created by an artist renowned for his inventive and beautiful glass designs. Compare the work of Chihuly andChagall to identify the general trend or style each work shows.

Artists communicate with viewers through a variety

of materials, tools, and techniques. Some artists

“speak” with paint, others with marble. The artist respon-

sible for the artwork in Figure 3.1 communicates with

handblown glass. What do the see-through forms, colors,

and patterns of this artwork communicate to you?

In this chapter, you will:

Compare and contrast the media used in

drawing, painting, printmaking, and sculpting.

Describe the media of crafts and architecture.

Demonstrate the effective use of art media and

tools in original works.

Identify technological media.

CHAPTER 3The Media andProcesses of Art

41

LESSON 1

Two-Dimensional Media

Jackson Pollock dripped paint onto canvas in Figure 1.13 on page 14. LeoTwiggs used dyes and wax resist on cotton in Figure 1.7 on page 10. Each

of these artists created a two-dimensional work of art using different materi-als. Any material used to create art is called a medium. The plural form ofmedium is media. A medium can be something as ordinary as a graphite pen-cil or as exotic as gold leaf gilding. In two-dimensional works, such as drawingand painting, artists use media such as crayons, paints, pastels, and pencils.

DrawingIn baseball, a pitcher throws warm-up

pitches before facing a batter. Musicianstune their instruments or warm up theirvoices before a performance. Artistsmust also prepare before creating art. By drawing, artists become better at per-ceiving, or carefully noticing, the lines,shapes, and forms of an object.

Many artists use sketchbooks torecord their surroundings and to pro-duce studies of objects. Artists alsorecord ideas for later use. The Renais-sance artist Leonardo da Vinci filledmore than 100 sketchbooks with hisdrawings and ideas. His sketchbooksincluded everything from perceptions of people, to his notations on the move-ment of water (Figure 3.2), to his plansfor flying machines.

Drawing is usually the first step inproducing artworks. Rough sketches, or studies, are often done before creat-ing a work in another medium such aspaint or clay. Fashion designers drawtheir ideas for new styles long beforeany fabric is cut. Stage designers,graphic designers, and architects must


� FIGURE 3.2 Da Vinci’s observations of moving water were confirmedas accurate in this century when fast cameras could photographically freezethe action of the water. Da Vinci filled his notebooks with observationalsketches and notes. His writing was backward and could only be read when held up to a mirror.

Leonardo da Vinci. Page from his sketchbook showing movement of water. Royal Library, Windsor Castle, London, England. The Royal Collection 1993, Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II.

Vocabulary

medium/mediashadingprintmakingprintreproductionedition

LESSON 1 Two-Dimensional Media 43

show presentation drawings for aclient’s approval. Figure 3.3 is a cos-tume design for a comic ballet, TheDevil’s Holiday. The designer modeledthe costumes and stage designs basedon the eighteenth-century paintings ofVenice by the artist Canaletto.

Although drawings are often used asguides for other artworks, sometimes anartist’s drawing is the finished artwork.One example of a drawing as a work ofart is Canaletto’s Ascension Day Festival atVenice (Figure 3.4).

Drawing MediaDrawing is the process of moving

an instrument over a smooth surfaceto leave a mark, called a line. In draw-ing, line is the most important elementof art. The characteristics of a line aredetermined, in part, by the mediumused to draw it. The most populardrawing media are graphite pencils,colored pencils, crayons, colored mark-ers, pens, pastels, and chalk. Pen andink, pen and brush, and brushes withwatercolors are also used to makedrawings.

� FIGURE 3.3 How does this sketch let you know that thischaracter is in a comedy? What makes him look humorous?

Eugene Berman. Vendeur de Chapeaux. 1939. Gouache on paper. 31.8 �24.8 cm (121�2 � 93�4�). Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecticut. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. James T. Soby. 1939.697.

� FIGURE 3.4 Lookclosely at this meticulousdrawing. Can you tell whatcity is depicted in this work?What helped you decide?

Canaletto. Ascension Day Festival atVenice. 1766. Pen and brown inkwith gray wash, heightened withwhite, over graphite on laidpaper. 38.6 � 55.2 cm (153�16 �213�4�). National Gallery of Art,Washington D.C. © 1998 Boardof Trustees. Samuel H. KressCollection.

� FIGURE 3.6 Shading techniques.


Look at the drawing in Figure 3.7.Isabel Bishop used three different draw-ing media to create a drawing that hasthe look of three dimensions. The artistaccomplished this through shading.

Which shading technique was used inFigure 3.4 on page 43?

PaintingPainting is the process of applying

color to a surface using tools such as abrush, a painting knife, a roller, or evenyour fingers. The surface is the materialto which the paint is applied. Canvas,paper, and wood are frequently used assurface materials.

� FIGURE 3.5 Drawing media.

Shading TechniquesShading is the use of light and dark

values to create the illusion of form. Thereare four main shading techniques:

� Hatching. This technique consists of drawing thin lines that run in thesame direction. Find the forms in Figure 3.6 that use hatching.

� Crosshatching. Shading createdusing crisscrossing lines is calledcrosshatching. Look at the forms inFigure 3.6 that demonstrate thistechnique.

� Blending. Artists perform blendingby changing the color value little bylittle. Find the forms in Figure 3.6that are shaded using blending.

� Stippling. Shading that creates dark values by means of a dot pat-tern is referred to as stippling.Locate the forms in Figure 3.6 thatshow stippling.

Each drawing medium has its ownqualities. Chalk and crayon, for exam-ple, produce rough lines. Pens, by con-trast, make smooth lines. Figure 3.5shows lines made with different draw-ing media.


