2012 0nline jeda vol. 20, no. 1docxx

JEDA - Volume 20, Number 1. - March, 2012.

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. Planning Early Childhood Education Delivery Systems - Okorie, Ngozi C.

& Asodike, Juliana D. 371

2. Rebranding Nigerian Education Through Value Orientation - Dr. (Mrs) S. N. Oranusi 383

3. Perception of Counselling As An Integral Component of Specialized Service For Parents Of The Hearing Impaired in South-Western Nigeria –

Prof. Umoh, S.H. & Oniye, A. O., Ph.D; Oyewo, N. A., Ph.D & Ayena,

O. O., Ph.D 391

4. Generational and Ownership Inequity in the Utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian Universities –

Mfon Eyo, Ph.D. 400

5. Promoting Health Through Effective and Improved Consumer Health Education - Obiechina, G. O. (M.Ed.) 410

6. Issues and Challenges in the Implementation of National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) Curriculum on Adult and Non-Formal

Education Programmes in Nigeria. - Animasahun, M. Olaitan 421

7. Alcohol and Narcotics’ Consumption by The University Students: Implications For The Nigeria Society - Porbeni Zibo Sam, PhD 427

8. Academic Integrity At Examinations: Forgotten or Waved Aside By TheUniversity Students in Nigeria? – Dr. (Mrs.) I. C. Kosemani 435

9. Government Interference in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom in Nigeria: Implications For The Achievement Of Vision and

Mission Of Universities - F. I. Etadon, Ph.D & M.A. Oyebamiji, Ph.D 447

10. Nigeria and The Aesthetic Phenomena. - Ike P. Aghaosa, Ph.D 457

11. Problems in The Utilization of Continuing Education Programmes For Improved Access to Education in The Niger Delta Region of Nigeria -

Dr. J. C. Ihejirika 466

11. Trends in Administration of Primary Schools in Nigeria - Dr. G. G. Kpee,

Dr. O. G. Agabi & Mrs. L. N. Nwoko 476

12. Students’ Access to Infrastructural Facilities As A Correlate of Quality Output: The Planning Option - Obasi Kenneth K., Ph.D & Ohia, Adanma

N., Ph.D 483

13. Teachers’ Welfare Programme As A Time Management Strategy in Rivers State Secondary Schools. - Chinyere O. Agabi & Worlu I. Wali 491

14. Enhancing Rural Development In Nigeria: Functional Literacy Education Option - Akande, Joshua Olusola, Ph.D 502

15. Inculcating Good Study Habits For Successful Adjustment of Students in The U.B.E. Programme - Dr. (Mrs.) Ijeoma M. Opara & Ovensehi

Henry Imwenoghomwen 511

16. Obafemi Awolowo’s Philosophy of Education: An Analytical Interpretation - Professor J. D. Okoh & Dr. Chidi Omordu 519

17. Influence of Community Participation on Tourism Development in Osun State, Nigeria - O. E. Olajide, Ph.D & G. A. Nwogu 527

March, 2012. JOURNAL OF EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING AREAS (JEDA) VOL.20 (1).

w w w . j e d a - u n i p o r t . c o m

Page 371

Journal of Education in Developing Areas (JEDA) Vol. 20, No. 1.

PLANNING EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

DELIVERY SYSTEMS

By

OKORIE, NGOZI C

&

Asodike, Juliana D. (Corresponding author) [email protected]

+234-8036662621 Department of Educational Management

Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt

Abstract

This paper highlights methods that need to be adopted for effective teaching and learning at the early

childhood education centres. In an attempt to do this, characteristics of the teaching personnel, pedagogies

such as exploration, use of songs and rhymes, fun and games were discussed. In addition, analyses of the

three specialized methods of delivery or progression approaches (Waldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia) to

early childhood were made. Finally, the application of Montessori approach to the early childhood education

in Nigeria was demonstrated.

Keywords: Early childhood education, Delivery systems



72

Introduction

Early childhood education commonly referred to as nursery or pre-primary education is educational

provision made for children before the beginning of compulsory education. It is the formal teaching and

care of young children by people other than their family in setting outside their home. Early childhood

education is not comparable with the term Day care and Childcare as these do not embrace the

educational component. In addition to the fact that staff of early childhood education in the present

dispensation are required to have a teaching qualification.

The framework for early childhood education includes the structural (administration, class size,

teacher-child ratio, services, etc), process (quality of classroom environments, teacher-child interactions,

etc), and alignment (standards, curriculum, assessments) components that are associated with each

individual unique child that has both social and academic outcomes (Wikipedia, 2011 a). At each age band,

an appropriate curriculum that is based on the philosophy that all domains of child development need to

be addressed makes it mandatory that appropriate delivery methods are planned and utilized. However,

different early childhood education providers have adopted different specialized methods of delivery such

as Woldrf, Montessori and Regio Emilia in addition to other pedagogies such as play - exploration,

experiment, discovery, songs, rhymes, fun and games. Each of these are discussed in detail.

The demand for this type of education has been on the increased globally. This is as a result of

increase in higher maternal employment rates and research showing positive link between early childhood

experiences and brain development of young children. The public school system in Nigeria provides 3

years of pre-primary education covering ages 3 through 5. Pre-primary classes are always physically and

administratively attached to primary schools. According to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)

pre-primary education is intended to achieve the following purpose:

(a) effect a smooth transition from the home to the school; (b) prepare the child for the primary level of education; (c) provide adequate care and supervision for the children while their parents are at work (on the

farms, the markets, offices, etc);

(d) inculcate social norms; (e) inculcate in the child the spirit of enquiry and creativity through the exploration of nature, the

environments, art, music and playing with toys, etc;

(f) develop a sense of co-operation and team-spirit; (g) learn good habits, especially good health habits; and (h) teach the rudiments of numbers, letters, colours, shapes forms etc, through play.

Summarily, the purpose of pre-primary education is to meet the safety, health, education and social need

of the pre-school child.

While primary education has been compulsory since 1976, pre-primary education became part of

primary education with the introduction of Universal Basic Education (UBE) in 1999. This is because the

concept of basic education calls for the inclusion of early childhood in public school system. The

educational provision has given parents the choice of sending their children to pubic early childhood

education programme or private (for-profit) providers.



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Teaching in Early Childhood Education

Teaching in early childhood education is rewarding though at times frustrating. Based on limited

experiences, naturally a pre-school age child will not understand the way an adult would.

Teacher and pupils in nursery class

Experiences have shown that learning is more effective at early childhood period when children recognize

the strategies and methods that may be used to achieve a given assignment. These strategies and methods

will be described as delivery systems in early childhood education in this paper.

The importance of effective delivery system in early childhood education in the present dispensation of

greater awareness of the benefits of educational provision at this level cannot be over-stressed. A poor or

weak educational foundation does not augur well in any educational system. It is like constructing a house

foundation on sand.

Teachers are facilitators of learning, and teaching is an act, which can be cultivated by training,

experience and practice. At all levels and types of educational provision, different methods are adopted

and applied to achieve the institutional set goals and objectives. If teaching adults is a difficult task,

teaching a pre-school child will be a greater problem if appropriate training of personnel is not sought for,

learning styles of the pre-school children is not identified and instructional methods/approaches and

materials are not given adequate considerations. There must also be close co-operation among the centres,

family, and the community. They should endeavour to effectively utilize all available educational resources

and create a good environment conducive to the development of the children.

Personnel in Early Childhood Education



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Teachers in early childhood education should be graduates of normal schools specializing in early

childhood education. They could also be personnel who have undergone professional training and

acquired certified qualifications. Retired schoolteachers and volunteers having undergone some

professional training could be engaged. It is incumbent upon all workers in early childhood education

centres to respect the personality, idiosyncrasies and right of children, and to observe the laws governing

the physical and mental development of the children. It is also very important for them to pay due

consideration to the characteristics of children’s learning and satisfy their needs in multi-faceted

development so that they may acquire experiences necessary for physical and mental development in a

happy childhood, and be able to fully develop their potentialities.

How Does the Pre-school Child Learn?

There are five different developmental domains of children which relate to each other. They are easily

referred to as the SPICE of life (Torkildren, 1999, in Wikipedia, 2011 b). They are:

� Social – Refers mostly to the ability to form attachments, play with others, co-operation and

sharing, and being able to create lasting relationships with others

� Physical – Development of Fine (small) and Gross (large) Motor Skills.

� Intellectual – The process of making sense of the world around them.

� Creative – The development of special abilities creating talents. Music, Art, Writing, Reading, and

Singing are all ways for creative development to take place.

� Emotional – Development of self-awareness, self-confidence, and coping with feelings as well as

understanding them.

There is need to explore the learning styles of pre-school children in order to adopt an effective delivery

system that will explore these five domains and apply same to their learning behaviours. Each delivery

method should provide teachers guidance necessary to support children’s early learning and development.

The pre-school child learns through:

1. Play (Exploration, experimentation and discovery)

Play is a very important delivery method in early childhood education. By providing an environment in

which the child is free to explore, experiment and discover what

things are and what they do. Nigeria as a developing economy with rapid growth in cities and its attendant

increase of road traffic, there is now reduction of open space and green areas. Schools no longer have

demonstration fora and play grounds where children can play and explore their talents and environment.

Consequently, nature becomes distant or unfamiliar and obscure to them. Therefore the amount of

learning in the classroom is affected by the nature of materials provided and the quality of the teachers’

involvement in the activities carried out. Children should be provided with safe materials, facilities, and

also freedom to enable them experiment and discover things themselves. To these children, seeing is

believing. They need colourful objects that serve as play toys as much as educational tools. These objects

should be made of smooth and manageable materials that are resistant and made up of large pieces. Of

course, they should not be toxic nor have sharp or pointed edges (Posse & Melgosa, 2001). Provision of

varieties of toys in a non-restrictive environment in addition to free observation, play, speech and choice

of toys increases their independence. Children also use their imagination to have fun, learn about

themselves and what a person can do.

The teacher should facilitate development rather than taking initiative away from children by

observing the children at play. After observing, the teacher can adjust the space available for various

activities, judge the amount of time needed for the activity to develop, make decisions about materials and

helps children to set rules that are needed. The teacher can also join in children activities. However, this is



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successful when the teacher can share in it without directing or dominating.

The use of play in the delivery systems of early childhood education cannot be overlooked in the planning

process. It is a sine qua non in all efforts to provide efficient and effective delivery of early childhood

curriculum.

2. Fun and games

Children love to have fun and do many games. Pre-school children love to play with bubbles (water), have

fun with tangrams (shapes), sand and clay.

Nursery pupils exploring toys as they construct different objects

Activities should include measuring water and floating pieces of papers on dishwater. They should be

provided with sand trays where they could trace and clay for modeling. The benefits of a creative learning

environment are immeasurable for the children and teachers involved. Children want to bring out new

ideas, have new experiences and express themselves only (Mayesky, Neuman & Wodkowski in Madumere-

Obike & Olu ,2005).There should be freedom in choice of play items and materials. Children also learn by

dramatizing while mimicking adults. The teachers can role play. As teachers do these things they become

part of a play, add ideas, introduce vocabulary and help the children feel comfortable. A teachers’

participation in plays help children to know that play is viewed by the teacher as an important activity.

A child could learn science and mathematics from playing. All subjects should be integrated into

one to enable children have fun. Teachers who understand these learning styles can plan delivery system to

interact with children in ways that adequately correspond to age and intellectual, sound and emotional

development.



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A typical nursery class

3. Songs and rhymes

Children love songs naturally, so much that even when they do not want to sleep, the power of lullaby

overtakes them. They enjoy and benefit from short group sessions during which they learn to listen to

each other. The teacher sings together with them, listen to stories and develop a sense of time by

remembering what they have done and planning ahead.

Singing helps children learn body parts, learn about lots of themes and perform different actions. They like

nursery rhymes, action verses and finger plays. For instance, a popular song such as:

This is the way we wash our face

Wash our face, wash our face

This is the way we wash our face, early in the morning

(This can be sung many times using different parts of the body and changing the action word like – comb

the hair, brush our teeth and so on to substitute for the face in the song). While singing this song, children

demonstrate action by pointing to the different parts of the body in question and demonstrating the action

as they are mentioned.

Through songs and rhymes new information items are made meaningful as they are presented and

reference is to the children’s share of previous experience through songs and rhymes. In the light of this

association of presenting items with past experience, meaning comes out of the new items (ACE Series,

1981). These meaningful new items become relevant to the children and so quick accommodation of new



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knowledge is facilitated. While doing these, questions are used in teaching to confirm comprehension of

new items and experiences as contained in the songs or rhymes. Songs also refine the children’s ability of

pronunciation. This is very necessary because even when the songs are in the language in which they are

taught, they are yet to gain mastery of it.

Furthermore, through traditional songs, poems and folk tales guided by traditional activities children learn

social morals and are able to distinguish right from wrong (Asodike, 2011). All these underscore the fact

that songs and rhymes should form integral part while planning delivery systems in early childhood

education.

.

Nursery pupils busy learning with toys

APPROACHES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Determining the best approach for effective delivery of early childhood education is an issue that should

be of concern to teachers, researchers and policy makers in their efforts to make sure all children are not

only ready to learn, they should also enjoy it. . It is like determining the best bait to be used to catch the

biggest fish in a fishing expedition.

Karnes and Colleagues (in Golbeck, 2002), studying five model approaches, including traditional,

Montessori, and direct instruction, found that at the end of first grade, children from mostly highly

structured pre-academic programmes were most successful in school. However, in a later follow-up, the

original Montessori group contained the highest percentage of high school graduates, with traditional

programme group close behind. Relatively low rates were shown for other programmes.

Although the models in application of Montessori vary, studies have revealed that boys actually



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outperformed the girls in other programmes at the seventh and eight grades (Miller and colleagues 1998,

Karnes et al, 1998 in Golbeck, 2002). Reporting further Karnes stressed that, children from the

Montessori programme showed high-level school success, although they did not necessarily show the

highest IQ scores.

Comparing their own cognitively oriented curriculum, direct instruction, and a traditional child-

centered theme based approach, Schchweinhart and Weikart (in Golbeck, 2002) in their High/Scope

Foundation, noted that there was a slight advantage for direct instruction initially, but long-term data

collected in adolescence showed higher level of social adjustment for children in their Foundation.

Waldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia are three progression approaches to early childhood education

that appear to be influencing early childhood education.

Waldorf Approach

The Waldorf approach is based on the principles developed by Rudolf Steiner (1861-1925), an Austrian

scientist and educator. It emphasizes developing the child’s intellectual powers in harmony with the feeling

and active aspects of nature. Waldorf programmes (pre-school through high school) usually include much

of creative activity in their programmes, and the use of natural materials in the classroom is stressed.

Teachers receive specialized training and often remain with the same group of children for several years.

They become a very close-knit group as they explore the world through conscious imagination or feelings.

In this approach, the teacher presents a curriculum that has structure and sequence but relies on

lessons unaccompanied by textbooks. The approach fosters an integrated, multisensorial approach to

learning and expression with more emphasis on oral listening and memory than is found in other early

childhood models for the primary years. For instance, the teacher might introduce an arithmetic operation

by telling a story where the numbers are characters in a drama. Stories such as history of the Nigeria Civil

war can be rendered as an exciting tale. Children listen as the teacher presents the materials, and they

integrate what they have learned as they design and illustrate with care and beauty their own lesson books.

In essence, they compose their own text, which preserve for them what they have learned in their own

personal format, documents and treasures of their learning experiences. Children study literature, folktales,

and mythology; rhythmic musical movement; practical crafts; natural sciences; foreign languages; art; and

music (Edwards, 2002).

Teachers play a performance role as they lead whole-group activities involving integration of academic

and the artistic with an explicit spirituality. They seek to encourage the child’s natural sense of wonder,

belief in goodness, and love of beauty.

Montessori Approach

Maria Montessori (1870-1952), an Italian physician and educator, developed her innovative ideas on

teaching young children in the early part of the 20th century. Today many pre-schools (and primary

schools) bear her name and follow the “Montessori method”. This philosophy emphasizes the individual

child’s initiative and independence, allowing him or her to progress through an orderly series of structured

learning activities at his own pace. Special materials that emphasize the use of all senses in learning are

employed. The “manipulative” that are used in many pre-schools today owe a debt to these Montessori

materials (Jordan, 2001).

To introduce a new curriculum, teachers present demonstration lessons at the point when an

individual or small group indicates readiness to advance in the sequence of self–correcting materials, in the



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area of practical life, sensorial, mathematics, science and geography, and art and music (Humphryes, 1998).

The high individualization in Montessori approach is with scope, sequence, and clear-cut domains. This

results in some young children mastering reading and writing before the age of 6 following Montessori

writing to read methods. Pre-school children in full-day programmes usually address the Montessori

curriculum in the morning and typical child-care play including fantasy play in the afternoon.

The role of the teacher is that of an unobtrusive director in the classrooms as children individually or

in small group engage in self-directed activity. The teacher brings the children into close contact with

reality through sensory investigation and practical activity and then relies on the child’s unfolding inner

programme of curiosity and sensitivities to ensure that the child will learn what he or she needs. According

to their individual capabilities, children progress at their own pace and rhythm.

Reggio Emilia Approach

Reggio Emilia is a city in Northern Italy where educators, parents and children began working together

after World War II to reconstruct society and build an exemplary system of municipal pre-schools and

infant-toddler centres. Under leadership of the visionary founding director, Loris Malaguzzi (1920-1994),

the system evolved from a parent co-operative movement into a city-run system that exercises a leadership

role in Italy.

Programmes in Reggio are family centered and serve children at infant-toddler and pre-school levels, with

first priority given to children with disabilities or social service needs (Edwards, 2002).

In this approach, a resourceful child generates changes in the systems in which he is involved and

becomes a producer of culture, values, and rights (Rinaldi in Edwards, 2002). Teachers seek to hold before

them this powerful image as they support children in exploring and investigating. Children grow in

competence to symbolically represent ideas and feelings through any of their hundreds of languages

(expressive, communicative, and cognitive) – words, movement, drawing, painting, building, sculpture,

shadow play, collage, dramatic play, music and so on that they systemically explore and combine.

The teacher plays the role of artful balancing between engagement and attention (Edwards, 1998). Based on

careful and sensitive listening, observation/documentation, and reflection with other adults, the teacher

serves as resources and guides to the children. Teachers also act as recorders for the children, helping

them trace and revisit their words and actions and thereby making the learning visible.

Programmes in Reggio Emlia are not a formal model like Waldorf and Montessori, with defined methods,

teacher certification standards, and accreditation processes. Instead, educators in Reggio Emilia speak of

their evolving experience and see themselves as a provocation vision of the child (Edwards,Gandini, &

Forman; Katz & Cesarone; New in Edwards, 2002).

Analysis of the Three Approaches

Analysis of these approaches reveals that they have many points in common and are built on coherent

visions of how to improve human society by helping children realize their full potentials as intelligent,

creative, whole persons. Edawrds (2002) notes that, the approaches view children as active authors of

their own development, strongly influenced by natural, dynamic, self-righting force within themselves,

opening the way towards growth and learning. Teachers depend for their work with children on carefully

prepared, aesthetically pleasing environments that serve as pedagogical tool and provide strong messages

about the curriculum and about respect for children. Collaborating with parents is highly valued and

children are evaluated by means other than traditional test and grades.

The areas of differences are at the levels of principles and strategies. There are variant views of the nature

of young children’s need, interest and modes of learning that lead to contrast in the ways that teachers



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interact with children in the classroom coupled with the frame and structure of learning experiences.

Postscript

In Nigeria, the Montessori approach appears to be influencing early childhood education. Nigeria’s early

childhood education advocates have discovered the wisdom of Montessori’s methods, grounded in her

own belief that – education is the key to the betterment of society. Some privately owned early childhood

education centres are conspicuously labeled Montessori Centres. The extent of their practice of the

principles and strategies are yet to be ascertained, but one thing is clear – they uphold Montessori’s

ideology and methodology.

How is Montessori approach applied in the teaching of reading, writing, and number work or arithmetic

skills in early childhood education?

Reading skills

Flash cards, sand paper letters and frames are used for reading phrases. The flash cards have pictures

whose first letters have the sound of the letter and not the name. At the top of the flash cards is the capital

letter/upper case of the sound to be taught, at the centre is the picture, and at the end is the lower case/

small letter.

B C

Ball Cup

b c

Children are taught the sound of the letter not the name. The lower case is used for prints when

the children are ready for reading.

Sand paper letters are written in lower cases. They are used to teach the children the recognition and

identification of graphic signs of the letter when the picture cards/flash cards are withdrawn. This method

represents a simple method of reading and word construction.

Writing skill

Children are taught to trace the diverse types of lines, tracing them in various directions and in different

positions relative to the plane. They are taught to reunite these lines to form letters and figures, varying

from simple to complex. Children are taught to distinguish straight lines from curves, vertical from

horizontal, and form the various oblique lines.



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Finally, they are taught to make clear the principal points of conjunction of two or more lines in

forming a letter or a figure. Activities in Evans Writing Books for Nursery Schools clearly depict these

sequential processes.

Number work/Arithmetic

Flash cards spindle box are used to introduce numerals to the children. The flash cards have the number

on top and pictures corresponding to the number in the body of the cards.

Children count and identify numbers by touching what they are counting with their fingers and

seeing with their eyes. The spindle box is used to practically teach the concept of zero. Here the children

are asked to sort the rods (counters) into sets, placing each set in a different box. One box will be empty.

The teacher explains that when a box contains no rod at all, we indicate thus by the number ‘o’ called

‘nought or ‘zero’.

The geometric cabinet is used to teach children different sizes and kinds of shape.

Triangle Circle Square

Rectangle

The counting-trays, counters and number boards are used for teaching counting, sorting and

seriating. Addition strip-boards and skittle are used for teaching addition and division. There are also

boards for teaching of multiplication, subtraction fraction and other arithmetic concepts.

1 2 0 3 4 5

6 7 8 9



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When children plant seeds in the class in order to care for the plants and observe their growth; when they

are included in preparation and serving of snacks and when a teacher provides sandpaper and three-

dimensional shapes and letters that children can trace with their fingers to reinforce shape and letter

recognition, they are being introduced to Montessori’s methods (Early Childhood Today, n.d).

Conclusion

There is need for administrators and teachers of early childhood to foster positive home-school

relationships that will support children’s school success. Parents participation can be facilitated by inviting

them into the classroom, providing them with ongoing information about the activities talking place at

school and showing them the link between what is going on at school and the activities they can do at

home. Teachers can send home pictures of each child engaged in classrooms activities. At home, they

should be allowed to play with things around the house. For example, clothes, plastic empty containers

and boxes of all shapes and sizes are safe for them to experiment with. However, they should be properly

guided to avoid unnecessary injury to one another.

References Asodike, J.D. (2011). Relevance of pre-school education to sustainable development In S. D. Ossat (Ed.)

Education in Africa: the 21st century Nigeria experience pp 97-117. Port Harcourt. Nigeria: University of Port Harcourt Press.

Associateship Certificate in Education (1981). Nursery Education, University of Ibadan: Institute of Education.

