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MYTHOS

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In copertina:

Nik sur un char vainqueur la course

disegno tratto da C. Daremberg - E. Saglio - E. Pottier,

Dictionnaire des Antiquits grecques et romaines

V 1 - Paris 1877-1919, p. 849, ig. 7463

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2011

n.s.

ISBN 978-88-8241-398-9

ISSN 1972-2516

fondazione ignazio buttitta

Rivista di Storiadelle Religioni

5MYTHOS

DirezioneCorinne Bonnet cbonnet@univ-tIse2.frNicola Cusumano remocl@libero.it

Segretaria di redazioneDaniela Bonanno daniela_bonanno@hotmail.com

Comitato scientiicoNicole Belayche (cole Pratique des Hautes tudes -

Section des sciences religieuses)David Bouvier (Universit de Lausanne)Antonino Buttitta (Universit di Palermo)Claude Calame (cole des Hautes tudes en Sciences

Sociales - Centre AnHiMA)Giorgio Camassa (Universit di Udine)Ileana Chirassi Colombo (Universit di Trieste)Riccardo Di Donato (Universit di Pisa)Franoise Frontisi-Ducroux (Collge de France - Centre

AnHiMA)Cornelia Isler-Kernyi (Universitt Zrich)Emily Kearns (University of Oxford)Franois Lissarrague (cole des Hautes tudes en

Sciences Sociales - Centre AnHiMA)Vinciane Pirenne-Delforge (FNRS - Universit de Lige)Franois de Polignac (cole Pratique des Hautes tudes

- Section des sciences religieuses)Beate Pongratz-Leisten (New York University)Sergio Ribichini (CNR - Istituto di Studi sulle Civilt Ita-

liche e del Mediterraneo Antico)Leonard Rutgers (Universiteit Utrecht)John Scheid (Collge de France - Centre AnHiMA)Giulia Sfameni Gasparro (Universit di Messina)Dirk Steuernagel (Universitt Regensburg)Paolo Xella (CNR - Istituto di Studi sulle Civilt Italiche e

del Mediterraneo Antico - Universit di Pisa)

Comitato di redazioneDaniela Bonanno (Universit di Palermo)Corinne Bonnet (Universit de Toulouse - UTM)Marcello Carastro (cole des Hautes tudes en

Sciences Sociales - Centre AnHiMA)Maria Vittoria Cerutti (Universit Cattolica - Milano)Nicola Cusumano (Universit di Palermo)Ted Kaizer (Durham University)Francesco Massa (Universit di Pavia)Gabriella Pironti (Universit di Napoli-Federico II)Francesca Prescendi (Universit de Genve)

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DIPARTIMENTO DI BENI CULTURALI

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5MYTHOSnumero 5 - 2011nuova serie(18 serie continua)

S A L V A T O R E S C I A S C I A E D I T O R E

4

I N D I C E

Ricerche

9 C. Calame, I nomi degli di greci. I poteri della denominazione nella riconigurazione di un pantheon

21 A.J. Meulder, Typhon, un double monstrueux de Promthe ? 45 G. Cuniberti, Solone e la riforma religiosa della polis: il popolo, le donne e gli dei 59 C. Terranova, . Unindagine storico-religiosa tra Rodi ed Oropos 73 U. Mandel, Zwischen Gewaltbereitschaft und Sensibilitt - Die Evidenz des Krpers beim

klassischen Apollon 101 A. Cohen-Skalli - S. De Vido, Diodoro interprete di Evemero. Spazio mitico e geograia del mondo 117 C. Pisano, Satira e contro-storia nel De Syria Dea di Luciano 131 L. Sacco, Nota su alcuni aspetti storico-religiosi dell evocatio 149 B.H. Weaver, Synthesis of Cultic and Mythic Traditions in Firmicus Maternus Stoicizing

Dionysiac Aetiology (De err. 6.5)

Tra passato e presente - Metodologia e storia degli studi

175 E. Franchi, Destini di un paradigma. Il rito iniziatico tra antropologia e scienze dellantichit 191 J. Rpke, Lived Ancient Religion: Questioning Cults and Polis Religion

Recensioni e schede di lettura

207 M.a C. Cardete Del Olmo, Paisaje, identidad y religin: imgenes de la Sicilia antigua, Barcelona 2010 (C. Bonnet)

209 G.A. Cecconi - C. Gabrielli (a cura di), Politiche religiose nel mondo antico e tardoantico. Poteri e indirizzi, forme del controllo, idee e prassi di tolleranza, Bari 2011 (A. Delli Pizzi)

212 J.A. Jimnez Snchez, Los juegos paganos en la Roma cristiana, Treviso-Roma 2010 (G. Vespignani) 215 J.M.a Nieto Ibez, Cristianismo y profecas de Apolo. Los orculos paganos en la Patrstica

griega (siglos II-V), Madrid 2010 (G. Vespignani) 216 B. Palumbo, Politiche dellinquietudine. Passioni, feste e poteri in Sicilia, Firenze 2009 (D. Di Rosa) 219 C. Prtre - P. Charlier, Maladies humaines, thrapies divines. Analyse pigraphique et

palopathologique de textes de gurison grecs, Lille 2009 (F. Schiariti) 224 V.S. Severino, La religione di questo mondo in Raffaele Pettazzoni, Roma 2010 (P. Angelini)

229 Lavori in corso (a cura di D. Bonanno) 239 Gli autori 243 Pubblicazioni ricevute 245 Istruzioni per gli autori

5

C O N T E N T S

Studies

9 C. Calame, Greek Gods Names: The Powers of the Name in the Reconiguration of a Pantheon 21 A.J. Meulder, Typhon, a Monstrous Double of Prometheus ? 45 C. Cuniberti, Solon and the Religious Reform of the polis: Demos, Women and Gods 59 C. Terranova, A Religious-Historical Survey between Rodi and Oropos 73 U. Mandel, Between Propensity for Violence and Sensitivity: The Evidence of the Body of Apollo

in Classical Sculpture 101 A. Cohen-Skalli - S. De Vido, Diodorus Interpreter of Euhemerus. Spatium mythicum and

