3 - human development

PSY 1 – General PsychologyHuman Development

UNIVERSITY OF SANTO TOMAS Department of Psychology 1st Term, A.Y. 2015 - 2016

Instructor: F. Diaz 1

Chapter/Unit Overview

Explain the nature of human development. Discuss the developmental changes in the physical,

cognitive, social and moral domains. Determine the theoretical perspectives that

influence the developmental theories.

Nature of Human Development

Nature

Nurture

vs

“world within the skin”

complex interplay

Blank state “tabula rasa”

inherited physiological, emotional, intellectual, and socialcharacteristics that make up the individual

external force that influences the individual

Exercise 1

Nature Nurture BothHow the number of neurons inthe brain changes

Development of senses

Your ability to control yourbody

How you interact with others

Developmental Stages and Domains

Human development is the study of physical, social,cognitive, and moral changes experienced by anindividual all throughout his or her lifespan(developmental stages: prenatal, infancy, childhood,adolescence, and adulthood).

Developmental Research Designs

Cross-Sectional Design• Several groups of subjects with

different developmental stagesstudied at one time

• Advantage/s: quick; no risk ofconfusing age effects witheffects of changes in thesociety;

• Disadvantage/s: risk ofsampling error by gettingdifferent kinds of people atdifferent ages

Longitudinal Design• One group of subjects studied

repeatedly as they ages• Advantage/s: no risk of

sampling differences; can studyconsistency within individualsover time

• Disadvantage/s: time-consuming; participants maydrop out (relocation, illness anddeath); hard to separate effectsof age from changes in society




For the first 3 years of his life, Alex was raised in an orphanage in Romaniawhere the number of infants and children greatly exceeded the number ofcaregivers. He was given adequate nutrition allowing him to develop wellphysically, but spent most his days alone in a crib with almost no interactionwith others. He was adopted by a family in the US. His adoptive motherdescribed him as being friendly and engaging but also “self-abusive” andhaving a “dark side.” For instance, Alex would make himself go into seizureby slamming his head on the floor. He was also aggressive toward others,one time attacking his younger sister, “beating her senseless.” When askedif he wanted his adoptive mother to love him, he said to her, “I never wantyou to love me.” When his adoptive mother asked him if he loved her, hereplied, “No, I don’t love anybody.” Afters years of exhausting everytreatment, his adoptive parents arranged for Alex to live with another family.

Looking BackCase of Heather D’Aoust• Last 2008, a 14-year-old girl

was arrested after striking heradoptive mother at least 15times with a claw hammer

• Adoptee parenticide iscommonly associated withReactive attachment disorder(RAD)

• Update: D’Aoust was charged as anadult and was sentenced to 16 yearsto life.

GERMINAL STAGE.Conception to 2 weeksDivision of the zygote intoseveral cells; zygoteattaches itself in the uterus(implantation) 10-14 daysafter conception

EMBRYONIC STAGE. Occurs 2-8 weeksafter conception (development of the heart,spinal cord, stomach and esophagus;development of the arms, hands, legs,fingers, toes, shoulder, head, eyes, ears,nose and mouth at the end of the stage);sense of touch

Begins with fertilization (union of sperm and egg) andends during birth (9 mos./266 days).

FETAL STAGE. 9 weeks to birth.; vital organs and body parts arenow starting to develop and function; sex; sense of taste andhearing

Prenatal Period: Prenatal ExposureTeratogens- substances thatcan causepermanentdamage to thedevelopingembryo or fetus

A B C

Exercise 2The baby at the left is the oldest, at almost 1 month; the baby atthe right is the youngest, at just 2 days. The 1-month-old wasborn 9 weeks early; the 2-day-old was full term and weighsalmost 8 lbs. The baby in the middle, born full-term but weighingonly 2 pounds is the most worrisome.

Infancy/Childhood: Brain & Neural Dev’t

• The infant’s brain is about25% of its adult size, whilethe infant’s body is about5% of its adult size.

