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Chapter-III
80
3.0 INTRODUCTION
The incense materials are used for ceremonial purposes to fragrant the
environments in the Asia for centuries [1]. Most of the people do not know that
incense fuming may cause indoor air problems. Fuming incense is a slow and
incomplete combustion process, resulting heavy incense smoke that is responsible
for the indoor air pollution hazards [2]. When incense is burnt, it emits smoke
containing PM, PAHs, carbon monoxide, isoprene. Incense smoke particulates
were found to be mutagens in the Ames Salmonella test [3]. The incense smoke
exposure produces illness including, lung cancer, respiratory dysfunction or
asthma, coughing, headache, dizziness, nausea and allergic to the skin and eyes,
etc. [4 – 6].
The mosquito coils are fumed to repel mosquito in Asia and to limited extent
in other parts of the world, including the United States. They contribute
significantly to the indoor air pollution [7 – 8]. It is estimated that 45 – 50
billion mosquito coils are used annually by approximately two billion people
worldwide [9]. The pyrethrins insecticide is a major additive of mosquito coils.
When coil is burnt, the insecticides evaporate with the smoke which repels the
mosquitoes to come in the room. Pyrethrins are of low chronic toxicity to humans
and low reproductive toxicity in animals; although headache, nausea, dizziness etc.
were observed [10]. The combustion of remaining materials generates large
amounts of particulates. The toxicological effects of mosquito coil smoke can
induce asthma, lung cancer and persistent wheeze in children, etc. [11 – 13].
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81
The increased levels of PM and their chemical constituents were generated
during fuming of materials i.e. incense and mosquito coils in the indoor
environments [14 – 30]. These studies were limited to the investigation of the PM
and PAHs.
In the present work, emission and distribution of the PM and their associated
species (i.e. black carbon, organic carbon, ions and PAHs) during the fuming
processes of the various incense (IS) and mosquito coil (MC) materials are
discussed.
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82
3.1EXPERIMENTAL
3.1.1 Materials
Ten incense and four mosquito coil materials of different made were selected
for the present studies. Most of the incenses are manufactured from the mixture
of woods, resins, fragrant gums, herbs and spices wrapped around a bamboo stick
[31]. Incense generally produced into sticks, cones, coils and powders, among
them stick incense is the most popular in India. A typical composition of stick
incense consists of 35% (by weight) of fragrance material, 33% of bamboo stick,
21% of herbal and wood powder, 11% of adhesive powder. However, the physical
characteristics of incense stick such as length, diameter of bamboo stick and coated
part are almost similar [32].
The incense materials are made by blending several solid scented ingredients
into a paste and then, rolled the paste onto a bamboo stick. Charcoal incenses
are generally black in color and made by mixing charcoal with perfumes
and/or essential oils. Other incenses (i.e. Dhoop, Kapoor, Lobhan, etc.) have
very concentrated scents and contain a high percentage of Sandal wood.
Kapoor is also known as camphor, a waxy, white or transparent solid with a
strong, aromatic odor give a lot of smoke when burnt. It is a terpenoid with
the chemical formula of C10H16O and found in wood of the camphor laurel, a
large evergreen tree found in Asia [33].
Similarly, mosquito coils are made of biomass base materials containing some
insecticides most likely pyrethrins, accounting for 0.3 – 0.4% of coil mass. The
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83
remaining components of coil are organic fillers, binders, dyes and other additives
capable of fuming well. The fillers make up 99% of the mosquito coils [34].
3.1.2 Fuming of materials
A standard room (3x2x3 m3) equipped with one window (1x1 m2) was
selected for fuming of the incense and mosquito coil materials during October
2009. The window and the door were closed during fuming processes. The
stand was used for their fuming. They were kept over in the stainless steel
plate to collect the resulting bottom ash.
3.1.3 Collection of particulate matters
The twenty eight PM samples (i.e. 14 each of PM2.5 and PM10) were
collected during fuming of incense and mosquito coil materials as described
in the earlier Chapter.
3.1.4 Analysis of chemical constituents
The analysis of chemical constituents i.e. BC, OC, ions and PAHs in the
PM10 were carried out as described in the earlier Chapter.
3.1.5 Flux measurement
The PM flux measurement was carried out as described in the Chapter-II.
Two gram of each material was taken for the fuming. The sampler was
mounted in the chamber. The fuming was carried out till the complete
burning of the materials with simultaneous collection of the smoke over the
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84
quartz filter paper (47 mm). Similarly, the sample blank was carried out for
the correction, Figure 3.1.
3.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.2.1 Physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil
materials
The physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil materials are
summarized in Table 3.1. The incense sticks and mosquito coils are made of
wood and coconut shell powder, starch, oil and adhesive or binding materials.
In addition, some ingredients i.e. allethrin, sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate,
etc. are mixed in the mosquito coils.
3.2.2 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of PM in indoor
air
3.2.2.1 Distribution
The concentration of the PM in the indoor air during fuming of incense (IS) and
mosquito coil (MC) is shown in Table 3.2. The concentration of PM2.5 and PM10
for incense smoke (n = 10) was ranged from 3128 – 15670 and 3207 – 15939 µg
m-3 with mean value of 8411±3233 and 8674±3284 µg m-3, respectively.