Geography of the World 117 C. Pisano, Satire and Counter-History in Lucians De Dea Syria 131 L. Sacco, A Note about some Religious-Historical Aspects of evocatio 149 B.H. Weaver, Synthesis of Cultic and Mythic Traditions in Firmicus Maternus Stoicizing

Dionysiac Aetiology (De err. 6.5)

Between Past and Present - Methodology and Modern Historiography

175 E. Franchi, Destinies of a Paradigm. The initiation Rite between Anthropology and Classics 191 J. Rpke, Lived Ancient Religion: Questioning Cults and Polis Religion

Reviews

207 M.a C. Cardete Del Olmo, Paisaje, identidad y religin: imgenes de la Sicilia antigua, Barcelona, 2010 (C. Bonnet)

209 G.A. Cecconi - C. Gabrielli (a cura di), Politiche religiose nel mondo antico e tardoantico. Poteri e indirizzi, forme del controllo, idee e prassi di tolleranza, Bari 2011 (A. Delli Pizzi)

212 J.A. Jimnez Snchez, Los juegos paganos en la Roma cristiana, Treviso-Roma 2010 (G. Vespignani) 215 J. M.a Nieto Ibez, Cristianismo y profecas de Apolo. Los orculos paganos en la Patrstica

griega (siglos II-V), Madrid 2010 (G. Vespignani) 216 B. Palumbo, Politiche dellinquietudine. Passioni, feste e poteri in Sicilia, Firenze 2009 (D. Di Rosa) 219 C. Prtre - P. Charlier, Maladies humaines, thrapies divines. Analyse pigraphique et

palopathologique de textes de gurison grecs, Lille 2009 (F. Schiariti) 224 V.S. Severino, La religione di questo mondo in Raffaele Pettazzoni, Roma 2010 (P. Angelini)

229 Work in Progress (a cura di D. Bonanno) 239 Contributors 243 Publications Receveid 245 Instructions for Authors

191MYTHOS NUMERO 5, n.s. 2011, 191-203

Lived Ancient Religion: Questioning Cults and Polis Religion.

For the period from 2012 to 2017 the European Research Council has agreed to fund the project Lived Ancient Religion. It takes a completely new perspective on the religious history of Mediterranean antiquity, starting from the individual and lived

religion instead of cities or peoples. Lived religion suggests a set of experiences, of practices addressed to, and conceptions of the divine, which are appropriated, expressed, and shared by individuals in diverse social spaces. Within this spatial continuum from the primary space of the family to the shared space of public institutions and trans-local literary communica-tion four research ields are deined. In each of them a sub-project addresses representative complexes of evidence in diferent parts of the Mediterranean in the Imperial period. hey are bound together by the analysis of the interaction of individuals with the agents of traditions and providers of religious services in the various ields. he methodological approach is deined through the notions of religious experience, embodiment, and culture in interaction. his article will briely describe some basic assumptions and strategies.

Jrg RpkeRiassunto

Questo articolo presenta un programma di ri-cerca sulla religione antica che si collega alla nozione di religione vissuta. Il concetto usato, in relazione allantichit, per indicare un approccio che si concentra sulle forme di incor-porazione, personiicazione e appropriazione individuale delle tradizioni, sullesperienza reli-giosa, sulla comunicazione religiosa nei diversi spazi sociali e sulle modalit con cui linterazio-ne tra i differenti livelli favorita dal personale religioso. A partire da un gruppo di lavoro in-ternazionale che fa capo al Max Weber Kolleg dellUniversit di Erfurt, il progetto si propone di coinvolgere studiosi provenienti dall'Europa e da altri continenti, per collaborare allelabo-razione di nuovi paradigmi di ricerca.

Abstract

This article presents a program of research on ancient religion that draws on the con-cept of lived religion. For antiquity, we use the term to denote an approach which focus on the individual appropriation of traditions and embodiment, religious experiences and communication on religion in different social spaces and the interaction of different levels facilitated by religious specialists. Working in an international core group at the Max Weber Centre of the University of Erfurt, the program intends to include specialists from Europe and beyond in the development of new para-digms of research.

Parole chiave

Religione vissuta esperienza religiosa embodiment interazione culturale religione individuale archeologia religiosa

Keywords

lived religion religious experience embodiment culture in interaction individual religion archaeology of religion

192 MYTHOS NUMERO 5, n.s. 2011, 191-203

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Ancient Mediterranean religion is traditionally viewed through the lens of public reli-gion, i.e. consisting of the religions of political units (usually city-states) that are part and parcel of civic identity. Such analyses of ancient polytheistic religions, whether they refer to embedded religion1 or polis religion2, work on the assumption that all members of ancient societies were in principle equally religious. From this point of view, religion (and this also applies to Judaism) is a taken-for-granted part of every biography: rites de passage structure the life of each individual, while ritual acts within the domestic cult, family cult or burial and death rites facilitate change of status. his basic assumption of a homo religiosus is bound up with the political interpretation of ancient religion: since religion is an unques-tioned given, religion is thought to be particularly well-suited to cultivate collective identi-ties and to act as instrument for the justiication of power. Paradigmatic of this approach is the claim, now historically disproved, that only citizens were entitled to take part in the rituals of the polis. Here the religious actions of individuals take place solely in those niches and predeined spaces permitted by the civic religion, which is in turn created and inanced by the dominant social groups.