• During the final period offetal development, anamazing neural growth is250,000 per minute

• Neural growth continuesinto the first 18 to 24 mos.of life

25%

5%Adul

t siz

e




Exercise 3 Infancy/Childhood: Brain & Neural Dev’t

Neuroplasticity

Neural Prunning

Exercise 4

Exercise 5

Infancy/Childhood: Motor Development

CephalocaudalPrinciple

ProximodistalPrinciple

Infancy/Childhood: Motor Development

Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development but there are large individualdifferences in the ages at which each milestone appears.




Around the WorldLike this Algonquin baby, American Indian infantsspend long hours each day on a cradle board to thedistress of some non-Natives. However, it becameestablished that its use does not have any negativeeffects on development and is in fact, soothing for thebaby. Also, North American children walked at aboutthe same time as their European-Americancounterparts, implying that it is maturation rather thanpractice, led to motor skills.On the other hand, Jamaican babies undergostretching exercises and they are among the world’syoungest walkers.Babies from Bali, Indonesia skipped “crawling phase”as babies are considered divine and crawling is foranimals.

Infancy/Childhood: Physical Development

involuntary suckingmovement elicited by astimulus placed in themouth

involuntary head-turningmovement elicited by astimulus on the side of themouth or cheek

hugging motion stimulatedby a loud noise

Exercise 6

Exercise 7

Exercise 8

Exercise 9




Infancy/Childhood: Emotional Development

Development of distinct temperaments (i.e., relatively stabledifferences in mood and emotional behaviour) in the first 2-3months of life is significantly due to genetic factors and brainactivity.Family influence, poverty level and educational opportunitiescan change the infant’s initial temperament

1. Flexible or Easy – (40%) adaptable to new situations; regularrhythms; positive mood; adaptability; low intensity; low sensitivity

2. Difficult or Feisty – (10%) not very adaptable to new sitations;active; intense; distractible; sensitive; irregular; moody

3. Inhibited or Fearful (Slow-to-warm-up) – (15%) adapts slowly;withdraws but may later “warm up”

4. Average – did not into any of the above-mentioned categories

Types of Temperament

Ainsworth’s Attachment TheoryTYPES OF

ATTACHMENTDESCRIPTION

SECURE ATTACHMENT Children use parents as a secure base from whichthey explore their environment.

They become upset if the parent leaves the room butare glad to see the parent when he/she parent returns

ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT Tends not to use the parent as a secure base They become upset when the parent leaves and may

often appear angry or become more upset when hisparents returns

AVOIDANT These children seek little contact with their parentsand are not concerned when their parents leaves

They usually avoid interactions when the parentreturns

Bolwby’s Attachment TheoryA responsible and accessible caregivercreates a secure base for the child’sdevelopment Defenseless and vulnerable Crucial for physical, cognitive and social

growth

Primary bonding relationship becomes amental mold for all future friendships andlove relationships Learn how relationships work

Type Nature of Pattern In Play Room MotherLeaves

MotherReturns Adult Attachment

A

INSECURE-AVOIDANT(I’m ok, you’re notok)

Child playshappily

Childcontinuesplaying

Child ignoresher

DISMISSINGGreater sense of autonomyTend to cut themselves offemotionally from partner

B SECURE(I’m ok, you’re ok)

Child playshappily

Child pausesas not ashappy

Childwelcomes her,returns to play

SECURE/AUTONOMOUSComfortable in relationshipsAble to seek support from others

C

INSECURE-RESISTANTAMBIVALENT(I’m not ok, you’reok)

Child clings, ispreoccupiedwith mother

Child isunhappy, mayalso stopplaying

Child is angry,may cry, hitmother, cling

PREOCCUPIEDFears rejection from partnerStrong desire to maintaincloseness

D DISORGANIZED Child iscautious

Child maystare or yell;looks scared,confused

Child actsoddly – mayfreeze,scream, hitself, throwthings

Cannot classfy

Bowlby’s Patterns of Infant Attachment Exercise 10

Clothed mother Wire mother

How did these baby monkeys develop socially?They were aggressive, and antisocial. If they did becomeparents themselves, they are abusive to their offspring becausethey do not have role models who taught them how to parent orhow to interact with other monkeys.




Research FocusThe Tiffany Field Study in 1979 showed the importance ofattachment, bonding and social stimulation and development.