Edwards, C. P. (2002). Three approaches from Europe: Woldorf, Montessori and Reggio Emilia, Early childhood Research & Practice, University of Nebraska of Lincoln 4(1), 1-5.

Early Childhood Today (n.d) Maria Montessori: A sensory approach to learning. The third installment in Early Childhood Today’s series on the Roots of Early Childhood Education Retrieved from http://content.scholastic.com/browse/aricle.jsp?id=3480.

Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC Press.

Goldbeck, S. C. (2002). Instructional models for early childhood education, ERIC Digest Retrieved from http://www.ericdigest.org./2003-3/early.htm.

Humphryes, J. (1998). The developmental appropriateness of high-quality Montessori programs, Young Children, 53(43), 4-16.

Jordan. D. (2001). Many faces of preschools philosophies of early childhood education, Berkeley, CA: Parent Press. Madumere-Obike, C. U. & Olu, S. M. (2005). Montessori system of education in

Nigeria: Its contribution to access and equity to pre-primary schools in Obio/Akpor L.G.A. of Rivers State, Nigerian Journal of Educational Administration and Planning, 5(2), 145-151.

Posse, R. & Melgosa, J. (2001). New life style foe raising your child, Spain: Pradillo, 6 – Poligono Industrial La Mina.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2011a). Preschool education. Retrieved from http://en.wikpedia.org/wiki/Preschool_education

Wikipedia , the free encyclopedia (2011 b). Early childhood education. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_childhood_education



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REBRANDING NIGERIAN EDUCATION THROUGH VALUE

ORIENTATION

BY

DR (MRS) S.N. ORANUSI

Department of Educational Foundations University of Port Harcourt

Abstract

This paper examined the Educational System of Nigeria with emphasis on value orientations. Its

emphasis rests on the fact that our societal value system are defined and conditioned by the biological,

psychological, social and ecological contexts of the polity. It also revealed that the invisible presence of non-

colonialism today is worse than the colonial physical presence in Africa because Europeans left the shores

of Africa, but have tactically made Africa to chase after their culture, values and traditions. It also

proffers a recommendation which includes; that our educational policy must emphasize the revival of our

norms, myths and cultural values through artistic forms, folklore and myths.



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Introduction

Education is pre-eminently a culture-preserving, culture transmitting and culture transforming

institution designed to build a better tomorrow on the foundations erected by the past generations.

After many decades of cyclic fluctuations in political, economic and social change’ in Nigeria, the

issue of standard of discipline, self control, and integrity combined with educational qualification

appropriate to the Nigerian socio-economic milieu remains as pressing as ever. Our educational

policy has proved itself progressively incapable of devising a set of value orientations that can

effectively mediate societal interactions in Nigeria. It has failed to inculcate a set of normative

patterns and institutional goals that can stem the rising tide of indiscipline, immorality and

corruption in our public and private lives.

Lugard (1912) stated that the most important question facing Nigeria was how to promote a

better standard of discipline, self-control and integrity, combined with educational qualifications

more adequate to the demands of state and commerce. “Value orientation is a set of preferential

behaviours, generalized, organized and institutionalized concept of the good life by a society to

guide and influence man’s behaviour. It is a set of cognitive maps which delimit man’s world view,

his concept of nature, his relation to his fellow human being and to his total environment. It defines

and delimits the desirable and undesirable aspect of human interaction within a particular socio-

economic milieu” (Aronfreed, 1987).

A society value system is defined and conditioned by the biological, psychological, social and

ecological context of that particular society. By ecology we refer to the individual total

environmental frame of reference including the economic and political dimensions of his relation

with his environment. All these four variables mentioned above exert reciprocal influence on each

other. This is what Smith (1999) terms the field of theory of values. They determine the value profile

of the society. A change in one set of variables necessarily leads to corresponding changes in the

other variables. The cumulative effect of these changes is a perceptible change in the value profile of

the society.

At each stage in society’s socio-economic and political development the society must make

realistic efforts to reassess its dominant values to bring them in line with the changing social,

political and cultural milieu. It must build a firm foundation for the emergent value clusters through

its educational philosophy, educational goals and educational practices. It must ensure that these

values are not held in the abstract, that they permeate and form the basis of the formal and informal

educational system; that they conform to the dominant ethos of the society and make a perceptible

impact on physical, psychological and social realities of that particular society.

Problem Statement

The problem of Nigerian education has reached the dimension of a crisis which threatens the very

stability of the society. Yet there is a comfortable and smug assumption that the country’s

educational system has been eminently successful, that on the whole the machinery of

administration is well structured at every level. According to Taiwo (1980) “The process of decision-

making is clear and all the people affected are involved directly or indirectly in the process. The

duties of the functionaries, from the minister/commissioner and permanent secretary, to the



Page 385

headmaster and the teachers in the lowest unity, “all grow and develop to meet new challenges”.

With all due respect to Taiwo, a veteran educator of no mean order, this statement bags a

number of questions. For example, how can educational system designed to further the aims and

objectives of an extractive colonial power be made to serve the interest of an independent Nigeria?

How can educational values designed to serve, to maintain and to perpetuate an imperial political

system be made to serve the needs of an independent Nigerian political system without radical

restructuring?

Almond (1990) observed that every political system is embedded in a particular pattern of

orientation of political actions. Certainly, orientation to a colonial regime can never be the same as

orientation to an independent policy. Furthermore, it is patently true that the underlying legitimacy

of behaviour patterns and values exists in and responds to a political bargaining relationship. It

therefore, standsP to reason that an educational system designed to inculcate the values of a colonial

be made to serve the needs of an independent Nigerian political system. This paper therefore

concerns itself with the role of education in providing, within an independent Nigeria, the moral,

emotional and intellectual foundations. The individual identity, group identity and national identity

must reinforce and revitalize each other in order to ensure the development of a concerned and

committed citizenry conscious of their rights and duties. They should be committed to a set of value

that will foster a strong participant onentation.

The Concept of Value System

It takes as its premise the concept that a nations political culture is a composite of its values and

traditions, its folklore, its heroes and myths, its language, its history and the totality of its

environmental factors. This includes its peculiar way of life consisting of its means of livelihood, its

art, settlement patterns. Certainly, no man in any society provides for his family independently of the

intricate pattern of cooperation and mutual assistance. None, in fact, can function effectively outside

an established pattern of human relation and institutional framework which assures him of the

actions and reactions that his behaviour will evoke from his neighbours. It is in fact the nature of the

established patterns of human relations and the institutional framework designed to mediate

between these interactions which determines the difference between the citizen of an independent

political system or a subject of colonizing power. The competence required of the citizen is quite

different from the competence required of a subject.

In like manner, the educational system designed for the education of citizens is quite different

from the educational system designed for the subject of a colonial power. Each education system

reflects and inculcates a set of attitudes and goals appropriate to the status of the individual in a

particular political system. Therefore, a change in the status of the individual requires corresponding

change in attitudes, beliefs and values systems which the educational system must instill in the young

and in every member of the society.

This change is particularly important in countries such as Nigeria which was dominated by a

colonial power for almost a century. The norms, values and authority of the central institution

derived their power and legitimacy from the imperial power where the behaviour of the indigenous

population had been conditioned by the dictates of their colonial masters. The treated them not as

citizens but as subjects.



Page 386

Every political system designs its educational system, both formal and informal, to ensure that

the perpetuation of a certain political system cannot be transplanted to serve another political system

without necessary modification and adoption. Such modifications and adaptations must take into

consideration the domain of values embracing the biological, psychological, social and ecological

determinants of a given society.

The Nigerian Educationa1 System

The greatest problem facing the Nigerian educational system is that there is a manifest discrepancy

between the values taught in school and the public domain of values and societal trends, between

governmental philosophy and operation of that philosophy; between government goals for the

development off society. Kandel (1990) emphasized that in Nigeria one cannot say with any degree

of certainty that what you want in state, you must put into the school for the state institution and the

educational institutions operate at different wave-lengths.

The Attitudes and be1iefs, inculcated in school cannot produce the desired effect unless they

are objectified, reified, operationalizcd in their private and public transactions. One cannot gain

currency without the other. We are by no means belittling the power of ideas and beliefs. They are

powerful in their own right. But for them to exercise sway over our lives, there must not be any

perceptible dissonance between beliefs and customs, between expectations and performance;

between policy and practice. (Bright 2001).

Thus for our educational system to exercise a perceptible influence over the actions of men,

there must be a measure of congruence between appearance and form, between the value

determinants of our educational system and ritualized, operative and dominant norms of our society.

What sustains the efficacy of the educational institutions of a society is a realization by the young

that is based on a clear perception that the image and ideals of a society propagated in schools have

some measure of relevance to the manners and mores, the operative myths and world view of the

society which designed and upholds the educational system (Coleman, 1965).

There is no doubt that an element of idealism and romanticism is inseparably bound up with

the emotive component of cultural transmission through educational and socializing agencies of the

community (Johnson 1989). Certainly, life is a constant struggle; constant straining to expand the

boundaries of experience to reach after the ideal, to merge with the infinite. Therefore at each stage

in our life experience, the practice must always fall short of the ideal. James Coleman (1965)

emphasized that “it is the fall of the ideal image that leads to the collapse of empires and the decay

of cultures”. It is the search for the ideal that spurs the creative faculty of man. But the inspiration

and the ideals that vitalize the education system of a nation, like the proverbial phoenix must renew

itself from the ashes of its past.

A nation’s education system is meant to strengthen and refine the character of future

generations to give the student knowledgeable confidence in himself, to develop pride in the

achievement of his ancestors coupled with a burning desire to improve on these achievements; to

plough new grounds to leave a legacy to posterity. There is certainly no doubt that people who

cannot look back with pride on the achievements of their ancestors will find it extremely difficult to

muster the courage, the pride, the confidence and consequently, the ability to improve on the

present state of things. They will find it a Herculean task to blaze new traits, to dream fresh dreams

and to make the impossible possible.



Page 387

Here-in lies the core problem of the Nigerian educational system. A resolute and practical

attempt to solve this problem is the first step in the right direction to relevant and functional

education for Nigeria. The question which demands an urgent answer is; how this can be done... the

most important step in the solution to this problem is to identify those values which impede the

realization of our educational goals and suggest some alternative solutions.

The Colonial Education

The first and foremost problem is that education in Nigeria is regarded as an agent of change.

Change as a value has so many dimensions. However, these dimensions can be summed up under

the four value variables noted previously: biological, psychological, social and ecological

determinations. Morris (1990) emphasized that the variables in the four determinants or domains of

value are so related that a change in the variable in any one domain is companied by a change in the

variables in the other domains. But the ultimate result of the change in the interacting variables

depends on the motive and thrust of the change.

The schoo1s from the beginning of the British colonial period was regarded pre-eminently as a

means of changing our traditional culture and of planting British ideals, values and culture. This is

totally at variance with the major tenets of those cultures and highly destructive of our individual

and collective identity. Johnson (1989) noted that the result has been that we as a people have lost

our self respect and our love for our self-respect and our love for our own race, and we have

become a sort of non-descript people.

Obviously, the British education system was pre-eminently successful in educating the African

and weaning him away from his culture and his values. It was very effective in changing the

psychological orientation of the educated African to things British, to the British way of life and to

some extent, British values. What was not recognized then was that a change in the psychological

orientation of the people would bring about material change in the variables involving their

biological, social and ecological orientations.

Consequences of Wrong Value Orientation

After independence, the Nigerian government emphasized the aim of education as an instrument of

rapid economic development (National Policy on Education, 2004). There is no doubt that well

intended and infact sincere statements were made about creating equal opportunities, about using

education to bring about a well-rounded human being, but the method of accomplishing this was

vaguely defined. There was no clear-cut idea about how to relate the change in the economic

variables to the variables in such value domains as the ecological, sociological and psychological

determinants in the value clusters of independent Nigeria.

The result was the accentuation of the economic factor and the consequent mad rush to acquire

wealth by any means just for the sake of it. Thus while the government is making every effort to

establish more educational institutions of all types and to finance them, the public is increasingly

concerned that the way to power and influence lies not in the hallowed halls of the universities but

in the mercantile house and market places. Money has thus become not just the means to an end,

but an end in itself, not just an instrument value but the ultimate value. A close examination of the

behaviour of Nigerian youths today will help to judge if such behaviour is in harmony with the

prescribed aims and values of education.



Page 388

The materialistic tendency of most Nigerians is fast gripping the youths. Students have become

less interested in courses that provide general knowledge and are now more interested in courses

that are applicable to work roles so that they can get rich quickly. Young school leavers prefer

engaging in “business” or any other venture that will yield money overnight rather than pursuing

higher education or to becoming rich through worthwhile painstaking means. The result of the mad

rush is that principles and values are thrown overboard, respect is taken for granted and honour and

integrity are completely set aside.

The Nigerian society has been constantly harassed by armed robbers, hired assassins and

kidnappers. Whether it is at night or during the day, cars are stolen from garages, on the high ways,

banks are robbed, users of public transportation systems are robbed right inside such vehicles.

People are made to surrender their money and property at gun points even in their bedrooms.

Students burn down and destroy valuable government and institutional property for one flimsy

reason or the other. Corruption which is not exclusive to Nigeria is gaining acceptance in the society

because the people appear to be fanning its embers. Students bribe teachers to sell examination

questions to them, they bribe office executives to gain employment even when they do not have the

relevant certificates. They bribe the law enforcement agencies to pervert the course of justice.

Certainly, a nation’s culture, its cluster of values, its myths and folkways cannot be separated from

the educational system of its political order without obvious dysfunctional effects.

Value Orientation: The Continuing Crisis

Education is viewed essentially as a cognitive map which enables the individual to exploit his/her

environrnent for his/her very survival. All education systems contain an element of exploitative

orientation which finds overt expression in man’s economic drives. However, the difference in the

effectiveness of the various educational values lies in the degree to which this exploitative dimension

is checked, cushioned arid directed.

Orientation education is an instrumental value in the sense that by examples and precepts the

educational system instills in the child such traits as mutual accommodation and acceptance;

sensitivity to the feelings and interests of fellow students and citizens, devotion to a cause, and an

idealistic quest for the betterment of the society at large.

It emphasizes that without faith in human beings and confidence in a plighted world, human

cooperation in business and social life become extremely precarious and vexatious. Through

anecdotes, fables and living examples of transparent honest, it engenders in the youth a sense of

justice and fair play without which political contests wear the appearance of a Russian Roulette —

played to a deadly finish.

If one may rightly ask; What aspect of our educational policy can infuse these values in our

students? First of all, there is the overwhelming majority of teachers, principals, curriculum planners,

school superintendents who are devoted to passing on knowledge that children need in order to live

in our industrialized society. They are not especially imaginative or creative nor do they often

question why they are teaching the things they teach. Their chief concern is with efficiency, that is,

with implanting the greatest number of facts into possible number of children, with a minimum of

time, expenses and effort.



Page 389

Conclusion

When one looks at all the queries and counter-queries about the deadline in our value system, one

finds that they all boil down to the issue of search for identity. The invisible presence of neo-

colonialism today according to Emuemokumo (2009) is worse than the colonial physical presence of

colonialism in Nigeria of those days. Europe left the shores of Africa, but has tactically made Africa

including Nigeria to chase after her. This is where the crisis or dilemma lies.

Recommendations

It is through the enabling vision of our indigenous art and literary form that we can recreate our past

and restore the lost heritage. This work therefore recommends that

1. Our education policy must emphasize the revival of our norms, myths and cultural values,

through artistic forms, folklore and myths.

2. It must recognize and exploit the rich resources of our language, our values and ecological

settings as vehicles for our cultural revival.

3. Our policy makers must bear in mind that education is meant to strengthen the character of our

people by giving them knowledgeable confidence in themselves, pride in the achievements of

their ancestors and a burning desire to improve on these achievements. It must spur them to

plough new grounds and leave a legacy for posterity.

4. Courses such as social studies, civic, religious knowledge and the likes should be incorporated in

the curriculum to assist in promoting our cultural values.

References Almond, W. (1990) The structure and function in society, London. Victor Gollari Ltd., Intro Section. Aronfreed, J. (1987) Moral Education and Behaviour, New York, Theory, Research and Social Issues. Bright, S.T. (2001) Variety of Human values. Princeton University Press. Comn,J-f-f965) Coleman, J. (1965) Education and Political Change. New Jersey, Princeton University Press. Emiemokumo, A.N. (2009) Modern African Art: Beyond Colonialism. The Nigerian Academic Forum;

Awka; National Association of Academic Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education; Lagos. NERDC press Johnson, S.N. (1989) The Aims of Educat,on, International Education. The University of

Tennessee Press Kandel, M.N. (1990) Economics, and Education in Developing Countries. Foundation Development

Dialogue (uppersale) Pg. 112-114 Lugard, F.E. (1912) Report on the Amalgamation of Northern and Southern Nigeria. 1912-1919,

CMD 468, 1920 para.165.



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Morris, 0. (1990) Society and Culture — New York David Mackey Press- 1112. Smith, H. 0. (1999) Political Personality and Nation Building. International review of Education,

Princeton University press. Taiwo, C.O. (1980) The Nigerian Education System: Past, Present and Future. Lagos. Thomas

Nelson Press.



Page 391


PERCEPTION OF COUNSELLING AS AN INTEGRAL COMPONENT

OF SPECIALIZED SERVICE FOR PARENTS OF THE HEARING

IMPAIRED IN SOUTH-WESTERN NIGERIA

By

PROF. UMOH, S.H.

&

ONIYE, A.O., Ph.D [email protected]

Dept. of Counsellor Education, University of Ilorin.

and

OYEWO, N. A., Ph.D &

AYENA, O. O., Ph.D

Emmanuel Alayande College of Education, P.M.B. 1010, Oyo,

Oyo State – Nigeria.

Abstract

This study is a survey of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired in South-Western Nigeria. Using purposive and simple random sampling techniques, a total of 200 respondents were selected for the study. An instrument named “Counselling: an Integral components for Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired” (CICHPHIQ) was used to collect data for the study. Two research hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Data collected were analysed using the t-test statistics. Results of the study revealed that special educators, irrespective of their age and types of institution agreed that counselling is an integral components for helping parents of the hearing impaired. Also, there is no significant difference between the old and the young special educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired. Results further revealed that significant mean difference does not exist between tertiary institution and secondary school special educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired. This study therefore recommends family-centered counselling for the entire family of the hearing impaired.



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Introduction

Counselling has been described as an applied psychology that may be considered as either an art or a

science. The art of counselling concerns its clinical practice; the talents and skills the counsellor brings

to it. The science of counselling concerns the theories that support the art of practice, the formation of

those theories through ongoing research.

The art and science of counselling are mutually dependent, and mutually enhancing dimensions.

Due to its multidisciplinary base, the definition of counselling varies among disciplines because

individual professionals within specific disciplines tend to form their own personal composite

theoretical frameworks for counselling research and practice (Crowe, 1997). To a professional

counsellor, counselling is a service designed to help the individual analyze him or herself by relating his

capacity, achievement, interest, weakness and modes of adjustment (Makinde, 1988).

Hence, counselling to a special educator in relation to the hearing impaired refers to a process

where special educators facilitate an individual’s adjustment to the auditory and non-auditory

consequences of hearing loss. The process of counselling is designed to facilitate resolution of

problems by enabling individual to find appropriate solutions for their difficulties (Sanders, 1993).

The counselling process consists of two components:

(1) Informational counselling

(2) Personal-adjustment counselling

Informational counselling provides information about aspects of the hearing impairment such

as audiogram, the consequences of the hearing loss and the use of amplification; while personal-

adjustment counselling refers to the emotional aspects of adjusting to the hearing loss and assisting

the parent and child in finding solution to their problems and ways of achieving independence

(Luterman, 1999).

What is Hearing Impairment?

The term hearing impairment is an all inclusive term referring to all types and degrees of

hearing loss (Sanders, 1993). There are generally two categories of hearing impairment viz: hard-of-

hearing and deaf.

Hard-of-Hearing: The term hard-of-hearing describes the child in terms of how he/she functions

communicatively. Typically, children who are hard-of-hearing use their residual hearing and

amplification as their primary mode of communication. Although most hard-of-hearing children learn

speech and language to some degree, many of them even learn sign language to help them relate to the

deaf and deaf culture.

Deaf: The term deaf generally refers to profound hearing loss that prevents the child for using hearing

as a primary mode of communication. This degree of hearing loss evokes distinction in culture as well



Page 393

as in audiometric designation (Sanders, 1993).

Finally, some terminology refers to the functional effects of an individual’s hearing impairment.

It is important to view all children with hearing impairment individually. This is because many have the

same degree and configuration of hearing loss, but behave or function quite differently in terms of

language, communication and learning situations. For example, a child with a 70-dB sensory loss who

uses hearing aids could function as a deaf child or a hearing child depending on success with

amplification, speech and language development, psychosocial development and so forth (Crowe,

1997).

Parental Reaction to Children with Hearing Impairment

When parents learn that their child has a significant hearing impairment, they experience a multitude of

reactions. For some, there is a sense of relief and confirmation that the behaviours they have been

observing in their child have some justification. However, many reactions follow this sense of relief and

confirmation (Crowe, 1997).

Parental reactions to hearing impairment in their children are similar to those experienced when

a loved one has died (Luterman, 1999). In a sense, most parents loose hopes, dreams and aspiration

that they might have had for their child. Their once “perfect” child is now not so perfect; hence, these

parents tend to go through a grieving process in dealing with such knowledge about their child. The

grief parents experience is understandable, but it can have negative effects on rehabilitation. Hence, it is

critical that counsellors respond to the grieving process in a manner that facilitates acceptance of the

loss (Luterman, 1999).

Shontz (1995) describes the psychological reactions to crisis as a useful model for

understanding the reaction of parents who have deaf children. Immediately after parents receive the

diagnosis of deafness, they often experience crisis. The psychological reactions are also similar to the

stages of grief (Kobler-Ross, 1999).

In crisis reactions, Shontz (1995) explains that parents initially experience shock. During this

stage, parents may divorce themselves from the crisis situation as a defensive reaction. They may be

present physically, but may not be emotionally or intellectually attentive. Counsellors and psychologists

therefore should be aware that they may need to repeat many times the important information about

the child’s deafness and intervention until they are sure parents are emotionally and intellectually

attentive.

The second stage in crisis reaction, according to Shontz (1995), is recognition. In this stage,

parents begin to realize the awfulness of the situation and begin to acknowledge it emotionally. They

may be totally overwhelmed in this stage and have feelings of inadequacy, confusion, anger, frustration,

depression and guilt. Subsequently in this stage, parents try to bargain. That is, they will “do anything”



Page 394

as long as the child’s, deafness is alleviated. Counsellors at this stage should be very supportive and try

to provide nonverbal consolation by using good listening skills.

The third stage in crisis reaction is denial. In this stage, parents may go back to their defence

retreat as a coping mechanism with full thinking that their child is not deaf. They may reject the

diagnosis of the hearing loss and get other opinions, or they accept the diagnosis but reject the

permanence of it. If parents stay in the denial stage too long and avoid recommendations for early

intervention, the child may be slighted. Counsellors should accept parental denial and continue to

provide appropriate information for the child’s habilitation.