However, the concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 for mosquito coil smoke (n = 4)
was ranged from 912 – 1387 and 988 – 1458 µg m-3 with mean value of
1072±210 and 1144±209 µg m-3, respectively.
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Table 3.1 Physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil materials
MaterialsAverage
ColourTypical
compositionLength(cm)
Diameter(mm)
Weight(gm)
Incense
sticks
19 9 1.26 Brown toBlack
Fragrance material – 35%Bamboo stick – 33%Herbal and Wood powder – 21%Adhesive powder – 11%
Dhoop 7 40 8.19 Black Natural herbsDesi gheeEssential oilsAromatic chemicalsand Sandal powder
Hit coil 95 20 14.3 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 52.90 %Coconut shell powder – 35.00 %Starch/Binder – 12.00%
Jet coil 95 20 14.5 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 52.90 %Coconut shell powder – 35.00 %Starch/Binder – 12.00%
Mortein
coil
95 20 14.4 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 42.8%Coconut shell powder – 40.00 %Starch/Binder – 10.00%Genapol LO88 emulsifer– 0.10%Red dye – 0.10%Fragrance – 0.50%Sodium benzoate – 0.30%Potassium nitrate – 0.10%Jiggat (joss)- 6.0%
Tortoise
coil
95 20 14.3 Dark violet Trans fluethrin active elements –0.03%Wood flour – 81.27%Starch – 17%Dye – 0.20%Perfume floral bouquet – 0.20%Sodium benzoate 1.10%Potassium nitrate – 0.20%
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Table 3.2 Concentration of PM in indoor air, µg m-3
S. No. Materials PM2.5 PM10
IS1 Mumtaj 15670 15939
IS2 Krishna 10623 10915
IS3 Lubhan 10345 10928
IS4 Parivar 100 3128 3310
IS5 Bharat Darshan 4586 4795
IS6 Silver kobra 13368 13613
IS7 Singarpuri 4120 4354
IS8 Dhoop 15379 15767
IS9 Lobhan powder 3760 3915
IS10 Camphor 3132 3207
MC1 Hit 912 988
MC2 Jet 990 1054
MC3 Mortein 1387 1458
MC4 Tartoise 998 1076
IS = Incense, MC = Mosquito coil
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The higher PM concentration was found with the IS than the MC smoke due
to the higher fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1), Figure 3.2.
The [PM2.5]/[PM10] ratio for incense (n = 10) and mosquito coil (n = 4) smokes
was ranged from 0.95 – 0.98 and 0.92 – 0.95 with mean value of 0.96±0.02 and
0.94±0.01, respectively. It means that all PM was mostly lie in the fine modes
during fuming processes.
3.2.2.2 Emission fluxes
The emission fluxes of PM10 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n = 4)
are presented in Table 3.3. The PM10 emission fluxes for the IS and MC materials
during the combustion were ranged from 2422 – 10775 and 19107 – 33797 mg kg-1
with mean value of 6935±3250 and 29191±6644 mg kg-1, respectively. The higher
emission fluxes of the PM were observed with the MC fuming, may be due to
presence of ingredients i.e. sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate, etc. The higher
PM fluxes was observed with the IS and MC smokes as compared to the biomass
smoke (2497±818 mg kg-1), may be due to mixing of the ingredients i.e. starch,
oils, etc.
3.2.2.3 Toxicities
The particulates generated during the fuming processes were generally in the fine
and ultra fine modes [35 – 36]. These particles produce strong pulmonary
inflammatory responses in lungs [37 – 38]. At least 95% particulates were found
in the fine modes during the IS and MC fuming.
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0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
PM2.5 PM10
µg m
-3
ISMC
Figure 3.2 Mean concentration of PM in indoor air during fuming
of materials i.e. incense (IS) and mosquito coil (MC).
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90
Table 3.3 Emission fluxes of PM10 and their associated chemical constituents, mg kg-1
S. No. PM10 BC OC ∑Ion8 ∑PAH13
IS1 10775 463 5334 139 7.02
IS2 9352 365 6032 114 15.71
IS3 5191 343 3810 62 5.43
IS4 2422 213 1414 30 2.99
MC1 31872 2295 9434 7776 0.83
MC2 31989 1791 7741 6622 1.27
MC3 33797 1893 8686 4360 1.31
MC4 19107 1051 5809 6668 1.83
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In the present study, the mean PM2.5 and PM10 concentration for the all incense
and mosquito coil smokes was exceeded the values recommended by ASHREA
(i.e. 65 and 150 µg m-3 for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively), [39].
3.2.3 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of carbons in
indoor air
3.2.3.1 Distribution
The black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC) associated with the PM10
was quantified. The sum of total concentration of BC and OC is considered as
total carbon (TC). Their concentrations in the indoor air are summarized in
Table 3.4.
The concentration of BC, OC and TC for the incense smokes (n = 10) was
ranged from 115 – 1504, 970 – 8132 and 1283 – 9636 µg m-3 with mean value
of 776±327, 4700±1949 and 5477±2195 µg m-3, respectively. Similarly, the
concentration of BC, OC and TC for mosquito coil smoke (n = 4) was ranged
from 58 – 82, 320 – 453 and 378 – 535 µg m-3 with mean value of 68±11,
378±55 and 446±64 µg m-3, respectively. The highest carbon concentration
was observed with the incense smoke, may be due to the fast fuming rates (≈
0.2 g min-1), Figure 3.3.