Group 1

Preterm at risk babiesreceived the standard care

Removal from the motherand isolate in a germ-freeenvironment

Group 2

Preterm at risk babiesreceived the new treatment

15 minutes of skin to skincontact from a nurse everyday

Exercise 11

Parenting StylePARENTING STYLE DESCRIPTION

Authoritarian ParentingStyle

A restrictive punitive style in which parents exhort the childto follow their directions and to respect work and effort.

The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls onthe child and allows little verbal exchange.

This parenting style is associated with children’s socialincompetence.

Authoritative ParentingStyle

A parenting style in which parents encourage their childrento be independent but still place limits and controls on theiractions.

Extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed, and parents arewarm and nurturant toward the child.

Authoritative parenting is associated with children’s socialcompetence.

Parenting StylePARENTING STYLE DESCRIPTION

Neglectful ParentingStyle

A style of parenting in which the parent is very muchuninvolved in the child’s life.

It is associated with children‘s social incompetence,especially lack of self-control.

Indulgent Parenting Style A style of parenting in which parents are highly involvedwith their children but place few demands or controls onthem.

Indulgent parenting is associated with children’s socialincompetence, especially lack of self-control.

Parenting Style Research focusDo babies’temperamentschange?The data suggest thatcaregivers who arereassuring and do notact frightenedthemselves can helpchildren overcomeinnate fearfulness.In regard to change intemperament:inhibited/fearful >negative >positive/exuberant

Goodness of fit to describe an environment where an infant temperamentmatches the opportunities, expectations, and demands the infant encounters.




Infancy/Childhood: Cognitive Development

MENTAL PROCESSES• Assimilation is a process

wherein the existingmental patterns were usedin new situations

• Accommodation is aprocess wherein existingideas are modified to fitnew requirements

Jean Piaget – Cognitive Stages ofDevelopment

Cognitive Stages of DevelopmentBirth to 2 years; hidden objects;object permanenceSENSORIMOTOR

PREOPERATIONAL

CONCRETE

FORMAL

2 – 7 years; symbolic thoughts;egocentrism

7 – 12 years; conservation;classification; reversibility

> 12 years; abstraction;imaginary audience; personalfable

Hidden Object vs. Object Permanence

Knowledge that an object continues to exist even when it can nolonger be heard, touch or seen.

Childhood: Egocentrism

Tendency to perceive events and experiences based only on one’sown perspectives or interpretation.

Three Mountains TaskThe child is shown a 3D model of 3mountains of different sizes, colorsand features (e.g. cross, house,snow). A doll is placed from adifferent position from the child’s.The child is asked what the dollcan see.It was found out that 4 year-oldsalmost always chose a picture thatrepresent what they could seeinstead of the doll’s view.

Conservation

Ability to understand that the basic properties of an object is retainedeven though its external appearance is changed.

Adolescence: Egocentricism

An adolescent’s belief thatshe is unique andinvulnerable.

An adolescent’s beliefthat the world is watchingall his/her actiion.

PERSONAL FABLE

IMAGINARY AUDIENCE




Infancy/Childhood: Personality Dev’t• Personality is developed

based on the psychicenergy or libido (i.e., drivingforce or motivating factorbehind individual’sbehaviour)

• First 5 years were mostimportant to social andpersonality development

• Satisfaction of psychosexualneeds (undersatisfaction vsoversatisfaction) fixation(i.e., “stuck” in a stage)

Sigmund Freud – PsychosexualStages of Development

Psychosexual Stages of Development0 – 18 mos./ mouth, lips, tongue/weaning or feedingORAL STAGE

ANAL STAGE

PHALLIC STAGE

LATENT STAGE

18 mos. – 3 yrs./ anus/ toilet training

3 – 6 yrs./ penis or clitoris/ OedipusComplex or Electra Complex/Identification

GENITAL STAGE

6 yrs. – puberty/ interaction with samesex/ dev’t of social and intellectualskills/ “calm” period

puberty – adulthood/ interest towardopposite sex

Looking Back

In ancient Roman religion and magic, the fascinus was an embodiment of the divine phallus used toinvoke the deity’s divine protection. Pliny the historian calls it a medicus invidiae (i.e., a “doctor” orremedy for envy or evil eye); hence, the custom of hanging a phallic charm on a baby's neck, andexamples have been found of phallus-bearing rings too small to be worn except by children in thebelief that it can ward off evil from children, mainly boys, and from conquering generals.