The fourth stage called acknowledgment stage is a lifelong stage. In this stage, parents begins

the acceptance process. As Luterman (1999) described it, parents begin to accept their child’s hearing

impairment in this way.

“I have a deaf child and he will always be deaf, and although there is nothing I can do about changing the hearing impairment, there are things I can do to help this child grow into a responsible human being” p.13.

It is a good sign of acceptance when parents begin to take good care of hearing aids and follow through

on recommendations made for the child (Crowe, 1997).

Shontz (1995) opined that the final stage and ultimate goal of crisis reaction is constructive

action. This is also a life-long stage in which evidence that the grief is resolved first occurs. During

constructive action stage, parents adapts more easily to change and are more positive about their child

and management of the impairment.

Counselling Parents of the Hearing Impairment

Sanders (1993) proposed a general model for intervention management that contained eight steps viz:

- Providing emotional and informational support

- Reviewing and interpreting available test results

- Ascertaining present situation and need

- Supplementing interview and test results

- Determining primary and secondary goals

- Identifying appropriate resources

- Developing a management plan and

- Monitoring effectiveness of intervention strategies

One of the goals of counselling in the rehabilitation of children who are hearing impaired is for the

parents to achieve confidence in their ability to cope with situations that are affected by their child’s

hearing impairment (Sanders, 1993). When this goal is achieved, it results in improvement of the quality

of life for parents and children by reducing the negative physical and psychological influence of hearing

loss.



Page 395

The counselling relationship should be a partnership where the two parties coordinate their

resources to reduce the actual or potential negative impact of hearing impairment. A successful

counselling relationship is the one that allows both parties to work together on all aspects of

intervention and which allocates time throughout habilitation for counselling (Sanders, 1993).

In recent years, the target of intervention service has shifted from child to family. Consequently,

these changes have also increased the emphasis on a family-centered approach to counselling. Family-

centered counselling utilizes family resources and strengths and it enables active role for families in the

habilitation of their children. Family-centered counselling also emphasizes the need for families to be

intimately involved in the decisions made for their children throughout their habilitation (Kricos, 1993).

Counsellors should be aware of certain multicultural aspects of family centered counselling.

Cultural diversity has a significant impact on family dynamics and the counselling process (Kricos,

1993). With significant changes occurring in the demography of the world’s population, counsellors are

already working with individuals who may have different values and cultures than their own. These

differences are critical to the success of a healthy counselling relationship between parents and

professionals. Therefore, counsellors must take time to learn about different cultural perspectives so

that they can work effectively with families whose views may be different from their own.

Another aspect of the counselling process for parents of the hearing impaired is the need for

genetic counselling (Crowe, 1997). If the parents have normal hearing and their children are hearing

impaired they need to be made aware of the potential risk of having more children who maybe hearing

impaired. Because majority of children who are deaf are born to parents who have normal hearing,

parents must increase their knowledge of risks of their future children through generic counselling

(Crowe, 1997).

Statement of the Problem

There is no doubt that the services provided by audiologist alone cannot bring a total rehabilitation

sufficient enough to cater for the needs of the hearing impaired. This statement is supported by

findings of the research conducted by McCarthy, Culpepper and Lucks (1986) who reported that very

little has changed in the way audiologists are educated with regard to counselling and their role as

counsellors.

Nevertheless, Crowe (1997) asserted that it is in the realm of management that counselling

becomes an integral component of intervention with hearing impairments as it is truly the cornerstone

of rehabilitative audiology. Shifting emphasis back to the individual and family and providing successful

counselling determines the extent to which all other rehabilitative measures succeed or fail (Clerk,

1994).

Hence, this paper attempt to find out the perception of special educators in South West Nigeria

on counselling as an integral component of intervention with hearing impaired parents.



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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to find out whether special educators in South Western Nigeria perceive

counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping parents of the hearing impaired.

Methodology

Research Design

The research design adopted for this study was the descriptive survey method. This design is deemed

appropriate because it involves direct contact with a population or sample that has characteristics,

personal qualities or attributes which are relevant to this investigation.

Population and Sample

The target population of this study consisted of all special educators (male and female, old and young

tertiary institution based and secondary institution based) in South West Nigeria. Two hundred (200)

special educators were selected from at least 2 tertiary institutions and 5 secondary schools in each of

the 6 states of South West Nigeria. Both purposive and random sampling techniques were used to

select the respondents.

Instrument

The instrument used to collect data for this study was a self developed questionnaire tagged

Counselling: An Integral Component of Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired Questionnaire

(CAICHPHIQ). This instrument has two sections i.e. Section A and B. Section A sought information

on the personal data of respondents i.e. the demographic data such as gender, age, and type of schools

(secondary and tertiary), while section B contained 20 items which participants responded to on a 4-

point Likert type scale format of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree

(SD).

Validity of the Instrument

After construction the instrument was given to experts in psychology and special education to critique.

Their various suggestions were thus incorporated into the final draft of the questionnaire. This ensures

the face and content validity of the instrument.

Reliability of the Instrument

The test re-test reliability method was used after which the Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Coefficient formula was used to calculate the scores from the two tests. The reliability coefficient was

found to be 0.75 which was considered high enough for the study.

Method of Data Collection

All the researchers were personally involved in the administration of the instrument with the help of

research assistants. The questionnaire forms were given to participants in the selected schools under a

conducive atmosphere. The researchers/assistants ensured proper filling of the questionnaire after

which they were collected immediately to avoid loss or interference.



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Method of Data Analysis

Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, means, standard deviation and t-test statistics.

The t-test statistics was considered adequate to analyze data collected for this study because only two

means being compared in all the three null hypotheses raised to pilot the study.

Results

The results obtained from the study were presented hypothesis by hypothesis for ease of reference and

logicality.

Hypothesis one: There is no significance difference between male and female special educators in

their perception of counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping parents of the

hearing impaired.

Table 1: t-test Analysis of Young and Old Special Educators Perception of Counselling as an Integral

Component of Intervention for Helping Parents of the Hearing Impaired

Gender N X SD Df t-cal t-critical

Young 128 43.95 5.73 198 0.17 1.96

Old 72 43.80 5.72

The calculated t-value of 0.17 at 0.05 level of significance was found to be less than the critical

t-value of 1.96. This indicated that there is no significant difference between young and old special

educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component of intervention for helping

parents of the hearing impaired. Hence, hypothesis one was accepted.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between tertiary and secondary school special

educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing

impaired.

Table 2: t-test Analysis of Tertiary Institutions and Secondary School Special Educators’

Perception of Counselling as an Integral Component for Helping Parents of the Hearing Impairment

Types of

School

N X SD Df t-cal t-critical

Tertiary 97 43.89 5.32 184 0.13 1.96

Secondary 103 44.14 6.12

Results in Table 2 shows that the calculated t-value (0.13) is less than the critical t-value of 1.96

at 0.05 level of significance. Hence, hypothesis 2 was accepted with the conclusion that tertiary

institutions and secondary school special educators do not differ significantly in their perception of

counselling as an integral component for helping parents of the hearing impaired.

Discussion of Findings

The participants, irrespective of their age and type of institution agreed that counselling is an



Page 398

integral component of helping parents of the hearing impaired. This result agrees with that of Sanders

(1993), which stated that one of the goals of counselling in the rehabilitation of children who are

hearing impaired is for the parents to achieve confidence in their ability to cope with situations that are

affected by their child’s hearing impairment. Achieving this goal, according to Sanders (1993), results in

improvement of the quality of life for parents and children by reducing the negative physical and

psychological influences of hearing loss.

Findings of this study also revealed that there is no significant difference between old and

young special educators in their perception of counselling as an integral component for handling

parents of the hearing impaired. This result finds corroboration in the earlier study of Kricos (1993),

who found that in recent years, the target of intervention services has shifted from child to family.

Consequently, these changes also have increased the emphasis on a family-centred approach to

counselling the hearing impaired.

Furthermore, findings of this study revealed that there is no significant difference between

tertiary institution and secondary school teachers in their perception of counselling as an integral

component for handling parents of hearing impaired. This result is in tandem with that of Crowe

(1997) who cautioned that counsellors should be aware of certain aspects of family-centered

counselling such as diversity in values and cultures as well as genetic aspect of counselling the hearing

impaired.

Summary of the Findings

The following are the major findings of the study:

• All participants, irrespective of their age and types of institution agreed that counselling as an

integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.

• Old and young special educators do not differ significantly in their perception of counselling is

an integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.

• Tertiary institution and secondary schools special educators do not differ significantly in their

perception of counselling as an integral component for helping parent of the hearing impaired.

Conclusion

Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn:

• Counselling services in support of audiologic services are essential in helping parents of the

hearing impaired and their families to adjust to the effect of hearing impairment.

• Special educators irrespective of their age agreed that counselling is an integral component for

helping parent of the hearing impaired.

• Special educators irrespective of their type of institutions agreed that counselling is an integral

component for helping parents of the hearing impaired.

Counselling Implication of the study



Page 399

This study has some implications for counselling as a profession and counsellor in training and

practice. For counselling as a profession, counsellors in training need to be trained specifically in family-

centered counselling to equip and to enable them have enough competency necessary to handle hearing

impaired clients and their parents. Practicing counsellors should attend conferences, seminars and

further training in special education so that they can be further exposed to methods of handling not

only the hearing impaired but also their parents.

Recommendation

• Counsellors should be employed to handle person with disabilities in special schools.

• Counsellors should receive enough training family-centered counselling to enable them handle

hearing impaired clients effectively.

• Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON) as a body should sensitize government

institutions, members and the general public on the need to employ the services of counsellors

in handling hearing impairment clients and their family.

REFERENCES

Clark, J.G. (1994). Audiologists’ counselling purview. In J.G. Clark & F. N. Martin (Eds). Effective

counselling in audiology: Perspectives and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Crowe, T.A. (1997). Application of counselling in speech-language pathology and audiology.

London: Williams & Wilkins

Kobler-Ross, E. (1999). On death and dying. New York: Macmillan

Kricos, P.B. (1993). The counselling process: Children and Parents. In J.C. Alpiner & P.A. McCarthy

(Eds). Rehabilitative audiology: Children and adults. Baltimore: MD Williams & Wilkins.

Luterman, D. (1999). Counselling parents of hearing-impaired children. Boston: Little brown & Co.

Makinde, Olu (1988). Fundamentals of guidance and counselling. London: Macmillan

Publishers.

McCarthy, P.A. Culpepper, N.B. & Lucks, L.E. (1986). Variability in counselling experiences

and training among ESB-accredited programs. ASHA, 28(9), 49-52

Sanders, D.A. (1993). Management of hearing handicap infants to elderly (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:

Prentice-Hall

Shontz, F. (1995). Reactions to crisis. Volta Review, 67(5), 364-370



Page 400


GENERATIONAL AND OWNERSHIP INEQUITY IN THE UTILIZAT ION OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) I N

NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES

By

MFON EYO, Ph.D

Principal Consultant Eno-Ette Memorial Resources Ltd

234 802 222 7311; 234 809 222 7311

[email protected]

Abstract

This study aimed at identifying the existence or otherwise of digital divide in the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in counsellor education in Nigerian universities based on generations and ownership status of the universities. It had two research questions and two hypotheses tested at 0.05 alpha level of significance. Survey design was adopted for the study and ICT Utilization Questionnaire (IUQ) was used in gathering data from the entire population of 142 counsellor-educators and trainee-counsellors in the five universities in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria who offered Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the Master’s degree level in the 2007/2008 session. The IUQ was validated by five experts, and its reliability was established to be 0.9. A direct delivery technique was adopted for data collection. Data was analyzed using t-test, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), mean and standard deviation. Findings show that there is no digital divide based on ownership of universities but there is digital divide based on generation of universities. Recommendations were made to different stakeholders on the strategies and actions to be taken to bridge this gap thus improving the utilization of ICT in counsellor education in particular and education generally.



Page 401

Introduction

According to the National Policy for Information Technology (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007),

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) “includes any equipment or interconnected system

or subsystem of equipment, that is used in the automatic acquisition, storage, manipulation,

management, movement, control, display, switching, interchange, transmission or reception of data or

information.” Akir (2006) sees it as “a term that refers to stand-alone computers, networked devices

and telecommunication technologies with multimodal interface, mobile phones/devices with capability

to perform data communication, and other technologies that allow multimodal and interactive

communication.” Since no single study can efficiently cover the entire broad scope of ICT, this study

focused on the Internet, an aspect of ICT. The Internet is a worldwide interconnection of computers

that allows for sharing of resources, whose accessibility is not limited by time and space.

ICT is novel in Nigeria in general and Nigerian education in particular; as the country got a

National Policy for Information Technology in March 2001, established the Nigerian National

Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) in April 2001 but got an enabling law giving

legal recognition to the Agency in April 2007 (Iboma, 2007; Okonji, 2007). The newness created the

need to establish the disparity in the utilization of ICT by counsellors in Nigeria with respect to

generations of universities and ownership status.

Investigating the utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian

University libraries, Nkanu (2006) sought to determine if there is any significant difference between

Southern and Northern Nigeria University libraries of the first, second and third generations in their

utilization of ICT facilities with respect to their location, amongst other objectives. This study which

had all the Federal Universities’ libraries as its population had a sample of 590 respondents drawn from

13 Federal University libraries. The findings indicated an acceptance level of 60% in the use of ICT in

Nigerian University libraries and that there was no significant difference between Southern and

Northern university libraries in their utilization of ICT facilities with respect to location. These findings

created a gap in the field of Guidance and Counselling which the present study sought to fill. This gap

included identifying the existence or otherwise of digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian

universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education.

Furthermore, Jurado, Gurpegui, Moreno and de Dios Luna, (1998) studied school setting and

teaching experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers. They used a representative

random sampling of school teachers working in the city of Granada, Spain; and stratified the schools by

ownership (private and public) and grade level (primary and secondary). Using a sample of 310

teachers, the researchers used questionnaire to generate data for the study, while the data was analysed

using logistic regression. The findings indicated that school ownership was associated with higher risk

of depressive symptoms; school ownership was therefore said to play a significant role in the likelihood

of teachers in Granada being depressed. Horowit and Spector (2005) investigated the impact of school

ownership (public or private) on academic performance of college students. Using 15,270

undergraduate students who registered at Ball State University as the sample, the researchers reported

that “students who went to religious high schools seem to outperform their private and public school

counterparts.” This suggests that school ownership is an influential factor on academic performance.

These studies are relevant to the present study as the present study considered the influence of

ownership of university on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education.



Page 402


As the Internet emerged in the global polity, it was discovered that there was an inequity at different

levels on the use of this powerful technology. This inequity is referred to as digital divide, and it is a

major issue in the use of the ICT. Much as there is concordance on digital divide as an existence of gap

in the utilization of ICT amongst different people, there has been no agreement on where the disparity

actually exists. Kling (1998) considered the disparity as existing in technical and social aspect. Keniston

(2004) identified the digital divide in four groups. These were the rich and the powerful and those who

were not; the English speakers and those who did not; those that lived in regions that were technically

well-established and those who did not; and those who had the technical know-how and those who did

not. Another attempt at categorizing the digital inequity is the one made by Norris (2001). He had three

types of digital divide viz: the global disparity between the industrialized and the developing nations;

the social divide with focus on inequality within a given population; and the democratic divide which

implied different levels of civic participation by means of ICT. Compaine (2001) raised alarm on the

widening gap on this inequity and reported that Internet access was lower for women than men,

implying digital divide on gender basis. The present study sought to establish the existence or otherwise

of this divide based on generation of universities, and ownership of universities (Federal or States

owned). This customized categorization of digital divide constituted the two basic independent

variables in which the core theme of the study was investigated.


The purpose of the study was to establish whether there was digital inequity based on generation and

ownership of universities. Specifically, the study sought to identify the following:

1. The existence of digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education.

2. The existence of digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education

Scope of the study

The study sought to establish whether there was digital divide in the utilization of ICT in counsellor

education, based on generation and ownership of universities. It was however delimited to the Internet,

an aspect of ICT. Geographically, it was delimited to the South-South geopolitical zone which is one of

the six geopolitical zones in the Federal Republic of Nigeria as it had the major characteristics that are

relevant to this study. These includes having a combination of the three generations of universities;

hosting universities that are owned by either the Federal or State governments that offered Guidance

and Counselling as a course of study at the Master’s degree level as at the 2007/2008 academic session.

In Nigeria, six universities founded between 1960 and 1970 were referred to as the first-generation

universities; seven universities established in 1975 were known as second-generation universities; while

the universities founded after 1975 were grouped as third-generation Universities.

Research questions

This study sought to answer the following research questions:



Page 403

1. Is there digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian Universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?

2. Is there digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?

Research hypotheses

Two non directional hypotheses were derived from the research questions, and were tested at 0.05

alpha level of significance. They include:

Ho 1. There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT

amongst counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian Universities.

Ho 2. There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT

between counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities.

Methodology

Design

The design of the study was survey. According to Ali (2006), a survey is a descriptive study which seeks

to document and describe what exists or the present status or existence or absence of what is being

investigated, in its natural settings and involving no manipulation of any variable. The present study fits

into this design as it sought to document the existing facts with respect to digital inequity based on

generation and ownership of universities.

Population

The population of this study included all the 142 counsellor-educators and the Master of Education

(MED) students in Guidance and Counselling in the 2007/08 academic session in the entire first,

second and third generation universities offering Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the

Master’s degree level in the South-South geopolitical zone of Nigeria. This included 38 lecturers

teaching Guidance and Counselling courses at the MED level and 104 MED Guidance and Counselling

students in all the universities used for this study.

Sample and Sampling technique

This study used the entire population, thus no sample was composed in this regard. This was due to the

fact that the whole population was manageable. In the same vein, all the universities in the South-South

zone that offered Guidance and Counselling as a course of study at the Master’s degree level as at the

2007/2008 academic session were used for this study, so no sample was composed.

Instrument for data collection

The instrument used in data collection was a questionnaire called ICT Utilization Questionnaire (IUQ).

The IUQ, developed by the researcher, had two parts labelled parts I and II. Part I sought to gather

demographic information while the second part was an 8-item statement that sought to elicit data on

the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. It had Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent

(HE), Low Extent (LE) and Not At All (NA) as the response options. The scoring of the

questionnaire was done thus: Very High Extent (VHE) had four points, High Extent (HE) had three



Page 404

points, Low Extent (LE) was assigned two points and Not At All (NA) had one point. This scoring was

then utilized in the statistical analysis, which provided a platform for answering the research questions

and testing the hypotheses. Table 1 shows the items on the Part II of the IUQ.

Table 1: The items on IUQ for establishing the extent of use of ICT in counsellor education

S/N DESCRIPTION VHE HE LE NA

To what extent do you make use of the Internet to:

1 browse for materials to write your academic assignment, term paper or journal article

2 browse for general materials on Guidance and Counselling

3 access electronic journals

4 access virtual libraries

5 send email for counselling purposes during practicum or counselling session

6 chat for counselling purposes during practicum or counselling session

7 participate in discussion forum, mailing list or listserv with an academic or counselling topic

8 participate in video conferencing

9 deliver or attend lectures

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument

The Instrument was validated by five experts in the field. The reliability of the IUQ was

determined by administering it to fourteen (14) Trainee Counsellors and Counsellor Educators of

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka. The data generated from this instrument was tested using

Cronbach Statistics. The reliability of the questionnaire was established as 0.9.

Method of data collection and Analysis

The method of data collection was by direct delivery/self–administered technique. The data

gathered and collated was analysed using t-test, ANOVA, mean and standard deviation. ANOVA was

used in testing hypothesis 1 while t-test was used in testing hypotheses 2. In using the ANOVA, either

the exact probability was compared with the level of significance or the calculated f-ratio was compared

with the critical value of –f-. If the exact probability was greater than the alpha, and/or the calculated f-

ratio was less than the critical -f-, the null hypothesis was accepted and retained; otherwise it was

rejected. The same was applicable to t-test. If the exact probability was greater than the alpha, and/or

the calculated t-value was less than the critical value of -t-, the null hypothesis was accepted and

retained; otherwise it was rejected.



Page 405

Results and discussion

Research question one: Is there digital divide amongst counsellors in the three generations of

Nigerian Universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?

To answer this research question, the data generated from the study was analyzed and the

results are as presented in the table below.

Table 2: The mean and standard deviation on the extent of utilization of ICT amongst the

three generations of universities

Groups N Mean SD

1st generation

2nd generation

3rd generation

24

44

70

2.25

1.91

2.10

1.19

1.06

1.13

It is evident from the table above that 24, 44 and 70 counsellors took part in this study from the

first, second and third generation universities respectively. While the second generation universities had

the lowest mean score of 1.91, the first generation universities had the highest mean score of 2.25 while

the third generation universities had 2.10. The table indicates obvious differences in the extent of

utilization of ICT in counsellor education in these different generations of universities. One could not

however say, if the differences were due to chance, or if they were statistically significant. To be able to

take a decision on this direction, the first research hypothesis was tested.

Research hypothesis one: There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of

utilization of ICT by counsellors in the three generations of Nigerian universities.

The first hypothesis sought to establish if there was a significant difference in the mean score

on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education amongst the three generations of Nigerian

universities. It sought to find out if generation of university was a significant factor in determining the

extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education, thus establishing the existence or otherwise of

digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian universities. It however assumed that there was

actually no difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education in

these generations of universities. The table below presents the results of the study in respect of this

hypothesis.



Page 406

Table 3: ANOVA of significance of difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of

ICT amongst the three generations of Nigerian universities

Sum of squares

Mean Square

df F fcritical p α Decision Inference

Between groups

Within groups

Total

18.03

1545.94

1563.98

9.02

1.25

2

1239

1241

7.23

3.00

0.00

.05

Reject Ho

Difference is significant

According to the table above, the calculated f ratio was 7.23 while the critical value of -f- was

3.00 at 0.05. The table also indicates that the probability was 0.00 at the same 0.05. The table also

shows that the decision was to reject the null hypothesis due to the fact that the exact probability was

less than the alpha, just as the calculated -f- value was greater than the critical -f- value. This means that

the difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors in the three

generations of universities was statistically significant and thus not negligible. This therefore established

that there was digital divide amongst the generations of universities with respect to the utilization of

ICT in counsellor education. The finding here disagreed with the finding of Nkanu (2006) who

reported no significant difference between Southern and Northern Nigeria University libraries of the

first, second and third generations in their utilization of ICT facilities with respect to their location.

Research question two: Is there digital divide between counsellors in the Federal and State owned

universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education?

The second research question was interested in the existence or otherwise of digital divide

between counsellors in the Federal and State universities with respect to the utilization of ICT in

counsellor education. It sought to find out if ownership of a university had influence on the extent of

utilization of ICT in counsellor education. The table 4 below gives the summary of the results of the

analysis done in respect of this research question.