The [OC/BC] ratio of the IS and MC smokes was ranged from 0.85 – 22.38 and
5.10 – 6.28 with mean value of 8.11±3.53 and 5.61±0.48, respectively, Table 3.5.
These values were almost close to the [OC/BC] ratio of the biomass smoke
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(4.56±0.72). Therefore, it is expected that IS and MC materials are usually made
of the biomass materials.
3.2.3.2 Emission fluxes
The emission fluxes of BC and OC for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n
= 4) are presented in Table 3.3. The BC and OC emission fluxes for the IS
fuming were ranged from 213 – 463 and 1414 - 6032 mg kg-1 with mean value of
346±101 and 4148±2004 mg kg-1, respectively. Similarly, the BC and OC
emission fluxes for the fuming of MC materials were ranged from 1051 – 2295 and
5809 – 9434 mg kg-1 with mean value of 1757±509 and 7917±1536 mg kg-1,
respectively. The higher carbon emission fluxes were observed with the MC
materials, may be due to their higher incomplete burning. Several folds higher
fluxes of BC and OC with the MC smokes was observed as compared to the
biomass smoke (380±270 and 1413±446 mg kg-1).
3.2.3.3 Toxicities
Both BC and OC associated to the PM10 have been reported to effect in the
brachial artery diameter, to cause oxidative stress in plasma, changed heart-rate,
lipid peroxidation in human bronchial cells, etc. [40 – 43]. The mean TC
concentration for IS and MC smokes in the indoor air was found to be 5477±2195
and 446±64 µg m-3, respectively. The tolerance limit reported for PM10 is 150 µg
m-3. The BC concentration in the PM10 of the IS and MC smokes was found to be
≈ 6.0%. The calculated recommended value of BC should be ≈ 9 µg m-3.
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Table 3.4 Concentration of carbons in PM10 in indoor air, µg m-3
S. No. Materials BC OC TC
IS1 Mumtaj 984 7878 8862
IS2 Krishna 995 7030 8025
IS3 Lubhan 979 8001 8980
IS4 Parivar 100 291 1932 2223
IS5 Bharat Darshan 198 2280 2478
IS6 Silver kobra 1504 8132 9636
IS7 Singarpuri 186 1097 1283
IS8 Dhoop 1371 7110 8481
IS9 Lobhan powder 115 2574 2689
IS10 Camphor 1138 970 2108
MC1 Hit 71 362 433
MC2 Jet 58 320 378
MC3 Mortein 82 453 535
MC4 Tartoise 60 377 437
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0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
BC OC TC
µg m
-3
ISMC
Figure 3.3 Mean concentration of carbons in PM10 in indoor air
during fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.
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Table 3.5 Ratio of [OC/BC] in the incense and mosquito coil smokes
S. No. Materials [OC/BC]
IS1 Mumtaj 8.01
IS2 Krishna 7.07
IS3 Lubhan 8.17
IS4 Parivar 100 6.64
IS5 Bharat Darshan 11.52
IS6 Silver kobra 5.41
IS7 Singarpuri 5.90
IS8 Dhoop 5.19
IS9 Lobhan powder 22.38
IS10 Camphor 0.85
MC1 Hit 5.10
MC2 Jet 5.52
MC3 Mortein 5.52
MC4 Tartoise 6.28
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3.2.4 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of ions in indoor
air
3.2.4.1 Distribution
Eight ions i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4
2-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ were analyzed
in the indoor PM10. Their concentrations in the air are presented in Table 3.6.
The sum of total concentration of eight ions i.e. ∑ion8 (i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4
2-,
NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+) for the incense and mosquito coil smokes (n =
4) was ranged from 41 – 205 and 141 – 367 µg m-3 with mean value of
127±66 and 262±94 µg m-3, respectively.
The decreasing abundance of ions in the MC smoke observed is: SO42- ˃ Cl-
˃ K+ ˃ NO3- ˃ Ca2+ ˃ Na+ ˃ Mg2+ ˃ NH4
+. However, the highest concentration
of K+ was observed with the IS smoke, similar to the biomass smoke. The
abundance of ions in the IS smoke in decreasing order is: K+ ˃ Cl- ˃ Ca2+ ˃
NO3- ˃ SO4
2- ˃ Mg2+ ˃ Na+ ˃ NH4+, Figure 3.4. The remarkably higher
concentration of Cl- and SO42- with mosquito coil smoke was observed. At
least 2-folds higher concentration of the ∑ion8 was observed with the MC
than the IS smoke, may be due to addition of ingredients i.e. sodium benzoate,
potassium nitrate, etc. during making coils.
The particulate equivalent concentration ratio of the ∑anion to ∑cation in the
incense and mosquito coil materials was ranged from 0.4 – 0.74 and 1.12 –
3.11 with mean value of 0.51±0.25 and 1.81±0.90, respectively, Table 3.7. It
means that an acidic particulate environment with the MC smoke was due to
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presence of Cl- and SO42- at the elevated levels.