All paints have three basic ingredients:

� Pigments. Pigments are finelyground colored powders. Pigmentscome from natural or synthetic mate-rials. Natural pigments include indigo,a vegetable, and the cochineal beetle,an insect. Natural pigments can alsobe made from minerals or clay. Syn-thetic pigments are artificially madefrom chemicals.

� Binder. A binder is a material thatholds together the grains of pigment.The binder allows the pigment tostick to the painting surface. Egg

� FIGURE 3.7 Look at thisdrawing and identify the shadingtechniques Bishop used.

Isabel Bishop. Head #5. No date.Graphite, crayon, and chalk on paper.29.8 � 22.4 cm (113⁄4 � 813�16�).Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford,Connecticut. Gift of HenrySchnakenberg. 1953.217.

yolks mixed with water have longbeen used as a strong binder for pro-fessional artist’s tempera paints.Other binders are linseed oil and wax.

� Solvent. A solvent is a liquid thatcontrols the thickness or the thinnessof the paint. Different painting effectsrequire different thicknesses of paint.Using thin watercolor paint gives alight, washed-out appearance; usingthick watercolor paint produces amore intense appearance. Solventsare also used to clean paintbrushesand other applicators.


Winslow Homer is considered one of the artists who has captured the

true feelings of the United States in his works. Homer developed an appre-

ciation and love for the outdoors while growing up with his two brothers

in Cambridge, Massachusetts. By the age of ten, his interest in art began

and his talent for drawing became obvious. When he was 19, Homer was

accepted as an apprentice at a large printing firm in Boston, even though

he had little formal art training.

When his apprenticeship was over, Homer worked as a draftsman, spe-

cializing in woodblock engraving. Soon he began illustrating magazines.

By the 1860s he was contributing regularly to Harper’s Weekly magazine as

an illustrator of events occurring in the Civil War. After the Civil War

ended, Homer traveled to Europe. There, he was influenced by the works

of French artists Édouard Manet and Gustave Courbet.

By the 1880s, Homer had begun painting the subject that was to

become his trademark—the sea. He loved nature and spent hours out-

doors. He felt at home on the sea although he knew its dangers as well.

Because he was able to capture the elemental forces of nature, Homer is

considered a Realist. His unique talent enabled him, as few others have

done before him, to express the reality of the United States.

MEET THE ARTIST

WINSLOWHOMER

American, 1836–1910

� FIGURES 3.8 AND 3.9 One of these paintings was a sketchmade at the scene, and the otherwas done in the studio based onthe first work.

� FIGURE 3.9

Winslow Homer. Hound andHunter. 1892. Oil on canvas.71.8 � 122.6 cm (281⁄4 �481�4�). National Gallery ofArt, Washington, D.C. ©1998 Board of Trustees. Giftof Stephen C. Clark.

� FIGURE 3.8

Winslow Homer. Sketch for ‘Hound andHunter.’ 1892. Watercolor. 35.4 � 50.8 cm(1315⁄16 � 20"). National Gallery of Art,Washington, D.C. ©1998 Board of Trustees.Gift of Ruth K. Henschel in memory of herhusband, Charles R. Henschel.

The look of a finished paintingdepends on the combination of media,tools, and the surface the artistchooses. In Figures 3.8 and 3.9, youcan see how Winslow Homer has created two images that are almostexactly alike. However, he has useddifferent media. Figure 3.8 is madewith thin, wet, flowing watercolor onwhite paper. The white in this paint-ing is the white of the paper showingthrough. Figure 3.9 is painted withthick, creamy oil paint on canvas. The white in this painting is opaquewhite paint.

Painting MediaAs with drawing media, there

are many different kinds of paint-ing media, each with its ownunique qualities. The artist choosesthe paint based on personal prefer-ence and the purpose of the work.

Oil-Based Paint. First used in the1400s, oil paint remains a popularmedium today. True to its name, oil


paint uses linseed oil as its binder. Itssolvent is turpentine.

One advantage of oil paint is that itdries slowly. This allows the artist toblend colors right on the canvas. Thework in Figure 3.9 is an oil painting.Notice how smoothly the colors blend.

Water-Soluble Paint. The most popularof water-based painting media, water-color takes its name from its solvent,water. The binder is gum arabic. Com-pare the watercolor in Figure 3.8 withthe oil painting in Figure 3.9. What dif-ferences do you see?

Tempera is another water-basedpaint. It dries more quickly than oilpaint, and it has a more opaque finishthan watercolor.

Acrylic paint, which first appeared inthe 1950s, uses an acrylic polymer as abinder. The solvent used for acrylicpaint is also water. However, once pro-fessional acrylic paint dries, it cannot bedissolved. School acrylics have beendeveloped, however, that can be dis-solved with soapy water after they dry.

Experimentingwith Watercolor

Demonstrating Effective Use of ArtMedia and Tools in Painting. Usingwatercolor paint, choose one bright colorand paint several shapes on a dry sheet ofwatercolor paper.Then thoroughly brushwater on both sides of a sheet ofwatercolor paper and repeat the process.If available, try using different types ofnatural and synthetic watercolor brushes.Share and compare your results with thoseof classmates.

Computer Option. Drawing with coloron the computer is like drawing withlight. Light as the computer’s pigment can vary in opacity from opaque, like tempera paint, to transparent, like water-colors. Find the menu in the applicationyou are using that controls opacity.Explore the settings. Remember, thesequalities change as you paint on differentsurfaces. If available, investigate rough,smooth, or textured papers.


� Inking the plate. The artist appliesink to the plate. This is done with abrayer, a roller with a handle. For amulticolor print, one plate must bemade for each color. The ink createsthe image on the print.

