3rd grading envi sci

8/12/2019 3rd Grading Envi Sci

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I. Pollutants in the Environment (Air, Water, and Land Pollution)

1.1 Introduction to Pollutants

A. Air Pollution

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulates, biological materials, or other harmful materials into the Earth'satmosphere, possibly causing disease, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as food crops, orthe natural or built environment.

The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozonedepletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.

Indoor air pollution (see Airlog) and urban air quality are listed as two of the worlds worst toxic pollution problems in the2008 Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.

Air Pollutant

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can besolid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classified as primaryor secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption. Other examplesinclude carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur dioxider eleased from factories. Secondary pollutantsare not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone is aprominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are both emitteddirectly and formed from other primary pollutants.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SOx) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO 2. SO2 is produced by volcanoesand in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, and their combustion generatessulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO 2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO 2, forms H 2SO4, and thus acid rain. This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, andare also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a brown haze dome above ora plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO 2. It is one of several nitrogenoxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.

Carbon monoxide (CO)- CO is a colourless, odourless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion offuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.

Volatile organic compounds - VOCs are a well known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH 4) ornon-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases because of their role in creating ozone and prolonging the lifeof methane in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene, toluene andxylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerouscompound often associated with industrial use.
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Particulates , alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine particles, are tinyparticles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulatesoccur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Humanactivities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generatesignificant amounts of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic aerosols those made by human activities currentlyaccount for approximately 10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to healthhazards such as heart disease ,[2] altered lung function and lung cancer.

Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease .[3][4]

Toxic metals , such as lead and mercury , especially their compounds. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products currently banned from use


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Environmental Effects

Along with harming human health, air pollution can cause a variety of environmental effects:

Acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. These acids are formed primarily bynitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. These acids fall to the Eartheither as wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (gas and particulates). Some are carried by the wind,sometimes hundreds of miles. In the environment, acid rain damages trees and causes soils and water bodies to acidify,

making the water unsuitable for some fish and other wildlife. It also speeds the decay of buildings, statues, and sculpturesthat are part of our national heritage. Acid rain has damaged Massachusetts lakes, ponds, rivers, and soils, leading todamaged wildlife and forests.

Eutrophication is a condition in a water body where high concentrations of nutrients (such as nitrogen) stimulate blooms ofalgae, which in turn can cause fish kills and loss of plant and animal diversity. Although eutrophication is a natural process inthe aging of lakes and some estuaries, human activities can greatly accelerate eutrophication by increasing the rate at whichnutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Air emissions of nitrogen oxides from power plants, cars, trucks, and other sourcescontribute to the amount of nitrogen entering aquatic ecosystems.

Haze is caused when sunlight encounters tiny pollution particles in the air. Haze obscures the clarity, color, texture, and formof what we see. Some haze-causing pollutants (mostly fine particles) are directly emitted to the atmosphere by sources suchas power plants, industrial facilities, trucks and automobiles, and construction activities. Others are formed when gasesemitted to the air (such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) form particles as they are carried downwind.

Effects on wildlife . Toxic pollutants in the air, or deposited on soils or surface waters, can impact wildlife in a number ofways. Like humans, animals can experience health problems if they are exposed to sufficient concentrations of air toxics overtime. Studies show that air toxics are contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and disease in animals. Persistenttoxic air pollutants (those that break down slowly in the environment) are of particular concern in aquatic ecosystems. Thesepollutants accumulate in sediments and may biomagnify in tissues of animals at the top of the food chain to concentrationsmany times higher than in the water or air.

Ozone depletion . Ozone is a gas that occurs both at ground-level and in the Earth's upper atmosphere, known as the

stratosphere. At ground level, ozone is a pollutant that can harm human health. In the stratosphere, however, ozone forms alayer that protects life on earth from the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. But this "good" ozone is gradually beingdestroyed by man-made chemicals referred to as ozone-depleting substances, including chlorofluorocarbons,hydrochlorofluorocarbons, and halons. These substances were formerly used and sometimes still are used in coolants,foaming agents, fire extinguishers, solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Thinning of the protective ozone layer cancause increased amounts of UV radiation to reach the Earth, which can lead to more cases of skin cancer, cataracts, andimpaired immune systems. UV can also damage sensitive crops, such as soybeans, and reduce crop yields.

Crop and forest damage . Air pollution can damage crops and trees in a variety of ways.Ground-level ozone can lead toreductions in agricultural crop and commercial forest yields, reduced growth and survivability of tree seedlings, andincreased plant susceptibility to disease, pests and other environmental stresses (such as harsh weather). As described

above, crop and forest damage can also result from acid rain and from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.