Modern totalising claims on its behalf notwithstanding, polis religion is also understood as supplemented by or in the end even in competition with cults. Being elective in nature, these cults ofered options for more intensive social interaction and in particular soteriological perspectives, starting with Orphism in classical Greece3. Interest is focused on the so-called oriental cults or religions such as those of Isis, Mithras or the Syrian deities. Recently, how-ever, the category has encountered severe criticism4 (C. Bonnet - J. Rpke), since it provides not a stable criterion either as regards content (mysteries) or geography. Furthermore, among such cults, so it was claimed, Christianity alone ofered a fundamental alternative to polis re-ligion. On this understanding, Christianity (even more than Judaism) marked a rupture with the truly ancient, the polis religions, due to its emphasis on individual promises of salvation and faith rather than ritual practices. As with oriental cults, so with Christianity, a principle revision has been its recent reinterpretation as ancient religion5.

he paradigms of cults and polis religion leave a major gap. Religious phenomena of the ancient Mediterranean societies have been analysed far beyond what has been described so far. Ten thousands of votives in sanctuaries have been collected, documented, and studied. hey are pointing to a votive religion that copes well with individual crises6. Magic, rang-ing from amulets and curse tablets to elaborate rituals and discursive methods manipulated by ancient specialists,7 has been analysed as a cultural resource that might even be opposed to religion. Divination makes up another ield of instrumental religion, provided not only by and for state oicials (and hence described as part of public religion), but also by a broad range of male and female practitioners. Technical studies have failed to take into account the venues of such practices in ancient religion as stressed by ancient philosophy (Stoicism, Cicero) and

1 Beard - North - Price 1998.2 Sourvinou-Inwood 1990.3 Burkert 20112.4 Bonnet - Rpke 2009. 5 Markus 1990.6 van Straten 1981; Bouma 1996. 7 Faraone Obbink, 1991; Gordon 2010; Bohak 2009.

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the Judaeo-Christian concept of revelation8. Finally, funerary rites and the cult of the dead are a further area that abounds with evidence, yet occupies a marginal position (if any) in the polis religion paradigm. To sum up, vast areas of evidence and excellent research done on these phenomena have not managed to open up a new, broader framework within the study of ancient religion. As a consequence, with a few exceptions, the ield has assumed a marginal position in global religious studies and comparative religion, i.e. for todays understanding of contemporary and historical religion, and has not adequately contributed to our understand-ing of ancient Mediterranean cultures in general.

To question the cults-and-polis religion-perspective, it is not suicient to merely point to these ields. he challenge is to integrate all these ields into a new theoretical framework. It is the audacious aim of Lived Ancient Religion to provide such a framework and adequate methodological tools. In order to achieve this aim, LAR will develop key-concepts and tools beyond the present state of the art that will tackle three methodological problems of current research:

(1) the individual, who has been much underrated as a religious agent; (2) cults and religions, which have been essentialised as the decisive religious agents and

frames of individual action; and(3) the archaeology of religion, often reduced to an archaeology of belief systems.

(1) he place of the individual. It is a fact that non-Christian antiquity also knew individu-al religious practices. Ancient conceptualisations gave such sacra privata precedence even over the state, with respect to military conscription for example (Gellius). Ciceros religious legis-lation explicitly excluded the sacra privata from any kind of interference. In contrast to this ancient perception, if we survey the history of scholarship, the realm of individual religious practice emerges as a marginal phenomenon, discussed solely in exceptional cases of religious deviance such as the reckless monolatry of Hippolytus9 or explicit atheism. Attention is drawn to rituals of birth and mourning and the notions of the soul and the hereafter.10 he work of those authors (such as C. Calame11) who have managed to go beyond family cult mainly with respect to life cycle rituals is dominated again by political interpretations. In the case of domestic cult, an antiquarian perspective predominates, which at best includes economic history12 and seeks no further historical contextualisation13. Domestic cult has not been properly integrated into the complex topography of individual religious action that involves various sites house, garden, family tombs14, neighbourhoods15, selected shrines and healing sanctuaries as much as centralised public festivals16 and diverse social contexts. In a series of conferences, the applicant has demonstrated the fruitfulness of taking up research on subjec-

8 Belayche 2001; Rpke 2008.9 Gladigow 1975.10 Veyne 2008; Bremmer 1983. 11 Calame 1997.12 Bakker 1994.13 Bassani 2008.14 Duval 1988.15 Scheid 2005; Flower (in preparation).16 Chaniotis.

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tivity and the religious self17 and applying the perspectives of (biographical) individuation and (institutional) individualisation to ancient religions.

(2) Cults and religions. he essentialising of the rituals of a city or polity controlled by legiti-mate oicials as the religion of XX (or Athenian, Roman, Egyptian, Etruscan religion) has given the plural religions currency. Given the local roots and immobility of such public political religion, a movable element had been conceptualised on the patterns of modern reli-gions, but termed cult for its organisational deicits and openness to pluralism. hese cults were centred upon a deity, whose essence (Wesen, Natur) or personality deined the character and function of the cult on a trans-regional scale. Much of twentieth century scholarship on an-cient religion has been invested in locating, identifying, and classifying evidence into such cults and religions. he systematic concentration on these topics has overlooked two facts. First, the importance of cult activities or (though much less frequent) membership for an individual biography and for religious activities beyond that speciic context of a local group or sanctuary seems to be limited18. We can hardly know how such an involvement informed other types and areas of religious action in a religiously pluralistic world. Secondly, the intellectual dimen-sion of ancient religions has not managed to capture the interests of the polis religion model19. Ancient writers on religion tended to direct their attention to ritual on a normative, descrip-tive and exegetical basis20. hese texts are now being slowly recovered for our conception of ancient religion21. It is only speciic circumstances that made individuals think of a speciic, mostly ethnographically deined religion. Following these exceptions modern research has separated the evidence into the classes of religions and has broken down the continuum of ancient intellectual discourse on religion into pagan, Jewish, and Christian texts. However, the underlying conceptualisation is far from adequate. In the absence of a concept of religion that allows the drawing of hard boundaries between imagined communities22, religions cannot be thought of in plural before late antiquity23. Lived Ancient Religion proposes to view the formation and reproduction of such institutions not only as a framework for, but also as an outcome of individual decisions about the formation of coalition and the appropriation of group styles.

