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EGYPTIAN-LIBYANBORDERLANDSR. H. Forbes

I N thecourse f amonth's tay' inthedesertrianglehat ncludes ollum,Siwa,andMersaMatruhthe writer has hadopportunityto observecondi-tions of land surface, water supply, plant and animal life, and humanwelfarewithin the region.In general, the Egyptian-Libyandesertarea is laid down in alternatinglayers of sandstonesand limestones (of mid-Miocene age) rich in fossilcorals and marine shells. Anarrow coastalplain rises toa plateau with an averagealtitudeof some six hundredfeet. West of the Egyptian-Libyan boundary, in Cyre-naica, he plateaualso reachesan altitude of six hundredfeet, but coastwise it dropsin a steepescarpment o theMediterraneanFig. i). Onthe south the plateaubreaksdown in cliffs to the greateast-west depression inwhich lies the oasisof Siwa,below sea level. Siwa, I90miles south of Sollum, isaptly describedas "the heartof Libya." To the south isthe GreatSandSea with its long lines of sanddunes that presentso form-idable a military obstacle.Through erosion, by both wind and water, the plateausandstoneshavebeen reducedto a level terrain deal for caravantrails or automobileroads

and for mechanizedwarfare. The hard limestones, less easily eroded thanthe softer sandstones, end to remainat higher levels. Soils that may oncehave blanketedthe rocky foundationhave been blown away except in de-pressionswhere scantyvegetation may grow.

. e, _ fqeights metes -2BGard Wa e7F I e mof tnSidiBarrani t e

CYRENAICA. 0e Matruh

Giarabub ~ Qa,&i-a ra0ep r e $ sf o

24 GEOGR.REVIEW,APR.1942 IS a0

FiG. i-Sketch map of the northernpartof the Bgyptian-Libyanborderlands.The Egyptianside is basedon theMatrcih(I933) and Baharyla (I935) sheets of the Survey of Egyptmap, i: 500,000.

'R. H. Forbes: Siwa Oasis, Cairo Scientificjourn., Vol. I0, I92I-I922, pp. i-8o.

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EGYPTIAN-LIBYAN BORDERLANDS 295WATER SUPPLIES

A coastalwinter rainfallof six to seveninches2 moreat higher altitudes)makes possible the cultivation of scanty dry-farmed crops, including avariety of barley that, normally,is in part exportedto Great Britain for themanufactureof "Scotch"whisky. A part of this rainfallbecomesavailablefrom shallow wells, which, at greaterdepths, become so impregnatedwithsaltsasto be unusable.A part,as storm-waterrunoff,is caughtin reservoirs,datingback to the Roman occupationof the region. Siwa obtains its water

TABLE I-PARTIAL ANALYSES OF WATERS FROM THE SOLLUM-SIWA-MATRUH AREAPartsper 100, 000TOTAL SOLUBLE COMMON ALKALINITY AS

SOURCE SALTS SALT LIME MAGNESIA SODIUM CARBONATE

Surfacewatersrom RomancisternsBir Kenayis 27 6.7 0.6 3.4 4.2Bir Hakfa 45.2 6.7 5.6 6.8 I7.0

Shallowwells in coastal lain nearMatruhAt Matruh 47.0 2I. 6 2.8 4.4 8.5Near Matruh I42. 8 83.9 6.6 I4.4 2I .2

HARDNESS ASDeep seepagenearSollum CALCIUM SULPHATEQattara spring 477-2 368.2 26.6 3I.I III.5

Artesianwaters f Siwa oasisFourteen bestwaters; averages 2I9.5 I39.3 I9.5 I2.9 44.5Four saltiestwaters; averages 337.0 234.I 22.9 i6.5 56.5

from artesianwells. Variousoriginshave been ascribed o this water; presentopinion refers t to a vast subterraneanwater sheet originating n the high-landssouthwestof the LibyanDesert.4Waters of cisternsand shallow wells are comparativelypure and soft, as

2 The average annual rainfall of Sidi Barrani (9Igo-I9I5) is 15I mm.; of Sollum (I9I9-I932), I07mm.; of MersaMatruh (I920-I934), I67 mm.; of Siwa (I9II-I9I5, I920-I934), 8 mm., though inone December storm 28 mm. fell ("ClimatologicalNormals for Egypt and the Sudan,Cyprus andPalestine,"Ministry of PublicWorks, Egypt, PhysicalDept., Cairo, I938).

3 See the descriptionof cisternsand an ancientaqueductat MersaMatruhinJohn Ball: TheWaterSupplyof MersaMatruh,Survey Dept. [of Egypt] Paper No. 43, I935, reprinted 937.4JohnBall: Problems of the LibyanDesert, Geogr.Journ., Vol. 70, I927, pp. 2I-38, I05-I28, and209-224; idem: The QattaraDepressionof the LibyanDesert and the Possibilityof Its Utilization forPower-Production, bid., Vol. 82, I933, pp. 289-3I4, referenceon p. 292.