Global climate change . The Earth's atmosphere contains a delicate balance of naturally occurring gases that trap some of thesun's heat near the Earth's surface. This "greenhouse effect" keeps the Earth's temperature stable. Unfortunately, evidenceis mounting that humans have disturbed this natural balance by producing large amounts of some of these greenhousegases, including carbon dioxide and methane. As a result, the Earth's atmosphere appears to be trapping more of the sun'sheat, causing the Earth's average temperature to rise - a phenomenon known as global warming. Many scientists believethat global warming could have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, water resources, forests, wildlife, andcoastal areas.


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Sources

There are various locations, activities or factors which are responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere. Thesesources can be classified into two major categories.

Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:

These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types of fuel.

Stationary Sources include smoke stacks of power plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste incinerators, as wellas furnaces and other types of fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and poor countries, traditional biomass burning isthe major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass includes wood, crop waste and dung .[5][6]

Mobile Sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.

Chemicals, dust and controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest management . Controlled or prescribed burning is atechnique sometimes used in forest management, farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abatement. Fire is a naturalpart of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for foresters. Controlled burning stimulates thegermination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing the forest.

Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol sprays and other solvents

Waste deposition in landfills, which generate methane. Methane is highly flammable and may form explosive mixtures withair. Methane is also an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if theoxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% by displacement.

Military resources , such as nuclear weapons, toxic gases, germ warfare and rocketry

Natural sources:

Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of land with few or no vegetation Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by animals, for example cattle Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally occurring, radioactive

noble gas that is formed from the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health hazard. Radon gas from natural sourcescan accumulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such as the basement and it is the second most frequent cause oflung cancer, afte rcigarette smoking.

Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally significant amounts of VOCs on warmer days. These VOCs react with

primary anthropogenic pollutants specifically, NO x, SO2, and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds to produce aseasonal haze of secondary pollutants .[7]

Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, and ash particulates
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B. Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater) . Water pollutionoccurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies without adequate treatment to removeharmful compounds.

Water pollution affects plants and organisms living in these bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging notonly to individual species and populations, but also to the natural biological communities.

Causes of Water Pollution Sewage from domestic households, factories and commercial buildings Sewage that is treated in water treatment plants is

often disposed into the sea. Sewage can be more problematic when people flush chemicals and pharmaceutical substancesdown the toilet.

Dumping solid wastes and littering by humans in rivers, lakes and oceans. Littering items include cardboard, Styrofoam,aluminum, plastic and glass.

Industrial waste from factories, which use freshwater to carry waste from the plant into rivers, contaminates waters withpollutants such as asbestos, lead, mercury and petrochemicals.

Oil Pollution caused by oil spills from tankers and oil from ship travel. Oil does not dissolve in water and forms a thick sludge.

Burning fossil fuels into the air causes the formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere. When these particles mix withwater vapor, the result is acid rain.

An increase in water temperature is caused by global warming and thermal plants that use lakes and rivers to cooldown mechanical equipment.

Effects of Water Pollution Groundwater contamination from pesticides causes reproductive damage within wildlife in ecosystems. Sewage, fertilizer, and agricultural run-off contain organic materials that when discharged into waters, increase the growth

of algae, which causes the depletion of oxygen. The low oxygen levels are not able to support most indigenous organisms inthe area and therefore upset the natural ecological balance in rivers and lakes.

Swimming in and drinking contaminated water causes skin rashes and health problems like cancer, reproductive problems,typhoid fever and stomach sickness in humans. Which is why its very important to make sure that your water is cleanand safe to drink.

Industrial chemicals and agricultural pesticides that end up in aquatic environments can accumulate in fish that are latereaten by humans. Fish are easily poisoned with metals that are also later consumed by humans. Mercury is particularlypoisonous to small children and women. Mercury has been found to interfere with the development of the nervous systemin fetuses and young children.

Ecosystems are destroyed by the rising temperature in the water, as coral reefs are affected by the bleaching effect due towarmer temperatures. Additionally, the warm water forces indigenous water species to seek cooler water in other areas,causing an ecological damaging shift of the affected area.

Human-produced litter of items such as plastic bags and 6-pack rings can get aquatic animals caught and killed fromsuffocation.

Water pollution causes flooding due to the accumulation of solid waste and soil erosion in streams and rivers. Oil spills in the water causes animal to die when they ingest it or encounter it. Oil does not dissolve in water so it causes

suffocation in fish and birds.Water pollution has been extensively documented as a contributor to health problems in humans and marine animalecosystems. It has a huge impact on our lives, and if we do our part by not throwing trash or chemicals into our watersupplies and drains, we can contribute to the improvement of aquatic life and of our health in general.
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Potable Water

Drinking water or potable water is water safe enough to be consumed by humans or used with low risk of immediate orlong term harm. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry meets drinkingwater standards, even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Typical uses(for other than potable purposes) include toilet flushing, washing and landscape irrigation. The word potable came intoEnglish from the Late Latin potabilis meaning drinkable.