� Transferring the image. The paperor other material is pressed againstthe inked plate, and the ink is trans-ferred to the new surface. Sometimesthis is done by hand. Other times aprinting press is used.Usually, more than one print is made

from a single plate. Together, all the printsmade from the same plate, or set of plates,form an edition. Each print in an editionis signed and numbered by the artist. Theprintmaker signs the work in the bottommargin and writes the title on each printof an edition as well as the number ofeach print. The number 10/200 indicatesthe tenth of 200 prints.

Printmaking TechniquesThere are four main techniques artists

use to make prints: relief, intaglio, litho-graphy, and screen printing.

� Relief printing. In this method, theartist cuts away the sections of a sur-face not meant to hold ink. As aresult, the image to be printed israised from the background. In Fig-ure 3.10, Elizabeth Catlett has con-trolled the light and dark areas of herlinoleum-cut relief print by theamount she has cut away. Notice thatthe white lines are wider in the verylight areas.

� FIGURE 3.10 Catlett has devoted her artisticcareer to a socially conscious art that representsthe struggles of African Americans.

Elizabeth Catlett. Sharecropper. 1970. Linoleum cut on paper.45.2 � 43 cm (1713⁄16 � 1615�16�). The National Museum ofAmerican Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.© Elizabeth Catlett/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.

PrintmakingPrintmaking is a process in which an

artist repeatedly transfers an originalimage from one prepared surface toanother. Paper is often the surface towhich the printed image is transferred.The impression created on a surface by theprinting plate is called a print. A printis not the same thing as a reproduc-tion, although sometimes people con-fuse the two. A print is an originalwork of art. A reproduction, such asthe artwork shown in this book, is acopy of a work of art.

The Basic Steps ofPrintmaking

While prints may be made usingmany different media, processes, andsurfaces, all require three basic steps.

� Creating the printing plate. Aprinting plate is the surface on whichthe desired image is created. In producing a printing plate, the artistmakes a mirror image of the finalprint. Letters and numbers must bemade backward on the plate.


� Intaglio (in-tal-yo or in-tal-ee-o).This name comes from the Italianword meaning “to cut into.” Intagliois a process in which ink is forced intolines that have been cut or etched ona hard surface such as metal or wood.Then the plate’s surface is wipedclean and the prints are made. Youcan actually feel the lines of raised inkon an intaglio print.

� Lithography. In lithography theimage to be printed is drawn on lime-stone, zinc, or aluminum with a spe-cial greasy crayon or pencil. Ink isattracted to this material. When thedrawing is completed, the areas thatshould remain blank are etched witha special solution that repels ink. Then,when the surface is inked, the greasyarea alone holds the ink. Because theprocess is complicated, new materialsare being developed to make lithogra-phy easier. There are kits for schoolsthat use paper instead of limestone orzinc for the printing plate.

� Screen printing. This is the newestmethod for making prints. It uses astencil and screen as the printingplate. The stencil is placed on a fabricscreen stretched across a frame. Thescreen is placed flat on the printingsurface. Ink is pressed through thefabric screen where it is not coveredby the stencil. If more than one coloris used, a separate screen is made foreach color. Another term for screenprinting is serigraphy.

Making a Printing Plate

Demonstrating Effective Use of ArtMedia and Tools in Printmaking. Youcan make your own relief printing plate.Begin by cutting a 4-inch square from asheet of cardboard. Cut a variety ofsmaller geometric shapes from the samesheet. Arrange these on the surface ofthe square. Form an interesting design.

Glue the shapes in place. Let them dryovernight. Apply printing ink to the surfacewith a brayer. Lay a sheet of paper overyour inked plate. Apply pressure evenly.Carefully peel back the print.

Computer Option. Explore the Shapeand Line tools in your application. Changeline thickness, color menus, gradients, andopacities. Arrange several shapes to makean interesting design. Print onto colortransfer paper that is made for yourprinter. Remember to flip the imagebefore printing if necessary becauseshapes and letters may be reversed. Fol-low the instructions on the printing paperpackage to transfer your design ontopaper, cloth, or another surface. (An ironsets some transfer papers while othersrequire more elaborate equipment.)

Check Your Understanding

1. Name four of the most popularmedia used in drawing.

2. What are the three ingredients found in every type of paint?

3. What are the three basic steps ofprintmaking?

4. Compare and contrast the mediaused in drawing, painting, and printmaking.

LESSON 2

Three-Dimensional Media

Have you ever taken a lump of clay and formed it into a bowl or an animal? If so, you were working with a three-dimensional medium.

These media make solid forms that have height, width, and depth.

SculptureSculpture is a three-dimensional work of art. Sculpture is art that is made

to occupy space. This is one way in which sculpture is different from otherkinds of art. Although objects in a drawing or painting can look quite real,the work is flat, or two-dimensional. Artists who create sculpture are calledsculptors.

The Media of SculptureLike other artists, sculptors use a wide variety of media in their work.

Sculpting media include clay, glass, plastics, wood, stone, and metal. No mat-ter what medium is used, a sculpture will be one of two types: sculpture inthe round or relief sculpture.

� Sculpture in the round. This type of sculp-ture is surrounded on all sides by space. Anothername for sculpture in the round is freestandingsculpture. You can walk around sculpture inthe round or turn it over in your hands to seeall sides. Sculptures in the round can be realisticrepresentations of people or objects (Figure3.11). Not all freestanding sculptures have rec-ognizable subjects, however. (See Figure 5.6 onpage 101).