3.2.4.2 Emission fluxes
The emission fluxes of ∑ion8 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n = 4)
are presented in Table 3.3. The ∑ion8 emission fluxes for IS and MC materials
combustion were ranged from 30 – 139 and 4360 – 7776 mg kg-1 with mean value
of 86±48 and 6357±1405 mg kg-1, respectively. The several folds higher fluxes of
ions were observed with the MC fuming, may be due to their addition as
ingredients. The higher fluxes of ∑ion8 with the IS and MC smokes was observed
as compared to the biomass smoke (2.81±1.18 mg kg-1), may be due to addition of
the ingredients i.e. starch, oils, sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate, etc., Figure
3.5.
3.2.4.3 Toxicities
In the MC smoke, the relatively higher concentration of all ions was marked. The
particulate environment with the MC smoke was found to be acidic due to presence
of two ions i.e. Cl- and SO42- in the excess. This acidic smoke environment may
cause serious health hazards.
3.2.5 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of PAHs in indoor
air
3.2.5.1 Distribution
The concentration of thirteen PAHs i.e. Phe, Ant, Fla, Pyr, Baa, Cry, Bbf,
Bkf, Bap, Bgh, Dba, Ind and Cor in PM10 in the indoor air is summarized in
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98
Table 3.6 Concentration of ions in PM10 in indoor air, µg m-3
S. No. Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
IS1 26.6 7.9 25.0 0.3 4.4 52.4 18.2 69.7
IS2 44.5 23.9 8.7 0.7 5.7 40.1 1.0 7.2
IS3 32.7 29.4 15.3 1.1 7.6 32.7 1.1 10.9
IS4 9.0 5.3 4.2 0.2 1.5 10.9 1.8 7.6
MC1 94 20 21 1 8 88 1 7
MC2 33 29 175 2 22 15 2 24
MC3 13 13 96 2 6 4.5 1 6
MC4 136 51 57 1 18 54 5 45
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99
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
µg m
-3
IS
0102030405060708090
100
Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
µg m
-3
MC
Figure 3.4Mean concentration of ions in PM10 in indoor air during
fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.
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100
Table 3.7 Particulate equivalent concentrations of ions, µEq
S.N. Cl- NO3
- SO42- NH4
+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ ∑anion ∑cation∑anion/
∑cation
IS1 0.75 0.13 0.52 0.02 0.19 2.28 1.52 3.49 1.40 7.50 0.19
IS2 1.25 0.39 0.18 0.04 0.25 1.74 0.08 0.36 1.82 2.47 0.74
IS3 0.92 0.47 0.32 0.06 0.33 1.42 0.09 0.55 1.71 2.45 0.70
IS4 0.25 0.09 0.09 0.01 0.07 0.47 0.15 0.38 0.43 1.08 0.40
MC1 2.64 0.33 0.44 0.08 0.33 2.26 0.07 0.33 3.40 3.05 1.12
MC2 0.93 0.47 3.65 0.08 0.96 0.38 0.19 1.20 5.05 2.81 1.80
MC3 0.37 0.21 2.00 0.13 0.25 0.12 0.04 0.29 2.58 0.83 3.11
MC4 3.83 0.83 1.19 0.05 0.76 1.37 0.42 2.25 5.85 4.84 1.21
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101
0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Flux
, mg
kg-1
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Flux
, mg
kg-1
Figure 3.5 Mean emission fluxes of ions in PM10 during fuming of
materials i.e. IS and MC.
MC
IS
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102
Table 3.8. The concentration of total ∑PAH13 in the indoor air for the
incense and mosquito coil smokes (n = 4) was ranged from 4089 – 14047 and
66 – 103 ng m-3 with a mean value of 9977±4137 and 74±20 ng m-3,
respectively.
The distribution trend of thirteen PAHs in the air with the IS smoke is: Cry ˃
Bbf ˃ Baa ˃ Pyr ˃ Fla ˃ Bap ˃ Bgh ˃ Phe ˃ Dba ˃ Ind ˃ Bkf ˃ Ant ˃ Cor.
However, different trend with the MC smoke is: Cry ˃ Baa ˃ Pyr ˃ Bbf ˃ Bap ˃
Phe ˃ Bgh ˃ Ant ˃ Ind ˃ Bkf ˃ Fla ˃ Cor ˃ Dba, Figure 3.6. Significantly,
higher ∑PAH13 concentration with the incense smoke was observed, may be
due to use of the perfume product as ingredients, Table 3.9.
3.2.5.2 Emission fluxes
The emission fluxes of ΣPAH13 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n =
4) are presented in Table 3.3. The ΣPAH13 emission fluxes for IS and MC
materials were ranged from 2.99 – 15.71 and 0.83 – 1.83 mg kg-1 with mean value
of 7.78±5.43 and 1.31±0.40 mg kg-1, respectively.
The trend of PAHs emission fluxes with the IS and MC smokes is presented in
Figure 3.7. The several folds higher fluxes of ΣPAH13 with the IS fuming were
observed, may be due to higher fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1). Similarly, several
folds higher fluxes of ΣPAH13 with the IS and MC smokes was observed as
compared to the biomass smoke (0.16±0.13 mg kg-1), may be due to addition of the
organic ingredients.