Over large parts of the world, humans have inadequate access to potable water and use sources contaminated with diseasevectors, pathogens or unacceptable levels of toxins or suspended solids. Drinking or using such water in food preparationleads to widespread acute and chronic illnesses and is a major cause of death and misery in many countries. Reductionof waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.

Water has always been an important and life-sustaining drink to humans and is essential to the survival of most otherorganisms .[1] Excluding fat, water composes approximately 70% of the human body by mass. It is a crucial componentof metabolic processes and serves as a solvent for many bodily solutes. The United States Environmental ProtectionAgency in risk assessment calculations previously assumed that the average American adult ingests 2.0 litres perday .[2] However, the United States Environmental Protection Agency now suggests that either science-based age-specificranges or an all ages level (based o nNational Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006 data) be used .[3] Bottledwateri s sold for public consumption in most habitated parts of the world.

Contamination of potable water

An adequate supply of safe drinking water is one of the major prerequisites for a healthy life, but waterborne disease is still amajor cause of death in many parts of the world, particularly in children, and it is also a significant economic constraint inmany subsistence conomies. The basis on which drinking water safety is judged is national standards or internationalguidelines. The most important of these are the WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality. The quality of drinking waterand possible associated health risks vary throughout the world with some regions showing, for example, high levels ofarsenic, fluoride or contamination of drinking water by pathogens, whereas elsewhere these are very low and no problem.Marked variations also occur on a more local level within countries due, for example, to agricultural and industrial activities.

Properties of Soft and Hard Water

Soft Water

The water that lathers with soap easily is called soft water. It describes type of water that contain few or no minerals likecalcium(Ca) or magnesium(Mg) ions. The term is usually relative to hard water, which does contain significant amounts ofsuch ions.

Soft Water mostly comes from peat or igneous rock sources, such as granite but may also come from sandstone sources,since such sedimentary rocks are usually low in calcium and magnesium.

Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard water. The resulting softwater is more compatible with soap and extends the lifetime of plumbing. Water softening is usually achieved using limesoftening or ion-exchange resins.
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C. Land Pollution

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by the presence of xenobiotic( human-made) chemicals or other alteration inthe natural soil environment. It is typically caused by industrial activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper disposal of waste.The most common chemicals involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such asnaphthalene and benzo(a)pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy metals. Contamination is correlated with thedegree of industrialization and intensity of chemical usage.

Soil Pollutants

Land or soil pollution is the third most commonly found pollution in the atmosphere. Soil is what we use for agriculturalpurposes, and due to the land pollution, there can be risks of impurities in the growth medium itself. There are dischargesfrom organic and inorganic industries , heavy metals such as lead , plastic , glass , etc., which also contaminate the landaround the waste lines. Construction sites also contribute largely to land pollution because they release solvents and silt intothe soil around the construction sites. Fertilizers , pesticides , herbicides and chemical compounds used to protect the plantsfrom various disease and pests are also washed off in the soil causing soil pollution. Deforestation , could also lead to landpollution and soil erosion.

Causes and Effects of Land Pollution

Main Causes of Soil Pollution

1. Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem in the last century, especially since

the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the

Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the by products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that can be

considered safe. As a result, the industrial waste lingers in the soil surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use.

2. Agricultural Activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since technology provided us with modern

pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a

result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals

damage the composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants absorb many of these pesticides and

when they decompose, they cause soil pollution since they become a part of the land.

3. Waste Disposal: Finally, a growing cause for concern is how we dispose of our waste. While industrial waste is sure to

cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every human produces a certain amount

of personal waste products by way or urine and feces.

While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the

form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is

because our bodies are full of toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of soil.

4. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel

stations. The chemicals present in the fuel deteriorates the quality of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation. These

chemicals can enter into the groundwater through soil and make the water undrinkable.

5. Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the rain and fall back on the ground.

The polluted water could dissolve away some of the important nutrients found in soil and change the structure of the soil.
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Effects of Soil Pollution

1. Effect on Health of Humans: Considering how soil is the reason we are able to sustain ourselves, the contamination of it

has major consequences on our health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution and then pass

these on to us. This could explain the sudden surge in small and terminal illnesses.

Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body, causing congenital illnesses and chronic health

problems that cannot be cured easily. In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and cause food poisoning

over a long period of time. The soil pollution can even lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.