� Relief sculpture. This type of sculpture pro-jects into space from a flat background. Reliefsculptures are designed to be viewed only fromone side. Figure 3.12 shows an example of arelief sculpture attached to a smooth,gently–rounded surface. You cannot see theback of the figure. The figure protrudes out intospace from the smooth surface of the vase.

Sculpting TechniquesIn addition to a wide array of media, sculptors

use a variety of processes. The processes includemodeling, carving, casting, and assembly.


� FIGURE 3.11 How do theunusual colors and materialsaffect the expressive quality ofthis sculpture?

Luis Jimenez. Vaquero. Modeled 1980,cast 1990. Fiberglass and epoxy.Height: 5 m (16�6�). The NationalMuseum of American Art,Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. © Luis Jimenez/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.

Vocabulary

sculpturefine artapplied art

LESSON 2 Three-Dimensional Media 51

� Modeling. In this process, a soft, pli-able material is built up and shaped.Media such as clay, wax, and plasterare used in modeling. Because thesculptor gradually adds more materialto build a form, modeling is referredto as an additive process.

� Carving. In carving, the sculptorcuts, chips, or drills from a solid massof material to create a sculpture.Material is removed until the sculp-ture is completed. Carving is there-fore called a subtractive process. Woodand stone are the most common carv-ing media.

� Casting. In casting, molten metal oranother substance is poured into amold and allowed to harden. Theartist duplicates a form originallymolded with clay, wax, or plasterusing a more permanent material.Just as in printmaking, an edition ofsculptures can be made from the same

� FIGURE 3.12 Al Qoyawayma adds anarchitectural quality to his pottery by using reliefelements that are forced from inside the pottery wall.He then carves details into the raised relief work.

Al Qoyawayma (Hopi). Blanketed Figure Vase. c. 1980. Claypottery. Height: 27.9 cm (11�).

� FIGURE 3.13 Graves collected natural objects and cast them inbronze at a metal foundry. She then selected certain cast objects fromher collection of thousands of objects and assembled them to makeher sculpture.

Nancy Graves. Zaga. 1983. Cast bronze with polychrome chemical patination.182.9 � 124.5 � 81.3 cm (72 � 49 � 32�). The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, Missouri. Gift of the Friends of Art (F84–27). © Nancy GravesFoundation/Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY.

mold. Once the edition is complete,the mold is destroyed. This preventsthe mold from being used again andsafeguards the monetary value of thesculptures that were originally cast.

� Assembling. In this process, alsocalled constructing, a variety of differ-ent materials are gathered and joinedtogether to make a sculpture. Oneassembly process involves weldingmetal, but media can be glued, sewn,or otherwise fitted together. Assem-bling is sometimes used along withother sculpting processes. A combina-tion of casting and assembling wasused to create Zaga (Figure 3.13).


CraftsBefore machines were invented, peo-

ple made everything by hand. Today,artists are still creating one-of-a-kinditems. Some objects are created forpractical use, and others are madepurely for decorative purposes. Art madeto be experienced visually is called fine art.Art made to be functional as well as visuallypleasing is called applied art. Today thedistinction between fine art and appliedart is fading.

Artists are currently creating bothfunctional and decorative craft objects.Weavings are made from natural wool,linen, silk, cotton, and manufacturedfibers. Quilts are stitched from fine fab-rics to be hung on the wall like paint-ings. Baskets are woven from naturalmaterials such as reeds and wood slats(Figure 3.14), as well as manufacturedfibers. Pottery is made with clay from

the earth. Handmade glass objects areformed by forcing air through a tube toshape globs of melted glass. Jewelry iscrafted using expensive materials suchas precious stones and gold, but it canalso be made using paper. As wonderfulas technology has become, we stillappreciate having an object that is one-of-a-kind and made by hand.

The Media of CraftsThe most commonly used craft media

are clay, glass, wood, fiber, and metal.Clay and glass can be used to makeplates and cups, vases, and jars. Woodcan be used to make furniture or con-tainers. Fiber is used to weave cloth andto make baskets. Metal is used to makeutensils and jewelry.

Each craft contains an almost unlim-ited number of choices. An artist usingclay can choose stoneware, earthenware,or porcelain. A weaver can select natural

� FIGURE 3.14 Imagine theskill it took to make this basketand lid perfectly round and tomake each twist of the warp justthe right size to create points inproportion to the shape of thebasket. Notice that the points aresmaller at the top and bottomand larger near the center.

Edith Bondie. Porkypine Basket.c. 1975. Wood. 20 � 21.6 � 21.6 cm(77⁄8 � 81⁄2 � 81�2�). The NationalMuseum of American Art, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, D.C.


� FIGURE 3.15 This settee reminds us of anAsante stool from Africa because it incorporatesanimal totem forms into its structure.

Judy Kensley McKie. Monkey Settee. 1995. Walnut andbronze. 90.2 � 182.2 � 61 cm (351⁄2 � 713⁄4 � 24�).Renwick Gallery, The National Museum of AmericanArt, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

fibers or synthetic fibers. A woodworkercan choose among oak, ash, mahogany,rosewood, ebony, cedar, and pine.Whatmedia were used to create Figure 3.15?

The Processes of CraftsThe techniques and processes a craft

artist uses depends on the mediaselected. Clay, for example, can be mod-eled, carved, and assembled. It can alsobe thrown on a potter’s wheel. Clay isfinished by firing it in a kiln, a furnacethat reaches high temperatures.

Glass can be mold-made or blown.Blown glass requires a process in whichthe artist, using special tools, blows airinto molten glass in order to shape it.