Infancy/Childhood: Social Development• Each life stage involves

crisis to be resolved.• Primary goal is to satisfy

desires associated withsocial needs.

• Crisis resolution senseof identity; failure toresolve crises impairment ofdevelopment

Erik Erikson – PsychosocialStages of Development

Psychosocial Stages of Development0 – 1 yr.InfancyTrust vs. Mistrust

Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

Initiative vs. Guilt

Industry vs. Inferiority

1 – 3 yrs.Toddler

3 – 5 yrs.Early Childhood

Identity vs. Role Confusion

5 yrs. to pubertySchool Ageteen years to early 20sAdolescence

Psychosocial Stages of Development20s – 40sYoung AdulthoodIntimacy vs. Isolation

Generativity vs. Stagnation

Integrity vs. Despair

40s – 60sMiddle Adulthood

≥ 60sLate Adulthood




Infancy/Childhood: Moral DevelopmentDistinct features:1. Moral reasoning was

classified into 3 distinctlevels.

2. Everyone progressesthrough the levels in order,from lowest to highest.However, not everyonereaches the higher stages ofmoral development.

* There is a 6th substage in the earlierversions of the theory but it has been omittedbecause too few people had reached it. Lawrence Kohlberg – Moral Stages

of Development

Moral Stages of DevelopmentSELF-INTEREST (consequence)1. Fear of punishment or the need

to be obedient2. Satisfying self-interest which

may involve bargain

Preconventional

Conventional

Postconventional

SOCIAL APPROVAL (social norms)3. Conforming to the standards of

others4. Conforming to the laws of

society

ABSTRACT IDEAS (reasoning)5. Careful evaluation of all the

alternatives and balancebetween human rights and law

Moral Stages of DevelopmentLevel of Morality How Rules are Understood

Preconventional morality(typically very young children)

The consequences determine morality; right behaviour is rewarded whilewrong behaviour is punished

Stage 1 OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION.“What is bad is what you get punished for.”

Stage 2 INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE.“What is bad is what has bad results.”"If you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours."

Conventional morality(older children, adolescents, and mostadults)

Social norms determine morality

Stage 3 GOOD INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS.“Bad intentions are evil; good intentions are good.”

Stage 4 MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL ORDER.“Do your duty. Follow the rules.”

Postconventional morality(about 20% of the adult population)

Reasoning determine morality

Stage 5 SOCIAL CONTRACT AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS.Encourage democracy, protection of individual rights, due process of law.”

*Stage 6 UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES.“Pursue universal ethical principles.”e.g. Mahatma Gandhi

An Experiment on Moral Development. Infants 6 and 10months old watched a puppet show in which one kitten helped apuppy to get a toy, and a different kitten prevented the puppyfrom getting the toy. Later, the infants had the opportunity to playwith the kitten puppets, and they tended to choose the kittenthat had helped the puppy. (Hamlin, Wynn, & Bloom, 2007).Results suggest that the human tendency toward cooperation ispresent from a very early in life so that some sense of right andwrong may be “bred in the bone.”

Research focus

Adolescence: Physical Development

Females• Surge in physical

growth (6-12 years old)• Female sexual maturity Menarche is the firstmenstrual period c/oestrogen

• Appearance ofsecondary sexualcharacteristics (growthof pubic hair,development of breast,widening of hips)

Males• Surge in physical

growth (13-14 years old)• Male sexual maturity

(growth of genitalorgans and productionof sperm) c/otestosterone

• Appearance ofsecondary sexualcharacteristics (growthof facial and pubic hair,growth of muscles,deepening of voice)

Adolescence: Emotional Development

• At age 11, the brainundergoes “rewiring”that causes vulnerabilityto traumatic adolescentexperiences

• Risk-takingirresponsible behavioursare due to theunderdevelopedprefrontal cortex (PFC)

Prefrontal cortex

• Moody, emotionaland impulsivebehaviours is alsoattributed to thewell-developedlimbic system(emotional brain).