2. Effect on Growth of Plants: The ecological balance of any system gets affected due to the widespread contamination of

the soil. Most plants are unable to adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of time. Fungi

and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.

The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution

causes large tracts of land to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its native vegetation, such

land cannot support most forms of life.

3. Decreased Soil Fertility: The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil

yield. The contaminated soil is then used to produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and may contain

some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in people consuming them.

4. Toxic Dust: The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the environment and causes serious effects on

health of some people. The unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to other people.

5. Changes in Soil Structure: The death of many soil organisms (e.g. earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in soil

structure. Apart from that, it could also force other predators to move to other places in search of food.

A number of ways have been suggested to curb the current rate of pollution. Such attempts at cleaning up the environment

require plenty of time and resources to be pitched in. Industries have been given regulations for the disposal of hazardous

waste, which aims at minimizing the area that becomes polluted. Organic methods of farming are being supported, which do

not use chemical laden pesticides and fertilizers. Use of plants that can remove the pollutants from the soil is being

encouraged. However, the road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil pollution will take many more years.
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II. Natural Disasters

2.1 Nature of Disasters

A natural disaster is a major adverse event resulting from natural processes of the Earth; examples include floods, volcaniceruptions ,earthquakes, tsunamis, and other geologic processes. A natural disaster can cause loss of life or property damage,and typically leaves some economic damage in its wake, the severity of which depends on the affectedpopulation's resilience, or ability to recover .[1]

An adverse event will not rise to the level of a disaster if it occurs in an area without vulnerable population . [2][3][4] In avulnerable area, however, such as San Francisco, an earthquake can have disastrous consequences and leave lasting damage,requiring years to repair.

In 2012, there were 905 natural catastrophes worldwide, 93% of which were weather-related disasters. Overall costs wereUS$170 billion and insured losses $70 billion. 2012 was a moderate year. 45% were meteorological (storms), 36% werehydrological (floods),12% were climatological (heat waves, cold waves, droughts, wildfires) and 7 % were geophysical events(earthquakes and volcanic eruptions). Between 1980 and 2011 geophysical events accounted for 14% of all naturalcatastrophes .[5]

Avalanches

Main article: Avalanche

See also: List of avalanches

A powder snow avalanche

During World War I, an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign inthe Alps at the Austrian-Italian front, many of which were caused by artillery fire .[6]

Earthquakes

Main article: Earthquake

See also: List of earthquakes

The 1693 Sicily earthquake

An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that create sseismic waves. At the Earth'ssurface, earthquakes manifest themselves by vibration, shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. The vibrationsmay vary in magnitude. Earthquakes are caused mostly by slippage within geological faults, but also by other events such asvolcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is calledthe focus. The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the epicenter. Earthquakes by themselves rarely killpeople or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic seawaves) and volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by better construction,safety systems, early warning and planning. Some of the most significant earthquakes in recent times include:

The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the third largest earthquake recorded in history,registering a momentmagnitude of 9.1-9.3. The huge tsunamis triggered by this earthquake killed at least 229,000 people.

The 2011 Thoku earthquake and tsunami registered a moment magnitude of 9.0. The death toll from theearthquake and tsunami is over 13,000, and over 12,000 people are still missing.

The 8.8 magnitude February 27, 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami cost 525 lives .[7]
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The 7.9 magnitude May 12, 2008 Sichuan earthquake in Sichuan Province, China. Death toll at over 61,150 as ofMay 27, 2008.

The 7.7 magnitude July 2006 Java earthquake, which also triggered tsunamis.

The 6.9 magnitude 2005 Azad Jammu & Kashmir and KPK province Earthquake, which killed or injured above 75,000people in Pakistan.

Volcanic eruptions

Main articles: List of largest volcanic eruptions and Types of volcanic eruptions

Artist's impression of the volcanic eruptions that formed the Deccan Traps in India.

Volcanoes can cause widespread destruction and consequent disaster in several ways. The effects include the volcaniceruption itself that may cause harm following the explosion of the volcano or the fall of rock. Second, lava may be producedduring the eruption of a volcano. As it leaves the volcano, the lava destroys many buildings and plants it encounters.Third, volcanic ash generally meaning the cooled ash - may form a cloud, and settle thickly in nearby locations. When mixedwith water this forms a concrete-like material. In sufficient quantity ash may cause roofs to collapse under its weight buteven small quantities will harm humans if inhaled. Since the ash has the consistency of ground glass it causes abrasion

damage to moving parts such as engines. The main killer of humans in the immediate surroundings of a volcanic eruption isthe pyroclastic flows, which consist of a cloud of hot volcanic ash which builds up in the air above the volcano and rushesdown the slopes when the eruption no longer supports the lifting of the gases. It is believed that Pompeii was destroyed by apyroclastic flow. A lahar is a volcanic mudflow or landslide. The 1953 Tangiwai disaster was caused by a lahar, as was the1985 Armero tragedy in which the town of Armero was buried and an estimated 23,000 people were killed .