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Table 3.8 Concentration of PAHs in PM10 in indoor air, ng m-3
S.N. Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
IS1 918 270 1626 1674 606 1896 1404 90 1338 198 252 90 0
IS2 569 188 544 702 3409 3502 4183 0 152 70 728 0 0
IS3 226 73 1269 1534 1242 1142 942 690 1033 1518 818 641 283
IS4 204 111 255 138 276 1038 498 96 414 114 594 351 0
MC1 4.6 1.5 3.0 4.3 5.6 7.1 9.6 3.8 9.9 0.8 6.3 7.9 1.5
MC2 6.0 4.8 0.6 7.0 6.0 7.2 3.7 0.9 2.7 0.2 2.1 0.5 0.0
MC3 1.0 1.4 1.5 5.2 7.9 8.5 8.8 3.3 7.2 0.7 6.9 3.2 1.0
MC4 10.4 8.3 1.0 12.1 10.4 12.4 6.4 1.6 4.7 0.3 3.6 0.9 0.0
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0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
ng m
-3
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
ng m
-3
Figure 3.6 Mean concentration of 13PAHs in PM10 in indoor air
during fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.
MC
IS
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105
Table 3.9 Value of ∑PAH13 and BapE, ng m-3
Materials ∑PAH13 *BapE
IS1 10362 1605
IS2 14047 691
IS3 11411 2184
IS4 4089 569
MC1 66 12
MC2 57 4
MC3 103 9
MC4 72 6
*BapE, Benzo(a)pyrene equivalent carcinogenic potentiality
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106
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
Flux
, mg
kg-1
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
Flux
, mg
kg-1
Figure 3.7 Mean emission fluxes of 13PAHs in PM10 during fuming
of materials i.e. IS and MC.
IS
MC
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107
3.2.5.3 Toxicities
Amongst thirteen PAHs, the Bap has been reported the most toxic
compound. The Bap concentration in the IS and MC smokes was ranged from
152 – 1338 and 4.7 – 9.9 ng m-3 with mean value of 734±535 and 7.1±2.2 ng
m-3, respectively. The recommended value of the Bap in the air reported is 1.0 ng
m-3 [44 – 45]. The Bap concentration in the IS and MC smokes during the fuming
was found to be 734- and 7-folds higher than the recommended limit, respectively.
Among 13 PAHs, six compounds i.e. Baa, Bbf, Bkf, Bap, Dba and Ind were
reported in the list of carcinogenic compounds [46]. They have different toxicity
and standardized with respect to most toxic compound (Bap). The benzo(a)pyrene
equivalent (BapE) carcinogenic potentiality was calculated by using the following
formula [47]:
BapE = 0.06(Baa) + 0.07(Bbf) + 0.07(Bkf) + (Bap) + 0.6(Dba) + 0.08(Ind)
The mean BapE value for the PAHs in the incense and mosquito coil smokes was
observed to be 1262±754 and 7.8±3.9 ng m-3, respectively. The highest
carcinogenic toxicity potentiality was marked with the incense smoke, may be due
to addition of the organic ingredients, Table 3.9.
3.2.6 Sources of PM, BC, OC, ions and PAHs
The correlation matrix of PM10, BC, OC, ions and PAHs for the IS and MC
smokes is presented in Tables 3.10 – 3.17. The good correlation (r = 0.72 – 0.99)
of the PM, BC and OC among themselves in the IS and MC smokes was observed,
indicating origin from the burning processes, Figures 3.8 – 3.10.
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Table 3.10 Correlation (r) matrix of PM10, BC and OC with ions and PAHs in
IS smoke
Elements PM10 BC OC
Cl- 0.60 0.87 0.79
NO3- 0.23 0.64 0.61
SO42- 0.91 0.66 0.75
NH4+ 0.23 0.60 0.61
Na+ 0.58 0.85 0.87
K+ 0.98 0.89 0.87
Mg2+ 0.70 0.29 0.35
Ca2+ 0.74 0.35 0.41
Phe 0.52 0.55 0.82
Ant 0.34 0.39 0.68
Fla 0.79 0.69 0.87
Pyr 0.88 0.79 0.88
Baa 0.40 0.54 0.21
Cry 0.37 0.52 0.37
Bbf 0.37 0.52 0.30
Bkf 0.36 0.24 0.06
Bap 0.51 0.38 0.64
Dba 0.43 0.33 0.13
Bgh -0.03 0.01 -0.44
Ind -0.08 -0.20 -0.34
Cor 0.41 0.32 0.08
Chapter-III
109
Table 3.11 Correlation (r) matrix of PM10, BC and OC with ions and PAHs in
MC smoke
Elements PM10 BC OC