(3) Archaeology of religion. It is a fact that archaeology of religion lourishes. On the one hand, methodological developments in archaeology (processual, new) have led to new interests and possibilities to use (and construct) archaeological indings in order to reconstruct rituals and enquire about the belief systems underlying social action. Religion has come to the foreground of archaeological research in international conferences as in many studies. On the other hand, history of religion has become increasingly interested in practices of quotidian religion, in sanctuaries rather than gods. Hence, archaeological sources have gained in impor-tance. Recently, monographs aiming at a history of religion of individual localities that are not based on literary or primarily epigraphic sources have been published for Ostia and Pompeii24.

17 Brakke et alii 2005; Gill 2008.18 Bendlin 2000; Kloppenborg, Wilson 1996. 19 Ando 2008.20 Beard 1987; Scheid 2005; Rpke 2007.21 Feeney 1998.22 Anderson 1993.23 Rpke 2007. 24 Steuernagel 2004; van Andringa 2009.

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A few books titled archaeology of religion have been published recently, but their value and innovativity is limited. Some adopt a classical approach and limit their scope to pre-literate societies25. Others attempt to ofer concise general accounts of religion and give certain promi-nence to archaeological sources26. Moreover, some representatives of the cognitive approach towards religions (rather supericially) try to adapt archaeological material to their argumenta-tion27. he cutting edge of research is clearly located in approaches to very speciic areas such as archaeology of ritual, sacriice, and death. hese research trends in archaeology, however, easily lead to reifying religion, instead of understanding the role of objects in cultural practices of constructing religion and encountering that religion as objectiied representation of the sacred. Here, the project ofers a framework for developing the methodology as outlined below through close collaboration between archaeologists and historians of religion.

Lived Ancient Religion is audacious in the sense that it intends to develop a new and in-tegrative perspective on religion in the Ancient Mediterranean and an adequate methodology. his approach sets out to replace the concepts of cults and polis religion(s) as integrative frameworks in the description of a ield that could usefully be conceptualised as religion. By refocusing on the individual and the situational, i.e., on the intrinsic determinants of lived religion, it aims to recover the importance of Altertumswissenschaft and the study of ancient Euro-Mediterranean religion within global History of Religion, thereby ofering an approach, which can comprise the local and global trajectories of the multi-dimensional pluralistic reli-gions of antiquity. In more detail, the overarching objectives of the project can be summoned as follows:

* Developing and establishing lived religion as a new framework for the description and analysis of ancient Mediterranean religion. Such a framework will allow integration of the wealth of material and textual evidence of individual and collective behaviour, of popular and intellectual culture on a new organisational basis. Far beyond the evidence subject to scrutiny in the project, such a framework would open up possibilities to restructure the wealth of evi-dence for ancient religions that is documented, published in large collections, and digitalised. Classiicatory principles so far employed in documentation limit the degree of accessibility. he evidence is fragmented by the separation of cults and religions that deine the limits of books and corpora, thematic collections of evidence. his makes it hard to assemble lo-cally speciied evidence, the usual criterion for publication. It is the objective of this large-scale project to analyse, interpret, and make accessible this wealth of evidence with regard to com-parative research on lived religion in other cultures and epochs, and thus re-introduce ancient religion into the research community of global history within a framework which relects its signiicance beyond its merely political functions.

* Re-evaluating the history of religion in the Imperial period. he inclusion of new types of evidence and the focus on new types of religious action and conduct enable the identiication of new areas and criteria of religious change. Far from denying the importance of processes of institutionalisation, the focus on lived religion and ancient individual perspectives of change from such points of view will historicise the traditional unit of description, that is, cult or religion, and shift the latters position in narratives of religious change. It is the objective of

25 Renfrew 1994; Steadman 2009.26 Insoll 2004.27 Whitehouse 2009.

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the project to develop historical narratives that are neither purely additive with regard to dif-ferent religious traditions nor dominated by a history of competition and prohibiting syncre-tistic boundary transgressions. Instead, the question that has to be addressed is how and under which conditions boundaries arose and where they are appropriated by individual religious agents.

* Opening Altertumswissenschaft. From the Renaissance onwards, ancient religions Greek, and Roman, but also the ritual-dominated Jewish religion as described in the Old Testament and (late) Egyptian religion as treated in Greek or Latin texts have been a major instrument for the European understanding of contemporary pagan, heretical, or foreign religion.28 Due to the wealth of diferent types of sources, and a long tradition of intensive research at international level, these enquiries have produced important models and stimulated by comparisons research in many ields, epochs and areas of religion29: mythology, rituals (in the Myth-and-Ritual School), sacriice,30 mysteries, to name just a few. By its concentration on the model of public, civic religion, research in the last decades has indeed added to this development, but, at the same time, signiicantly reduced the scope of relevance of antiquity in dealing with extra-European and contemporary religion. By addressing ancient religion as lived religion and by shifting the accent from sign systems and other normative concepts of culture to a more naturalised individual agent31, new per-spectives for interdisciplinary cooperation even beyond the humanities (e.g. with afective sciences or cognitive studies) open up.