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296 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEWis shown by alkalinityexpressedas sodium carbonate.Deep seepage fromQattara spring, near the sea and probably affectedby marine infiltration,is prohibitively salty and very hard. Most of the artesianwaters of Siwaarepotable,andall of them, with good drainage,can be used for irrigation.TableI gives some analysesof watersmadeby the writer.5

FIG. 2-Overlooking Siwa towardsthe east. September, 919.

ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFEThe narrow coastalzone of rainfall,extending in western Egypt somefifty miles south of the Mediterranean,upportsa sparsegrowth of camel's-thorn, alfa grass, and desert forages, on which the Bedouins graze theirsheep, goats, camels,donkeys, and horses.In favoredareasfigs, olives, anddatepalmssurviveprecariously. n the oasis,where irrigation s practiced,agreatvariety of crop plantsand trees is grown.The wildlife of the region includes gazelles,which are sometimes run

down in open country by huntersin automobiles.jackals andjerboas arecommon. Snails,at least two species,are a remarkableeatureof the rainfallzone. During the winter rainyseason,October to March,when food plants5 For otheranalyses ee A. Azadian:Les eaux d'Egypte, Noteset Rapports esLaboratoiresel'HygienePubliqueNo. 7, Ministerede l'Interieur, Dept. de l'Hygiene Publique, 3 Vols., Cairo, 1930, Vol. 2,

pp. 462-464.

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EGYPTIAN-LIBYAN BORDERLANDS 297areavailable,hesnails reactive, eedingandaccomplishingheir ife cycle.When hot weatherarrives, achsnailsecretes drop of water within theopen endof its shell,spinsa glairycurtain operculum) cross heopening,attachestselfto the coolestplace t canfind-shrubbery r a pointof rock-and estivatesorthe summer.

? >,.s......w_....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..

FIG. 3Notables of Siwa, Berber and negroid elements. Sept 4,199

Snails are an importantfood for deserttravelers,who gatherthem andconsume them at their camping places.In the FirstWorld War the hostileSenussi,pursued by British patrols,lived largely on snails,as witness theirdiscardedpilesof shellsalong the road southof Sollum (Fig.9).

just as the Senussi, n ffightfrom the Britishin westernEgypt, lived onsnails,so must the Israelitesof Exodus, wanderingin similardesert ountry,,have been sustainedby snail manna.'Quail, also, are an importantfood resourceof the region. The annualmigrationof the European quail southwardacrossthe Mediterranean akesplacein Septemberand October. When the birds,tiredby theirlong ffight,land on the North Africancoast, they areeasily caught by Arabsusinglongtennislikenets, which they flop down over the resting birds. The captured

6The writer has traversed the region between Egypt and Beershebaand has observed abundantsnail life there. The usual explanationthat manna was a sugaryexudation from the tamarisk of thatregion is highly unsatisfactory.

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FIG. 4 FIG. 5

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6':J'.:FIG. 6 FIG. 7

i.;... ..____~~~~~~~~~~~.. -%own_

FIG. 8 FIG. 9FIG. -Rumnsof the Egyptiantemple of JupiterAmmon in Siwa. September, 9i9.FIG.5-Agourmi village in Siwa Oasis,from the north. September, 919.FIG.6-Sheikh Hammam and a guest at tea in an oasisgarden-one cup for an ordinaryperson;two cupsfor a worthy but not distinguishedndividual;threecupsfor an importantpersonage; our cupsfor a very greatman. September, 919.FIG.7-Amn Zie'dagardensn Siwa Oasis.September,191i9. (CompareFig. i6.)FIG. 8-Garden in saltplain,Siwa. September, 919.FIG. -Shells of snailsgatheredandeatenby hostile Senussi n fight from the Britishpatrol.Sept. 3,91b9.

298

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FIG. I 0 FIG. I I

1r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~XFIG. I 2 FIG. I 3

.... -detl. . .

.. . ..: .~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................:......

:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. .....

FIG. ii-Sit e ofb k s ng atdQattara ear Sollum. Aug. 28, i919.

FIG I3 ieoh brcIs spIn at Qattra, nea Sollu.Ag28ii

FIG. I4-Sheep grazingon desertvegetation nearMatruh.September, 919.FIG.i5-Bedouin tent on Siwa-Matruhroad;women preparingbarleymeal Sept.23, I919.

299

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300 THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEWbirdsare hencrated ndshipped live,sometimesto distantmarkets.Here,again, Old Testamenthistory s repeated sanannual ccurrencefun-known antiquity (seeNumbers II, 3I).