Cl- -0.63 -0.47 -0.27
NO3- -0.49 -0.78 -0.39
SO42- 0.17 -0.32 -0.30
NH4+ 0.82 0.79 0.61
Na+ -0.51 -0.94 -0.75
K+ -0.71 -0.17 -0.31
Mg2+ -0.39 -0.75 -0.33
Ca2+ -0.38 -0.78 -0.36
Phe -0.85 -0.55 -0.67
Ant -0.79 -0.38 -0.38
Fla 0.50 0.16 -0.18
Pyr -0.64 -0.17 -0.22
Baa -0.11 0.40 0.26
Cry -0.27 0.23 0.04
Bbf 0.80 0.64 0.29
Bkf 0.84 0.58 0.29
Bap 0.69 0.42 0.08
Dba 0.85 0.57 0.30
Bgh 0.94 0.77 0.52
Ind 0.53 0.15 -0.15
Cor 0.77 0.41 0.17
Chapter-III
110
Table 3.12 Correlation (r) matrix of ions in incense smoke
Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Cl- 1.00
NO3- 0.78 1.00
SO42- 0.22 -0.02 1.00
NH4+ 0.66 0.98 0.06 1.00
Na+ 0.80 0.91 0.39 0.93 1.00
K+ 0.66 0.21 0.84 0.17 0.53 1.00
Mg2+ -0.11 -0.53 0.85 -0.48 -0.14 0.67 1.00
Ca2+ -0.07 -0.46 0.89 -0.41 -0.07 0.71 0.99 1.00
Chapter-III
111
Table 3.13 Correlation (r) matrix of ions in mosquito coil smoke
Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Cl- 1.00
NO3- 0.77 1.00
SO42- -0.66 -0.06 1.00
NH4+ -0.91 -0.88 0.31 1.00
Na+ 0.21 0.70 0.60 -0.58 1.00
K+ 0.78 0.23 -0.81 -0.64 -0.18 1.00
Mg2+ 0.70 0.99 0.00 -0.81 0.72 0.13 1.00
Ca2+ 0.64 0.98 0.10 -0.78 0.77 0.05 0.99 1.00
Chapter-III
112
Table 3.14 Correlation (r) matrix of PAHs in incense smoke
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
Phe 1.00
Ant 0.98 1.00
Fla 0.58 0.42 1.00
Pyr 0.51 0.32 0.98 1.00
Baa 0.13 0.10 -0.23 -0.08 1.00
Cry 0.50 0.51 -0.14 -0.06 0.90 1.00
Bbf 0.37 0.37 -0.19 -0.09 0.96 0.99 1.00
Bkf -0.50 -0.67 0.39 0.49 -0.20 -0.56 -0.45 1.00
Bap 0.41 0.28 0.93 0.86 -0.58 -0.47 -0.54 0.44 1.00
Dba -0.46 -0.63 0.42 0.53 -0.12 -0.47 -0.37 0.99 0.43 1.00
Bgh -0.78 -0.82 -0.45 -0.28 0.48 0.05 0.21 0.51 -0.53 0.53 1.00
Ind -0.75 -0.84 0.09 0.14 -0.45 -0.80 -0.69 0.90 0.28 0.86 0.50 1.00
Cor -0.50 -0.67 0.36 0.48 -0.07 -0.44 -0.33 0.99 0.36 0.99 0.59 0.86 1.00
Chapter-III
113
Table 3.15 Correlation (r) matrix of PAHs in mosquito coil smoke
Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
Phe 1.00
Ant 0.93 1.00
Fla -0.35 -0.64 1.00
Pyr 0.87 0.97 -0.60 1.00
Baa 0.52 0.70 -0.43 0.84 1.00
Cry 0.68 0.79 -0.37 0.90 0.98 1.00
Bbf -0.49 -0.63 0.86 -0.48 -0.06 -0.09 1.00
Bkf -0.62 -0.78 0.89 -0.66 -0.26 -0.31 0.98 1.00
Bap -0.47 -0.69 0.96 -0.59 -0.28 -0.28 0.96 0.98 1.00
Dba -0.67 -0.82 0.88 -0.71 -0.32 -0.37 0.96 0.99 0.97 1.00
Bgh -0.68 -0.74 0.74 -0.59 -0.10 -0.19 0.96 0.97 0.89 0.96 1.00
Ind -0.43 -0.71 0.99 -0.69 -0.52 -0.47 0.83 0.89 0.95 0.89 0.74 1.00
Cor -0.67 -0.86 0.93 -0.79 -0.48 -0.51 0.90 0.97 0.96 0.98 0.89 0.95 1.00
Chapter-III
114
Table 3.16 Correlation (r) matrix of ions with PAHs in incense smoke
PAHs Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Phe 0.33 -0.28 0.74 -0.33 0.04 0.87 0.85 0.85
Ant 0.21 -0.42 0.60 -0.50 -0.15 0.75 0.83 0.81
Fla 0.25 0.14 0.97 0.24 0.52 0.77 0.72 0.77
Pyr 0.41 0.33 0.93 0.43 0.68 0.79 0.58 0.65
Baa 0.88 0.64 -0.23 0.46 0.50 0.32 -0.40 -0.38
Cry 0.78 0.29 -0.04 0.09 0.25 0.51 -0.03 -0.03
Bbf 0.82 0.42 -0.12 0.22 0.33 0.44 -0.17 -0.17
Bkf 0.08 0.62 0.18 0.77 0.65 -0.09 -0.28 -0.22
Bap -0.12 -0.11 0.90 0.06 0.27 0.51 0.73 0.77
Dba 0.18 0.68 0.21 0.82 0.72 -0.02 -0.28 -0.21
Bgh 0.34 0.77 -0.62 0.75 0.46 -0.44 -0.94 -0.91
Ind -0.31 0.33 -0.11 0.51 0.27 -0.49 -0.41 -0.37
Cor 0.20 0.72 0.15 0.85 0.73 -0.05 -0.35 -0.28
Chapter-III
115
Table 3.17 Correlation (r) matrix of ions with PAHs in mosquito coil smoke
PAHs Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
Phe 0.82 0.98 -0.11 -0.95 0.72 0.39 0.95 0.93
Ant 0.62 0.98 0.13 -0.77 0.79 0.03 0.99 0.99
Fla 0.20 -0.47 -0.78 0.06 -0.75 0.73 -0.55 -0.62
Pyr 0.64 0.96 0.01 -0.71 0.64 0.01 0.98 0.98
Baa 0.48 0.68 -0.21 -0.35 0.16 -0.11 0.73 0.71
Cry 0.65 0.81 -0.28 -0.54 0.26 0.07 0.84 0.80
Bbf 0.10 -0.49 -0.81 0.30 -0.95 0.44 -0.53 -0.60