Methodology

As the title indicates, the project is breaking new ground from a methodological point of view by employing the concept of lived religion that has been developed for the description and analysis of contemporary religion32. his is the very irst attempt to

employ this concept within the ield of ancient religion. In its application to contemporary social analysis, the concept of lived religion does not address how individuals replicate a set of religious practices and beliefs preconigured by an institutionalised oicial religion within their biography or, conversely, opt out of adhering to tradition. Of course, considering the relationship of individuals to tradition, such an assumption could in principle work in a reli-giously pluralistic and a mono-confessional society. Instead, lived ancient religion focuses on the actual everyday experience, on practices, expressions, and interactions that could be related to religion. Such religion is understood as a spectrum of experiences, actions, and beliefs and communications hinging on human communication with super-human or even transcen-dent agent(s), for the ancient Mediterranean usually conceptualised as gods. Ritualisation and elaborate forms of representation are called upon for the success of communication with these addressees.

28 Mulsow 2001.29 Borgeaud 2005; Spineto 2009. 30 Burkert 1972; Girard 1998. 31 Martin - Barresi 2000.32 McGuire 2008.

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It is important to keep in mind that such practices are not entirely subjective. For the purposes of historical research, the existence of religious norms, of exemplary oicial prac-tices, of control mechanisms and enforcement should be taken into account even more than in McGuires sketch. It is precisely such institutions and norms that tend to predominate in the surviving evidence. he term appropriation plays a key-role here.33 he speciic forms of religion-as-lived are barely comprehensible in the absence of speciic modes of individual appropriation (to the point of radical asceticism and martyrdom), cultural techniques such as the reading and interpretation of mythical or philosophical texts, rituals, pilgrimages and prayer, and the various media of representation of deities in and out of sanctuaries. he notion of agency implicit in the notion of appropriation far more so than with reception is not free of problems. In view of the normative tagging of teachings, traditions, narratives etc. in the ield of religion, the description of how ideas are taken up and the speciication of processes of reception are of particular importance: Cultural-theoretical and historical-anthropological conceptions of appropriation often clash with models found in religious symbolic systems, where transcendent entities are acknowledged as norm-setting agents. he methodology of the project ofers a frame for a description of the formative inluence of professional providers, of philosophical thinking and intellectual relections in literary or reconstructed oral form, of social networks and socialisation, of lavish performances in public spaces (or performances run by associations) with recourse to individual conduct in rituals and religious context.

However, the analysis does not merely describe the contrast between norms and practices or the inluence of one on the other. What is more, even the intersubjective dimension of religious communication can be accessed through the records of the individuals by enquiring into their communication, their juxtaposition, their sharing of experiences and meaning, their speciic usage and selection of culturally available concepts and vocabulary.34 hus, meanings constructed by situations rather than coherent individual worldviews should and will be iden-tiied. Logical coherence is secondary to the efectiveness of religious practices for the purposes desired (practical coherence pace McGuire).

his constitutes a programme that conforms to the scattered evidence available. When concentrating on practices, one should accept and account for incoherence rather than co-herence (even in research into contemporary religion), the stressed role of mediality35 and the importance given to knowledge and biographical coherence. Ancient religions are only partially receptive of techniques established in social studies so as to create new data by means of empirical or experimental procedures. It cannot be hoped that extensive descriptions of rituals stem from people whom we know to have practiced them, or that people whose relec-tion on religion is preserved in the literary tradition left other evidence of personal practices. he generalisation of the individual instance (hardly ever representative in a methodologically plausible way) is just as problematic as the reliability of elite descriptions of mass behaviour this is, of course, the overall situation in the historical critique of sources. By drawing on the model of lived religion, scattered evidence will be contextualised and interpreted by relating it to individual agents, their use of space and time, their forming of social coalitions, their negotiation with religious specialists or providers, and their attempts to make sense of reli-

33 De Certeau 1980; Ldtke 1989.34 Ammerman 2007.35 Rpke 2011.

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gion in a situational manner and thus render it efective. his is not a material statement about any logical priority of the individual, but a methodological option, which provides a radical alternative to cults and polis religion and a way to overcome the latters deicits.

Corollaries

The lived religion approach induces methodological modiications in the process of selecting and interpreting the evidence. 1) Focus on experience rather than symbols. Experience has occupied a pivotal position in religious studies since the end of the

eighteenth century. However, despite the eforts undertaken in some recent books36, the con-cept of experience has not yet been brought to bear on ancient religion outside Judaism and Christianity. he very subjective nature of experience (pathos, unlike the ancient notion of experientia, that is, learning by practising) seems to be in conlict with the dearth of ancient sources. However, recent analyses of the phenomena related to experience have produced a concept of experience that takes into account the connection between personal experience and communicated meaning, and opens up to a historical use of the concept in relation to the lived religion approach: personal, lived experience in its qualitative-emotional dimension remains dumb and has no power to transform behaviour as long as it is not articulated symbolically and any system of convictions and practices, that from the irst-person point of view is no longer seen as expressive of qualitative experience, becomes increasingly obsolete.37 Experi-ence, thus, could stress the role of the viewer and user of images, of sacred and domestic space, and movement towards and into sacred space within the context of pilgrimage38. For material culture, the term archaeology of religious experience (which avoids an all too constructivist approach) seems to address this perspective and stresses individual experience both indoors and in the use of public religious infrastructure. By continuing a co-operation with specialists a new ield of research can be developed to enhance the objectives of Lived Ancient Religion.