Wood is worked using techniques suchas carving and assembling, turning, andbending. In turning, a piece of wood isrotated on a machine called a lathe. The

machine may have a fixed tool thatshapes the piece, or the artist may use aspecial tool. Bending is another shapingprocess. A piece of wood is soaked inwater or another liquid to make it pliable.Then it is slowly manipulated into place.

Fiber can be woven into cloth or bas-kets. It can be embroidered, sewn, orquilted. Metal can be shaped in molds orit can be cut with special shears. Pliablemetals can be hammered or filed intoshape. Pieces can be assembled by link-ing them together or by soldering themtogether. Soldering is a process using ahandheld tool called a soldering ironthat melts small areas of the metal.When the metal cools, the pieces arejoined. Assembling larger pieces ofmetal, a process called welding, requiresa larger, more powerful tool with anopen flame.


ArchitectureOf all the arts, architecture has the

greatest impact on our daily lives. Thequality of the architecture we use forshelter, for gatherings, and for worshipaffects the quality of our lives. Architec-ture is the planning and creation ofbuildings. Because a well-designedbuilding is a shelter as well as a work ofart, architecture is considered both anapplied art and a fine art. An artist whoworks in the field of architecture is anarchitect. To be certified, an architectstudies engineering because a structuremust be designed to hold its ownweight and withstand the physicalforces placed on it. An architect alsostudies the visual arts in order to createbuildings that are well-proportionedand pleasing to the eye. Architects

design for individuals as well as for thepublic. The needs of each group mustbe considered and met before a buildingcan be called a success.

The Media of ArchitectureFrom the earliest times people have

been creating shelters from materialsfound in their natural environment.Huts constructed from sticks and barkwere covered with mud. Nomadic peo-ple constructed movable shelters fromwood poles and covered them with ani-mal skins. In the north, ice was cut andformed to make shelters. In the tropics,leaves and grasses were woven together.Gradually, people developed skills tomake better use of available materialsfor permanent structures that were usedfor gathering as well as shelter. Peoplelearned to make bricks by firing clay to

Demonstrating Effective Use of ArtMedia and Tools in Design. Architectsare often hired to renovate an old struc-ture. Look for a building in your commu-nity that you would like to see improved.Study it by making sketches from differentpoints of view. Identify and list in yoursketchbook the media that were used inthe construction of the building you haveselected.Think about the media you havejust studied. List some that would harmo-nize with the surrounding buildings andthe environment. Using pencil, draw oneface of the building. Include the existingdoors and windows.Then redesign thelook of that side using the media that you believe will improve the look of thebuilding. Use watercolors to indicate the colors of the new construction media.

Computer Option. Use a computerapplication to redesign the façade of abuilding in your community. Choose theGrids and Rulers option to guide yourdrawing so you can maintain scale andproportion. Consider how you can create harmony by repeating the materi-als, colors, or architectural features ofother buildings in your community. Beginby drawing the front view. Hold down the Shift key to draw straight lines orrestrict shapes. Use the copy and pastefunctions to make duplicates of featuressuch as doors and windows. Save and title the line drawing.Then use yourchoice of brushes, textures, and grad-ients to simulate natural materials. Usethe Save As option to retitle and save.Print and display your work.

Redesigning a Familiar Building

arch had been extended into a full cir-cle. Using more advanced constructiontechniques architects developed apointed stone arch and supported itwith buttresses. This allowed largeopenings to be made in the walls thatwere filled with stained-glass windows.

Wood was always a popular material,because it was plentiful. Balloon fram-ing allowed builders to use heavy beamsof wood to support thin walls. The trusssupported a sloped roof. This techniqueis still being used today.

Technology has given us steel andreinforced concrete. Steel framesenabled us to cover the outside of sky-scrapers with glass. The development ofnew materials has not eliminated theuse of the older materials. New ways of


make it hard. They stacked the bricks tobuild walls. Stonecutters develop meth-ods for cutting stone so smoothly thatone could be stacked on top of the nextwithout anything to hold them in place(Figure 3.16). Others learned how tobalance one long stone on top of twoposts and developed the post-and-lintelmethod of construction. Today this iscalled post-and-beam constructionbecause architects use wood or steelbeams instead of stone lintels.

Later, architects learned to form anarch with stone. The arch carried theweight of walls and roofs without buck-ling. Arches led to vaults, or archedroofs that connect walls. Vaulted hallsenabled architects to create more openspace. A dome is a round roof, as if an

� FIGURE 3.16 Thebuilders of Tiwanaku inpresent-day Bolivia wereexcellent stone masons.They cut the stones to fittogether so perfectly thatthe buildings have survivedto this day without anymortar to hold the stonesin place.

David Borsky. Wall from theSunken Courtyard of Tiwanaku,Bolivia. A.D. 700. Photograph.Courtesy of the artist.


using them are always being developed.When Louis Sullivan built the Wain-wright Building (Figure 3.17), he firstcreated a large frame, or cage, madewith steel beams. To cover the frame heused brick, which blended in with thesurrounding buildings.

An architect is concerned with theenvironment into which the structurewill be placed as well as the purpose ofthe building. The success of a building isthe combination of the right media withgood design. The Guggenheim Museumin Bilbao, Spain, by American architectFrank Gehry (Figure 14.1, page 388) ismade of limestone, titanium, steel, and

� FIGURE 3.17 Thisskyscraper echoes its internalsteel frame in its exteriordesign. Sullivan emphasizedthe height of the skyscraperby stressing the vertical linesthat move the viewer’s eyesupward, and underplaying thehorizontal elements in thewindow area.

Louis Sullivan. WainwrightBuilding. St. Louis, Missouri.1890–91.