Table 4: The mean and standard deviation on the extent of utilization of ICT in Federal and

State universities

Groups N Mean SD Mean

Difference

Federal Universities

State Universities

92

46

2.04

2.11

1.13

1.10

0.07



Page 407

According to the table above, 92 and 46 respondents took part in the study in Federal and State

universities respectively. Moreover, while the Federal Universities had a mean score of 2.04 on the

extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education, the State universities had 2.11 as their mean score;

thus leaving a mean difference of 0.07 between the Federal and State universities. It was therefore clear

that there existed a difference in the mean scores of the Federal universities and their State counterparts

with respect to the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. One could not however lay

claim to this difference as being statistically significant or negligible until a related hypothesis was

tested. The hypothesis 2 below was therefore tested to allow for a safe conclusion in this regard.

Research hypothesis two: There is no significant difference in the mean score on the extent of

utilization of ICT by counsellors in the Federal and State owned universities?

The second hypothesis is a null one which assumed that the difference, if any, in the mean

scores on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education in the Federal and State universities

was statistically not significant and was thus negligible. The hypothesis was interested in identifying the

existence or otherwise of digital divide between the Federal and State owned universities, and it

assumed that no such divide existed as ownership of a university did not influence the extent of

utilization of ICT in a university. The table 5 below presents the summary of the analysis done to test

this hypothesis.

Table 5: t-test of significance of difference in the mean score on the extent of utilization of ICT

in Federal and State universities

Groups N Mean SD df t tcritical p α Decision Inference

Federal

State

92

46

2.04

2.11

1.13

1.10

136

-1.00

1.96

0.32

.05

Accept Ho

Difference is

not

significant

The calculated t-value, according to the table above, was -1.00 at 0.05 and a degree of freedom

of 136. The table also indicates a probability of 0.32 and t-critical of 1.96, all at 0.05. Since the

probability was greater than the level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. The acceptance

was also valid as the calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value. This means that there was

actually no significant difference in the mean scores on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors

in the Federal and State owned universities, which connotes that there was no digital divide between

the Federal and State universities. Following from this test, the difference of 0.07, recorded in table 4 as

existing between the mean scores on the extent of utilization of ICT by counsellors in the Federal and

State owned universities, can be ignored as it was negligible and due to chance. This disagreed with

other reported findings on the influence of ownership on the investigated variable (Horowit and

Spector, 2005; Jurado, Gurpegui, Moreno and de Dios Luna, 1998). While the latter researchers

investigated school setting and teaching experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers,

and reported that school ownership was associated with higher risk of depressive symptoms; the

former considered impact of school ownership (public or private) on academic performance of college



Page 408

students and reported that ownership of school had a significant impact on the academic performance

of college students.

Summary of major findings

The summary of major findings includes:

1. There was digital divide amongst the generations of Nigerian universities in the utilization of ICT in counsellor education.

2. The status of the universities as being owned either by the Federal or the State government did not influence the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education as the established difference was

statistically insignificant. There was therefore no digital divide in the utilization of ICT in counsellor

education based on status of ownership of a university.

Implications of the study

The findings of this study have implications for the National Universities Commission (NUC),

trainee-counsellors, counsellor educators, curriculum experts, university administrators, National

Information Technology Development Agency (NITDA) amongst others. The findings indicated that

there was digital divide based on generations of universities while there was no divide based on

ownership of universities. This implies that in devising strategies to improve the utilization of ICT in

counsellor education, adequate consideration should be given to generations of universities as what is

suitable for the first generation universities may not be good for the other generations. The finding on

ownership status portrays the fact that ownership status of the universities is not a critical factor to be

considered as the extent of utilization is the same irrespective of the ownership status.

Recommendations

Findings of this study show that there is digital divide existing amongst the generations of

universities on the extent of utilization of ICT in counsellor education. It is therefore recommended

that the National Universities Commission and other stakeholders should take decisive steps to bridge

this gap. They should liaise with any relevant body to organize training programmes on computer usage

and computer skill acquisition for staff and students in the universities. They should also take other

steps that would enhance a more effective utilization of ICT in counsellor education in particular and

education in general.

References

Akir, Z. I. (2006). Impact of Information and Communication Technology on teaching and training: A

qualitatite systematic review. Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Ohio University. Retrieved on

08/05/07 from http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd/send-pdf.cgi?ohiou1145903498

Ali, A. (2006). Conducting Educational Research in Education and the Social Sciences. Enugu: Tashiwa

Networks.

Compaine, B. M. (Ed)(2001). The Digital Divide: Facing a crisis or Creating a Myth? Massachusetts: The MIT

Press. Retrieved on 29/09/08 from

http://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&id=MbareJicwKAC&dq=%22digital+divide%22&pr

intsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=BZFkw1keFg&sig=dUxJArgsa5qjT0oAj2PcnnC_h0M&sa

=X&oi=book_result&resnum=7&ct=result#PPP1,M1



9

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2007). Nigerian National Policy for Information Technology. Retrieved on

05/07/07 from http://www.nitda.gov.ng/document/nigeriaitpolicy.pdf

Horowitz, J. B & Spector, L. (2005). Is there a difference between private and public education on

college performance. Economics of Educational Review, 24(2), 189 – 195. retrieved 31/05/09 from

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VB9-4D16SS5-

1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_versio

n=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=8c9d01e71742d8351a700e9127eb37df

Iboma, J. (2007). Nigerian IT development agency established by law. Retrieved on 05/07/07 from

http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/157/16/14665.html

Jurado, D., Gurpegui, M., Moreno, O. & de Dios Luna, J. (1998). School Setting and teaching

experience as risk factors for depressive symptoms in teachers. Retrieved on 31/05/09 from

http://hera.ugr.es/doi/15000989.pdf

Keniston, K. (2004). Introduction: The Four Digital Divides. In K. Keniston and D. Kumar (Eds.) IT

Experience in India. Delhi: Sage Publishers. Quoted in Ryder, M. (2008). The digital divide.

Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics Retrieved on 06/07/07 from

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/dig_div_este.html

Kling, R. (1998). Technological and Social Access to Computing, Information, and Communication

Technologies. White paper for the Presidential Advisory Committee on High-Performance

Computing and Communications, Information Technology, and the Next Generation Internet.

Quoted in Ryder, M. (2008). The digital divide. Retrieved on 06/07/07 from

http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/dig_div_este.html

Nkanu, W. O. (2006). Utilization of Information and Communication Technology and the provision of

library and information services in Nigerian University libraries. Unpublished PhD dissertation,

University of Uyo.

Norris, P. (2001). Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide. Cambridge;

New York: Cambridge University Press. Retrieved on 29/09/08 from

http://books.google.com.ng/books?hl=en&id=D0CSHNEfRlAC&dq=%22digital+divide%22&

printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=QvoiF8G0Gc&sig=jepeYCnMARn_7BCW3y697r3nQ6

I&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPP1,M1

Okonji, E. (2007). NITDA Act 2007: Boost To Technology Development, Says Angaye. Daily

Independent newpaper, online edition, 29th May. Retrieved on 05/07/07 from

http://www.independentngonline.com/?c=51&a=27335



0


PROMOTING HEALTH THROUGH EFFECTIVE AND IMPROVED

CONSUMER HEALTH EDUCATION

By

OBIECHINA, G. O. (M.Ed.)

Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education University of Port Harcourt

08023710891, [email protected]

Abstract

Consumers today operate in increasingly complex markets, challenged by global information, education

and communication with expanding choice of product. Making good choices and protecting the interests of

individuals require a wider range of skills and knowledge. The paper examines the potential of a

consumer health behaviour approach as a means of using information, education and communication for

health promotion purposes. It reveals the practical knowledge of what consumers can do after learning

about a particular issue in other to support sustainable consumption. It also aims to increase awareness

on how to identify the issues that concern the public through information, education and communication

system; one of which is the uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially in Nigeria by

practitioners of traditional medicine (TM) and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) which

exposes the consumers to a lot of information that may be harmful to their health. It is recommended

among others that businesses should be encouraged to play a consultative role to governments in consumer

education, and to develop their own methodologies and guidelines for promoting consumer education in

their respective fields.

Key words: Consumer information, consumer education, consumer communication,

and health promotion



Page 411

Introduction

Most times the incidence of disease epidemics and other ill-health conditions occur as a result of

consumption of unhealthy products such as food, drugs, water, among others. For instance in the early

part of this millennium, the country witnesses deaths of children after consumption of wholesome

noodles. Sometimes, chemical composition of cosmetics has been found to be injurious to health

which can result in cancer and allergies.

Consumer health education is sometimes considered to be an alternative to government

regulation of the health care industry. It is the acquisition of human information, knowledge and

communication that create awareness towards positive change in behvaiour. Consumer education gives

individual, family and community the opportunity to know their right. According to Babatunde and

Njoku (2011) consumer information, education and communication revolve around the fact that

knowledge or a meaningful message is ascertained and passed from person(s) to person(s) to promote

health and lifestyle of every individual. Information could be a wealth of knowledge about something,

such as goods, substances, foods, cosmetics, drugs, devices and services, which may be obtained from a

source to promote and prolong individual life. It also helps them to be aware of the dynamic quality

product in the market at any given time.

Education on the other hand involves teaching someone, using formal system of school, college

or university or passing knowledge of a particular subject. An educated individual knows his or her

right to any goods and services of any product in the market, and how to make the right choice.

Communication is the successful ways of sharing of thoughts, feelings, ideas,and information to others

through speech, writing, printing, electronic media, signals among others for health promotion and

well being of people.

Different groups in the community or society require different kinds of information, education

and communication, particularly on drugs, food, environment and other regulated products. This

information may enhance their life style as well as promoting their health. The stakeholder groups are

consumers, Consumer groups include, manufacturers, importers, prescribes, dispensers, patients and

general public.

The use of traditional medicine (TM), complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) has

increased significantly over the past few years. However, a recent report has shown, in addition to the

many benefits that there are also risks associated with the different types of TM/CAM. Although

consumers today have widespread access to various TM/CAM treatments and therapies, they often do

not have enough information on what to check when using TM/CAM in order to avoid unnecessary

risk and complication that may arise in future, (WHO,2004). That is, the dose, right time to take the

herbs, right mixture among others. Globalization has led to intercultural exchanges and widespread use

of techniques and therapeutic products of CAM often unknown to local communities as local herbs.

This phenomenon requires particular attention in order to avoid inadequate misunderstandings and

inappropriate use that could be harmful to the individuals and subsequently affect entire communities.

In low and middle-income countries, up to 80% of the population may rely on TM for their primary

health care needs (WHO, 2004).



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Consumers need to be informed about the risks associated with the use of TM/CAM

medication therapies. Awareness and vigilance are valuable steps towards minimizing risks such as

direct toxicity, interactions and contraindications, depending on the specific TM/CAM medication

therapy used. Governments have a key role in the control of information on TM/CAM, irrespective of

whether a national TM/CAM centre exists. However, in most countries the majority of consumers may

not have access to information controlled by either a national TM/CAM centre or by the government.

In any case, consumers are likely to collect information from a variety of sources like television,

newspaper, media and through friends. Hence there is a need to help consumers understand how to

evaluate information about TM/CAM so that he can make informed decision that will not pose treat to

their health.

Again, there is uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially in Nigeria by

practitioners of TM and CAM which exposes the consumers to a lot of information. The major aim of

these practitioners is to make profit so they resort to all sorts of bogus claims to entice consumers. The

consumers, consequently, get fed with a lot of lies and misinformation that can expose them to very

dangerous and unhealthy situations. More so, when the educational background of these TM and CAM

practitioners are mostly low with basically no professional training in medicine or allied medical

profession. Unfortunately, Nigerian Government has no legislation against such reckless practices.

Concepts of consumer health

Consumer according to Wikipedia (2011) is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for

direct use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production and manufacturing. World (2010)

defined consumer as someone who can make the decision weather or not to purchase an item at the

store, and someone who can be influenced by marketing and advertisement. A consumer is any

individual member of the public, group of people, organization, institution, corporate body that

procures or obtains things for himself, herself or others, such as utility ( house hold, soaps), food (milk,

rice), devices (cars, electronics), services (physicians, engineers) among others for the purpose of

maintaining and promoting good health and well being of individuals.

Consumer education involves transferring information and communication from experts such

as government agencies, to the general public in other to promote their life style, (Keeffe 2011). It

identifies issues that will be beneficial to the affected groups, choose efficient presentation models and

inform the audience about consumer right and effectively teach the necessary skills.

Consumer health according to Beurett (2006), encompasses all aspects of the market place

related to the purchase of health products and services. Positively, it involves the facts and

understanding that enable people to make wise choices. Negatively, it means avoiding unwise decisions

based on deception, misinformation, poor communication and other factors. Consumer health relates

to products that may be consumed, injected, worn, applied on the body or utilized in form of devices

or services in other to promote health and well being of an individual. It is also referred to as the goods

and services utilized at home, school, workplace and the community for promoting the life of an

individual, family or community.

Consumers today operate in increasingly complex markets, challenged by growing amounts of

information and an expanding choice of products. Making good choices and protecting their interests

require a wider range of skills and knowledge. Consumer education is critical in this regard; it can be



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defined as a process of developing and enhancing skills and knowledge to make informed and well-

reasoned choices that take societal values and objectives into account. Consumer education can help

develop critical thinking and raise awareness, thereby enabling consumers to become more pro-active.

It is also an important vehicle for building the confidence that consumers need to operate in

increasingly complex markets.

Today consumer education covers more diverse areas than it has in the past. It now covers, for

example, consumer rights and obligations, personal finance, sustainable consumption, and digital media

and technology. Such education should be viewed as a long-term and continuous process that develops

better decision making and skills throughout consumers’ lives (Merlin & Boer, 2004). The aim

education is to render positive information that will assist individuals in selection of good, reliable

products and services rather than the bad, adulterated and deceptive ones. It guides them in decision

making on the right choice of positive health services. It also provides opportunity for the consumer to

be aware of his or her right under consumer protection laws.

Consumer education is the process of gaining the knowledge and skill needed in managing

consumer resources and taking action to influence the factors which affects consumer decision, or

passing knowledge of a particular subject to someone either in schools, workplace, market among

others. This has promoted consumer health, change individual idea about certain product, and with

sound education one cannot be misled to buy expired product. Also one knows his or her right in

buying any commodity. He or she knows the legal implications of every item and knows where to

report, in case of any fraud.

In 2004, the Nigeria government policy makers introduced the “SERVICOM” to assist the

consumer in case of any problem with the marketers. The consumer health education provides the

consumers with information on regulated products recalls, labeling, changes and expiring date. Also the

National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and control (NAFDAC) assist the consumers

nation wide to be aware of the fake, and to be able to differentiate the good products from the bad or

fake ones (Ogunrin & Erhijakpor, 2009).

Consumer health promotion could be viewed using information, education and

communication. Consumer health information can be defined as any information that enables

individuals to understand their health and makes health related decisions to themselves or their families.

(Patrick & Koss, 1995). It is also defined as a wealth of knowledge about something, such as goods,

substances, food, cosmetic, drugs, devices and services which is aim at promoting and prolonging

individual life and behaviour. The sources of information include reference book, scientific journal,

food and drug bulletin, news papers, conferences, media, television, among others ( Akintola & Njoku

2010).

Consumer health information has developed broad interest and very specific needs to promote

health and well being of individual, family and community. Example, people especially older ones look

out for health information to enable them watch what they eat, while the young one look out for the

latest style of wears, cloth, shoes, Gucci, necklace, bag, cup, hair and kit ( Yumy ,2011) .

It is obvious that consumer information, education and communication are an effective and

improved way to health promotion. With consumer information the message is being disseminated to



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every individual either in school, newspaper, medial, television, internet, journal, among others.

Consumer communication involves ways of sharing thought, feeling, ideas, information

excetera to friends, family and community, in other to promote health and well being of individual

family and community. This could explain why some one like Anna Okon, for example, gets some facts

on the internet and put it in Punch newspaper so that the information education and communication

will circulate to anyone who is interested. National Agency For Food and Drug Administration and

Control ( NAFDAC) sustained public enlightenment and education of consumers, importers,

distributors, retailers of regulated product to be aware of fake, fraud and quack. In case of any fake or

fraud, NAFDAC requires individual to report what happened as soon as possible, give the names,

address and phone number of the person affected as well as the clinic, hospital and doctor, state the

problem clearly, indicates the name and address of the store where you purchase and the date.

Classification of Concepts in Consumer Education

Green.(2009) classified the concept as decision making, resources management and citizen

participation and responsibility.

1. Consumer decision making covers critical thinking, skills related to consumer goal,

needs, wants and the effect of attitudes, advertising, information and opportunity cost on

consumer behaviour.

2. Resource management- examines the allocation of scarce resources among competing

wants. Explores the principles of supply and demand and how prices are determined.

3. Personal finance. This includes budgeting, record keeping, income and net worth

statement, credit, saving and investing, retirement and estate planning insurance and taxes.

4. Right and responsibilities: This includes responsible citizenship concerning consumer

protection laws and regulations and redress mechanism. It also addresses environment, safety,

health care and affordable goods and services.

Consumer Health Education sets to;

1. It identifies the issues that concern the public through information system. Reeffe (2011) gave the example of credit cards fraud and how it affects both business and

credit cards holder. The objective is to reduce fraud by passing formal information to

the credit users on how to protect their card. He further stated that the best way to do it

is to identify an audience who are affected by a particular issue so that they can easily

understand the message.

2. Effective consumer education should aim to present knowledge to the general public or to the specific groups affected by the issue. Example of consumer rights, basic nutrition

or information about additives; should be presented in the most efficient way to

promote their life.

3. Education of the public about consumers and business role in the society in terms of demand and supply, in other to meet the needs of every individual.

4. Educate the audience about the skills needed to implement consumer knowledge. e.g. after learning about a particular issue, the public should have the skills about how to

spot sales gimmick and correctly judge value for money.



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Objectives of Consumer Health Education

The objective of consumer health is to encourage the prevention of disease through knowledge and

communication and to assist the public make informed decision to a variety of alternatives. This could

be based on holistic or natural approach to promote the whole body e.g. botanical medicine, nutrition,

massage therapy, medication therapy etc.

• To bridge the gap between allopathic medicine and holistic preventive medicine and to

work in cooperation with the conventional medical community.

• To work together with other like- minded health advocacy groups in a spirit of harmony

and cooperation to help promote and improve the quality of life of individual, family or the

community.

Consumer education covers the following areas, health, nutrition, food- borne disease and food

adulteration. Consumers need to be educated about;

1. Product hazard-like hazards due to storage and consumption of a particular product, 2. Product labeling- pasting labels on the packaging of products regarding their

composition status, weight, ecological impacts, purity standards, colour, preservatives

used, data of manufacture and expiry, address of producer/ manufacture, matters

pertaining to registration, trademarks, marks of standard etc.

3. Protective laws- Laws framed by the government to protect rights of consumer and seeking redressed, how and who to approach.

4. Environment, different right of pollution, sustainable consumption among others (Misha, 2010)

Scope of Consumer Health Education

Consumer health education covers the consumer rights, consumer laws, product quality- standards,

health aspect of various products, availabilities of various public and private services, units and

measurement and making correct choices while buying different commodities (Mishia, 2010).

Consumer rights

The agencies that are responsible for the protection of consumers’ right are consumer protection

council (CPC), Service Compact with all Nigerians (SERVICOM), National Drug Law Enforcement

Agency (NDLEA), Food and Drug Information Centre (FDIC), National Agency for Food and Drug

Administration and Control (NAFDAC) among others. Nigerian government had acknowledged that

Nigeria have for too long felt short- changed by the quality of public service, which often are not

delivered without “undue influence” or inducements. SERVICOM noted that public offices in Nigeria

have long been riddled with inefficiency, corruption and have become impediments to the effective

implementation of government policies. In other to reverse this trend, the Nigeria government in 2004

introduced the SERVICOM, described as a service compact with all Nigerians (Ogunrin &Erhiyapor

2009).

Basic Consumer Right; According to Wilson (2008) reported that in1985, eight basic consumer rights

were adopted by the United Nations' Assembly, which resulted in consumers having stronger consumer



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protection policies worldwide. March 15 is now declared as World Consumer Rights Day

1. Right to safety against hazardous goods and services; Consumers have the right to expect protection from hazardous products and services purchased in the marketplace, particularly if

used properly for their intended purpose. The product offered for sale should not pose undue

risk or physical harm to consumer or their family members. Impure or adulterated food,

defectively manufactured automobiles and tyres, drugs having harmful side effects and unsafe

appliances can cause harm, risk or injury to consumer. Therefore, consumers should have

protection from the sale and distribution of dangerous goods and services.

2. Rights to be informed about the quality, quantity, purity and standard price; Consumers have the right to receive adequate information about products on which to base buying decisions.

Reliable sources exist to inform consumers about products or services.

3. Right to choose from a verity at competitive prices; within reason, consumers have the right to be assured that a selection of quality products and services are available for them to purchase at

competitive prices. It means that a consumer should have the opportunity to select the goods

or services that he or she wants to purchase.

4. Right to be heard; Consumers have the right to equal and fair consideration in government policy-making situations, as well as prompt treatment in administrative courts or legal

communities. They have the right to speak up, to be heard, and to expect positive results.

5. Right to seek redress or remedy; Consumers are afforded an opportunity to have a hearing to voice dissatisfaction such that a resolution is reached and the complaint is settled satisfactorily.

6. Right to consumer education; Consumers are extended the right to continuing consumer education that supports the benefits and enjoyment of other specific rights. Consumers have

the right to some form of training and mastery of knowledge and skills needed to make

informed decisions in the marketplace.

7. The right to environmental health; Consumers should be protected from the devastating effects of air, earth, and water pollution that may result from the performance of daily marketplace

operations. Consumers have the right to live and work in an environment that does not

threaten the well-being of present and future generations

8. The right to service; Consumers may expect convenience, the right to be treated with respect, an appropriate response to their needs and problems, and good quality design and

workmanship in a product.

Consumers have the rights to know about the quality, purity, potency (standard, price etc about the

product they go for buying. Consumer should check for composition preservations used, colouring

agents mixed in the products, date of manufacture and expiring date before buying.

Consumer law

Laws are designed to ensure fair trade competition and the free flow of truthful transformation in the

market place. These laws are designed to prevent business that engage in fraud or specified unfair

practices from gaining advantages over competition. These may provide additional protection for

themselves (Wikipedia 2011). It is a form of government regulation aimed to protect the right of

consumers.

In Nigeria, the food and drug laws were the initial steps towards the protection of the consumers. The

laws mere enacted through the Decree No 35 of 1974 of Federal Republic of Nigeria which become

operational in 1976. It was expanded under the Decree No 17 of 1989 title Food and Drugs. The



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Decree of Nigeria prohibit the following

1. The sale of certain food, drug, cosmetics and devices that may be poisonous, harmful

and unfit for human consumption, filthy rotten, adulterated or prepared under unsanitary

condition.

2. The sale of advertisement of food, drugs, cosmetics or devices as treatment or cure for

certain disease such as appendicitis, diabetes, hernia, measles, goiter, yellow fever.

3. The importation, exportation and distribution of specified drugs such as LSD,

Mescaline psilocybin, amphetamines, caffeine, ephedrine etc.

4. Misleading practices such as deceptive labels, package, treatment, processing or the

mistaking identity such as given food, drugs cosmetic or devices.

5. The manufacture of drugs such as antibiotics, insulin and lever extract without first

obtaining permission in accordance with the regulation, a commissioner’s certificate for

manufacturing which ensures that drug will be safe for use.