2) Focus on embodiment rather than ritual. Embodiment is a notion conjoining material-ity and corporeal experience and as such occupies a central position in contemporary episte-mology39 and anthropology of religion. Twentieth century pioneer blending of phenomenol-ogy and cognitive science has marked the powerful impact of embodied cognition upon scholarly discourse on culture and religion. he concept stems from M. Merleau-Pontys phenomenology-driven musings on embodiment that advocate the crucial priority of move-ment and gestures over mind and the principal role of the body in perceiving environments and structuring the world. he performance of gestures, even though they do not cover the whole range of bodily experiences, contextualises natural entities and their bodies by convey-ing mental dispositions and enacting emotions, and shapes culturally informed meanings. he human body along with the conditions of perception it entails is what nuances subjectivity and places the individual self within culture and society, thus turning it to an embodied self 40.

36 Bispham - Smith 2000; Cole 200437 Jung 2006.38 Elsner - Rutherford 2005 39 Weiss - Haber - Overton et al. 1999.40 Noland 2009.

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he notion of embodied agency grounded in diverse somatised impulses unfolds the social implications of the embodied self41. Particularly intriguing here is the extent of alterity issuing from individual operations of embodiment, that is, the set of diferentiating, even self-deining processes that are being activated by the emotional as well as gestural modes of an individuals body (J. Reynolds). Recent theorising on the anthropology of religion has gone so far as to identify in embodied alterity the phenomenological kernel of religion, itself a correlate of individual experience, perception and expression42.

Ritual studies, even when concentrated on individual involvement and performance,43 tend to focus analysis on rules and actual or imagined repetition of sequences of action as well as on wider societal, economic or power contexts. he concept of embodiment has shifted interest to individual involvement and meaning beyond the cognitive level in religious studies and has identiied new evidence even in historical studies.44 Regarding communication with invis-ible gods or spiritual beings in antiquity, ordinary religious action is frequently much more encoded in bodily movements. Given that memory is inextricably intertwined with sensorial mechanisms, feelings arising out of sensory input in diverse social contexts are embedded in bodily experience. hus, religious experience was stimulated by and registered in the form of sensations and movements as well as in postures taken, for instance, in prayer or in proces-sions. Religious experience is shared by the intersubjective coordination of bodily movements and reactions. Religious practices in the epoch under analysis were only rarely taught through formal religious instruction. Much more frequently it was acquired through appropriation and imitation of movements stored in and enhanced by memory. hus images of rituals or gods in corresponding gestures could evoke embodied knowledge.45 Garments, paraphernalia as well as wreaths, the use of incense and the touch of amulets change bodily status for an extended period of time gender diferences demanding attention. Lived religion will identify and trace the continuation or repetition of such experiences in order to relocate diferentiation of public and private (domestic) ritual.

3) Focus on culture in interaction rather than habitus, organisation or culture as text. Ev-eryday religion is not to be grasped in terms of individual isolation, but is characterised by di-verse social contexts that are appropriated, reproduced and informed by the agent on relevant occasions. he concept of culture in interaction46 can enrich the lived religion approach. he concept has been developed in the ethnographic analysis of contemporary societies as a complement to the sociology of emotion. Focusing on situational communication in groups, the concept aims to identify speciic group styles, which modify the use of linguistic as well as behavioural register within cultural contexts. Anew, gender will provide an important perspective for analysis and description. For the most thoroughly deined and stabilised social contexts of ritual interaction namely the nuclear and wider family (including slaves), clans, neighbourhoods and voluntary associations (limited to one per person by later law) the con-cept helps theorise situational diferences in reproducing cultural religious representations as well as in evoking less widely shared knowledge and practices. Ancient ethnographic evidence

41 Lyon - Barbalet 1994.42 Csordas 1994.43 Rappaport 1999; Bell 1992; Grimes 2011.44 Coakley 1997; Bynum 1996. 45 Gordon 1979.46 Eliasoph - Lichterman 2003.

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and provisions and exceptions made by public norms (laws) could form important evidence as can archaeological remains that attest to micro-topographically diferent practices without corresponding attestations of variances in explicit norms. his has important corollaries. Pub-lic religion, then, as seen from below, is the attempt to create order and boundaries rather than a normative system only imperfectly reproduced by the citizens. Such boundaries would include the notions of sacred and profane, pure and impure, public and private, but also gen-dered conceptions of deities. Institutionalisations such as professionalised priesthoods and the reformulation of religion as knowledge that is kept and elaborated by such professionals would constitute further features of crucial importance for sketching a history of Roman public reli-gion from the late republic onwards. Finally, elaborated imagined communities would attain an important place in such forms of civic religion.

Lived religion is just as interested in observing and deining the material conditions of ev-eryday life that pertain to religious experience, practice and belief as in the way ordinary people make use of these conditions in order to functionalise the interdependency of everyday experi-ence and lived belief. he utilisation of learning and memory in sketching the biography of subjectivity in religious contexts along with the emotive factor constitutes a major desideratum in the study of lived religion exceeding the concerns of Alltagsgeschichte. hat said a crucial point of diferentiation lies in the way religion integrates certain explicitly secular structures of everyday experience and individual symbolisation through material culture in order to render itself lived.

In order to bring Lived Ancient Religion to bear on the available evidence, research will concentrate on individual appraisal and interaction in diverse social spaces: the primary space of the house and familial interaction (including familial funeral space), the secondary space of religious experience and interaction in voluntary or professional associations, the spaces shared by many individuals or groups in the public sites of sanctuaries or festival routes, and inally the virtual space of literary communication and the intellectual discourses formed therein. To analyse the whole continuum of social interaction ranging from domestic cult to public spaces and professionals is of particular importance for the far-reaching goals set by the project. In order to achieve an integrated framework, the use and construction of these social spaces by individual agents have to be indexed topographically, for instance, by domestic or coemeterial, urban, and extra-urban, open or architecturally deined sites. his form of indexing enables the contextualisation of religion in everyday life. At the end of the analysis, the use of these spaces has to be indexed also temporally, for instance, by time, calendar date or frequency of events clearly, the permanent use of an amulet difers from a one-time ritual (that might, however, be remembered time and again). Religious traditions form part of such an environment; therefore they should not be studied as if they are an independent variable, but rather as a product of providers of religious knowledge and services, priests or professionals. Most of the evidence at our disposal is best to be interpreted neither as authentic individual expression nor as in-stitutional survival, but as media, as the results of a culture created in interaction.