1 What are the two main types ofsculpture?

2. What are the four basic sculptingmethods?

3. Define crafts. Name three categoriesof functional crafts.

4. Define architecture.

glass. The straight limestone blocks con-trast with curved and bent titantiumpanels giving the building the look of ahuge abstract sculpture.

LESSON 3 Technological Media 57

Artists try to communicate ideas through their art, and as they do so,they constantly seek out new media. In recent times, technological

advances have allowed artists to create new and exciting forms of art. In this lesson, you will learn about photography, film, video, and computer art.

PhotographyPhotography is the technique of captur-

ing optical images on light-sensitive surfaces.Photographs are all around us. Newspa-pers, magazines, and books are full ofthem. Almost everyone has a collectionof snapshots that they’ve taken. It ishard to imagine that photographystarted out as an expensive, difficultprocess only 150 years ago.

Although anyone can point a cameraand click the shutter, photography as artrequires more than simply recordingimages. As photographic media andprocesses have improved, some photog-raphers have begun exploring photogra-phy’s potential as art. They have gonebeyond simply taking pictures of inter-esting images. Works by DorotheaLange (Figure 3.18) and other photog-raphers are carefully composed just as apainter composes an artwork. This artis-tic composition makes photography afine art like painting or sculpting.

In recent years, some artists have combined painting and photography tocreate a new kind of visual expression.Look closely at Figure 3.19 on page 58.Notice how the artist has modified ablack-and-white photograph of an auto-mobile in front of a house. The finishedwork combines familiar images fromthe real world altered according to thephotographer’s artistic vision.

Technological Media

LESSON 3

� FIGURE 3.18 Dorothea Lange did more than take a snapshot ofthis family. By moving her camera to get just the right angle andwaiting for the right moment, her photograph reveals a lot about hersubjects. What does the expression on the mother’s face tell you?What emotions do the children convey with their body language?

Dorothea Lange. Migrant Mother. 20.3 � 25.4 cm (8 � 10 �). Courtesy of theLibrary of Congress, Washington, D.C.

Vocabulary

photographydigital systemmultimedia programs


The Media of PhotographyThe idea of capturing an image on

film is very old. Attempts to do so dateback to the Renaissance, but the firstpermanent photograph was not madeuntil the nineteenth century. L. J. M.Daguerre invented a process of creatingsilvery, mirrorlike images on a copperplate. This was called a daguerreotype.Daguerreotype was a time-consumingand very expensive process. In the1850s, the wet plate method wasinvented. It used glass coated withchemicals to record the image, whichwas then transferred to paper or card-board. As with contemporary pho-tographs, the wet plate photos usednegatives, the reverse image of the objectphotographed. Today, newer and bettermethods of making film have beeninvented. The process is simpler and lessexpensive. Photographers have manymedia and processes available to affectthe look of a finished photograph.

FilmA movie, or motion picture, like any

work of art is created for others to enjoy.However, when you watch a movie,

you may not be aware of all the workthat went into making it. Filmmaking is a collaborative process involving many different artistic and technical professionals.

The Media of FilmFilmmaking only became possible

about 100 years ago, after photographybegan to catch on with amateur hobby-ists and professional artists. This encour-aged the development of different typesof film and the invention of the filmcamera. Unlike still cameras, motion pic-ture, or film, cameras have a mechanismthat moves the film through the camera.The film is stopped very briefly to beexposed. Each frame of film is a stillimage. The illusion of image motion iscreated by a rapid succession of thesestill images or photographs. Early filmssuffered from jumpy action, flickeringlight, and other flaws. As cameras, film,film printers, and projectors improved,so did the visual quality of movies. Cinematographers—artists who usemovie cameras—now have the ability tochoose from many different film mediaand production processes to create visu-ally exciting artistic films.

� FIGURE 3.19 This workis based on a black-and-whitephoto taken by the artist.After printing it, she coveredthe areas she wished to stayblack-and-white with rubbercement to protect them. Thenshe dipped the photo into anacid bath that changed theunprotected portions intotints and shades of brown.The final step was theaddition of color, using paintsdesigned for use onphotographs.

Jessica Hines. Dream Series.Hand-colored black-and-whitephotograph. 40.6 x 50.8 cm (16 � 20�). Private Collection.


now operate computer programs thatonce required a computer the size ofyour classroom! These powerful com-puters are used by visual artists to createdigital art.

Using Computers to Create Art

Computer programs, or software, aredesigned to instruct the computer toperform various functions. There arenumerous programs available for artists.(For more information on software andhardware used in the art classroom,refer to the Digital Media Handbook,pages 445–454.) With paint or drawprograms, artists can draw, paint,manipulate, and design images. The artwork in Figure 3.20 was createdwith a software program. Other digitaltechnologies, such as digital camerasand scanners, can be used with thecomputer to provide even more exciting ways to stimulate an artist’simagination.

When you use a computer to createart, the art images can be stored as files in the computer’s memory or ondifferent kinds of storage devices. Oncesaved, they may be opened in a new file and reworked. The advantage isthat, while the original art is saved, youcan try as many variations as you wish,saving each as a new file. This preventsyou from losing the original work.

VideoVideotape records and stores images

and sounds as magnetic impulses. Pat-terns of light beams and wavelengths ofsound are translated into electric waves,which are then imprinted magneticallyon the videotape. Video technology,however, is rapidly evolving. Today,videotape is being replaced by digitalvideotape and other digital systems. Adigital system is a system that processeswords and images directly as numbers, ordigits. This is improving not only theflexibility of video but also the soundand image quality.