Bkf -0.06 -0.66 -0.71 0.42 -0.97 0.39 -0.69 -0.76
Bap 0.12 -0.53 -0.81 0.22 -0.90 0.58 -0.59 -0.67
Dba -0.13 -0.71 -0.66 0.47 -0.97 0.36 -0.74 -0.80
Bgh -0.17 -0.66 -0.63 0.54 -0.99 0.19 -0.67 -0.72
Ind 0.11 -0.55 -0.71 0.14 -0.76 0.67 -0.63 -0.70
Cor -0.15 -0.74 -0.61 0.43 -0.91 0.41 -0.79 -0.85
Chapter-III
116
y = 1.015x + 134r = 0.99
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
PM2.5, µg m-3
IS
y = 0.994x + 78.05r = 0.99
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
0 500 1000 1500
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
PM2.5, µg m-3
MC
Figure 3.8 Correlation of PM2.5 with PM10 in IS and MC smokes.
Chapter-III
117
y = 7.528x + 2831.r = 0.75
02000400060008000
1000012000140001600018000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
BC, µg m-3
y = 1.575x + 1270.r = 0.93
02000400060008000
1000012000140001600018000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
OC, µg m-3
y = 0.120x + 210.8r = 0.72
0200400600800
1000120014001600
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
BC
,µg
m-3
OC, µg m-3
Figure 3.9 Correlation of PM10, BC and OC in incense smoke.
Chapter-III
118
y = 14.56x + 157.0r = 0.76
0200400600800
1000120014001600
0 20 40 60 80 100
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
BC, µg m-3
y = 3.388x - 137.0r = 0.88
0200400600800
1000120014001600
0 100 200 300 400 500
PM
10,µ
g m
-3
OC, µg m-3
y = 0.172x + 2.746r = 0.86
0102030405060708090
0 100 200 300 400 500
BC
,µg
m-3
OC, µg m-3
Figure 3.10 Correlation of PM10, BC and OC in mosquito coil smoke.
Chapter-III
119
The ions i.e. Cl-, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ are expected to emit with the PM
during the fuming processes. Whereas, other ions i.e. NO3-, SO4
2- and NH4+
are assumed to be form by the atmospheric reactions. In the IS smoke, the
ions i.e. Cl-, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ had fair to excellent correlation (r = 0.58
– 0.98) with the PM10. Among them, some of the ions showed good
correlations (r = 0.53 – 0.99). In the MC smoke, ions generally showed no
correlation with the PM10, may be due to mixing of salts of Na and K.
However, some ions i.e. Cl-, Mg2+ and Ca2+ among themselves had good
correlation (r = 0.64 – 0.99).
The PAHs are generated by the atmospheric reactions at the fuming
temperature. The higher PAHs are generally present in the particulate phase
unlikely to the lower ones. Some PAHs had good correlation (r = 0.50 – 0.94)
with the PM10, BC and OC in the IS and MC smokes, indicating origin during the
fuming processes. The higher PAHs (i.e. Bkf, Bap, Bgh, Dba, Ind and Cor) were
well correlated (r = 0.51 – 0.99) among themselves in the IS and MC smokes.
3.2.7 Chemical composition of PM
The fraction of the chemical constituents in the particulates (PM) is shown in
Tables 3.18 – 3.20. The BC and OC fraction (n = 4) for the incense PM was
ranged from 3.9 – 8.8 and 49.5 – 73.4% with mean value of 5.9±2.3 and
61.4±9.9%, respectively. Similarly, the BC and OC fraction (n = 4) for MC PM
was ranged from 5.5 – 7.2 and 24.2 – 30.4% with mean value of 6.0±0.8 and
27.5±2.9%, respectively. The TC fraction for IS and MC PM was ranged from
67.2 – 80.0 and 26.0 – 36.8% with mean value of 67.4±10.5 and 31.6±5.4%,
Chapter-III
120
respectively. The high TC fraction in the IS PM was observed, may be due to
higher OC content likely to the biomass PM.
The sum of total fraction of ions i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4
2-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and
Ca2+ (n = 4) for IS and MC PM was ranged from 12.0 – 12.9 and 129 – 349 g kg-1
with mean value of 12.4±0.4 and 232±89 g kg-1, respectively. The significant high
fraction of ions in the MC PM is expected due to addition of salts as ingredients.