Adulthood: Physical Development

Very Late Adulthood70s to 80s:Further decrease in musclestrength, bone density,speed of nerve conduction,output of lungs, heart, andkidneys

Late Adulthood50s to 60s:Decline in height due to boneloss; further decrease inoutput of lungs and kidneys;increase skin wrinkles;deterioration of joints; lesssensitivity of sense organs;hear muscles becomes lesseffective at blood pumpingresulting in decrease bloodflow through coronary arteries

MiiddleAdulthood30s to 40s:weight gain;late 40s:decrease inphysiologicalresponses(heart rate, lungcapacity,musclestrength,eyesight)

MENOPAUSEANDROPAUSE

Exercise 12

Adulthood: Cognitive Development

1. Slowing in Processing Speed. Rate at which information isencoded into long-term memory or retrieve from long-termmemory

2. Slowing in Perceptual Speed. Rate at which a particularsensory stimulus is identified

3. Slowing in Reaction Time. Rate at which a response iselicited by a stimulus

Three Cognitive Processes (40 - 80 years old)

Cognitive abilities are usually at their peak during 20s to 30s.A gradual decline occurs during 40s to 50s.

Adulthood: Cognitive Development

Young adults in their 20s excel in encoding and recalling hugeamount of detail but are not as good at making sense of whatall details mean

Memory Differences

A loss of brain cells occurs in the prefrontal cortex (PFC).There is a decrease in memory skills result from the slowingdown of memory abilities, reasoning, and attention.Neural connections multiply and become more meaningful.

Brain Changes

Exercise 13 Adulthood: Emotional Development

Amygdala, which is responsible for fear, becomes less active.

Brain Changes

Management of emotions become better.Older people develop “positivity bias” (pay less attention tonegative information and more to positive information.




Adulthood: Social DevelopmentSocial development is significantly influenced by social andcultural expectations.Social changes involve the building of intimate relationships,fulfilment of career goals, and playing different roles.

Peter Pan syndrome is apop psychology conceptpertaining to an adult(usually male) who issocially immature. The popicon Michael Jackson is agood example of anindividual who exemplifiesthis “syndrome”. He builtNeverland Ranch as a wayof regaining the childhoodhe never had. The 2,700-acre property contains aprivate amusement park,zoo and movie theater.

Gerascophobia is the excessive fear of aging. It is an extremely rarecondition that only 2 cases of adults have been reported. On 2014, a casereport of a 14-year-old boy with a similar diagnosis was published. [SeePerales-Blum, Juarez-Treviño, & Escobedo-Belloc, 2014]

Looking BackThe called her “Genie” – a pseudonym to protecther privacy for having a life bottled up in horrors inone dimly lit room since infancy.Alternatively tied up to a potty or in a sleeping bagin a mesh-sided crib, Genie had contact only withher abusive father during her 12 years ofconfinement. After her discovery in 1970, thewaiflike child became a cause celebre amongresearchers and do-gooders who wanted both tolearn from her and save her.During her four-year-stay at Children’s Hospital atUCLA, Genie progressed, but only briefly asdoctors argued over her care and affections.Finger-pointing, hateful allegations and a lawsuitfollowed, and ultimately, Genie regressed. Today,Genie is in her 50s. She is again in apsychological confinement as ward of the stateand again, she is speechless.

Looking Back

In April 2008, Elizabeth Fritzl andher three children were releasedfrom years of isolation in anAustrian cellar from her father,Josef Fritzl.

Film/Video

Genie: Secret of the Wild Child (1994)Up SeriesNGC In the Womb2020 Teen Confidential (video clip)

Extended ReadingsPerales-Blum, L., Juarez-Treviño, M. Escobedo-Belloc D. (2014) Severe

growing-up phobia, a condition explained in a 14-year-old boy. CaseReports in Psychiatry. 2014: 1- 6.http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/706439




References:

See syllabus

3 - human development

Documents

developmental changes

moral changes

developmental theories

time advantages

adoptive parents

risk ofsampling error

risk ofsampling differences

number of neurons