Consumer Health Products

There are national industry association representing manufacturers, marketers and distributors of

consumer products. They are committed to working with their members, the broader health care

sectors and government to build an environment that improves the opportunities for people to manage

their own health through the responsible use of safe and effective consumer health product (Consumer

Health Product, 2010). Some of these industries are Johnson and Johnson, their products stand out to

improve the quality of our everyday life. They offer products and information targeting baby care, skin

and hair care, oral care, nutrition for a healthier diet, over- the counter medicine products for women’s

health care need; wound care and topical for cuts, scrapes, rashes and itching among others industries

cover pharmaceuticals, ( like drugs, beverages, water). Also, they produce food, cosmetics good,

alcohol, household materials and weight control materials.

Consumer Health Service

This aimed at effectively utilizing the available resources to protect the individual, family and

community by offering services on prevention of disease, disability and death resulting from food

borne and water- borne illness and swimming- pool drowning through enforcement and education,

(Bureau of Consumer Health Service 2010). They provide educational training for industries and

consumers on hand washing activities in school, food safety education and inspection activities, safe

water and environmental safety. Examples include medical physicians, nurses, pharmacists,

construction engineers, faith homes, herbalists, marketers of services among others.

Consumer Appliances

This is integrated circuits that use a specific function that appeals to a wide market. It could also be

seen as a device used to apply medication or treatment to a particular part of the body (Oxford medical

dictionary 2003) e.g. blood pressure and heart rate/ fitness mortaring systems, digital thermometer,

drug cosmetics etc .Consumer application can come in the following ways like home appliance, -air

conditioner, mobile phone, power supply,-adaptors, consumer- audio among others. Consumer

electronics, today release highly anticipated product digital motion processor capable of expanding

into smart phones, tablet, television remotes, handheld gaming devices and digital still, video cameras



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and many other consumer products, which is widely used globally.

How Consumer Education is Carried Out

School provides an important opportunity to teach children about consumer issues, and to help them

to develop critical skills. Taking advantage of this opportunity requires teachers to be familiar with

consumer issues, and to have sufficient teaching resources available.

Although effective consumer education programmes outside the classroom exist, these initiatives could

be enhanced by incorporating consumer education into school curricula. This can be done by

embedding the education in broader learning projects that span a number of subjects and disciplines or

by providing such education as an independent subject. (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development,2009).

However, it is often provided by several governmental agencies, as well as by regional and local

authorities. Non-governmental entities, including consumer organisations, teachers’ and parents’

associations’ professionals and other civil society groups, also play a major role in consumer education.

In many countries co-coordinating bodies have been established to help ensure coherence across

government and vis-à-vis other stakeholders.

The Role Of Consumer Health Education in Health Promotion

Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve their

health, (WHO, 1986). Health promotion means any activity that is fostering social, economic,

environment and personal factors conducive to health, including raising public awareness regarding

health matters and enabling individuals to cope with health problems, by increasing knowledge and

providing valid information, by encouraging adequate and appropriate diet, exercise and sleep,

providing adequate and appropriate programs such as consumer health education, diet and nutrition,

behavioral health, exercise and physical fitness, personal health and wellness practices, among others,

However, consumer health education improves individual, family and community health promotion in

different ways. For example, other than lecture, seminars and workshops, television, audio, and

newspaper are veritable medium of health information, communication and education. Also, workplace

health promotion has proven to be a valuable instrument for improving employee consumer health and

self care education. Just as mothers are important providers of health information in the home, health

educators serve as role models and can play a valuable role in health promotion in the classroom.

Health educators should understand basic health information and services, with the competence to use

such information and services in ways that enhance the learning of health concepts and skills by school

students.(Peterson, Cooper & Laird, 2001)

Conclusion

The paper recognizes consumer health education as the acquisition of human information, education

and communication that create awareness towards positive change in behvaiour. It also identified a

number of key problems or issues that must be addressed to meet demand and improve delivery of

consumer health education; one of which is the uncontrolled advertisement in various media especially

in Nigeria by practitioners of TM and CAM which exposes the consumers to a lot of information that

may be harmful to their health. Today consumer education covers more diverse areas than it has in the



Page 419

past. It now covers, for example, consumer rights and obligations, consumer law, personal finance,

sustainable consumption products, consumer health services, digital media and technology.

Recommendations

Based on the conclusions, the following recommendations were made;

1. The possibility of including consumer issues in courses to fulfill professional development requirements should be explored. Efforts to ensure that teachers are sufficiently well-versed

about consumer issues and effective teaching techniques need to be enhanced; this could be

facilitated by including the subject in teacher training programmes. Government should explore

how to supplement consumer education as a life-long process, including how education can be

structured to build knowledge in a cumulative fashion over time. In either case, care should be

taken to promote policy coherence and to create an environment that will engage the interest of

teachers and students.

2. Intra-governmental co-operation among relevant organizations should be promoted. In particular, co-operation between education ministries and consumer affairs ministries is

essential to strengthen consumer education.

3. Government should explore how to supplement consumer education as a life-long process, including how education can be structured to build knowledge in a cumulative fashion over

time.

4. Governments have a key role in the control of information education and communication on TM/CAM, irrespective of whether a national TM/CAM centre exists.

5. In addition to providing consumer education, businesses should be encouraged; to play a consultative role to governments in consumer education, and to develop their own

methodologies and guidelines for promoting consumer education in their respective fields.

Ways to engage business more effectively in promoting societal objectives, such as sustainable

consumption and development need to be strengthened.

6. Media (print, radio, and television) could be used more effectively in most countries to support consumer education, as partners with other stakeholders, or through their own programmes.

7. Internet could be used to promote transparency and facilitate co-operation and co-ordination among stakeholders (e.g. online project databases) should be explored.

8. International co-operation among relevant stakeholders should be enhanced to promote the overall effectiveness of consumer education to recognise and build on other countries’

successful experiences.

9. Stakeholders should work together to determine how to share consumer education responsibilities in different areas, with a view towards exploiting synergies and avoiding

redundancy.



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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR COLLEGES OF EDUCATION (NCCE)

CURRICULUM ON ADULT AND NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA.

By

ANIMASAHUN, M. OLAITAN

Department of Educational Foundations and Management, Osun State College of Education,

Ila-Orangun, Osun-State. e-mail: [email protected]

Phone No: 08033929313

Abstract

The paper examines the issues and challenges in the implementation of National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) on Adult and Non-formal Education programme in the context of meeting the targets set in the new millennium development goals and Education for All (EFA) goals as well as Universal Basic Education (UBE) objectives towards addressing the illiteracy pandemics of the Nigerian society. The paper highlights the objectives of Nigerian Colleges of Education (NCE) curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programmes as well as justification for the programmes. Some issues that are likely to pose challenges for the implementation of the programmes were extensively discussed. The paper concludes by making some recommendations that would enhance successful implementation of the programme, among which is, human resource capacity building and collaborative efforts of all key stakeholders vested with the responsibilities for setting minimum standards towards the realization of the laudable objectives.



Page 422

Introduction

According to National Commission for Colleges of Education, the nation plans to package teacher

education programme on adult and non-formal education borne by the fact that there are

overwhelming public outcry about the quality of Nigeria Certificate in Education in their inability to

effectively delivery instruction to meet the yearning, needs and aspirations of Nigerian youths. (NCCE,

2010). Hence, to ensure productive and efficient teachers for the basic education of our educational

system, the implementation of adult and non-formal education programme is very imperative.

Nigeria is hoping to be among the first twenty economic buoyant countries in the world, yet,

illiteracy pandemic is at higher rate. This usually stem out from the resolution and endorsement of

Adult and non-formal education as the major component of the Education for All (EFA) by United

Nations in Dakar 2000 and Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) to reduce the high illiteracy rate

drastically. It is believed that to educate the children and adult is to lay a solid foundation not only for

future socio and economic progress but also to enable them develop and acquire relevant knowledge

and skills that will make them function in the world of work.

In order to ensure that the individual lives a useful and promising life as well as meeting the

challenges of life due to technology advancement, the implementation of National Commission for

Colleges of Education (NCCE) curriculum on Adult and Non-formal Education is expected to give

new direction to the intervention of mass education delivery in the country by specifying clearly, the

vision, mission, goals/objectives, strategies and action plan that will introduce more productive

dimension in achieving EFA and MDGs. The implementation of curriculum package on Adult and

Non-Formal Education affords the opportunity for prospective facilitators or professional teachers to

assist mass literacy delivery with a view to address illiteracy pandemics of Nigerian society. It is in this

context that this paper examines the objectives as well as justification for Adult and non-formal

education programmes, and some issues that are likely to pose challenges towards achieving the

objectives of the programmes having in mind the future consequence and task ahead for sustainability.

Objectives of NCE curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programmes in Nigeria.

In line with the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2009). The objectives of the

curriculum on Adult and non-formal education is:-

i. To produce committed dedicated and skilled facilitators

ii. To prepare facilitators with in-depth knowledge of emerging contemporary issues related to

Adult and Non-formal education.

iii. To train facilitators with right attitude to Adult and non-formal Education.

iv. To produce facilitators who should be able to assist learners acquire relevant knowledge, skills,

attitudes and values necessary for living through the use of appropriate methods and up-to date

media and technology.

v. To provide opportunity for further education in Adult and Non-formal Education.

vi. To produce facilitators who should be able to mobilize the whole communities for education

and development.

A critical appraisal of the aforementioned objectives in Nigeria signify the significant roles of

Adult and Non-formal Education in making sure that education is more accessible and more relevant

to the needs and aspirations of Nigerian Youths so that the individual lives a useful life and capable of



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solving personal, domestic and social problems as well as being a useful member of the society.

Justification for Adult and Non-formal education programme

The blueprint of any programme is the roadmap which guides the delivery of the broad and specific

objectives of such programme. Thus, some of the arguments in support of the need for Adult and

Non-formal Education Programme are derived from the fact that:

• Illiterate population constitutes the poorest population in Africa, particularly in Nigeria.

• In term of health, it contains the largest population of the sick. Take for example, HIV/AIDS,

more, than 44 million Africans are living with AIDS

• Considering the rate of development, the most backward continent in the world is Africa. When

we compare it with Asia, today, Asia is far ahead in terms of development.

• Considering the rate of bombing, kidnapping, ritual-killings and flooding that have been

unraveling the country in the recent times always come from the state of ignorance of the society.

A case study is the Boko haram.

• On living standard, the most illiterate population constitutes the poorest of states in Nigeria.

• Again, when we consider the girl child access to education, the girl-child remains uncatered for.

They comprised street labourers and beggars in most states and they continue to be abused.

• In some states, there is constant ethnic crisis leading to mass killing of citizens and destruction of

properties and vandalization of oil pipelines. These constant ethnic conflicts among people come

from illiterate population.

• Considering the Muslim-dominated states, there is no doubt that there are a lot of problems

emanating from their low literacy rate.(CLTDPA,2004)

• In case of women, they still remain at the background. A simple survey of women in public

position in various states will reveal their marginalization.

• There is also persistently growing number of children out- of -school and adults remaining

illiterates or relapsing into illiteracy. For instance, in 2003, it was estimated that about 7.3 million

children were out- of- school. while current estimates derived from 2005 school census report

showed that about 10 million school age children were out of the formal school system.(FME,

Baseline Report, 2005,NMEC,2008)

• The girl-child is not given priority attention on issues relating to education. More than six percent

of the out of school children are girls residing in the northern part of the country (FME, Baseline

Report, 2004,NMEC,2008)

Therefore, having known the implications of the above ugly cases to the future consequence on

the life of Nigerian Youths, the problems can be reduced or completely eliminated through the

implementation of objectives of NCE curriculum on Adult and Non-formal education programme.

Issues and Challenges ahead

In spite of several attempts made over the years by the government at all levels to give attention to

mass literacy and adult and Non-formal Education through the launching of action oriented

programmes such as Agency for Adult And Non-Formal Education (AANFE), National Commission

for Mass Literacy Adult and Non-formal Education, declaration and launching of ten year mass literacy

campaign by the former president Sheu Shagari in 1982, launching of International Literacy Decade and

support by the international development partners such as UNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and World



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Bank to eradicate illiteracy in the country, the challenges remain formidable.

It is important to understand our past, so as to map out effective strategies for our future effort.

The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education (NMEC, 2008)

identified the following strategies for achieving proper implementation of Adult and NFE programme.

These include:-

i. Advocacy at the highest level of government to generate political will needed for sustainability of

the programme;

ii. recruit qualified personnel including facilitators, train and retrain all staff at specific intervals; iii. organize seminars, conferences and quarterly meetings with management of colleges of education

as well as Head of Departments of adult education departments;

iv. establish Information and Communication Technology (ICT) facilities to facilitate the teaching and learning of Adult education programme;

v. provide e-learning packages for basic and post literacy programme. Above all, the implementation of NCE curriculum on Adult and NFE should be seen as a collective

responsibility of all and sundry, all hands must be on deck towards making the programme sees the

light of the day.

It is very obvious that, our educational system in general has no problem with the planning; the

problem is always at the implementation stage. Thus, issues that are likely to pose serious challenges to

proper implementation of Adult and Non-formal Education programme are therefore looked into. The

issues that may bother our mind at this point is how prepared are we for take off of the programme,

when the structure of the curriculum did not specify the graduation requirements for the course to be

taken by the students in terms of General Studies Education (GSE) and education courses as being

provided in other education programmes.

Aside from graduation requirement, the structure of the curriculum did not specify the teaching

subjects to be combined with adult education and at the same time, the structure did not indicate where

students will have their teaching practice exercise, whether in primary/secondary schools or literacy

centres.

Other pertinent questions to be critically examined include:-

i. To what extent has the National Commission for Colleges of Education gone in its

sensitization programmes, specifically in the areas of awareness creation, workshops, seminars

and conferences for management staff of all NCE awarding institutions and HODs of Adult

Education Departments?

ii. What practical effort has the NCCE put in place to train and re-train personnel and recruit

professionally qualified personnel including facilitators or lecturers in consideration of various

courses embedded in the scheme in a view to meeting the minimum standard?

iii. To what extent has the NCCE gone in the provision or availability of infrastructural facilities

such as office equipment, lecture rooms and learning materials such as primers (textbooks) in

subject areas as well as follow up reading materials?

The National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education (NMEC, 2008)

highlighted a number of challenges that are likely to hinder the proper implementation of adult and

non-formal education in Nigeria. Prominent among these include:-



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i. Equitable funding;

ii. political will;

iii. advocacy, publicity and mobilization (e.g. community partnership);

iv. human resources capacity gap (training of facilitators to reflect learners diversity, community

values, beliefs and practices);

v. data challenges; and

vi. planning, monitoring and evaluation.

Thus the need for adequate planning which is more bottom-up than top-down approach for a

successful implementation of the new curriculum in NCE through NCCE and other stakeholders. It

must be emphasized clearly that government alone cannot carry the responsibilities of a successful

implementation of the NCE curriculum, but the involvement of all and sundry in its implementation.

Conclusion

From the forgoing discussion, it can be deduced that the implementation of Adult and NFE

programmes in Colleges of Education is a landmark in the development of education specifically

towards reducing high rate of illiteracy in the Nigerian society. The laudable programme may not

accomplish its objectives as a result of various challenges which may militate against its successful

implementation. Hence, if issues raised in this paper are well examined and recommendations made are

vigorously pursued, it will go a long way in meeting the NCE curriculum objectives on Adult and NFE

programme as well as targets set in Millennium Development and Education for All (EFA) goals.

Recommendations

With the aim of ensuring the successful implementation of the programme, certain things need to be

put in place. It is therefore recommended that the following strategies be adopted:

ii. Curriculum on adult and Non-formal education programme need to be restructured in line

with other educational structure so as to ensure sufficient element of relevance in the entire

programme of study. Such issues like graduation requirement for the courses to be taken by

the students, teaching subjects to be combined with adult education as well as the place where

students who have their teaching practice exercises should be vigorously looked into.

iii. The National Commission for Colleges of Education and other key stakeholders vested with

responsibility for setting minimum standards should be fully committed and back it up with

vigorous sensitization programme with sincerity of purpose. Workshops, seminars and

conferences should be mounted for the management staff of colleges of education and HODs

of Adult education, prior, during and after the take off of the programme.

iv. For the implementation to be meaningful, recruitment of professionally qualified personnel

such as facilitators or lecturers to handle the teaching and learning of adult education courses

should be intensified. At the same time, factors responsible for incessant strike actions by the

teachers and lecturers in the education sector must be critically looked into.

v. There is dire need to look into the problems of inadequate infrastructural facilities in our

colleges of education such as office equipment, lecture rooms and availability of learning

materials such as primers as well as follow up learning materials/facilities.



Page 426

References

Centre for Literacy Training and Development for Africa (CLTDPA,2004). Proposal on 5-day orientation/ capacity building workshops for directors of non-formal education staff. Department of Adult Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (FGN, 2009) National Commission for Colleges

of Education, Minimum Standards for NCE teachers (General education) 4th edition. Abuja. Nigeria.

Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2004). The Compulsory Free, Universal Basic Education Act 2004, and other related matter. Abuja.

National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult & Non-Formal Education (NMEC,2008) National Blue Print for Adult and NFE. Abuja, Nigeria.

National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE, 2010). Framework for designing a new college structure. Abuja. Nigeria.

UNESCO (1990). World UNESCO, Declaration on Education for All (EFA)



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ALCOHOL AND NARCOTICS’ CONSUMPTION BY THE UNIVERSIT Y

STUDENTS: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE NIGERIA SOCIETY

PORBENI ZIBO SAM, Ph.D Department of Educational Foundations

Faculty of Education Niger Delta University

P.M.B 071, Wilberforce Island Bayelsa State

Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This is an expository x-ray of the many effects of alcohol, its narcotics ally and all substances found within this family. The paper takes you through the length of the subject of alcohol and narcotics consumption and it’s implication from the point of contact by the students through the duration of their studies giving the motivation leading to this paper. It defines in lucid term, the concepts of alcohol and narcotics abuse, hunting on such issue as why, how, where and when do students take these substances. It enunciated the two side of the coin of the effects of the use of these substances i.e. the positive and negative effects and implications of the abuse of these substances. It made recommendations on how to combat the increasing use of alcohol and narcotics by university students and concluded that such substances are nothing but destruction when consumed, unregulated, uncontrolled and or in excess of the body’s requirement.

KEY WORDS: Alcohol, Narcotics, Students and Abuse



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Introduction

We have lived in the contemporary Nigerian society to witness youth restiveness being

motivated by varying factors-political, religious, ethnics, and socio-economic amongst others. Youth

restiveness and naivety have gradually become the order of the day often times resulting in the lost of

live and property. We may not be in a hurry to forget the many and ever lingering violence in various

parts of Nigeria which have almost become synonymous with many northern states of Nigeria. Worthy

of mention are the recent Jos, Kano, Bauchi, Borno-Maiduguri crisis. It is pertinent to mention that

youths are the key players in all. This violence, mayhem as they may be called their immediate or

remote causes not withstanding while this scenario remains undisputable, further study reveals that a

substantial number of these youths involved in this violence are those who have found themselves in

the tertiary institutions of which the university is dominant. This is further attested to by the recent

demonstration in Lagos State arising from the recent fuel crisis (occasioned by the government

announced intention to remove fuel subsidy by the 1st of January 2012. It is worth noting that it was in

an effort to prevent the demonstration from degenerating into full blown violence that NLC and CLO

suspended the demonstration. Every other doubt relating to this claim against university students

would have been eliminated if other youth vices, peculiar only to university students alone are brought

to focus. Typical among these are the known and well exhibited disregard for law and order, morals

values at different places and times. Today there exists a correlation no doubt between University

students and the much talked about violence, fostered by alcohol and narcotic abuse. These are the

current trends in most universities and institutions these days.

Moral decadence, disregard for law and order, sex abuse, indecent dressing and exposure of

body part on one part and the dreaded proliferation cultism which is now endemic in our universities

and other higher institutions in Nigeria. We have also lived to see alcoholism manifest in horrors and

barbarism leading to students slaughtering fellow students, grossly abuse themselves, abuse their

mother institution (citadels of higher learning), their families and the entire Nigerian society at large.

More to these are the ever increasing wanton display of alcohol induced violence and recklessness

which manifest itself in accidents, rape, intimidations of all sorts, examination malpractice amongst

others. Worst yet are the fast growing war wonders of smoking publicly, the different forms of weed

(the varying forms of narcotics).The wild and indiscriminate consumption of alcoholic drinks

intoxicating and drinking to stupor all in the name of civilization. Most dishearten is seeing our girls

involved in these activities. It is for these stimulants that such profane behaviors such as nude dressing,

wild act which are foreign to our culture are now possible and inconsequential to our universities

students. There is no doubt that some of these mundane and obnoxious acts of students are induced

as many confessional statements by youth criminals the police reveals that most of the crimes were

never premeditated but were induced. Often times, after association with friends and peers; and

followed by with substances known to contain alcohol and or other substances of addiction. Notable

among them are opium, morphine, marijuana, power drinks, cannabis etc. Justice Clianakwalam in

(1982) while inaugurating the arm rubbery and fire arms! Tribunal in Owerri said “Youth by themselves

are often times innocent and no doubt were born innocent, except for the inducing circumstances

behind their crimes. Therefore, the final judgment should be shared reasonably between the culprits

and the inducement behind the crim. The honorable judge simply was referring to alcohol and its

vendors. No doubt, the tribunal recommended among others things a heavy taxation on drink

dispensing outlets and registration of such places with government. Given the above, it becomes



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scholarly interesting to put up an academic paper such as this to highlight and address certain basic

issues relating to university students’ intake of alcohol and narcotic, what constitute alcohol and

narcotics; why, when, where do students take these substances and their effect among others.

Alcoholic beverage such as beer and wine that contain ethyl alcohol [ethanol] were probably

made in pre-history time through fermentation of either sugar or starches from plant products under

the action of a catalyst called enzymes from yeast or malt. Although the primary product in this process

is ethanol, small quantities of propanol, butanol, pentanol etc and higher alcohol are produced in

combination.

These distillation process as of producing alcohol had continued over time to the point that

much higher concentration beyond the initial 12% volume being realized in distillation process give rise

to such high alcoholic beverages as whisky, gin and rum today alcoholic production have been much

modified and diversified into different form of energy drinks wine, tonic etc.

Literature Review

According to Oviasu (1976,) the use of drugs by students is known to be partly responsible for

admission into psychiatric hospital. In a study of the use of marijuana among inmate in a psychiatric

hospital in Benin City, 21.3% of those classified as abusers of the drugs were found to be students.

Anderson (1975) said that the use of substances by students can develop into an addictive stage

and this presents numerous problems which affect the student and his immediate family. The social

aspects of drug abuse manifest in dropping out of school, promiscuity, delinquent acts, loss of the

sense of responsibility and deliberate self havoc (Odejide, 1986).

Ajagu (2005), in his contribution on the dangers of drug abuse among secondary school

students published in Daily Sun Newspaper of the 4th September, 2005 edition titled SAD-Smoking,

Alcohol and Drugs, said that youths are often under pressure to smoke, use drugs and guzzle alcohol.

