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Socalismand CivilisationThe evoutionary Traditionalismof

Ngugwa hiongoG O V I N D N R I N R M

I ^^E D E R S OF NGUGi'snovels must be familiar with thepassageinPeals of Bloodinwhich Karega objectstoWanja'sretentionofNyakinyua'shut and herthings exactlyasthesehadbeeninthepast thesamebed,thesamesheets,thesamelampandfurniture like amoment trapped infrozen space. WhenWana remnds Karega thatatone time he himself used toargueabout the importance of thepast,Karega replies: True. . .butonlyas alivinglesson to the present.Imean we must not preserveourpastas amuseum rather we must studyitcritically, withoutillusions,and seewhat lessonswe candraw fromit intoday'sbattle-field of the future and the present. But to worshipit no.MaybeIused to do it but I don't want to continue worshipping inthe temples ofapastwithouttarmacroads, without electric cookers,aworld dominated by slavery to nature. 1

David CookandMichael Okenimkpesee inthis passageNgug's own radical rejection of his earlier idea ofagreatAfricanpastwhenallAfrica controlleditsown earth.2 If theCook-Okenimkpeassessmentiscorrect, mghtone askhow longdidthis rejectionlast?In WillMarryWhen WantandDevil onthe CrosswefindNgugdividingAfrican history intotwodistincteras the first beforeand thesecond sincetheadvent ofimperialism. And weareleft in little doubt that the first onewasthe betterof thetwoandshouldact as theinspirationand theguide in our reordering of the present and building of the future.In 1 9 7 3JamesOlney commented on Ngug's paradoxical politicsofreactionary revolution andexpressedhisview that mostother African novelists would disagree with him.HequotedAchebeandSoyinkainsupportof hiscontentionandsaid:

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22 G O V I N D N R I N SH R MNgug seemsto want to make hispasthis future: he would

revive social and cultural structures of thepastas a reality of thefuture, and what hecallsfor to accomplish this is a present revolutionnot to achieve something new but to restore an ideal pre-colonialstatethat he, at least, takestohavebeen of orignalpeace,harmony, justice, and goodness.3 Olney, obviously, wasreferring to the two parallel and simultaneous movements visibleinNgug's thought: while socially and politically he was movingin a more radical and revolutionary direction, morally andculturally he was moving in the direction of a more pronouncedtraditionalism. Marxist socialism was the decisive influence onhis political and social thought while Christianity and Africantraditionwerethe leading influences on its moral and culturalaspects.Butwhereashis commtment to Marxist socialism remains asfirmas ever,therehas been an increasing tendency tolookto theAfricanpasteven as a guide in the social and politicalspheres. I think, however, that revolutionary traditionalismrather than reactionary revolution would be a more appropriate term for characterizing Ngug's peculiar blend of socialismand his reverence for thepastcivilization ofAfrica.

I n a capitalistic society, Ngugwrote in1 9 6 8 , thepasthasa romantic gamour: gazing at it, aswitnessWordsworth andD .H . Lawrence, or more recently YukioMishima of Japan, isoftenameansof escaping the present. It is only in 'a socialist'context that a look atyesterdaycan be meaningful in illuminating today and tomorrow. 4Ngug's generalization about capitalistic society is too sweeping for all non-socialist writers do nottreatthepastas ameansofescape.To liberal thinkers such asBentham,Jamesand John Stuart M i l l ,and Macaulay, thepastishardly of anygreatersignificance than it is forradicalsand revolutionaries such as Marx.Amongthefasebook-backs with whichDickensdecorated his study at Gad'sH i l lwas a set called TheWisdomof our Ancestors I. Ignorance. I I . Superstition. I I I .The Block. IV. TheStake.V. The Rack. VI .D irt.VI I .D is-ease. 5The tone is thesameas that of Bentham, who had calledO ur Wise Ancestors, The Wisdom of our Ancestors, TheWisdom of Ages mschievous and absurd fallacies springngfromthegrossestperversion of the meaning of words. It is con-

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R E V O L U T I O N R Y TR DIT I ON LI SM 23servative thinkers like Burke,Arnold,and Butler wholookatthepastasthe repository of the accumulated experience of mankind.Weowe past generations, said Samuel Butler, not onlythemaster discoveries of music, science, literature, and art few of

whichbroughtprofitto those towhomthey were revealed butaso for our organism itselfwhichisthe inheritance gathered andgarneredbythose who have gone before us. 6The fundamentalconservative reason for their reliance onthepastistheir distrustofthenaked reasonof theindividualas aguidetomoralandsocial behaviour. From this distrust stem their scepticismandtheir beliefinexperienceandhistory,whichtellthem thattheindividualisfoolishbut the speciesiswise.