A specific type of volcano is the supervolcano. According to the Toba catastrophe theory 75,000 to 80,000 years ago a supervolcanic event at Lake Toba reduced the human population to 10,000 or even 1,000 breeding pairs creating a bottleneck inhuman evolution .[8] It also killed three quarters of all plant life in the northern hemisphere. The main danger from asupervolcano is the immense cloud of ash which has a disastrous global effect on climate and temperature for many years.

Hydrological disasters

Main article: Hydrological disasters

It is a violent, sudden and destructive change either in quality of earth's water or in distribution or movement of water onland below the surface or in atmosphere.

Floods

Main article: flood

See also: List of Floods

A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land .[9] The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporarycovering by water of land not normally covered by water .[10] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied tothe inflow of th etide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, whichoverflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries .[11] While the size of a lake orother body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless thewater covers land used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area, roads, expanses of farmland, etc.
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Some of the most notable floods include:

The Johnstown Flood of 1889 where over 2200 people lost their lives when the South Fork Dam holding back LakeConemaugh broke.

The Huang He (Yellow River) in China floods particularly often. The Great Flood of 1931c aused between 800,000 and4,000,000 deaths.

The Great Flood of 1993 was one of the most costly floods in United States history.

The North Sea flood of 1953 which killed 2251 people in the Netherlands and eastern England

The 1998 Yangtze River Floods, in China, left 14 million people homeless.

The 2000 Mozambique flood covered much of the country for three weeks, resulting in thousands of deaths, andleaving the country devastated for years afterward.

The 2005 Mumbai floods which killed 1094 people.

The 2010 Pakistan floods directly affected about 20 million people, mostly by dispolacement, destruction of crops,infrastructure, property and livelihood, with a death toll of close to 2,000.

Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding and storm surge, as happened with:

Bhola Cyclone, which struck East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1970,

Typhoon Nina, which struck China in 1975,

Hurricane Katrina, which struck New Orleans, Louisiana in 2005, and

Cyclone Yasi, which struck Australia in 2011

Limnic eruptions

Main article: Limnic eruption

A cow suffocated by gases from Lake Nyos after a limnic eruption

A limnic eruption occurs when a gas, usually CO2, suddenly erupts from deep lake water, posing the threat of suffocatingwildlife, livestock and humans. Such an eruption may also cause tsunamis in the lake as the rising gas displaces water.Scientists believe landslides, volcanic activity, or explosions can trigger such an eruption. To date, only two limnic eruptionshave been observed and recorded:

In 1984, in Cameroon, a limnic eruption in Lake Monoun caused the deaths of 37 nearby residents.

At nearby Lake Nyos in 1986 a much larger eruption killed between 1,700 and 1,800 people b yasphyxiation.

Tsunami

Main article: Tsunami

Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as the one caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake, or by landslidessuch as the one which occurred at Lituya Bay, Alaska.

The 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake created the Boxing Day Tsunami.

On March 11, 2011, a tsunami occurred near Fukushima, Japan and spread through the Pacific.
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Meteorological disasters

Main article: Meteorological disasters

Blizzards

Main article: Blizzard

Blizzards are severe winter storms characterized by heavy snow and strong winds. When high winds stir up snow that hasalready fallen, it is known as a ground blizzard. Blizzards can impact local economic activities, especially in regions wheresnowfall is rare.

Significant blizzards include:

The Great Blizzard of 1888 in the United States in which many tons of wheat crops were destroyed.

The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard

The North American blizzard of 1947

The 1972 Iran blizzard resulted in approximately 4,000 deaths and lasted for 5 to 7 days.

Cyclonic storms

Tropical Cyclones

Main articles: Tropical Cyclone and Cyclone

See also: List of tropical cyclones

Cyclone, tropical cyclone, hurricane, and typhoon are different names for the same phenomenon a cyclonic storm systemthat forms over the oceans. The deadliest hurricane ever was the 1970 Bhola cyclone; the deadliest Atlantic hurricane wasthe Great Hurricane of 1780 which devastated Martinique, St. Eustatius and Barbados. Another notable hurricaneis Hurricane Katrina which devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States in 2005.