Smoking seems to be considered a fashionable habit, particularly among secondary school students. In

secondary schools those who smoke are considered cool and stylish. Every stick of cigarette you smoke

reduces one's life span. Some disease from cigarette smoking could cause cancer, heart diseases,

infertility, it darkens lips and teeth, gives bad breath, false self confidence and at the end; leaves one

confused and depressed. Often times, from smoking and alcoholism; students graduate to smoking

Indian hemp, heroine, and sniffing cocaine and drugging extensively. This is because the temporary

feeling of euphoria experienced never really makes users feel happy rather it leaves them with a feeling

of emptiness which craves for a deeper sense of euphoria by advancing more into drug abuse.

Some extreme cases of drug abuse as noted in school’s magazine NEPA Staff secondary school,

Sapele(-) "Chandelier" written by Bright (2003), said the extreme bad behavior of secondary school

students as a result of drug abuse include truancy, irregular school attendance and of course their brains

at this stage can neither absorb or kept what is being delivered to them in the classroom rather they

look for alternative ways of passing their examination through malpractices which at the long run is

often unsuccessful.

Drug abuse has serious and devastating consequences on the academic performance of

students of Sapele Local Government secondary school. They take a lot of locally brewed gins

popularly known as "Sapele Water" which they copied from their parents.



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Students taking alcohol and drugs of any kind on a daily basis are likely to be affected mentally

throughout their school years. They also suffer from low self-esteem, are prone to undue anger,

aggressive in behaviors, violence, rebellious, confused, lost of memory, lacked concentration, looses

focus, and very rude, Mood swing problem, they are usually quiet, introversion, sure and full of fears,

always anxious, full of hatred, superfluity of ingratitude, murmuring, feel pains, depressed, always in

misery and ultimate insanity which are altogether inimical to good academic performance.

Drug abuse and alcoholism abuse also lead to cultism, armed rubbery, rape, murder and other

hideous crimes (Bristol, 1986). The after effect of drug abuse is certainly poor academic achievement

and dropping out of school which result finally to the following miserable wretch, living a life of

restlessness, hatred, misery, hopelessness and unfulfilled life expectation of being a graduate. Life as a

drop-out is not an easy one.

Drug and alcohol abuse among university and secondary school as shows by the students in

Sapele Local Government Area of Delta State, like any other student anywhere else in the country,

who is fool hardy and embraces indiscriminate use of drug and alcohol is like jumping into a lion’s

den, and should be ready to be bitten and crushed. Alcoholism does the same thing as drugs, some

students have cut their lives short because of drinking excessively as it damages their organs, like their

kidney, liver and hearts. Addiction to any form of drug or alcohol is an addiction no matter the form

they come in. the effects and implication of any form of addiction, is dangerous and their effects could

be for life.

The Concept of Alcohol and Narcotics

Alcohol: Alcohol in the words of encyclopedia American is any of a family of organic compounds

containing the atomic group –OH. This group which largely determine the physical and chemical

properties of alcohols is attached to a chain of carbon atoms that also hold hydrogen atoms The

formula CH20H(methanol) C2H3OH(ethanol) and CH20HC2H3OH(2 buthanol) are typical. Ethanol,

also called ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol is familiar as the beverage alcohol. It is a member of a large

family of compound that is the only simple alcohol that can be consumed safely. Alcohol and related

substances e.g. methanol are very poisonous and have caused many their lives, Alcohol have great

industrial importance as a commercial solvent, antifreeze mixture, solvent for pharmaceuticals and

intermediate in the manufacture of other products. Again, the word alcohol is used to denote all the

compounds containing hydroxyl groups-OH attached to non benzenoid carbon atoms, Alcohol are

characterized by wide variety of chemical reactions and uses. Some of the substances found in the

alcohol groups include methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, glycol, glycerol alcohol. Alcohols are classified

according to the number of hydroxyl group of alcoholic character. These include monohydric, dihydric,

trihydric etc. they can also be classified as primary CH20H2C2H3OH Secondary (CH2) C2H3OH and

tertiary alcohol (CH2C2H3OH.

Nacotics: This constitutes one of the oldest classifications of drugs known to man. It produces several

effects, primarily analgesia known as pain reliever as well as Narcosis - a state of stupor or sleep,

addiction - a state of physical dependence. The term narcotic is often restricted. the addictive pain

killers, other forms of Nacotics include morphine, Codine, Ethylmorphine, Heterocodeine, Heroin,

Hydrocodone, Metopon, Oxymorphone, Oxycodone etc. narcotics may also be classified as

semisyntheic e.g heroin and synthetic narcotics.



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Qualities of Alcohol & Narcotics

Narcotics and alcohol have been proven to be substances of addiction, they tends to make consumers

depends on them, often time made the consumers to develop a form of chemical secretion(enzymes)

that makes the human body always in want of such substance. They are seductive in nature i.e. dulling

the senses of the user, inducing sleep on them, making them hardy, more resistant to pains and physical

injuries and stimulating the production of more calories of energy required in sporting activities and

other manual activities. Simply put, narcotics have a way of affecting the body chemistry of its users.

Alcohol and Narcotics are both intoxicating and are easily absorbed by the skin. Alcohol

contains ethyl and hence quit inflammable.

Consumption of Alcohol and Narcotics among University Students

UNESCO (2002) reveals that over 60% of the universities students in Columbia are prone to mental

health risk, having been introduced to smoking, snuffing and or consumption of different kinds of

weed, cannabis and or hemp. The UNESCO bulletin shows that the world Governments and their

agencies have become lose that these regulated substances have entirely gained a free trade status

around the world, helped by many forms of cartels. A local statistical study of Psychiatric Association

of Nigeria (2007) reveals that 56% of the total inmates of three major hospitals – University of Port

Harcourt Teaching Hospitals, Federal Medical Center Yenagoa and Federal Psychiatric Hospital Uselu,

Benin City are Youths of University age 18-26years. This is also true about the situation in our prisons

where a recent study by the Federal ministry of women affairs reveals that University undergraduate

forms a fair number of prison inmates in Nigeria. In the course of this study, a number of reasons were

identified, why students either drink or smoke. Among these are: to feel bold among equals, feel equal

and belonged, to be part of the on-going trend as criteria for membership or enrolment into

fraternities/cults. To appeal to be attracted to the opposite sex, peer pressure, to overcome timidity and

intimidation, mentorship, to accomplish dreamt life style, social ties.

Often times, smoking and drinking among students begin in clandestine gatherings and

activities such as in night parties, clubs, political rallies, hostel get together where and when the habit

will have been developed. Here the student. The victim may no longer resist the urge and can now be

taken anywhere. Alcohol most often is taken in form of beverage-beer, whisky, gin, brandy, rum etc

narcotics on the other hand may be taken as snuff i.e. in powder form, chewed and swallowed as

tablets, peels grain, weed, (fresh or dried as hay) root/herb, it can be smoked, cooked along with

regular food like rice, potage yam, beans, plantain, soup, stew. Narcotics can also be soaked with

ordinary water, drinks of different types and other forms of liquid solvent and be drunk like water. It is

also inhaled or sniffed especially as it contains ethanol a substance known for tarnishing and

evaporating quality. Narcotics are also taken by students as injection i.e. intravenously. (Direct into their

blood stream). Finally fresh leaves of Narcotic plants e.g. Opium can be chewed raw, dried or cooked.

Implication of Alcohol and narcotics consumption

This section of this article discusses the abuse of the opium, the central nervous system (CNS)

depressant, CNS stimulants, psychedelics or hallucinogens, and the much popularized designer drugs. It

is very difficult to discuss the effects of alcohol and or narcotics without mentioning the term drug

abuse. Unfortunately variations in culture, ordinances and social norms have made it imperative to



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come up with a clear cut definition of drug abuse whose principal effect includes drug addiction,

alcoholic insanity and physical dependence among others. Drug addiction as defined by encyclopedia

Americana is a behavioral pattern of drug use characterized by an overwhelming involvement in the

procurement and use of the drugs and the high tendency of the user to relapse to drug after a period of

abstinence. Alcoholic insanity results from acute alcoholic intoxication which manifests in a euphoria-a

senses of great physical and mental power, noisiness, increased motor activity, progressing to

clumsiness, in coordination, staggering, gait, a feeling of remoteness, emotional instability, nausea,

vomiting, poor control of urination, which eventually may cumulates into loss of conscious, stupor and

profound coma and eventual death should coma persist for hours.

Alcohol and associated substances have a comprehensive effect on the nervous system. In the

digestive system, alcohol has a way of stimulating the flow of saliva and gastric juice, causing hyperemia

and inflammations. On the cardiovascular system, the effect of alcohol is principally the dilation of the

blood vessels especially those of the skin. Alcohol tends to increase the outpour of urine, and hence

leading to dehydration. Drugs affect the kidney, lungs, liver, pacer, the eye and the abdomen. Socially,

drug addict are commonly associate with crime and often times also the victims even when they may

not have committed or being involved in the crime them self. Drug consumption such as seductive-

opium, marijuana etc. that may lead to wrong discussions inducement, easy of manipulation and for the

female, it can result in pregnancy, destruction of the reproductive organs, career abandonment and

other forms of distractions. Drug users are usually non trustworthy. Drugs consumption form part of

the well known economic waste pipe in government workers affected with addiction weather alcohol or

drugs will regularly miss work. Research shows that their production levels in government or public are

reduced greatly due to their addictions. There are of course other social and family problems that are

associated with them mainly due to their additions. The issues of poverty have also exacerbated due to

their addictions, especially in this present economic crisis where most people live below the poverty

line.

Recommendations

As we try to reduce the rate of university students’ consumption of alcohol and narcotic especially in

the light of the many problems they cause as has being exposed above, this paper recommends among

others.

1. A national campaign aimed at discouraging the consumption of alcohol and narcotic substances can be intensified with clear emphasis on the effect of such substances.

2. The acts of statutory bodies charged with the regulation and administration of seductive substance be review and modified to empower them with the power to arrest and award punishment people

of certain age (students) found in possession or consumption of such substances. (NELEA)

3. Where such substances are manufactured or grown locally such bodies should have the power to take over such farms, for destruction and in the case of factories, determine the mode of operation

of such outfit.

4. There should be a joint patrol on our brothers by custom and men of the quarantine department to check the influx of this substance in to Nigeria.

5. The federal road safety should be equipped with apparatus that can detect the level or volume of alcohol in individual drivers. This is to checkmate recklessness among road users.

6. There should be progressive tax i.e. “pay as you earn” on tobacco and other beverage industries who are into the production of this all destructive substances.



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7. All retail outlet of such product should be taxed appropriately after due incorporation and or registration.

8. Such retail outlets should be restricted to certain distances from school and tertiary institutions and all forms of addictive substances prohibited within and around the institution.

9. All hospitality shops- hotel, beer parlors, club houses, guest houses, Inns, brothels etc. be prohibited within university campuses and where practicable be made to register with the students

affairs department of the school before it can commence operation and strict surveillance be

maintained within such places.

10. The driving incense of certain age (student age) be reduced to just one year. This is to systematically subject them to regular periodic test to ensure that they are confined to total abstinence from alcohol and related substances.

11. A carefully structured course be study and inculcated into the existing, “General Nigerian studies” GNS programs to create awareness and discouragement of drinking and smoking among students.

12. All the National mass media-NTA, NBC, VON, Radio Nigeria, NOA, among others will have to mount programs targeted at discussing issues of alcohol periodically.

13. All stake holders in the Nigerian judicial system-the National judicial council, for legal education, the bar and the bench should evolve a practicable penal codes aiming at dealing with, juvenile and diligent university students involved in alcohol and other related offenses.

Conclusion

Put together, alcohol and all other substances found within the alcoholic and narcotic family especially

when taken without, recommendation, unregulated and or in excess causes, serious damage to the

person and the implications to the families and the country at large is too great to ignore. Little wonder

the federal ministry of health had compelled tobacco companies to depart from their life threatening

slogan “smoking is dangerous to your health” to a more life treating and more persuasive slogan

“smokers are liable to die young” and at reducing smoking if not a total eradication

References

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M.(1990). Drug Misuse in Britain, British Journal of Drug Addiction, Vol. 2, Page 1-20.

Baggot, M. (2000). Chemical Analysis of Ecstacy Pills, Journal of the American Medical

Association, Vol. I/ pg. 4-9.

British Medical Association (1998). The drinking Driver, London BMA.

Brustol, U. (1986). Abuse and Dependence on Drugs, British Journal on Addiction, Vol. 3, Page 3 - 10.

Buchert, R. (2002). Long-term Effect "Ecstacy" Abuse on the Human Brain, London:

Community Epidemiology Work Group.

Carter, N. (2000). Deaths Associated with MBDB Misuse, USA J. Legal Med.

Christopherson, A. S. (2000). An Overview and Epidemology on Amphetaine, USA, Designer Drug

Publication.



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Ciranlo, D.A. (1988). Drug Abuse Amongst Alcoholics: A Critical Review Publication on Drug Abuse,

Britain, Hamphy Publishing.

Cohen,A. F. (2001). Cognitive Performance and Steratonergic Function in Drug Users Esctacy,

Pychopharmocol Report.

DHSS, (1988). Aids and Drug Misuse, USA, A Report by HMSO. Dumonth, R. L. (1988). Problem and

Solution of Drug Abuse, A Report of Committee of the Institute for Behaviour III, USA.

Fourier, A. (2001), Characteristics of Drug Users and Factors Associated with Subsequent Use of

Drugs, Britain, J. Chimical Pharmacol.

Fraser, M. (1987). Dementia, Its Nature and Management, New York: Wiley Press.

Freeman, H, C. (1984). Mental Health and the Environment, USA, Churchill Living Stone.

Goddard, E. (1991). Drinking in England and Wales in the Late 1980s, Great Britain, OPCS Press.

McGuire, P. (2000). Long Term Psychiatric and Cognitive Effect of MDMA Use, London: Toxical Led

Press.

National Institute of Drug Abuse (2003). Monitoring the future of Drug Abuse, Nigeria National

Result Publication on Adolescents.



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ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AT EXAMINATIONS: FORGOTTEN OR

WAVED ASIDE BY THE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN NIGERIA?

By

DR (MRS.) I. C. KOSEMANI

Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, Faculty of Education

University of Port Harcourt

Abstract

This study investigated academic integrity in examinations among students in Nigerian universities. It is a survey intended to find out students’ awareness of examination regulations stated in their university Academic Policy and the extent to which they upheld and practiced them. The survey covered all the final year students of Nigerian higher institutions. Six hundred (600) male and female students drawn through simple random sampling technique constituted the sample for the study. The instrument for data collection was a thirty-six item Likert-type five-point rating scale questionnaire designed to elicit responses on students’ awareness of the regulations guiding academic integrity and the extent to which students upheld them during examinations. Five research questions guided the study. The findings revealed that students were aware of the examination regulations but seemed not to uphold or have integrity during examinations. Most students involved in academic dishonesty seemed motivated by prevalent factors capable of inducing students to violate the rules and appropriate penalties were not inflicted on offenders. It was recommended that strategies should be put in place to promote academic integrity, punish offenders, control dishonesty for the sake of reputation of degrees from Nigerian universities.



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Introduction

In Africa, respect for elders, constituted authorities and strict observance of social norms are some of

the values highly upheld by disciplined members of the society. Equally in an academic community,

certain norms, values and standards are considered central to the existence of such a community.

Paramount among them is academic integrity. Integrity involves honesty, trustworthiness, “strength and

firmness of character or principles” as practiced by members of a community (Paul, 1987). Teaching at

Mizzou; A guide for new faculty, graduate instructors and teaching assistants states that “academic

integrity is the core set of values and principles that underwrite the very mission of the university….

integrity, honesty, hard-work, and the determination to translate personal and professional principles

into behaviour”.

Academic integrity – the core set of values upheld in all academic communities includes high

academic standards, love for learning, creating an atmosphere of trust in the classroom and working in

an environment where competition is fair (Donald and Gary, 1973). Taylor (n.d) describes academic

integrity as “an essential part of any true educational experience”. He views integrity as a quality to

nurture and practice constantly at various spheres of academic life. He says academic integrity requires

the students to come into examination fully prepared and to make profitable use of their time in writing

the best answers they could and where problems arose and answers were not forthcoming, students are

not expected to cheat. Centre for the Advancement of Teaching (CAT) at Rutgers says:

Academic integrity is a fundamental cornerstone of any academic community. In many ways, the perception about the quality of an institution and the value of its degrees are based on the belief that graduates earned their diplomas honestly and that faculty certified that graduates have knowledge and skills learned through rigorous work guided by high standards of excellence.

Consequently, the expectation of every academic institution should be that its members uphold

the ideals stated above especially in matters relating to teaching, learning, examinations, grading and

other academic matters that bother on academic integrity. The same tenets hold for Nigerian

universities since there are rules stated in the Academic Policies to guide members’ conduct on matters

relating to academic integrity during examinations.

The rules and regulations intended to guide the members of Nigerian universities both staff and

students on examination matters are stated in every university’s Academic Policy. For instance the

University of Port Harcourt Statement of Academic Policy (2002:25-28), sub-sections 18.11 to 18.18

states as follows:

18.11 A student should be in the examination room at least 30 minutes

before the start of examination. A student who is up to 30

minutes late shall be admitted, but shall not be given any extra-

time. A student who arrives more than 30 minutes after the start

of examination shall not be admitted. A student may be allowed

to leave the examination room temporarily before the end of

examination but must

NOT:

(a) do so during the first hour of the examination except in cases of



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emergency like illness;

(b) do so unaccompanied OR with his scripts.

18.14 No student shall keep any handbag, briefcase, books, notebooks,

or paper near him/her during the examination.

18.15 No student shall directly or indirectly give or accept any

assistance during the examination, including lending/borrowing

any material.

18.16 No student shall continue writing when, at the end of allotted

time, the invigilator orders all students to stop writing.

18.17 A student shall avoid noise-making and/or communicating with

any other person, except with the invigilator if necessary.

18.18 Students who disrupt an examination at any venue will have

their examination cancelled, and they will be required to re-

register for the course.

The policy statements above are the ideals which every institution of higher learning should expect its

students and staff to observe and uphold.

However, the ideal is not always the practice by some students and staff in some Nigerian

universities. Considering the degree of academic dishonesty perpetrated by students during

examinations, one would think that such policies do not exist or if at all they exist, probably, they have

been swept under the carpet. The rate of cheating at examinations by candidates before gaining

admission into higher institutions could be attributed to their desperation to gain admission at all cost.

One would assume that once admission is secured, that the propensity to cheat would cease. On the

contrary, academic dishonesty in institutions of higher learning has taken very dangerous dimensions

namely cheating, plagiarism, forgery and crime against humanity. These dishonest acts are violations of

academic integrity.

Purpose of the study

The study set out to:

1. determine the level of students’ awareness of the policy on academic integrity in Nigerian

universities.

2. find out whether students uphold the policy as demanded in matters relating to examinations.

3. elicit the types of dishonesty prevalent among university students

4. identify the causes of students’ disregard for academic integrity in examinations.

5. proffer solutions to the problem

Consequently, the study intended to answer the following research questions:

1. To what extent are the Nigerian university students aware of the examination regulations

stated in their University’s Academic Policy?

2. To what extent do students uphold the policy on academic integrity particularly during

examinations?

3. What types of dishonest academic practices are perceived to be common with male and

female students in Nigerian universities?

4. What factors could be considered to induce the students to violate the policy during

examinations?



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5. What solutions could be proffered to curb dishonest academic practices among Nigerian

university students?

Methodology

The survey was conducted with the administration of a structured questionnaire. The population

comprised all the final year students in twelve Nigerian universities. From each university, 50 final year

students (25 males and 25 females) were randomly selected as samples for the study. From the twelve

universities, a total of 600 students were drawn as samples for the study.

Research instrument

The instrument for data collection was a 36 item structured questionnaire titled Questionnaire on

Academic Integrity at Examinations among University Students (QAIEUS). The instrument was a

Modified Likert-type 4-point rating scale with the following response options: Strongly Agree (SA);

Agree (A); Disagree (D), Strongly Disagree (SD).

The instrument was divided into five sections labeled A, B, C, D and E. Each section had items

that gave answers to the five research questions. The face, content and construct validity of the

instrument were established showing to colleagues. The test re-test reliability technique was used to

determine the reliability co-efficient of the instrument. A mean of reliability co-efficient of 0.82 was

obtained showing that the instrument was reliable. The data collected were computed with the use of

mean, standard deviation and percentages.

Data Analysis and Results

The data generated were analyzed and the results presented in line with the research questions as

follows:

Research question one: To what extent are the Nigerian University students aware of the

examination regulations stated in their University’s Academic Policy?

The data collected in response to research question one were computed with mean and

standard deviation as presented on table 1 below:

Table 1: Extent of students’ awareness of the examination regulations in the academic

policy of Nigerian Universities

Item Statements x SD N Decision

1. I am quite aware of the rules titled “examination

regulations” stated in my university academic policy.

4.21 1.02 600 Accepted

2. The rules are made specifically to guide students’

behaviours at examinations and examination related

matters.

3.48 1.06 600 Accepted

Source: Researcher’s Field Work, 2012.



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Table 1 presents the mean scores of students’ responses regarding the extent of their awareness

of examination regulations stated in the Academic Policy of their university. The mean scores of the

responses are itemized and presented thus: item 1: x = 4.21; item 2: x = 3.48. An observation of Table 1 reveals that students are quite aware that regulations exist to guide the conduct of examinations and

their behaviours during examinations; hence the two statements were accepted.

Research question two: To what extent do students uphold the policy on academic integrity

particularly during examinations?

The data collected in response to research question two were computed and presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Mean scores of the extent to which university students uphold the policy on

academic integrity at examinations

Item Statements x SD N Decision 3. If I am 30 minutes late for examination I should not be

given extra time. 3.2 1.27 600 Accepted

4. If I arrive more than 30 minutes after the start of examination, I should not be admitted into the room to write the exam.

4.01 0.88 600 Accepted

5. I should not be allowed to leave the examination room unless the first hour of the examination has been spent.

4.33 1.26 600 Accepted

6. I should not keep handbag, briefcase, books, notebooks, or papers near me during the examination.

4.62 0.99 600 Accepted

7. I should not give or receive assistance from my colleagues during examinations including lending and borrowing of materials.

4.53 0.73 600 Accepted

8. I should stop writing as soon as the allotted time for examination has ended and the invigilators ordered me to stop.

1.65 1.16 600 Rejected

9. I should not make noise or communicate with my colleagues or with any other person, except with the invigilator if necessary.

4.51 0.83 600 Accepted

10. If I should disrupt an examination at any venue, my paper should be cancelled and I should be made to re-register for the course

1.46 1.02 600 Rejected

Source: Adapted from University of Port Harcourt Academic Policy (2002)

Note: - negative statement: if x is equal to or greater than 3.0 reject, if x is less than 3.0 accept

Table 2 presents the responses of the students on the extent to which they uphold the policy on

academic integrity during examinations. The item by item presentation of the mean scores are as

follows: item 3: x = 3.2; item 4; x =4.01; item 5: x = 4.33; item 6: x = 4.62; item 7: x = 4.53; item 8; x = 1.65; item 9: x = 4.51; item 10, x = 1.46 respectively.