Lived ancient religion aims to address this matrix by launching sub-projects on each of the social spaces deined as ields of research. In order to transgress the usual research boundar-ies of cults and religions the bodies of evidence brought together within the sub-projects cover ancient Mediterranean religion geographically in an extended manner, focusing on Egypt and Italy, Syria and Greece, but also including evidence from the Western and Danu-bian provinces as well as from North Africa. In order to facilitate comparison and the historical

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contextualisation necessary for fruitful comparison, the chronological range is restricted to and concentrated on the Imperial period. Together with comparative elements, a transversal analy-sis, addressing all social spaces through the lenses of religious providers, will account for the mutual interdependence of the sub-projects and will thereby advance lived ancient religion to a coherent new paradigm. Colleagues from diferent disciplines and ields are invited to join in this enterprise.47

Jrg Rpke Max-Weber-Kolleg

Nordhauser Str. 63,D-99089 Erfurt

joerg.ruepke@uni-erfurt.de

47 I am grateful to Rubina Raja (Aarhus), Richard Gordon, Valentino Gasparini, Lara Wei (all Erfurt), and Paul Lichterman (Los Angeles) for discussion, supplements, and corrections. All mistakes remain mine. he Research Group "Religious Individualization in Historical Perspective" (FOR 1013 DFG) ofered the necessary time and congenial atmosphere for my research.

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Claude CalameDirecteur dtudes presso lcole des Hautes tudes en Sciences Sociales (Pa-rigi), insegna Antropologia storica della poesia greca. Ha recentemente pubbli-cato Masques dautorit dans la Grce antique. Fiction et pragmatique dans la potique grecque antique (Paris 2005); Pratiques potiques de la mmoire. Reprsentations de lespace-temps en Grce ancienne (Paris 2006); Sentiers transversaux. Entre potiques grecques et politiques contemporaines (Grenoble 2008). Una nuova edizione italiana della sua monograia sulla poetica dei miti greci stata appena pubblicata Poetiche dei miti nella Grecia antica (Lecce 2011); cos come la seconda edizione di Mythe et histoire dans lAntiquit grecque. La narration symbolique dune colonie (Paris 2011). Membro della Ligue des Droits de lHomme, del Nouveau parti anticapi-taliste e del Consiglio scientiico dellAsso-ciation pour la taxation des transactions inancires et pour laction citoyenne (ATTAC). Inoltre presso lcole des Hautes tudes en Sciences Sociales anima il col-lettivo di sostegno ai sans papiers e agli immigrati.

Aude Cohen-Skalli Ha conseguito il dottorato di ricerca in co-tutela presso lUniversit Paris IVSorbon-ne e la Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa discutendo una tesi sui frammenti dei li-bri VI-X di Diodoro Siculo (Belles Lettres, 2012). Dal 2010 insegna allUniversit di NiceSophia Antipolis come Attache Temporaire dEnseignement et de Re-cherche e dal 2011 membro a Nizza del centro di ricerca CEPAM (Centre dtudes

Prhistoire Antiquit Moyen ge, UMR 6130). Ha curato l'edizione dei libri VI-X della Biblioteca per Les Belles Lettres e pubblicato vari articoli sullopera di Dio-doro Siculo e la sua ricezione nella tarda antichit e a Bisanzio, sulla storia della Si-cilia greca e romana, sugli storici greci su Roma, e su questioni di storiograia fram-mentaria.

Gianluca Cuniberti ricercatore presso lUniversit degli Stu-di di Torino dove insegna Storia sociale ed economica della Grecia antica ed Esegesi delle fonti. I suoi interessi di ricerca ver-tono intorno alla democrazia ateniese, esplorata in indagini prosopograiche, storiograiche, istituzionali e sociali. Tra le sue pubblicazioni: Iperbolo ateniese infa-me (Bologna 2000), La polis dimezzata. Immagini storiograiche di Atene ellenisti-ca (Alessandria 2006).

Stefania De VidoRicercatrice di Storia Greca presso lUni-versit Ca Foscari di Venezia, si occupa della storia della Sicilia greca (forme di contatto tra Greci ed Elimi in Sicilia occi-dentale; esperienze tiranniche di IV seco-lo), di colonizzazione arcaica, di aspetti istituzionali e ideologici di et classica (la nozione di nobilt), di storiograia (Ero-doto e Diodoro Siculo). Partecipa a un progetto di ricerca di interesse nazionale su Grecia occidentale e Grecia dOcciden-te (coordinatore nazionale: Giovanna De Sensi); segretaria di redazione della col-lana Diabaseis (ETS, Pisa).

Elena Franchi Si laureata a Trento (2003) ed ha conse-

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guito il titolo di Dottore di ricerca in Scien-ze dellantichit a Genova (2008) con una tesi su Il problema storico dei conlitti rituali in Grecia antica. Documentazio-ne e analisi. Il caso delle guerre tra Argo e Sparta (direttore di tesi Prof. Maurizio Giangiulio, cotutor: Prof. Marco Bettalli). Ha studiato a Freiburg i. Breisgau con H.-J. Gehrke (2007, 2011-) ed stata collabo-ratrice a progetto del Dipartimento di Filo-soia, Storia e Beni culturali dellUniversi-t degli Studi di Trento, dove dal 2008 anche docente a contratto di Storia greca. Nel 2011 ha ottenuto una borsa post-doc Von Humboldt grazie alla quale studia a Freiburg sotto la direzione di Gehrke la conlittualit tessalo-focidese.