Ngugis acommitted Marxist andcouldnot be said to displayany lackoftrustinideology,7but at thesametimeheattachesconsiderable weightto theexperienceof thecommunity. Thereisawholeseriesofcharactersin hisnovels from MugowaK ibiroandWaiyaki's father ChegeinTheRiver Beween toMwathiand Nyakinyua in eals of Blood who representthewisdomof the community.Eventhename Waiyaki gvento themaincharacterinthe formernovelistosuggestthetradition ofleadership representedby thefamousKikuyu chief and warriorwhoput upstout resistancetoBritishcolonialismin the1 8 9 0 s .Hispiercing contemplativeeyessuggestcomparisonwithJomoKenyattawho,like Waiyaki, was descendedfromafamily ofseers.Micere Mugoiscorrectinassertingon thebasisof apersonalinterview that Ngugreviews the past inOkotp'Bitek's Lawino'smilitant,assertive, progressiveandcreativesense andthat tohim everythingwithinthetraditional settinghadsignificance,symbolismand deep religous meaning. 8

Theobjectioncouldbe raised that Micere Mugo's observationsare based onastudyofNgug's earlier novels, thatby thetimehe wrote eals of Blood there had beenamarked changein hisattitudeto thepastasrevealedinKarega's remarks quotedatthe begnning.Thisistruetosome extent. However, sincethewritingofeals Ngughasexperienced another changein hisattitudeto thepast, whichhas ledhimto anequally deep,perhaps even deeper, attachmentto itthan before.Iproposetoexamnetheindications,bothin his artandhisthought,which

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24 G O V I N D N R I N SH R Msupport this conclusion and the factors whichhavecontributedtothischange.

WhileNgug's commtmenttoMarxismis arecognized fact,his deviations fromtheorthodox Marxist positionhave hardlyever been noticed. For instance, MarxandEngels,inspiteoftheir condemnationof thebourgeoisiefor itsinsatiable lustforpower and money anditsruthlessnessin pursuingtheseends,stillregarded it as arevolutionary force.It had,saysthefamouspassageinThe Communist Manifesto, duringitsruleofscarceone hundredyears,created more massive and more colossa productive forces than[had] allpreceding generations together. 8Itwasresponsiblefor thesubjectionofnature'sforcestoman,fortheapplicationofmachinerytoindustryandagriculture,steam-navigation, railways, electrictelegraphs,clearingofwholecontinents for cultivation, canalization of rivers, for making entiredesertsbloomliketherose. Throughitsbreakingup of thestagnationoffeudal societyit hasbeenthemost importantagentinthe social dynamcs whichwillultimately leadto thetriumph ofthe proletariat.Ngug,as far as Iknow, never acknowledges thisrevolutionary roleof thebourgeoisie andfromhispenweneversee anythingbutcondemnationofthisclass.Thepeasantry,onthe contrary,isalwayspraised and gorified.Ngug,it isobvious,is not following MarxandEngelsbutFanon, whomadeadistinctionbetweentheWestern bourgeoisie andthecolonial bourgeoisieandregardedthepoorpeasantryas themost genuinelyrevolutionaryclassin theThird World.

The peasantsaonearerevolutionaryinthesecountriesforthreereasons. First,because theyhavenothing to lose andeverythingtogain by anychangein theexistingset-upasimposedby colonialism. Second,becausethecountry peopleare theonlypeople whohave moreorlesskept their individuality free fromcolonialimpositions. This achievementoftheirsismarvellous,remniscentof aconjuror's most successful sleightofhand.