An observation of Table 2 reveals that university students were not favourably disposed to the

policy statements and consequently rejected all of them probably because the rules did not favour their

behaviour during examinations.

Research question three: What types of dishonest academic practices do you perceive to be common



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with male and female students in Nigerian Universities?

The data generated in answer to research question three are computed with the use of

percentages and presented in Table 3 thus:

Table 3: Dishonest academic practices perceived to be common with male and female

students in Nigerian universities

Item Statements Male response Female response

Total

No. % No. % No. % 11. Arriving late to the examination 210 35 390 65 600 100 12. Obtaining permission to ease oneself less than

one hour after the commencement of examination

300 50 300 50 600 100

13. Keeping handbags, books, notebooks, cell phones, and other incriminating materials near self during examination

250 41.7 350 58.3 600 100

14. Giving and receiving assistance from other students

260 43.3 340 56.7 600 100

15. Refusal to stop writing after the invigilator has ordered me to stop at the expiration of the allotted time

220 36.7 380 63.3 600 100

16.

Communicating and borrowing/lending materials from/to my colleagues when examination is in progress

210 35 390 65 600 100

17. Causing confusion at the expiration of allotted time so that prompt submission of scripts becomes impossible

366 61 234 39 600 100

18. Sneaking out with examination questions to solve

412 69 188 31 600 100

19. Colluding with fellow students to submit already prepared answer scripts brought from outside

372 62 228 38 600 100

20. Hiring impersonators to write examination 214 36 386 64 600 100 21. Bringing into the examination room, papers

containing likely answers 243 40.5 357 59.5 600 100

Source: Researcher’s Field Work 2011

Table 3 shows the responses of students to the various types of dishonest academic practices

which they perceived to be common with male and female students in some Nigerian universities.

The responses are presented item by item and by gender as follows: item 11; male 35%; female

65%; item 12: male 50%; female 50%; item 13: male 41.7%, female 58.3%; item 14: male 43.3%, female

56.7%; item 15: male 36.7%, female 63.3%; item 16: male 35%, female 65%, item 17: male 61%, female

39%, item 18; male 69%, female 31%; item 19: male 62%, female 38%; item 20: male 36%, female 64%;

item 21: male 40.5%, female 59.5% respectively.

A close observation of Table 3 shows that female students involve themselves in most of the

dishonest academic practices more than their male counterparts (see items 11,13,14,15,16,20,21 on

Table 3). Both sexes commit the offence in item 12 on equal basis while the male students are more

liable in items 17, 18, and 19 of the dishonest academic practices than their female counterpart.

Research question four: What factors do you consider could induce the students to violate the policy



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during examinations?

Research question four is answered in table 4 as follows:

Table 4: Factors inducing students to violate the policy on integrity during examinations


22. Inadequate preparation for examination and too much involvement in non-academic activities

3.55 1.26 600 Accepted

23. Inadequate provision of large halls that can comfortably accommodate many students during examinations

3.6 1.51 600 Accepted

24. Students are of the view that academic dishonesty can be overlooked for students to pass examination

3.5 1.46 600 Accepted

25. Students have the impression that no severe penalty would be inflicted on them if caught cheating at examinations

2.68 1.24 600 Rejected

26. Students are afraid to expose fellow students for fear of intimidation and threat to life

4.52 0.76 600 Accepted

27. Students’ concern for grades supercedes their concern for knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity

4.43 1.82 600 Accepted

28. The authorities treat cases of violation of integrity at examinations with levity

3.67 1.26 600 Accepted

29. Students are of the view that god fathers exist that could help them to quench the penalties of dishonesty at examinations

3.8 1.44 600 Accepted


Table 4 presents the responses of students to the factors that induce them to violate the policy

on integrity during examinations. The mean scores of their responses are as follows: item 22: x =3.55; item 23: x =3.6; item 24: x = 3.5; item 25: x =2.68; item 26: x = 4.52; item 27: x = 4.43; item 28: x=3.67; item 29: x 3.8 respectively.

Table 4 reveals that the eight factors listed above are very prevalent among the students in the

Nigerian universities under study. The statements on factors responsible for the violation of academic

integrity were accepted.

Research question five: What solutions do you consider could be proffered to curb dishonest

academic practices among the students in Nigerian universities?

Research question five is answered in Table 5. Students’ responses were computed with mean

and standard deviation and presented as follows.

Table 5: Solutions to curb the violation of academic integrity in examinations among

Nigerian university students



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30. The universities should provide infrastructural facilities sufficient enough to meet the study and examination needs of all students.

4.54 1.28 600 Accepted

31. Students should have frequent and unrestricted access to the library facilities/internet services at all times.

4.16 1.18 600 Accepted

32. The rules and regulations guiding examination conduct should be strictly enforced.

3.04 1.12 600 Accepted

33. Necessary penalties should be meted out to the violators 4.07 1.08 600 Accepted

34. Time limit should be given to social and administrative activities that could impinge on academic activities and the duration of such activities should be strictly kept to.

3.24 1.48 600 Accepted

35. Authorities should strictly monitor students’ compliance with upholding integrity at examinations.

3.41 1.23 600 Accepted

36. Invigilators should be adequately protected during examinations.

3.54 1.07 600 Accepted


Table 5 presents the responses of the students to the likely solutions that could be put in place

to curb students’ violation of integrity at examinations. The mean scores of the responses are presented

thus: item 30: x = 4.54; item 31: x = 4.16; item 32: x = 3.04; item 33: x = 4.07, item 34: x =3.24; item 35: x = 3.41; item 36: x =3.54 respectively.

Observation of Table 5 reveals that the solutions proffered were accepted as capable of curbing

students’ violation of integrity at examinations.

Discussion

The study reveals that the students were quite aware of the examination regulations stated in the

Academic Policy of their universities. They are aware of the purpose of regulations in matters

concerning examinations.

The study also reveals that inspite of students’ consciousness of the existence of the regulations

guiding behaviour at examinations, their responses to the policy statements put before them were

unfavourable. The policy statements constitute impediments to their passing examinations, hence they

are rather too harsh on them to uphold. For any reputable institution to maintain its standard,

regulations must be put in place to guide students’ behaviour at examinations, unfortunately, most of

the policy statements were rejected. By implication, the students seem not prepared to stress themselves

before passing examinations. This type of conduct is what the university of Saskatchewan (2005)

referred to as academic dishonesty that is, “failure to observe any stated rule with regard to the

procedure used in an examination …”. At examinations, some students are dishonest and failure to

uphold integrity could spell doom for the affected institutions in terms of the quality of its products

and the degree awarded.

The study reveals that the students were involved in different types of dishonest academic



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practices listed on Table 3. But when viewed critically, the female students were more involved in

certain dishonest practices in examinations than their male counterparts. The female students seemed

to be more involved in ‘arriving late to examinations’ (65%); ‘keeping handbags, books, cell phones and

incriminating materials’ (58.3%); ‘giving and receiving assistance from other students’ (56.7%) ‘refusal

to stop writing at the expiration of allotted time’ (63.3%); ‘communicating and borrowing/lending

materials from/to colleagues at examination’ (65%).

On the contrary, male students seem to specialize in “causing confusion at the expiration of

allotted time’ (61%); ‘sneaking out with examination questions’ (69%); ‘colluding with fellow students

to submit already prepared answer scripts brought from outside’ (62%) (table 3, p6).

When students are caught in these dishonest acts, they quickly remind the invigilators of the

huge sums already invested in their education and that they would not allow the investment to waste

should they fail. But on a more serious note, school fees payment is not synonymous with the measure

of knowledge imparted based on which students are examined. Students’ involvement in this type of

cheating is what Graduate Integrity Guide (2005) described as “a violation of the integrity of that

examination”. Such violation if not properly curbed with appropriate penalties could demoralize the

hard working, honest students and could lead to loss of faith in the results of the affected institution.

The study confirmed that the factors listed on table 4 could induce the students to violate

integrity at examinations: “inadequate preparation for examination and too much involvement in non-

academic activities ( x = 3.55). ‘Inadequate provision of halls large enough to comfortably accommodate students during examination’ ( x = 3.6); ‘students are of the view that academic dishonesty can be overlooked’ ( x =3.5); ‘students have the impression that no severe penalty would be inflicted on them if caught cheating at examinations’ ( x =2.66); ‘students are afraid to expose fellow students for fear of intimidation and threat to life’, ( x =4.52); ‘students’ concern for grades supersedes their concern for knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity’ ( x =4.43); ‘the authorities treat cases of violation of integrity at examinations with levity’ ( x =3.67); ‘students are of the view that god fathers exist that could help them to quench the penalties of dishonesty at examinations’ ( x =3.8). Another factor responsible for the violation of integrity at examinations is the issue of “over-crowded hall”. This

is a very serious situation because most Nigerian universities can hardly boast of any hall large enough

to accommodate about seven hundred students during examinations. Meanwhile, some faculty courses

had more than one thousand students enrolled. There is lack of large halls that can adequately

accommodate large classes during examinations. This could result in ineffective supervision as pointed

out by O’Brien (2003) that academic dishonesty might be hard to detect and avoid in an over crowded

sloppy examination hall.

It was revealed on Table 4 that students could be intimidated or risk their lives if they expose

fellow students. The fear of attack of honest students by dishonest ones is a serious problem.

This study also revealed that students’ concern for grades supercedes their concern for

knowledge acquisition, honesty and integrity. When invigilators confront violators, they quickly remind

invigilators that they have paid huge sums of money which should not go in vain hence strict

invigilators are blackmailed. Similar behaviours are summarized by the University of California (1999)

when it states that “cheaters don’t learn, they undermine the quality of education we provide, and they

devalue UCD’s reputation and the degrees we offer.

To prevent dishonest academic practices in examinations becomes difficult in a society where respect



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for values, reputation and standard means nothing to the majority of the students.

The study confirms that authorities treat cases of violation of integrity at examinations with

levity. When students caught cheating are handed over for disciplinary actions, the case automatically

closes. This finding agrees with the views stated in Teaching at Mizzou (2004) that some of the reasons

students engage in academic dishonesty are that “ students have the feeling that the faculty support of

integrity policies is low, there is little chance of getting caught and the penalties are not seen as

significant”. Most of the reasons given so far have contributed in no small way in encouraging students

to violate the policy. Can it then be said that the examination malpractice committees of the universities

under study are on recess or dormant? If on recess, they should be called back to duty and if dormant

they should be empowered to function because the universities cannot wave aside the fact that

violation of integrity at examinations is very common among Nigerian students and among students

worldwide.

The study confirms that most of the solutions put up could assist to curb dishonest academic

practices were accepted as table 5 has revealed.

The solutions include provision of infrastructural facilities sufficient enough to meet the study and

examination needs of the students’; ‘students should have frequent and unrestricted access to library

facilities and internet services at all times’; ‘the rules guiding examination conduct should be strictly

enforced’; ‘necessary penalties should be meted out to violators’; ‘time limit should be given to social

and administrative activities that could impinge on academic activities and the duration should be

strictly kept to’; ‘authorities should strictly monitor students’ compliance with upholding integrity at

examinations’; and ‘invigilators should be adequately protected during examinations’.

The universities are in urgent need of sufficient facilities especially halls specifically built for

examination and adequately furnished with well spaced seats. A situation where four or five students

occupy a seat meant for two or three students encourages cheating. Such facilities if provided will send

signals to the students that interaction with fellow students is completely ruled out.

The study affirms that library facilities and internet services should be provided at all times.

Students should be allowed to study in the library freely and regularly. Now that some universities

operate the off-campus system, the library should be the most accessible place for students to read and

rest before the school hours are over.

The study reveals that the rules and regulations guiding examination conduct should be strictly

enforced and necessary penalties should be meted out to the violators. When this is done, the weak

students who cannot cope with academics will bolt out of the system and the quality of the degrees

awarded will be improved.

To achieve this, the authorities should make sure that necessary strategies that would make students

comply with the rules are put in place. The monitoring team and the invigilators should be heavily

protected. There are upright people in the system who can make the system function adequately. Such

upright members of staff should be assigned the responsibility of restoring the integrity of the

institutions.



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Recommendations

The following recommendations are being proposed:

1. Awareness campaigns should be embarked upon for the promotion of academic integrity.

That is, a university–wide programme for the teaching of academic integrity should be

designed and incorporated into the General Studies (GES) curriculum.

2. Adequate infrastructural facilities should be provided and effective monitoring/supervision

strategies should be put in place to prevent dishonest academic practices during and after

examinations.

3. Electronic gadgets and cameras that can screen and film offenders should be mounted in

examination halls to expose dishonest behaviors. This will prevent intimidation of

invigilators.

4. The library should be organized to accommodate students of all faculties and students’

access and visits to the library should not be restricted. Better still, every faculty should have

its own library spacious enough to accommodate its students and stocked with current

books, journals, relevant materials and internet services to promote reading habit in

students.

5. The university is first and foremost a citadel of learning. Facilities that can promote

learning should be made readily available to the students

6. Examinations committee should be empowered to organize examinations and to try

offenders. Such a committee should be adequately protected and prompt trials of offenders

should be carried out after each examination.

Conclusion:

Academic integrity at examinations is very vital for the promotion of the standard of education and the

quality of the degrees awarded by higher institutions. Strategies should be put in place to propel

students and staff to obey and respect examination rules and regulations, to uphold, promote, preserve,

guard, nurture and practice academic integrity for the sake of the value of the degrees we award and the

reputation of our universities.

References

Brooklyn College (1999) Academic Integrity. Statement on Academic Integrity for Brookyln College

Students. http://academic.brooklyn.cunny.edu/core3/currah/acinteg.htm. Retrieved March 10,

2005

Center for the Advancement of Teaching CAT (n.d). Academic integrity, Faculty Responsibilities.

Rutgers University, New Brunswick Campus. http://cat.rutgers.edu/integrity/faculty.html

Retrieved March 9, 2005.

Donald L. M. C. and Gary P. (1973) Ten Principles of Academic Integrity, College of Administration

Publication. http://www.collegepubs.com/ref/10prinAcaInteg.shtml Retrieved March 9, 2005

George O. B. (2003) Minimizing Cheating on Examinations: Core Issues, Vol. 12 No. 2 pp. 2 - 4



Page 446

Graduate Integrity Guide (2005) Academic Integrity: A Guide for Graduate Students. University

Students Conduct Code (USC). http://www.USC.edu/student-affair/student-conduct/grad.-

ai.htm Retrieved March 10, 2005

Paul P. (ed.) (1987) Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. England: Longman Group Limited.

Taylor, B. (n.d) Integrity: Academic and Political A Letter to My Students’. Oakton Community

College, Des Plainer, IL 60016 http://www.academic.integrity.org. Retrieved March 10, 2005

Teaching at Mizzou (2004) A Guide for New Faculty Graduate Instructors and Teaching Assistants

‘Academic Integrity’ http://teachandlearn.missouri.edu/guide/chapters/academicintegrity.htm

Retrieved March 10, 2005.

University of California (1999) Tips to Prevent Cheating, Student Judicial Affairs. University of

California Davis (UCD).

University of Minnesota (2001) University of Minnesota. Office for Student Academic Integrity

http://www.osai.umn.edu/faculty.html Retrieved March 10, 2005.

University of Port Harcourt (2002) Statement of Academic Policies. Port Harcourt: University of Port

Harcourt Press.

University of Saskatchewan (n.d.) Academic Honesty at the University of Saskatchewan

http://www.usask.ca/honesty/aca_honesty.shtml Retrieved March 10, 2005.



Page 447


GOVERNMENT INTERFERENCE IN UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY AND

ACADEMIC FREEDOM IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE

ACHIEVEMENT OF VISION AND MISSION OF UNIVERSITIES

By

F .I .ETADON, Ph.D

Department of Adult Education University of Ibadan, Ibadan-Nigeria ([email protected])

and

M.A. OYEBAMIJI, Ph.D

Department of Adult and Non-Formal Education University of Port Harcourt

Nigeria ([email protected])

Abstract

Universally, the major role of Universities is the creation, storage, and dissemination of knowledge

through research. The knowledge so created or established must be stored to ensure continuity of

thought, reasons and adaptive academic pursuits. The stored knowledge or information must be

recalled at will and disseminated for the benefit of the society at large. This paper examines

government interference in University autonomy and academic freedom, and determine, based on the

facts on ground, the implications of such interference in achieving the vision and mission of

Universities in an emerging nation like Nigeria. The paper concludes that for Nigerian University

system to freely assume its roles to the society, the government should grant the Universities full

academic freedom and autonomy to allow them to carry out proper teaching, research and

community service without undue interference.

Key Words: Government Interference, University Autonomy, Academic Freedom,

Vision and Mission



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Introduction

Universities in Nigeria have been experiencing interference in their autonomy and academic freedom.

Following the incursions on university autonomy and academic freedom, the universities have been

under serious stress, with all forms of conflicts and instability. According to Tamuno (1989), the search

for knowledge is continuous and unlimited. Freedom of enquiry and freedom of expression are

essential tools in scholarship of the highest standard and without these innovations, discovery and

inventions will be extremely difficult to attain.

For this essential purpose, a university of great distinction cherishes its autonomy, especially in

regard to what to teach and how to teach. Research and teaching are, in this respect, complementary

because without scholarly research, the quality of teaching will suffer. As a result, universities

traditionally resent any far-reaching encroachment by government and regimes on their ‘‘autonomy’’ in

academic matters. The autonomy so claimed has however been progressively eroded by the funding

agency-the government, who is considered the piper who dictates the academic tune (Tamuno, 1989). It

has however been argued that since the universities are the creation of the government, it is natural that

government would want to have a say in their internal administration.

University Autonomy and Academic Freedom

University autonomy and Academic freedom are the reasonable and respectable internalization of the

mechanism of university governance and administration, and the right of any university, through its

Senate, to design and operate its academic programmes. Musa (1983), a former Secretary to the

government of Nigeria defined university autonomy as unrestrained but self-conscious efforts by the

institutions to choose between constrained alternatives to meet their intellectual and academic

responsibilities without prejudice to social needs. The Commission on Post School Certificate and

Higher Education in Nigeria (1960) also recommended that a university has to be insulated from the

hot and cold winds of politics. Consequently, the responsibility for its management must be vested in

an autonomous Council, and the Council must include representatives of the public, but these

representatives must attend as individuals and not as agents for some sectional interest or party lines.

The Thematic Debate organized within the World Conference on Higher Education in (1998)

on ‘‘Autonomy, Social Responsibility and Academic Freedom’’ starts from the following proposition:

that academic freedom and university autonomy are prior conditions for the unfiltered pursuit and

dissemination of knowledge. Accordingly, they are bestowed upon the academic community not for its

own sake but to enable the university to meet its responsibilities to society. Paragraph 50 of a

publication titled ‘‘The Nigerian Universities and the Udoji Commission,’’ issued by the Committee of

Vice-Chancellors (1974) states that the autonomy of universities as institutions involves freedom to

teach and examine students undisturbed; freedom on what to teach and how to teach it; freedom of

research; freedom to select students; and freedom to select; appoint; and promote staff.

However, the Cookey report in Adebayo (1999) held the view that the above is a mixture of

academic freedom and university autonomy. The report applied the term university governance to the

power to appoint, dismiss and discipline staff, financial autonomy, and other things necessary for a self-

governing community, while academic freedom refers to those aspects of university life which deals

with academic works; such as freedom to select, teach and examine students; freedom to decide on



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what to teach; freedom to carry out research and to publish the results of such research findings.

Academic freedom may, therefore, be interpreted to mean the liberty of the university to determine the

course content and curricula, what to teach and how to teach; and it must embrace the liberty to do

research, publish and disseminate knowledge freely, without let or hindrance. This freedom is said to be

fundamental and must be defended at all times.

The UNESCO Seminar held in 1965 on ‘‘The Development of Higher Education in Africa’’

suggested a narrow view of academic freedom. It held that for African universities to be able to

perform their tasks effectively, they must have the freedom to teach, to advance the frontiers of

knowledge through research and to disseminate as widely as possible the results of their research. In a

correspondence from the Office of the former Minister of Education to Federal Universities on

‘‘Government Policy on Autonomy for Universities,’’ autonomy is defined in terms of university’s

freedom to govern themselves, appoint their key officers, determine the condition of service of their

staff, control their finances and generally regulate themselves as independent legal entities, without

undue interference from the Federal Government and its agencies (U. I. Official Bulletin No. 1516 of

July 28, 2000). University autonomy and academic freedom can thus be seen as the government of

scholars by scholars and for scholars.

Interference by Government in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom

University autonomy and academic freedom shapes the relationship between government, society and

the university. Until the early 1970s, the university system enjoyed certain amount of autonomy and

earned the respect of government. The University Council was a powerful body with its authority intact

as a university governing body. Council members were usually able and responsible persons, who strive

to maintain the dignity of the university. Somehow, this rapport between the government and the

university faded away. Hence, Falana (1998) asserted that with the emergence of military rule in Nigeria

in 1966 and the attendant denial of the citizens’ earlier constitutionally guaranteed rights, the enjoyment

of academic freedom in the universities became curtailed. According to him, by 1970, after a 3-year

disastrous civil war, following the 1967 second military coup in Nigeria, the effects of military rule on

the autonomy and academic freedom of the university system had become glaring.

Alluding to the above, the Tell Magazine of July 9, 2001 reported that the military first took a

frontal attack on the citadel of learning when General Yakubu Gowon, the then Head of the military

juntas, got a powerful weapon from Chief Jerome Udoji, an experienced bureaucrat, who headed the

wages commission. According to the report, ‘‘…Udoji also brought everyone under the control of the

Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.’’ Onyeonoru (1996: 14) put it succinctly that:

The interference in university autonomy that began in 1972 with the Gowon military

administration reached its peak in the late 1980s and early 1990s when instructions on the

governance of tertiary institutions were issued from Lagos and later Abuja, … Authoritarian

principles were translated into the governance of tertiary institutions by the loss of power of the

University Councils to appoint Vice-Chancellors, and discipline staff. This had remarkable

effects on morality as university administrators came to give their allegiance to the ruling

military juntas rather than the university community.

He noted that the most pernicious attacks on university autonomy came in the form of decrees. These

decrees include: Decrees 16 and 17 of 1985, on the basis of which some academic staff were dismissed

from their jobs by the military, without recourse to the Governing Councils of the universities



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concerned. Coupled with the above was the usurpation by the government of the power to appoint

Vice-Chancellors that began during the same period of General Gowon in 1972. The Academic Staff

Union of Universities (ASUU), in the report of the Presidential Commission on Salaries and Conditions

of Service of University Staff (1981) viewed the implication of such actions on the management of

affairs in the Universities. ASUU argued that a Vice-Chancellor that is imposed on the academic

community becomes suspect, his loyalty to the institution is doubted and even if he is genuinely loyal,

his ability to lead and managed the affairs (including the various conflicts that negatively affects the

stability) of the university is impaired. This factor terribly impacts on the quality of leadership in the

institutions which the National Universities Commission (NUC) Study Group described as ‘‘bad and

ineffective’’ while recommending a mechanism for checking the performance of Chief Executives and

Councils in the Universities (NUC, 1994).