Ursula Mandel Akademische Rtin e Kustodin presso lInstitut fr Archologische Wissenschaf-ten der Goethe-Universitt Frankfurt am Main. Si occupa di ceramica a rilievo in area microasiatica. Ha recentemente pub-blicato: Bemerkungen zur Tragodia von Pergamon, in H. v. Steuben H. Kotsidu G. Lahusen, . Beitrge zur an-tiken Plastik. Festschrift zu Ehren von P. C. Bol (Mhnesee 2007) 347-355; Rum-lichkeit und Bewegungserleben Krper-schicksale im Hochhellenismus (240-190 v. Chr.), in P.C. Bol (Hrsg.), Geschichte der antiken Bildhauerkunst III. Hellenistische Plastik (Mainz 2007) 103-187 Abb. 129-173.

Marcel Meulder stato Professore di lingue antiche pres-so lUniversit Libre de Bruxelles. Colla-bora con la rivista Latomus ed e autore di numerosi saggi. Tra i pi recenti : Un monstre platonicien : le tyran (2008) ; Minos commet les trois fautes fonction-nelles (2008) ; Auguste et Othon face au prsage du Tibre (2009) ; Le futur empe-

reur Tibre et le xvarnah (2009) ; Mar-cus Furius Scribonianus, guerrier impie ; un ultime exemple (2009) ; Varron dAtax, Virgile et les Argonautes (2009) ; Lenfant de la 4e Bucolique : un autre Zarathu-stra ? (2009) ; Prsence de Callimaque dans la IVe Bucolique de Virgile ? (2010) ; Pacatumque reget patriis uirtutibus or-bem (Virg. Buc. IV, 17) (2011) ; Horace, ar-chgte de la posie grco-latine (2011) ; Platon et les gnalogistes (2011) ; Marc Aurle ou le paradoxe des ges (2011).

Carmine Pisano Dottore di ricerca in Storia antica presso lUniversit degli Studi di Napoli Federico II. I suoi interessi di ricerca si concentra-no sul politeismo greco, le conigurazioni della regalit, le igure della comunicazio-ne nel mondo antico, il linguaggio delle immagini, i fenomeni di traduzione e in-terpretazione. Tra le sue pubblicazioni pi recenti: Gesti e immagini: una forma iconograica del menadismo, in I Quader-ni del Ramo doro on line 3 (2010), 148-163; Hermes dio dellalbero tra docu-mentazione micenea e tradizione greca, in Studi e Materiali di Storia delle Religio-ni 77/1 (2011), 187-203; Hermes, il lupo, il silenzio, in Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 98/2 (2011), 87-100.

Chiara Terranova Dottore di ricerca in Studi Storico-Reli-giosi presso il Dipartimento di Studi Tar-doantichi, Medievali e Umanistici dellUni-versit degli Studi di Messina. Si occupa da diversi anni del culto di Amphiaraos nel Mediterraneo antico e della mantica nel mondo classico ed ellenistico-romano. Suoi sono i contributi Gli oracoli e il My-thos nella Grecia di IV e III sec. a.C. Studi sullantico culto di Amphiaraos ad Oropos (SMSR 74, 2008, 159-192) e La religione come elemento uniicante nei rapporti tra

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popoli e culture. Per la deinizione del ruo-lo storico-religioso del culto di Aniarao (in corso di stampa).

Jrg Rpke Co-direttore del gruppo di ricerca Re-ligious Individualization in Historical Per-spective e membro del Max Weber Kolleg dellUniversit di Erfurt (sezione: Religious Studies). Tra le sue ultime pubblicazioni: Domi Militiae (Stuttgart 1990); La reli-gione dei Romani (Torino 2004) (ed. or.: The Religions of the Romans, Cambridge Ma 2007); A Companion to Roman Reli-gion (Malden Ma 2007); Fasti sacerdotum (Oxford/New York 2008); The Roman Ca-lendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti (Malden Ma 2011); Religion in Republican Rome: Rationa-lization and Ritual Change (Philadephia 2012); De Jupiter a Cristo (Villa Maria 2012).

Leonardo SaccoLaureato in Giurisprudenza e in Scienze storico-religiose, studioso di area giuridi-ca e storico-antropologica caratterizzato dalla formazione metodologica storicista ricevuta dalla Scuola romana di storia del-

le religioni interessato alle culture medi-terranee e orientali. Tra i suoi lavori: Devo-tio, in Studi Romani (2004); Kamikaze e shahd (Roma 2005); Neo-sciamanesimo & New Age. Il contributo di Mircea Elia-de, in Archaeus (2007-2008); Osservazio-ni comparative sulla sepoltura della Vesta-le a Roma, in Mediterraneo Antico (2009 o 2010); Devotio. Aspetti storico-religiosi di un rito militare romano; prefazione di A. Mastrocinque (Roma 2011).

Benjamin WeaverRicercatore presso lUniversit di Oxford, ha lavorato sotto la direzione di Heinrich von Staden, a una dissertazione dal titolo: Sparagmos: Dismemberment as Myth and Metaphor in Ancient Greek Literature che ora in corso di pubblicazione. Tra i suoi ultimi lavori: Euripides Bacchae and Clas-sical Typologies of PentheusSparagmos, 510-406 BC, in BICS 52 (2009); Aeschy-lus Xantriai: Resistance Myth and re-construction of a Dionysiac trilogy, in Raising the Fragment to the Status of a Whole?, ed. D. Obbink, et al., in c.d.s. e Plato, Laches 180 E(?), 182 B-C (More of LII 3671), in The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, in c.d.s.