THE SIWANSANDTHEIRAGRICULTURESince the Romans

abandoned the regionsome sixteen hundredyears ago, the Siwans,left to themselves, havedeveloped an interestingsemi-civilization, 7 withdistinctive customs, lan-guage, racial combina-tions,and localindustriesand a remarkable agri-culture.The Siwans them-selves are Berbersmuchhybridizedwith Negroesand, probably, with theGreek and Roman elements with which the oasis was ancientlyoverrun.They are also much in contactwith the Bedouins, who with their camelsconnect them with coastal marketsfor their dates. Egyptian, Greek, andRoman remains testify to successive occupations of the oasis. The Ro-

mans, in particular,excavated some two hundred of the artesianwellsand curbed them with substantialmasonry, which remains today. Thesewells, 8 to 30 feet in diameterand curbedto a depth of 20 feet or more,are the life of the oasis. Although the water is salty to unaccustomedtaste

Alm4

AIN ZIEDAGARDENS4 ACRES; 600 PALMS; 380 HODS-

FIG. I6-Survey of Ain Zieda gardens,oasis of Siwa, showingthe greatwell 30 feet in diameter;house and enclosures;ditchessupplying water from Zieda and Msus; 380 hods (circles andsquares); palms (dots); drains and new ground in process ofreclamation(dashedlines).

7As one studentof Siwan ethnographyputs it, "Siwan culture has an eerie quality all its own"(Walter Cline: Notes on the People of Siwah and Et Garah n the LibyanDesert, GeneralSer. in An-thropology o. 4, Menasha,Wis., I936, p. Io).

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EGYPTIAN-LIBYAN BORDERLANDS 30I(containingfrom I94.4 tO 363 parts in IOO,OOOof soluble salts in the i8wells tested), the salts are "hard," containing an excess of calcium sul-phate, less injuriousto vegetation than "blackalkaline"sodium carbonate,which has not been observedhere.

FIG. I7-Genesis of an oasis garden:i, artesian pringreaching urface hroughan earthquakecrack2, hillock of accumulated wind-blown

1 = debrisandvegetation3, gardenfrom leveled and built-uphill-,ock, with curbed artesian well, drainage,and crop treesand plants.

Fortunately,also, Siwan soils contain high percentagesof wind-blownsand; for instance:SOIL SAMPLES I 2 3 4Coarse and-o.2 to I.O mm.diam. 2I.3% 24.2 23.3 I2.9Finesand-o.o4to 0.2mm.diam. 39.3% 38.7 53.5 35 3

Totalsands 6o. 6% 62.9 76. 8 48 .2Under theseconditionsof soil andwater supplythe genesisof Siwan gar-dens is most interesting.Through centuriesof artesian eakagethe soils ofthedepressionhave become so incrustedwith saltsasto prohibit hecultureofusefulplants.But earthquake hocks,common in theregion, fracture he un-

derlyingstrataandpermitconfined watersto appearas artesian prings.Theresultingwet surfacesaccumulatewind-blown dust until moundsof soilareformed. Hardy halophytic plantsestablish hemselvesin the moist soil, andthe moundsgrow with vegetationand wind-blown debris untilconsiderablehillocksare formned. hen the oasismaker, urged by necessity, evelsthe hill-ocks at a sufficientheight above the plain to obtain drainage, sinks andcurbswells on the sites of the springs,constructsditches,dividesthe leveledground into small compartments,or "hods," and proceeds to leach andsweeten the soil with the overflow from the wells. Bordersand unleachedground are planted to salt-resistant pecies, such as date palms, figs, andpomegranates,which shade and protect from the desert winds the manycrop plants grown in the sweetened soil of the hods. In September olivetrees,oranges, emons, grapes,tomatoes, tobacco, peppers,squash,melons,cucumbers, parsnips,berseem, apricot trees, and tree cotton were seen in

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302 THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEWthe hods. Winter crops of barley, wheat, onions, garlic, and broad beansare grown.The date palm is the main resourceof the oasis.The tree protectstenderplants from heat, frost, and Saharanwinds; the trunk affords timbers andfuel; the leaves are woven into mats and baskets, and the strong midribsare used to reinforce mud construction (primitive reinforcedconcrete!);the datesare the main export by means of which importsof neededbread-stuffsare obtained.The native diet is deficient n fats; olive oil manufacturedfrom fruit ground in heavy stone mills suppliesonly a fraction of the need.Meat is a luxury, since animals consume foragesthe productionof whichrequires excessive amounts of water. Fruits and vegetables are relativelyabundant,but the average ration is unbalanced,and the people as a wholeareundernourished.Although protected in a measure by their isolation and by their de-fensively built towns, the Siwans are handicappedby the distancesfrommarketsfor their dates and licorice root (and, formerly, salt). Choked andabandoned wells indicate a larger population at some former time. Thepresentareaof the oasis gardens s only about eight hundredacres.Availablefigures ndicatea diminishedpopulationwithin recentyears.What effectcur-rent events in their commercialneighborhoodwill have upon this remotepeople is conjectural.