Extratropical Cyclones

Main article: Extratropical cyclone

Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones, are a group of cyclones defined as synoptic scale lowpressure weather systems that occur in the middle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics) not having tropicalcharacteristics, and are connected with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and dew point otherwise known as"baroclinic zones". As with tropical cyclones, they are known by different names in different regions (Nor'easter, PacificNorthwest windstorms, European windstorm, East Asian-northwest Pacific storms, Sudestada and Australian east coastcyclones) . The most intense extratropical cyclones cause widespread disruption and damage to society, such as the stormsurge of the North Sea flood of 1953 which killed 2251 people in the Netherlands and eastern England, the Great Storm of1987 which devastated southern England and France and the Columbus Day Storm of 1962 which struck the Pacificnorthwest.
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Droughts

Main article: Drought

Drought is unusual dryness of soil, resulting in crop failure and shortage of water for other uses, caused by significantly lowerrainfall than average over a prolonged period. Hot dry winds, high temperatures and consequent evaporation of moisturefrom the ground can contribute to conditions of drought.

Well-known historical droughts include:

1900 India killing between 250,000 to 3.25 million.

1921-22 Soviet Union in which over 5 million perished from starvation due to drought

1928-30 Northwest China resulting in over 3 million deaths by famine.

1936 and 1941 Sichuan Province China resulting in 5 million and 2.5 million deaths respectively.

The 1997-2009 Millenium Drought in Australian led to a water supply crisis across much of the country. As a resultmany desalination plants were built for the first time (see list) .

In 2006, Sichuan Province China experienced its worst drought in modern times with nearly 8 million people andover 7 million cattle facing water shortages.

12-year drought that was devastating southwest Western Australia, southeast South Australia, Victoria andnorthern Tasmania was "very severe and without historical precedent".

In 2011, the State of Texas lived under a drought emergency declaration for the entire calendar year. The droughtcaused th eBastrop fires.

Hailstorms

Main article: Hail

Hailstorms are falls of rain drops that arrive as ice, rather than melting before they hit the ground. A particularly damaging

hailstorm hi tMunich, Germany, on July 12, 1984, causing about 2 billion dollars in insurance claims.

Heat waves

Main article: Heat wave

A heat wave is a period of unusually and excessively hot weather. The worst heat wave in recent history was the EuropeanHeat Wave of 2003.

A summer heat wave in Victoria, Australia, created conditions which fuelled the massive bushfires in2009. Melbourne experienced three days in a row of temperatures exceeding 40C (104F) with some regional areassweltering through much higher temperatures. The bushfires, collectively known as "Black Saturday", were partly the act ofarsonists.

The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer resulted in severe heat waves, which killed over 2,000 people. It resulted inhundreds of wildfires which causing widespread air pollution, and burned thousands of square miles of forest.

Heat waves can occur in the ocean as well as on land with significant effects (often on a large scale) eg. coral bleaching.
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Tornados

Main article: Tornado

See also: List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks

A tornado is a violent, dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth anda cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. It is also referred to as a twister ora cyclone ,[12] although the word cyclone is used in meteorology in a wider sense, to refer to any closed low

pressure circulation. Tornadoes come in many shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel,whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debrisa nd dust. Most tornadoes have wind speedsless than 110 miles per hour (177 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80 m) across, and travel a few miles (severalkilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme tornadoes can attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h),stretch more than two miles (3 km) across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (perhaps more than 100 km) .[13][14 ][15]

Well-known historical tornadoes include:

The Tri-State Tornado of 1925, which killed over 600 people in the United States;

The Daulatpur-Saturia Tornado of 1989, which killed roughly 1,300 people in Bangladesh.

Wildfires

Main article: Wildfire

See also: List of forest fires

Wildfires are large fires which often start in wildland areas. Common causes include lightning and drought but wildfires mayalso be started by human negligence or arson. They can spread to populated areas and can thus be a threat to humans andproperty, as well as wildlife.

Notable cases of wildfires were the 1871 Peshtigo Fire in the United States, which killed at least 1700 people, and the2009 Victorian bushfires in Australia.

2.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Management

Disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a systematic approach to identifying, assessing and reducing the risks of disaster. It aims toreduce socio-economic vulnerabilities to disaster as well as dealing with the environmental and other hazards that triggerthem: Here it has been strongly influenced by the mass of research on vulnerability that has appeared in print since the mid-1970s .[1] It is the responsibility of development and relief agencies alike. It should be an integral part of the way suchorganisations do their work, not an add-on or one-off action. DRR is very wide-ranging: Its scope is much broader and deeperthan conventional emergency management. There is potential for DRR initiatives in just about every sector of developmentand humanitarian work.