The total ∑PAH13 content in the IS and MC PM (n = 4) was ranged from 651 –
1680 and 26.3 – 95.6 mg kg-1 with a mean value of 1153±418 and 50.1±30.4 mg
kg-1, respectively. The high content of the PAHs in the IS PM is expected due to
the fast fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1).
The overall total fraction of carbons, ions and PAHs (n = 4) in the IS and MC PM
was ranged from 55.1 – 81.3 and 40.6 – 70.8% with mean value of 68.7±10.5 and
54.8±13.4%, respectively, Figure 3.11. The higher fraction of the total chemical
constituents was observed with the IS PM, due to higher fraction of OC content.
Chapter-III
121
Table 3.18 Fraction of carbons in PM10, %
S. No. Materials BC OC TC
IS1 Mumtaj 4.3 49.5 53.8
IS2 Krishna 3.9 64.5 68.4
IS3 Lubhan 6.6 73.4 80.0
IS4 Parivar 100 8.8 58.4 67.2
MC1 Hit 7.2 29.6 36.8
MC2 Jet 5.6 24.2 26.0
MC3 Mortein 5.6 25.7 27.7
MC4 Tartoise 5.5 30.4 35.9
Chapter-III
122
Table 3.19 Fraction of ions in PM10, g kg-1
S. No. Cl- NO3- SO4
2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+
IS1 1.7 0.5 1.6 0.0 0.3 3.3 1.1 4.4
IS2 4.1 2.2 0.8 0.1 0.5 3.7 0.1 0.7
IS3 3.0 2.7 1.4 0.1 0.7 3.0 0.1 1.0
IS4 2.7 1.6 1.3 0.1 0.5 3.3 0.5 2.3
MC1 95 20 22 2 8 89 1 7
MC2 23 20 120 1 15 10 2 16
MC3 12 12 89 2 5 4 0 5
MC4 129 49 54 1 17 51 5 43
Chapter-III
123
Table 3.20 Fraction of PAHs in PM10, mg kg-1
S.N. Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor
IS1 58 17 102 105 38 119 88 6 84 12 16 6 0
IS2 68 22 65 84 408 419 501 0 18 8 87 0 0
IS3 21 7 116 140 114 105 86 63 95 139 75 59 26
IS4 62 34 77 42 83 314 150 29 125 34 179 106 0
MC1 1.8 0.6 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.8 1.5 3.9 0.3 2.5 3.1 0.6
MC2 5.7 4.6 0.6 6.6 5.7 6.8 3.5 0.9 2.6 0.2 2.0 0.5 0.0
MC3 0.7 1.0 1.0 3.6 5.4 5.8 6.0 2.3 4.9 0.5 4.7 2.2 0.7
MC4 8.0 6.5 3.8 21.4 12.1 18.6 7.2 1.9 6.2 0.3 5.3 3.0 1.4
Chapter-III
124
TC68%
∑ion81%
∑PAH130%
Others31%
IS
TC32%
∑ion823%∑PAH13
0%
Others45%
MC
Figure 3.11 Mean chemical composition of IS and MC particulates.
Chapter-III
125
3.3 CONCLUSION
The fraction of BC in the IS and MC PM was observed lie ≈ 6.0%. The OC
fraction in the IS PM was observed to be more than 2-folds higher than the MC
PM. At least 19-folds higher fraction of ions (i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4
2-, NH4+, Na+, K+,
Mg2+ and Ca2+) in the MC PM was observed. The higher concentration of ions
(i.e. Cl- and SO42-) in the MC smoke is responsible for making the acidic
particulate environment. However, at least 20-folds higher concentration of the
∑PAH13 in the IS smoke was marked. The MC smoke is seems to be more
dangerous than the IS smoke, due to the acidic particulate environment during
fuming processes.
Chapter-III
126
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Chapter-IV
133
ABSTRACT
In the present work, the chemical composition of various indoor ash residues
derived from burning of the biomass (BM), coal (C), cow dung (CD), incense
(IS) and mosquito coil (MC) materials is described. Three samples each of
biomass, coal, cow dung, incense and mosquito coil materials were burnt in
October, 2010 in Raipur. The ash residues were collected and sieved out the
particles of mesh size 0.1 mm size. The pH value of the indoor ash residues
(n = 15) was ranged from 6.4 – 11.7 with mean value of 9.7±0.9. The BC,
OC, CC, Cl-, NO3-, SO4
2-, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ content (n = 15) was ranged
from 4.87 – 9.67, 0.32 – 0.88, 0.33 – 0.86, 0.12 – 8.27, 0.01 – 0.64, 0.74 –
12.53, 0.06 – 4.47, 0.29 – 15.45, 0.30 – 2.51 and 0.68 – 19.05% with mean
value of 7.60±0.88, 0.58±0.10, 0.56±0.08, 1.81±1.18, 0.10±0.08, 3.31±1.66,
1.05±0.70, 4.92±2.04, 1.27±0.36 and 7.68±2.94%, respectively. The
concentration of F-, Fe, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb (n = 15) was ranged from
124 – 4508, 1100 – 24600, 12 – 211, 109 – 1102, 5 – 142, 21 – 145, 25 – 244 and
5 – 42 mg kg-1 with mean value of 11880±4177, 95±31, 474±152, 43±23, 75±23,
107±32 and 16±6 mg kg-1, respectively. The correlation of chemical
constituents of indoor ash residues is described.