The Media of VideoVideo is a remarkable development

because, unlike film, it does not requirespecial processing or printing. With avideo camera, a person can record anevent and immediately view the results.Video artists record the sights, sounds,and scenes of nature; or they createtotally new environments with movingand still images and sound. This tech-nology allows an artist to create a visualstory or communicate a message, justlike an artist who paints on canvas. Also, video can be combined with com-puter software and systems to createartwork never before possible. Amazingartistic results can be achieved whenvideo images and sounds are edited andmanipulated using computers.

ComputersThanks to advances in digital technol-

ogy, today’s computers are becomingfaster, smaller, and more versatile. Tinycomputers, called microprocessors, can

� FIGURE 3.20 This artist has used digitaltechnologies to combine several layers of imagesinto a unified artwork. What ideas do you think heis expressing in this composition?

Jeff Brice. Untitled. Digital image.


Demonstrating Effective Use of ArtMedia and Tools in Drawing. Artistsuse computers as sketchbooks, designtools, and as painting and collage mediabecause they can store and retrieve art-work quickly. Images can be easily com-bined and altered,which allows the artist toexplore many ideas without wasting timeor materials. First, try this with traditionalmedia and tools such as drawing paper,pencil, brush, and watercolor. Draw a largerectangle or circle on the paper. Create adesign based on a mood or feeling usingthe pencil and brush. Change length, thick-ness, and texture of the lines to createvariety and make a pleasing composition.Choose a color scheme and add color.

Computer Option. Now, repeat thesame activity using a computer paint program. Select a Shape tool, and draw alarge open rectangle or circle on the page.Explore the Pencil and Brush tools.Consider a mood or feeling. Arrange avariety of lines, changing length, thickness,shape, and texture to match this mood.Use the Eraser and Zoom tool, if available,to eliminate unneeded marks.When youare satisfied, title and save your project.Now, choose a simple color scheme.Apply color with the Fill or Brush tool.Select the Save As command to retitle.Add a number behind the original title to indicate a new version.

Many computer applications exist tomake the tasks of the artist more effi-cient. Some of these programs involvedesktop publishing, word processing,image editing or manipulation, morph-ing or transforming images, and 3-Ddrawing and animation. To create digitaldrawings and paintings, there are twomain types of programs: paint programsand draw programs.

� Paint programs. In paint programs,images are stored as bitmaps or aseries of tiny dots called pixels. Imagesare made by filling in the dots using avariety of brush tools that imitateother media and drawing tools. Anartist also has the ability to edit theimage pixel by pixel.

� Draw programs. In draw programs,each line or curve drawn is stored as aseparate object. An advantage ofdraw programs over paint programsare the crisp, sharp edges, which areexcellent for fonts and straight lineimages. Because images are recog-nized as objects rather than individualpixels, they can be “resized”—madelarger or smaller—without distortion.

Recently, the differences betweenpaint and draw programs have begun toblur. Many paint programs today dojobs that were once performed only bydraw programs and vice versa.

Computer Art ToolsIn computer art, the physical tools

that the artist actually handles are calledhardware. Hardware includes equipmentsuch as the monitor, keyboard, printer,and mouse. Along with these pieces ofhardware, other external tools includethe following:

� Digital camera. A digital cameraworks like a regular camera exceptthat the images are recorded digitally.The camera usually has a viewer thatallows you to see each picture youhave taken. Most cameras store pic-tures on removable memory cards,which can be downloaded onto acomputer. Pictures can then beprinted out or they can be manipu-lated with special photo-editing soft-ware. The digital images can bealtered and enhanced in unlimitedways, and each version can be savedas a separate file.

Traditional andDigital Media


computer software programs that help usersdesign, organize, and combine text, graphics,video, and sound in one presentation. Youcan make reports, presentations, and art portfolios come alive. Multimedia artcombines different media to create anew type of art. For example, an artistmight scan a photograph into the com-puter to enhance it. The artist mightalso add sounds that help evoke a feel-ing. He or she could add text or quota-tions to add meaning. The artist mightmake the art appear to move (animate)or take different forms (morph) as theviewer watches. Multimedia art expandsthe boundaries of art by including moresensory experiences.

� Stylus and graphics tablet. Astylus and graphics tablet is the electronic equivalent of the penciland paper. The stylus responds topressure from the hand to make thick and thin lines—much like a real pencil, pen, or brush—and hasan eraser on the end. Recent models are remote and programmable.

� Scanner. A scanner is a device that“reads” a printed image. It then translates the image into a languagethe computer can use to make animage on the screen or print with aprinting device.

On-Screen Tools. These tools are locatedon-screen on a toolbar or pull-downmenu. They mimic handheld tools usedby conventional artists. On-screen toolsinclude pencils, pens, assorted brushes,and erasers, but they vary from programto program. The table in Figure 3.21shows some common on-screen toolsand the type of program in which each is found.

Multimedia ArtCombining technologies on the com-

puter is made easier by the developmentof multimedia programs. These are

� FIGURE 3.21Common on-screentools. Can you guessthe purpose of thetools by their icons?


1. What is photography?2. How are motion picture cameras

different from still cameras?3. What advantage does video have

over film?4. Compare and contrast paint and

draw programs.5. What is the advantage of a multi-

media program?


� FIGURE 3.22

Lucas Samaras. Mirrored Room. 1966. Mirrors attached to a plywood frame with screws covered by glassballs. 243.8 � 243.8 � 304.8 cm (96 � 96 � 120�). Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York. Gift ofSeymour H. Knox, Jr., 1966.

1 DESCRIBE What do you see?What do you see when you look at this object? This is a clue-collecting step. If you are not sure of some-thing, do not guess.

List all the information in the credit line.