Third,becausetheyare theonlyoneswhoarepreparedtotakerecourse toviolencetoclaim their birthright: Thestarvingpeasant,outsidetheclasssystem,isthe first amongtheexploitedto discover that only violencepays.For himthereisno compromse, no possible comingtoterms.. .. 10Ngugfaithfullyechoes

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R E V O L U T I O N R Y T R DIT I ON LI SM 25theseviews of Fanoninthe interview gvenbyhimtohis fellowradicalsatLeeds: He [Fanon]believesthatthepeasantsmustcontrolthestate,must be involved in the work of social and economcreconstruction.Heseesthepeasantryas thereal revolutionary forcein theThirdWorld if youtaketheexample ofChina,you can seehow relevant Fanonis to theAfricanex-perience. 11

Ngug asosharesFanon's contemptfor thenational middleclassand their shockingways shockingbecauseanti-nationalofatraditional bourgeoisie, ofabourgeoisie whichisstupidly,cynically bourgeois (Fanon 120-21).The entire chapter, ThePitfallsof National Consciousness, isdevoted to excoriating thisunprincipledandshameessclassinAsiaandAfricawhich wouldhavenoqualms about settingup itscountryas thebrothelofEurope ( 1 2 3 ) . Fanon definesthehistorical mssionofthisclassof beingtheintermediary, thetransmssion line betweenthenationand acapitalism, rampant though camouflaged, whichtoday puts onthemasqueofcolonialism ( 1 2 2 ) . InDeainedNgug describes this comprador bourgeoisie as by itsveryeconomcbase,adependent class,aparasitic classin thekupe(tick)sense. . .inessence,a nyapala (overseer)class,ahandsomey paid supervisor forthesmooth operationofforeign economc interests. Hecommentson itsimitative culture andquotesFanon to explain his point. For thisclass,asFranz Fanononce putit, has anextreme, incurable wish for permanent identification withthecultureof theimperialist bourgeoisie. 12Butthe contempt and detestationgodeeper.NgugfirstquoteswithapprovalPresident Nyerere's comparisonof theAfricanregmeswho doteontheir neo-colonialstatusto aprostitute who walkswithproud display ofthe furcoat gvento her by hermoneyedlover.And thenheexpresseshisownopinion: Actuallythesituation ofacomprador neo-colonial rulingclassismore appropriately comparabletothatof apimp who would proudlyholddownhismotherto bebrutally rapedbyforeigners,andthenshoutingee: lookat theshining handfulofdollarsIhavere-ceived for my efficiency and integrity,incarrying out my part ofthe bargain ( 1 3 ) .

Thisisvery clearlynot theMarxist viewof thebourgeoisie,

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26 GOVIND N R IN RMaccordingtowhichit has tofulfil its historic role of breaking thestrangehold of feudalism and unleash the productive forces insociety. It is in the course of this process that the proletariatwithits historic mssion tobringabout revolution and establish socialismis to come into existence. But it may not be possible to achievethis objective immediately a transition period may benecessary.Ngugis not clear on this point, or onecouldsay that herefusestoconcede that any role is to be played by the bourgeoisie.Whenasked by his interviewerAlanMarcuson in thesameLeeds interview in 1 9 6 6 , . . . do you think that in the classical Marxistsense,there has to be a period of education under a bourgeoisregme or is this only going to inculcate bourgeoisvaluesandperhaps stop the revolution? Ngug's reply was, I am not toosure about the answer to this question. I thinkAfricais ripe forrevolution.The conditions of thepeasantsand workers are verybad,and they are disillusionedwiththeir independence.Alsotheyhave experienced revolt as I said, they were the key factor inthecolonialrevolt. But when, and where a revolutiontakesplacewillbe determned by conditions I can't predict. 13Ngug is thus relying not onMarxbut onFanon.However,Fanon himself has been criticized for mistaking a temporarysocialdeformation for a permanent sociologcal one.11Heprovides few examples to substantiate his theory, relying amost exclusivelyon his Algerian experience. But he does refer to theMau Mau rebellion inKenyaand comments on the refusal ofany well-known nationalist to declare his affiliation with themovement or even trying to defend the men involved in it(Fanon 9 3 .