The most commonly cited definition of DRR is one used by UN agencies such as UNISDRand UNDP: "The conceptualframework of elements considered with the possibilities to minimize vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society,to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context ofsustainable development. "[2]

REPUBLIC ACT No. 10121AN ACT STRENGTHENING THE PHILIPPINE DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM, PROVIDING FONATIONAL DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK AND INSTITUTIONALIZING THE NATIONADISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PLAN, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR AND FOR OTHER PURPO
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III. Climate Change

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution o fweather patterns over periods ranging fromdecades to millions of years. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around theaverage conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events). Climate change is caused by factors suchas biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain humanactivities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming" .[1]

Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. A climaterecord extending deep into the Earth's past has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based on geologicalevidence from boreholet emperature profiles, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunalr ecords,glacial and periglacial processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels. Morerecent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on the physical sciences, are oftenused in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climatechange.

3.1 Causes and Effects of Climate Change

What is Climate Change?

Climate change is a substantial change in a regions average weather patterns including average temperature, precipitation,

and wind. This phenomenon has naturally occurred through out our planets history. Such periods as the ice age are

allegoric possibilities of the degree in a regions conclusive shift. The difference between historic events and current ones

arethe speed at which these shifts may be occurring, due to an increase of human activities contributing to the production of

greenhouse gases.

What Role Does Global Warming Play in Climate Change?

The balance in our ecosystem has been disrupted and the earths climate is currently changing at a record speed, caused by

an increase of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Global warming is the term used to describe the increase of our planets

average temperature. This does not mean that earth will become tropical; but rather extreme weather pattern shifts will

occur in all regions of the world, warming some places and cooling others. These processes include more frequent and more

destructive natural disasters worldwide.

What Is Causing Global Warming and Climate Change?

Greenhouse gases and other anthropogenic dark particles in our atmosphere are a direct link to global warming and climate

change. Burning fossil fuels for energy is the worlds leading man-made contribution. Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas, and

coal. We commonly burn coal to produce electricity from coal-powered plants, we use natural gases to heat up our homes,

and we burn oil to drive our cars.

The second major contributor to the increase of greenhouse gases is deforestation. Deforestation accounts for 15% of

carbon dioxide emissions according to the recent Union of Concerned Scientist (UCS) report, which is 5% less then the 2007

report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The UCS says that the decrease is not due to an

improvement in deforestation, but rather an increase in burning fossil fuels, among other factors.
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Other human activities producing greenhouse gases are: polluted oceans, dirty snow, not recycling, landfills and wastelands,

and urbanization to name a few.

According to the IPCC report in 2007 the increase in our atmospheres GH gases since pre -industrial times are as follows:

Carbon Dioxide 36% increase

Entering our atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, solid waste, and as a result of other man made

chemical reactions.

Methane 148% increase

Produced and emitted into our atmosphere by livestock and other agricultural applications, the breakdowns of our waste in

landfills, and the production of fossil fuels, are among the main contributors.

Nitrogen Oxide 18% increase

Produced when fossil fuels and solid waste are burned, and through various industrial and agricultural practices.

Fluorinated Gases 100% increase

These are synthetic gases greatly depleting our ozone layer, known as High Global Warming Potential Gases. These gases are

created solely by human activities such as the production and use of air conditioning systems, refrigerators, and aerosols.

How Will This Affect Us?

Climate change will affect all aspects of our lives from our health and safety to our finances and global economic structure.

Occupying 71% of the earths surface, oceans play a fundamental pa rt in maintaining the balance of global climates. Changes

in wind patterns along with other factors are causing altered ocean currents and circulation. These currents and circulations

are collectively known as the Ocean Conveyor Belt. The Ocean Conveyor is greatly responsible for distributing large amounts

of heat throughout our planet, making it a corresponding factor to atmospheric influences on earths climate system.

Furthermore, this directly influences the altered precipitation patterns worldwide.

Changes in our precipitation patterns will cause flooding in some regions and droughts in others. This can affect many crop

fields, hindering growth in some and completely destroying others. Since crop farms are used as food for peoples needs, as

well as to feed our livestock, which ultimately is sourced as meat and dairy products for many humans, thus resulting in a

chain reaction of world hunger challenges. The droughts have also been the cause of increased wildfires worldwide, burning

down homes and crops among other things. Such catastrophes end up having a negative financial impact to many economies

worldwide as recently seen in the US. Fluctuating precipitation patterns also hinder our fresh water supply.