Study the image carefully. Describe everything you see.Hint: There are four objects in the room that are notlisted in the credit line. Two are solid, and two arereflections.

2 ANALYZE How is this work organized?This step deals with composition or the formal qualities. In it, you will gather information about how the work uses the elements and principles ofart. Even though you have not studied them yet,there are some obvious questions you can answer.

What shapes make up the walls, floor, and ceiling ofthis room? How often are these shapes repeated?

What other shapes can you find in the work?

3 INTERPRET What message does this artworkcommunicate to you?In this step, you tell what feeling or mood the workcreates.You make guesses about the meaning of the work.

How do you think it would feel to sit or stand withinthis room? Write a brief paragraph or a poem thatexpresses how you would feel sitting on the mirroredchair surrounded by infinite reflections.

4 JUDGE What do you think of the work?Now, you are ready to make an aesthetic judgmentof the work.

Do you think this is a successful work of art? Why orwhy not? Use one or more of the aesthetic theoriesfrom Chapter 2 to defend your decision.

Lucas Samaras was born inKastoria, Greece. In 1948, hemoved to the United States withhis family. Samaras attended Rut-gers University. His works useunusual “art” materials such asglass, aluminum foil, and alu-minum paint. Samaras’s mirroredroom series, which includes theinstallation in Figure 3.22, wascreated in the 1960s.Theseworks, which are meant to bewalked through, are remarkablefor the precise positioning of themirrors.They reflect the objectsand viewer into infinity in alldirections.All of Samaras’s art-works are concerned with thedistortion of visual space as seenin the Mirrored Room. He alsocreates distorted and decoratedchairs and manipulated Polaroidphotographs.

Critiquing the Artwork

Art Criticism in Action 63

Lucas Samaras(b. 1936)

Lucas Samaras. Self-Portrait. 1993.Reproduced courtesy of the artist andPace Wildenstein, New York. © LucasSamaras.

OSHIRO FOR TIME

Making your own books andbook covers is a growing trend.

he art of bookmaking is becoming anincreasingly popular craft and hobby.

In this age of digital technology, peopleare looking back to the traditional arts ofbookbinding and papermaking.Some of these new book artistscreate their works fromscratch, including writing,designing, and binding. Onebook is made with fabric, paper,and beads and folds out likeorigami. Another one-of-a-kindwork is an eyeglass case thatholds a tale about BenjaminFranklin, taking a cue from histrademark glasses. Other bookmakerssimply take existing books and give them anew look. They gut, paint, and design newcovers for books that are in print.

While bookmaking has been around for centuries,current homemade works are straddling the line betweenbooks and art. By using bright colors and unusual designs, people are creating spines that will stand out on the shelf.Part of the enjoyment for many bookmakers is finding uniquematerials to make their books. This often leads to discoveries atflea markets, in attics, and at yard sales.

If these creative designs spark your interest, you can enroll inone of the many new workshops offered at craft stores andcommunity centers.

TIME to Connect

Design a book cover or interesting format for one of yourfavorite books. Keep these criteria in mind as you plan your design:

• What is the book about? How would your format and designsummarize the book’s theme, plot, or message?

• What details from the book could you use in your design toexpress the main theme?

• What materials would you use to create the new version ofthe book?


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ABOVE: A real accordion wasused to make this book ofaccordion players.The artistscombined the instrumentwith vintage photos.LEFT:This colorful MexicanDay of the Dead festival bookfolds out. It is made of fabricand paper.

Use the Performing ArtsHandbook, page 415, to seehow choreographer MerceCunningham uses the computer and other technology to help him create hisrenowned ballets.

CHAPTER 3 REVIEWBuilding Vocabulary

On a separate sheet of paper, write the termthat best matches each definition given below.

1. Any materials used to create art.

2. The use of light and dark values to createthe illusion of form.

3. A process in which an artist repeatedlytransfers an original image from one pre-pared surface to another.

4. The impression created on a surface by aprinting plate.

5. A copy of a work of art.

6. All the prints made from the same plate orset of plates.

7. A three-dimensional work of art.

8. The technique of capturing optical imageson light-sensitive surfaces.

9. A system that processes words and imagesdirectly as numbers or digits.

10. Computer software programs that helpusers design, organize, and combine text, graphics, video, and sound in one presentation.

Reviewing Art Facts

Answer the following questions using com-plete sentences.

11. What is the difference between two- andthree-dimensional art?

12. Describe the four shading techniques.

13. Name and define the three main ingredi-ents of paint.

14. What are the three basic steps of print-making?

15. What is the difference between sculpture inthe round and relief sculpture?

16. Why are crafts called the applied arts?

17. How is videotape technology an improve-ment over cinematography?

How would youdescribe the differ-ences between two-and three-dimensional

media if you were blindfolded? Play this inter-active game with your classmates after takingthe Web Museum Tour of the Walker ArtCenter in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Just click onthe link at art.glencoe.com.

ART

18. What are the similarities and differencesbetween paint and draw programs?

Thinking Critically About Art

19. Compare and Contrast. Study Figures3.13 (page 51), 3.14 (page 52) and 3.15(page 53). List the similarities and differ-ences you find in all three artworks. In particular, compare and contrast the use of form in each work. How would youdescribe the form of each work?

20. Historical/Cultural Heritage. Reviewthe Meet the Artist feature on page 46.Winslow Homer was influenced by the arttrends of his time. Compare and contrastFigures 3.8 and 3.9 on page 46 with thework of another Realist, Édouard Manet inFigure 13.20 on page 369. Why are bothartists considered Realists?

Linking to thePerforming Arts

Chapter 3 Review 65

40 chapter 3 the media and processes of art

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