Fanon'sprase of the Mau Mau must have pleasedNgug,fortohim it is the epitome of a revolutionary movement by thepeasantry as well as a conclusiveproofof thepeasantry'sbeinga revolutionary class. His emphasis on certain aspectsof themovement has, however, been questioned by some authoritiesduringrecentyears.Ngughas characterized the movement asrevolutionary as well as socialistic. But scholars such as FrankFuredihave pointed out that though thepeasantsformed therank and file of the movement, the majority of the activists camefromthe ranks of the more skilled farm labourers, artisans, and

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REVOLUTION RY TR DITION LISM 27petty traders. The latter provided thelinkwithKikuyulandandthe Kikuyu living in Nairobi and played the central role inspreading the movement and gving it a radical perspective. Butthesepeoplewereneither revolutionary nor socialist. They were,asFurediemphasizes, talented and ambitious and resented themargnalstatusconferred on them by the colonial system. But ifthey should themseves come to power, they would not want toestablish an egalitarian society.15 We get an indication of theirsocialphilosophy in the structure and organization of the Landand FreedomArmy in which there was a distinct tendency towards the imitation of British models. Kimathi, for instance,according toKarari Njama, a Mau Mau fighter who foughtunder his leadership, assumed the rank of FieldMarshall andlikedtostylehimself as Sir DedanKimathi,KnightCommanderoftheAfrican Empire. 16Also,some of the religous symbolismused by the Mau Mau and as reflected in the oathing ceremonieshas raised doubts in the mnds of a few observers about itsprogressivecharacter.

Ngug does not seem to be disturbed bythesefacetsof theMauMau movement and continues tolookup to it as an authenticrevolutionary force, the only hope for any worthwhilechangeinKenyan society in the future. We have totreatNgug's viewswithgreatrespectbecausehis faith is based on his personal experience. Ngug was born in Kikuyuland, the so-called WhiteHighlands,which felt most intensely the impact of whitesettlement inKenya. It is well known that he hails from a familywhichtook an active part in the Mau Maustruggeand sufferedgrievously.17Though he attended later the famous AllianceHighSchoolat Kikuyu, founded by Protestant Christian mssions inalliance, hisearlyschooling was in theKikuyuKaring'aSchoolat Maanguuu, which represented the more extreme wing of theIndependent Schools Movement started by theKikuyunationalists. And in spite of his Western education in institutions such asMakerere and Leeds, his frequent visits to and prolongedstaysinWestern countries such asBritain,theUnitedStates,the SovietUnion, Germany, Sweden, and Denmark, he has remained apeasantin his habits andstyleofliving.18Hetoldme in downtownNairobithat hefeeslost in a city likeNairobi, and even

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28 G O V I N D N R I N S H R Mwhenhe was at thecommanding heightsofacademc lifeinKenyaaschairmanof theDepartmentofLiteratureatNairobiUniversity,hecontinuedtoreside in hisancestral villageofGitogoothinearLimuru,about eighteen mlesfromtheuniversity. Ngug'sarreston31December 1 9 7 7 ,detentionfor ayearintheMaximumSecurityPrisonatKamiti,and being deprivedofhisprestigous positionatNairobiUniversitywas, Ithink,atraumatic experience.Ithas left him bitter and disillusioned, notonlywiththegovernmentand thepower groupinKenyabuteven more with thosehedescribesin thePrefaceto eained aspetty-bourgeois intellectualsat theUniversity who hide ethnicchauvinismandtheir mortal terrorofprogressive classpolitics

behindmasksofabstract super-nationalismandbury their owninactionbehind mugsofbeerandempty intellectualism aboutconditionsbeingnot yetripeforaction (xxi). These petty-bourgeois academcs, according to him, fit intothecategory ofintellectuals once described byK arlMarxasgeniusesin thewaysofbourgeois stupidity (xxviii).