From hunger to homelessness, 130 countries have developed their biggest cities on lowlands. Sea levels are rising due to

increased water temperatures and rapidly melting glaciers. As a result, these cities are most vulnerable to flooding and

erosion. Many of these cities are at risk of sinking below sea levels, leaving millions and possibly billions without homes. With

an increase in urbanization triggered by ever- growing industries supplying the worlds pipeline demands, this forces many torelocate to the larger cities and puts more people at risk, should sea levels rise.

If hunger and homelessness is not alarming enough for us to wake up to the worlds apparent crises, what about poor health?

As we fill our atmosphere with pollutants, we give rise to increased respiratory illnesses. According to the World Health

Organization over 800,00 deaths result from climate change annually. 150,000 of these deaths are as a result of air pollution,

and children are most susceptible to becoming victims of poor ambient air quality. Among the many health issues we are

faced with resulting from climate change, ambient air quality is only a fraction of our concerns.


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We find that climate change is also tampering with the balance of the once powerful, natural selection. With so many

species of birds at risk of extinction due to extreme weather conditions changing at slower or faster rates; and land animals

such as polar bears faced with extinction due to lack of food resources resulting from breaking and drifting glaciers; these are

only a few among thousands of species facing a threat of endangerment.

In June 2011, a panel of 27 leading marine scientists from around the world gathered in Oxford. They released an urgent

press report on behalf of the

International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO). The group compared their latest research and collectively

determined that all evidence points towards an inevitable marine extinction event, should the existing course of damage

continue.

When we summarize these events and analyze the potential catastrophes from around the world over a short period of

time, we will see that we are leading humanity to an inevitable course of extinction. After all, what will we do when we run

out of our natural food supply? Considering we have already polluted our oceans wi th PBC and other fatally toxic materials

and since the glaciers are rapidly melting and precipitation has become unpredictable we are running out of fresh water

supply. What will we do when oxygen becomes an endangered molecule? What happens after we have polluted our air so

much that we risk the spread of airborne diseases every time we breathe?

What Can We Do To Stop Global Warming and Climate Change?

We can slow down global warming, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve ambient air quality and reduce the affects of

climate change by adapting better ethical practices in our daily routines. It starts at home. Simple decisions such as opening

the blinds during the day to make use of natural sunlight, changing all light bulbs to energy saving bulbs, turning off access

lights, limiting our electricity usage during peak hours, turning down the thermostat 1.5 degree Celsius in the winter and up

1.5 degree Celsius in the summer, and minimizing hot water usage. These are all conscious decisions we can make in an

effort to reduce thousands of pounds of carbon emissions from reaching our atmosphere, through each household annually.

There is no reason to leave the water running while brushing your teeth, shaving, or while you wash dishes. We can take

shorter showers, and limit the amount of flushes we employ throughout the day. This will save thousands of liters of fresh

water from being wasted annually from each household.

Making better transportation choices, such as fuel-efficient cars, carpooling and taking public transportation are options

readily available to us. These are disciplines we need to practice communally.


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3.2 Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation

Adaptation

Adaptation to global warming is a response to climate change that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of biological systemstoclimate change effects .[1] Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon, climate change and its effects will last manyyears, and adaptation will be necessary .[2] Climate change adaptation is especially important in developing countries since

those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of climate change .[3]

That is, the capacity and potential forhumans to adapt (called adaptive capacity) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations, and developingcountries generally have less capacity to adapt (Schneider et al., 2007) .[4] Adaptive capacity is closely linkedto social and economic development (IPCC, 2007).[5] The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to costbillions of dollars annually for the next several decades, though the amount of money needed is unknown. Donor countriespromised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climatechange. However, while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancn, concrete pledges by developed countries are so farmissing .[6] [7][8] The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change. Atheoretical, physiological limit to adaptation is that humans cannot survive temperatures of above 35 C (95 F).

Another policy response to climate change, known as climate change mitigation (Verbruggen, 2007 )[9] is toreduce greenhouse gas( GHG) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere (through carbonsinks).[10] Even the most effective reductions in emissions, however, would not prevent further climate change impacts,making the need for adaptation unavoidable (Kleinet al., 2007) .[11] In a literature assessment, Klein et al. (2007) assessedoptions for adaptation. They concluded, with very high confidence, that in the absence of mitigation efforts, the effects ofclimate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems. For humansystems, the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high.

Mitigation

Climate change mitigation are actions to limit the magnitude and/or rate of long-term climate change .[2] Climate change

mitigation generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic) emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).[3]

Mitigation mayalso be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g., through reforestation .[3] By contrast ,adaptation to globalwarming are actions taken to manage the eventual (or unavoidable) impacts of global warming ,[4] e.g., by building dikes inresponse to sea level rise .[5]

Examples of mitigation include swi

3rd grading envi sci

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