Ngug'sdisgust withhisleftistcolleagueshas ledhimtolookup more and moreto hispeasantbrethren.In hisPrisonDiaryhe identifies two dialectically opposed traditionsofKenyan history, cultureandaesthetics. Oneis thetraditionofsubmssivetrust,ofrevellinginslavery, fosteredby theforeign mssionarychurches through their dissemnationofcolonial religonsandcultures and adopted by the Kenyan bourgeoisie. The otheristhetraditionofdetermnedandstoutresistancetocolonialismfol-lowedby theKenyanpeasants,which formeditsmost goriousexpressionin theMau Mau movement. Through snappingof itslinkswiththepast,thefirst traditionhasbeenthechiefagentinbringngabouttheAfrican's alienation,sographically portrayedinPealsby thepictureofKarega's elder brother Nding-uriadriftonaraft ( 2 3 7 ) .This homeessnessof theAfrican willbeended whenhe isabletobring aboutaproletarian revolution,but psychologcally, morally,andspiritually,itwill cometo anendonly whenheovercomes his self-contempt and embraceshisownculture and traditionby areturn to thewaysof the ancestorsasrepresentedbycharacterslike Nyakinyua.Thepastisnowincreasingy being looked up to(a) as aninspiration for political

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R E V O L U T I O N R Y TR DIT ION LI SM 29and social action;(b) as aguidetosocial organization;(c)asa life-style model.

I nthecourseof adiscussion OnCivilization in theBBCAfrica programmeinJuly 1 9 7 9 ,Ngugmadeadistinctionbe-tween physical natureandsocial natureandsaid: SomeAfri-can civilizationshadnot developedtheconquestofnatureto avery highdegree;but they had developedto ahighdegreetheircontrolofsocial nature. His replyto myquestioninOctober1 9 8 0inNairobiwasonthesamelines.Fromit wecanseethatby the above social nature hemeans human relations, human values, inwhichAfrican civilizationof thepastwas farsuperiortomodern EuropeanandAmericancivilization whichisstillin astateofsocial cannibalism, aman-eats-man society. 19The splitting among themseves ofabean that falls tothegroundisused in WillMarryWhen Wantas asymbol ofthefeelingofbrotherlinessandmutual help that existedinAfricansociety.20 Onlya fewyearsago,Ngug presentedin theOperaof Erosand theThengeta ceremony organizedbyNyakinyuaan image of the organic, happy community that existed inAfricaat one time,acommunityinwhich landwasheldincommonand there was mutual sharing of goods;inwhichcourage, heroism,andself-sacrifice were greatly valued;andpeople realizedtheir potential for creative lifeingamesand sports, music, songand dance, uninhibitedby thebourgeois moralityofEuropeanChristianity.21But Ngug's tone, then,waseasyandrelaxed.InIWill MarryWhen WantandDevil on he Cross, it isbitter,tense,andcontemptuous wheneverherefersto thedestructiveworkof theWhite Manand hisBlack running dogs.InPealsthere wasatleastone characterfromthebourgeoisie the lawyer whocouldfeel forthecountry andthecommonman.InDevilon the Crossthere is none. Gatuiria, theAmerican-educated cultural nationalist who fallsinlovewithWariinga,isconfusedandindecisiveand isunabletochoose between rightand wrong his fatherandWariinga. AnditisameasureofNgug'scommitmentto theAfrican tradition thatinDevil onthe Crosshe bids good-bye to thenovel,aWestern literaryform,and returnsto thenarrative folk-traditionofAfrica, puttingonthe garb of theGicaandiPlayer, the Prophet of Justice.

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30 G O V I N D N R I N S H R MN O T E S

Pealsof Blood ( L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1977) 3 2 2 -2 3 . A l l subsequentreferences a r e tot h is e d i t i o n a n d g i v e n p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n t h e text.

2Ngug wa Thiongo: An Exploration of His Writings ( L o n d o n : H e i n e -m a n n , 1 9 8 3 ) 113.3 J a m e s O l n e y , Tel Me Africa: An Approach to African Literature( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U P , 1 9 7 3 ) 2 8 4 .4Homecomng ( N e w Y o r k : L a w r e n c e H i l l a n d C o m p a n y , 1 9 8 2 )46.5 S ee H u m p h r e y H o u s e ,TheDickens World ( L o n d o n : O x f o r d U P , 1 9 50 )

3 5 -6Note-Books, i n t h e S h r e w s b u r y E d i t i o n , X X , 1 59 -6 0 .7 I a m n o t u s i n g t h e w o r d i d e o l o g y in theM a r x i s t sense of as u mof

c o n c e p t i o n s of a s o c i a l g r o u p to systematize thealues inw h i c hthem y s t i f i e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e a c t i v i t y of t h i s g r o u p a r e e x p r e s s e d . M yu s e is in thesense inw h i c h i d e o l o g y is anobjective i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ore x p l a n a t i o n of r e a l i ty w i t h o u t anyd i s t o r t i o n b r o u g h t i n t o it by self-i n t e r e s t . F o r theabove d e f i n i t i o n of i d e o l o g y , seeL e s z e k K o l a k o w s k i ,I d e o l o g y a n d T h e o r y , in T o m B o t t o m o r e , e d . ,Karl Marx ( O x f o r d :B l a c k w e l l , 1 9 7 3 ; 1 9 7 9 ) 9 -8 M i c e r e G i t h a e - M u g o , Visons of Africa ( N a i r o b i : K e n y a L i t e r a t u r eB u r e a u , 1 9 7 8 ) 51-52, 5 6 .0 R o b e r t C. T u c k e r , e d . ,The Marx-Enges Reader ( N e w Y o r k : N o r t o n ,

1 9 7 4 ) 3 3 9 -1 0 SeeTheWreched of the Earth ( L o n d o n : P e n g u i n , 19 6 7 ) 47, 110,9 8 .A l l subsequent references a r e tot h i s e d i t i o n a n d g i v e n p a r e n t h e t i c a l l yint h e text.

UnionNews Leeds U n i v e r s i t y ) 18N o v . 1 9 6 6 : 7.2Deained ( L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1 9 8 1) 5 6 . A l l subsequent references a r et o t h is e d i t i o n a n d g i v e n p a r e n t h e t i c a l l y i n t h e text.3 Union News: 7.

1 4 S e e, fo r i n s t a n c e , D a v i d C a u t e ,Fanon ( L o n d o n : F o n t a n a , 1 9 7 0 ) 71.1 5 F r a n k F u r e d i , T h e S o c ia l C o m p o s i t i o n of t h e M a u M a u M o v e m e n tint h e W h i t e H i g h l a n d s , inThe Journal of Peasant Studies 1.4 ( J u l y1 9 7 4 ) : 4 9 5 -1 6 S ee D o n a l d L . B a r n e t t a n d K a r a r i N j a m a ,Mau Mau from Within ( N e wY o r k a n d L o n d o n : M o d e r n R e a d e r P ap e r b ac k s , 1 9 6 6 ) 2 3 9 .1 7 N g u g i ' s e ld e r b r o t h e r M w a n g i j o i n e d t h e M a u M a u m o v e m e n t a n d wenti n t o t h e forests a n d h i s m o t h e r w a s k e p t u n d e r d e t e n t i o n a n d q u e s t i o n e db y t h e p o l i c e .1 8 T h e t e r m peasant is not u s e d in anu n c o m p l i m e n t a r y sense. M i c e r eM u g o , N g u g i ' s f r i e n d a n d colleague, w a s the f irs t o ne tou s e it f o r h i ma n d s h e e x p l a i n s t h a t s h e means by it ag e n u in e A f r i c a n P e r s o n a l i t y asd i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the A f r o - S a x o n type w h i c h affects W e s t e r n waysa n d is p r e v a l e n t intoday's i n t e l l e c t u a l A f r i c a n c i rc l es . S ee h e rVisonsof Africa ( N a i r o b i : K e n y a L i t e r a t u r e B u r e a u , 1 9 7 8 )s i .

9 Writers n Poitics ( L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1 9 8 1 ) 67.2 IWill Marry When Want ( L o n d o n : H e i n e m a n n , 1 9 8 2) 71.2 1 S e ePeals, 2 0 5ff.