Ogunyemi (1992), while commenting on the management of students’ conflicts during the

Babangida years also observed that some Vice-Chancellors and Governing Councils under the

Babangida administration were only there to do their masters (government’s) bidding; and that no

university administrator openly challenged some of government’s unpopular policy-decisions as they

affected universities during the period tended to reinforce the widespread allegation of collaboration

between military autocrats and university administrators (who were considerably disabled from properly

managing the various conflicts in the academia).

For instance, a military regime in Nigeria once appointed a retired military officer as Sole

Administrator of a Federal University (Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria) as against the wishes of the

university community. This is clearly one of the very severe interference in university autonomy in

Nigeria. A number of other areas in which the autonomy of universities have been eroded included the

transfer of Vice-Chancellors, dismissal of staff, harmonization of the conditions of service with those

of the civil service, etc. The explanation of government intervention in the administration of

universities is that ‘‘he who pays the piper dictates the tune.’’ It is argued that since the government

finances the universities, it should have a say in what goes on in the system.

Justification for Government’s Interference in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom

Justification for government’s interference in university autonomy and academic freedom has been

proffered in some quarters that in the modern society, no university can claim complete autonomy.

Adebayo (1999: 14) states that:

It is evident that in the context of modern society, no university can make a claim to complete

autonomy. It [university] derives its legal existence from an act of some external authority,

usually the state; and its instrument of incorporation prescribes in detail what it may do and

what it may not do, for example, in relation to its property or its dealing with other

institutions or even with its own members…

Tamuno (1989: 107) also argued that university campuses are not sacrosanct territories within

the ambit of the law of the land because their respective charters have no meaning except in the

context of State law which, in every known case, ‘‘has given them birth.’’ Illustrating the extent to

which the campuses operate within the law, he said:

University staff and students who take demonstrations off-campus bring back to the campus



Page 451

police or troops at their heels. Where deaths occur or public property is severely destroyed,

judicial and other commissions follow public agitation; agitation by tax payers as well as parents,

guardian and friends of affected staff and students. In all these cases, the overall responsibility for

law and order rests on the national government, though university authorities play a key role in

matters of staff and student discipline.

Oluge (1998) quoted Elliot and Chambers on a court opinion concerning the force of

institutional regulations upon students that every student, upon his admission into an institution of

learning, impliedly promises to submit to, and be governed by, all the necessary and proper rules and

regulations which have been, or may thereafter be adopted for the government of the institution. Such

rules and regulations are however under the law of the State, which is supreme to all university rules

and regulations.

Perhaps the views of Justice S. M. A. Belgore, Chairman of the University of Ife (now Obafemi

Awolowo University) Students’ Incident Tribunal of Inquiry, on university within the ambit of the

State-nation laws, helped to clarify matters. In a comment addressed to a former Public Relations

Officer of the now Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife Students Union, who appeared before the

Tribunal on August 3, 1981, Justice Belgore observed that:

Whether you believe in this type of Constitution or not, it is still the supreme laws of the land. It

is by virtue of that Constitution that your university exists; in fact, all other laws are really

subject to the provisions of the Constitution. Any provisions of any law which are at variance

with the Constitution are void. So the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University),

University of Ibadan, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, and

all other universities are creations of the statute… So any other law within the university,

whether it is that of the Vice-Chancellor, the Senate or the Congress, [Council], must be subject

to the normal laws of the land. (Federal Republic of Nigeria, University of Ife Students Incident

Tribunal of Inquiry Record of Proceedings, 1981: 11)

In other words, the framework within which the university operates is extremely and externally

determined because it is funded by the State. Furthermore, the invitation from members of the

academic community themselves to the government to intervene is another reason for government’s

interference. Having convinced themselves that they could not seek redress to their grievances within

the university, some members of staff prefer to take their grievances to the government or the

President in his capacity as the Visitor to Federal Universities and in some other cases, to the Press.

Tamuno (1989) observed that the known enemies of university autonomy in Nigeria are not

always government officials. According to him, there are several intra-mural and extra-mural advocates

of intervention by government in the internal affairs of the Federal Universities as the print and

electronic media in Nigeria are daily flooded with accusations of corruption, fraud, vindictiveness, mal-

administration, abuse of office, ineffectiveness, injustice and the likes, from aggrieved parties or

advocates of particular causes, academic or otherwise. Hence, petitions–signed and anonymous–and

whispering campaigns give university staff grievances a distinct flavour tasted, occasionally, by

interested parties off-campus. He added that time consuming investigations and settlements, merely

serve to entertain the gullible, and that it is not mere theatre arts when litigation extends to the law

courts or when public commissions or inquiry are set up by governments.



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Aminu (1986), in his address delivered at the inauguration of the Governing Councils of Federal

Universities said that the universities belong to the people and held in trust by government.

Government does not interfere; it intervenes, if and when necessary. But those people who worry

about the possibility of this intervention taking place do not always reckon with some factors which

may be too obvious to be noticed… Government intervention is nearly always invited by events from

within the institution, overtly or covertly. When this intervention does come, it is labeled a timely one

to save the situation by the side it appears to favour and a flagrant violation of academic freedom and

university autonomy by the side that it appears not to favour.

According to a publication in the Sunday Times of 9 April, 1995) titled ‘‘Power Struggle Rocks

University of Nigeria, Nsukka,’’ such was the situation when in 1995, the Vice-Chancellor was

embroiled in a two-front battle with the Governing Council and the Registrar of the institution. The

Council of the institution had just been reinstated by a Federal High Court of Appeal after a seven-

month suspension order by an Nsukka High Court and had sought the then Head of State’s

intervention as Visitor to resolve the crisis of confidence that rocked the administration of the

university. In a memorandum titled ‘‘Council position on the current crisis in the University of

Nigeria,’’ sent to the then Head of State and Visitor to the institution, the governing body stated that

the atmosphere in the university was not healthy and the…. The document was signed by eight

members of the University’s Governing Council. The Council added that the Vice-Chancellor’s total

disregard of Council and Council decisions cannot make for progress of the university.

This type of invited intervention shows that members of the academic community are not

homogeneous in terms of their conception of university autonomy. Therefore, any attempt to take the

affairs of the university to the government or the Press is like providing necessary weapon that could be

used to undermine university autonomy and academic freedom. In addition, the behaviours of the

academics themselves leaves much to be desired as most of them had inordinate ambitions for which

they relied and ‘‘worshiped’’ the military to attain. Cookey (1988:iv) noted that the autonomy of the

university is no more due to the too much interference by the government in university matters, ‘‘and

the irresponsibility of the academics themselves.’’ He observed that:

Government soon discovered the Archillies’ heel of the academics; for example, inordinate

ambition for positions of authority, which often lead to demeaning actions, and the pursuit

of wealth by engaging in private business thus giving second place to teaching and research.

In short, the university lost their autonomy largely because they did not prove themselves

ready for it.

He stated further that university autonomy should not be taken for granted; rather, it has to be

fought for. Therefore, to regain its autonomy, each university should prove itself ready for it by doing

two things namely: not being a hundred percent dependent on government grants, and ensuring that

their staffs, especially academic staff are men of ability and integrity. He then hoped that government

will relax its tight control of the universities when university staff proved themselves competent,

hardworking and dedicated, and when the University Councils shows itself capable of directing the

affairs of the university with fairness and firmness.

Since university autonomy and academic freedom does not mean absolute freedom, they should



Page 453

be properly guided. Each university should strive to ensure such a degree of openness and participatory

democracy. In other words, the first line of defense should be the cultivation within the institution, by

tradition and by leadership, of an ethos of openness and mutual tolerance of the measured exchange of

opinion in a way that would prevent the average member of the university from wanting to seek redress

to his grievances outside the university.

Colonel Ali, a former Honourable Commissioner for Federal Ministry of Education in 1975, in

an address on the occasion of the first seminar on ‘‘University Administration in Universities’’ also

stated that the Nigerian government has guaranteed its universities academic freedom. To him, only the

fake academicians conceive of academic freedom as a right to spread foul propaganda, indoctrinate

their students, encourage acts of vandalism and thereby intimidate society.

Government Interference in University Autonomy and Academic Freedom: Implications for

Achievement of Vision and Mission of Universities

Government interference in university autonomy and academic freedom, and the resentment of such

encroachment by the government has always been a source of conflict which often leads to other

conflicts in the university system. Interference in university autonomy and academic freedom by the

government has very negative implications for a sacrosanct university system, which should be

insulated from external forces.

The vision of the University of Ibadan-the Premier University in Nigeria, for example, states

that the university would be “a world-class institution for academic excellence geared towards meeting

society needs” while its mission, amongst others are:

To expand the frontiers of knowledge through provision of excellent conditionsfor learning

and research. To produce graduates who are worthy in character and sound judgment. To

contribute to the transformation of society through creativity and innovation, and To serve

as a dynamic custodian of society’s salutary values and thus sustained its integrity.

(University of Ibadan Annual Report: 2011: ii)

Based on the above vision and mission statements, Faniran and Alagbe (2005) noted that

university autonomy and academic freedom are considered as part of the essential ingredients for

achieving the vision and mission of any university. Therefore, with interference in university autonomy

and academic freedom, the government will be toiling with the cherished roles the university system is

expected to play, particularly in a developing nation like Nigeria. These roles determine the

achievement of the vision and mission of the university. Government, therefore, need to reckon that

the university system need to be accorded a special position to enable it achieve its expected vision and

mission in the society.

Public expectations of the roles of the university system to achieve its vision and mission are

quite high, particularly in a developing nation. Hence, Nyerere (1966: 13), emphasized what is expected

of the universities in a development nation like Nigeria. He noted that:

University in a developing society [like Nigeria] must put emphasis of its work on subjects of

immediate moment to the nation in which it exists, and it must be committed to the people of that

nation and their humanistic goals… we in poor societies can only justify expenditure on a

university of any type if it promotes real development of our people… The role of a university in a

developing nation is to contribute; to give ideas, manpower; and service for the furthering of

human equality, human dignity and human development.



Page 454

It implies from the above that adequate institutional autonomy and academic freedom, if well

granted, will enable universities to contribute significantly to providing meaningful ideas, providing

manpower for the national economy and other services for furthering human equality, human dignity

and human development for the nation. These are the essential ways by which any university can

achieve its visions and missions to the society.

Recommendations

It is very clear that government interference in university autonomy and academic freedom have

attendant negative effects on the vision and mission of any university. Even though all rules and

regulation, in the university system are under the laws of the federation, the university should, not

withstanding, be allowed autonomy and freedom. Taken away autonomy and freedom of the university

is a disaster. Government should therefore:

� Grant or restore statutory powers to Governing Council and Senate of universities, to allow for more institutional autonomy and academic freedom in universities.

� Bring about improvement in the socio-economic situation in the country and the restoration of the moral fibre of the society for there to be full confidence in the university system in the

country.

� Increase funding of university education.

The Councils and Senate of universities are capable of discharging their statutory functions if

granted full autonomy. The act establishing any university in Nigeria spelt out the powers of Governing

Council, which would enable it to manage its autonomy effectively. For instance, Section 4 of the

University of Ibadan Calendar (2002–2007: 65) which is mutatis mutandis similar to all other statutes of

other Universities in the country, states inter alia:

4(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act relating to the Visitor, the Council shall be

the governing body of the university and shall have the general management of the affairs

of the university and in particular the control of the property and expenditure of the

university. (2) Subject to sub-section (6) of this section, the Council shall have the

powers to do anything which in its opinion is calculated to facilitate the carrying on of

the activities of the universities… (5) Nothing in sub-section (3) or (4) of this section

shall be construed as preventing the Council from given instructions, in writing or

otherwise, for the purpose of exercising any power conferred on it under sub-section (2) of

this section.

Conclusion

Oyediran (1995), at a conference of the Council for the Development of the Social Science

Research in Africa (CODESRIA), Dakar, Senegal, remarked that universities are always accorded

special positions in human societies the world over, and since medieval times, the universities have

been known as institutions concerned with the cultivation of the mind and spirit, a community of

people who are committed to the search for the truth and who cherish freedom of thought and enquiry

as they seek to widen the horizon of human knowledge.

As a result, public expectation of the roles of any university which must be related to the

unpredictable factors of change inside and outside campus walls can only be achieved if the university



Page 455

system is accorded the required and desired autonomy and academic freedom by the government

without any conditions attached to such freedom and autonomy, to enable universities achieve their

visions and missions.

References

Ade-Ajayi, J. F. (1980). Academic Freedom and University Autonomy in Nigeria Today: A Historical Survey and A Search for New Strategies. Lecture delivered at the Academic Staff Union of Universities Conference in Kano.

Ade-Ajayi, J. F. and Tamuno, T. N. (1973). The University of Ibadan in Transition 1948 – 1973 (Eds.), Ibadan University Press Adebayo, B. A. (1999). University Management and Productivity: An Appraisal’’ Paper delivered at the

1999 Association of Nigerian University Professional Administrators (ANUPA) Annual Conference held at the University of Ibadan.

Ali, A. A. (1975). University Administration in Universities. Address delivered at the first seminar

organized by the Association of Nigerian University Professional Administrators Aminu, J. (1986). Address delivered at the Inauguration of Governing Councils of Federal Universities,

Lagos Babalola, A. (2007). Address delivered at the opening ceremony of the Third Biennial Seminar of the

National Association of Pro-Chancellors of Nigerian Universities (NAPCNU) on 20 November. Commission on Post-School Certificate and Higher Education in Nigeria (1960). Lagos, Federal

Ministry of Education. Etadon, F.I. (1995). Towards Social Dialogue: Tripartite Cooperation in National Development - The

University of Ibadan Experience. Unpublished M.Ed Project, University of Ibadan.

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Etadon, F.I. (2008). Perceived Dimensions of Workers’ and Students’ Conflicts in Selected First Generation Universities in Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.d Thesis, University of Ibadan Xviii + 229

Etadon, F. I. (2008). Multi-Dimensional Nature of Conflicts within the University Systems in Nigeria:

An Empirical Study. Nigerian Journal of Clinical and Councelling Psychology, 14.

Etadon, F. I. (2009). Distinctive Roles of Nigerian Universities for Sustainable National Development. Nigerian Journal of Clinical and Counseling Psychology, 15.

Falana, F. (1998). Welcome address delivered as the President, Committee for the Defence of Human Rights, In Nigerian Students and the Challenges of Leadership, Lagos. Published by CDHR

Faniran, J. O. and Alagbe, E. A. (2005). The Conflict of the Political Economic Reforms of Government against the Survival of Nigerian Universities. Journal of the University Administrators, 2(6).

Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). University of Ife Students Incident Tribunal of Inquiry, Records of

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Kaka, H. M. (2005). Saving the Higher Education System. Journal of the University Administrator,

2(6).

Musa, S. (1983). University Autonomy within the Laws of the Land. In J. D. Ojo & J. B. Fadupin (eds.) Senior Staff Association Industrial Relations Lectures. 1982 – 1983 Series, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

National Universities Commission (1970). Report of the NUC presented to the then Head of State, General Yakubu Gowon on 31 October.

National Universities Commission, (1994). Brain Drain in Nigerian Universities (1982/83–1992/93). Report of the study group submitted to the World Bank Project Implementation Unit, National Universities Commission, September.

Nyerere, J. K. (1966). The University’s Role in the Development of New Countries. Keynote Speech delivered at the World University Service Assembly, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, 27 June.

Ogunyemi, B. (1992). Students’ Unrest and University Governance under the Military: A case-study of the Babangida Years. In Bello-Imam, I. B. University Governance in Nigeria, Proceedings of the 8th General Assembly of the Social Science Council of Nigeria, The Social Science Council, Ibadan.

Ojo, J. D. (1983). University Autonomy in Nigeria. In J. D. Ojo & J. B.Fadupin (eds.) Senior Staff Association Industrial Relations Lectures. 1982 – 1983 Series, University of Ibadan, Ibadan.

Oluge, D. (1998). Administration of Student Welfare. Paper presented at the induction course organized for Newly Appointed Administrative Officers of the Registry, University of Ibadan, on 18 March.

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Oyediran, A. B. O. O. (1995). Academic Freedom in Nigeria. Opening remark delivered at a conference organised by a Dakar, Senegal based Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa (CODESRIA) at the University of Ibadan.

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Tamuno, T. N. (1989). Nigerian Universities: Their Students’ and Their Society, Lagos, The Panel on Nigeria Since Independence History Project, Federal Government Press

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NIGERIA AND THE AESTHETIC PHENOMENA

By

IKE P. AGHAOSA, Ph.D

Department of Educational Studies and Management, Faculty of Education,

University of Benin, Benin City

Abstract

This paper takes a critical look at the aesthetic phenomena prevalent in the contemporary Nigerian society. The paper examines by geographical survey, the natural environmental aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria; and by ethnographic and documentary methods, contrived traditional and contemporary aesthetic endeavours in the country. In doing this, the paper notes how these aesthetics endeavours form the basis of many traditional and contemporary occupations. This was followed by an assessment of the roles of guilds in the induction of new members into the traditional occupations. The next task was an assessment of the evolution of aesthetic learning in Nigeria’s formal education. In conclusion, it was recommended that given the repertoire of aesthetic phenomena and the paucity of publications, there is the urgent need for research in this area of knowledge. This is with the overall aim of evolving viable educational programs for the Nigerian secondary schools.



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Introduction

The aesthetic permeates all facets of human life. These range from the environment to the personal life

of every individual. In the environment abound many phenomena – natural and manmade- that evoke

aesthetic pleasure or distaste. They include rivers, ocean, mountains, gardens, forests, grasslands,

flowers, birds, sunsets, etc. In another dimension, many manmade objects ranging from art works –

painting, sculpture, ceramic wares, textile apparels and furnishings, hairdos, furniture, photographs,

movies, music, dances, food and even drinks of various types evoke human aesthetic emotions. In

spite of this preponderance of the aesthetic in human life, the subject or concept of aesthetic could be

difficult to define precisely. This is because of the multiple perspectives and dimensions involved in

the issue of aesthetics. More so, when people talk of ‘aesthetics’ there is often confusion about what is

being referred to. Is it the aesthetic phenomena (tangible or intangible); the impact from the

phenomena; or the emotion emanating from the viewer of the phenomena, or a combination of some

or all aspects of the aesthetic phenomena that is being referred to. It is probably because of this that

aesthetics has assumed a halo of controversy in philosophy, art, and education generally. This

notwithstanding, aesthetics is an interesting field of study and practice.

Nigeria and Aesthetic Phenomena

In the Nigerian society as elsewhere too, the aesthetic is encompassed in the private and collective lives

of her citizens. The Nigerian environment has multifarious natural phenomena – rivers, hills, rock

formations, game reserves, forests, animals of various species and colors, lakes, estuaries, dams, etc of

aesthetic value. Dwelling in this environment of natural aesthetic splendor is motley of ethnic groups

with their various cultural beliefs and practices. Nigeria has a very rich cultural heritage. This is

evidenced from the variety of art and artifacts of high aesthetic value produced by the various cultural

groups. These products of aesthetic values range from everyday utilitarian objects such as: farm

implements; home utensils, to decorative items e.g. carvings and religions objects of worship. So also

are items of personal decorations – braided hair, cosmetics, and a variety of music and dance in which

the various cultural groups express their unique and authentic identities.

Aesthetic Knowledge in Nigeria

In a strictly traditional setting – especially before contact with the whites and subsequent colonization,

the various indigenous groups were to some extent self sufficient with what they produced, and did

some forms of internal trades with their neighbors. Some of the items of trade included the earlier

mentioned utilitarian and decorative items which had aesthetic values. These can be seen as artifacts in

various museums within and outside Nigeria. These items were (and some still) produced by craftsmen

with considerable skills who organized themselves into guilds. The guilds ensured continuous training

and induction of new members into their trades. Trade and cultural contact with the Western world has

altered the hitherto traditional orientation in the production of objects of aesthetic values.

One area replete with the vestiges of colonization in Nigeria is the educational sector. With

respect to aesthetic learning, there has evolved a hybrid of aesthetic learning activities in the formal

education system though at a low level. This hybrid of aesthetic learning attempts to combine

traditional and western (academic) forms of learning in the formal education system. The extent to

which the goal of aesthetic education is being achieved currently in Nigeria’s formal education system-

especially at the secondary level of schooling is highly speculative. This is given the paucity of



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publications on this aspect of Nigerian education. This is in spite of the huge potential benefits of

aesthetic professional practices; learning and activities for the country. Omatseye (1992) maintains that

this is in terms of the occupational, business and leisure benefits from vibrant aesthetic practices and

learning activities. This is in the sense that this group of activities that permeates all aspects of personal

and social lives requires considerable attention in the formal education system of Nigeria.

The pertinent questions here are what really are the aesthetics phenomena of Nigeria as a

country? What is the nature of these phenomena and how are they produced or practiced? What

prospects do these phenomena hold for aesthetic knowledge and practices in the pursuit of balanced

education epistemologically in the country? In effect, the problem of this paper is to assess the

aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria and their potential for aesthetic knowledge and learning in both the

formal and informal educational sectors in the country.

The purpose of this intellectual venture is to attempt to identify the significant aesthetic

phenomena in Nigeria. This is addition to unravelling their dynamics-nature, methods of production

and how they can be successfully integrated in to the aesthetic learning programs of the country.

The significance of this very endeavour will be determined by the extent it would be able to:

(i) give adequate light and clarifications about the various aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria;

(ii) enable all stake holders to identify and appreciate the unique and abundant aesthetic

phenomena of Nigeria;

(iii) guide social and educational policies in this vital aspects of knowledge and human learning;

(iv) improve the delivery of aesthetic learning for the subsequent benefit of the learners, educational

system and society as a whole; and

(v) help improve the level of professional practices in the various aesthetic based endeavors and

occupations in Nigeria generally.

This is essentially a qualitative based enquiry. It would therefore rely on these theoretical and

philosophical methods of analyses: language and logical analyses; and arguments by analogy. The

survey intends to proceed in this sequence: a survey and the analyses of Nigeria’s aesthetic

phenomena-environmental and contrived; the aesthetic as bases and guilds of some traditional practices

and occupations; and the aesthetic bases of some contemporary occupations in Nigeria; the evolution

of aesthetic learning and education in Nigerian academia. Finally suggestions would be proffered as to

how the aesthetic learning endeavors can be upgraded for the benefits of all in the Nigerian society.

The Environmental Aesthetic Phenomena of Nigeria

Nigeria is a vast country in West Africa. The country encompasses varied geographical features in terms

of climatic and vegetation zones, topography and various natural and manmade environmental

phenomena of aesthetic value.

1. Rivers: There are many rivers that transverse the Nigerian environment. The notable ones

include the Niger, Benue, Cross river, Ogun, Osun, Hadejia, Anam, Kaduna, Imo, Rima,

Sokoto, Gurara, Kamadugu Yobe, Taraba, and a host of others. These rivers apart from

providing life sustenance to the people along their banks, as well as being viable means of

transportations and economic activities, are also spectacles to be admired aesthetically.

2. Lakes: Some of the prominent lakes in Nigeria include Chad (Borno State), Kainji (Niger State)

Oguyi (Enugu State) Oguta (Imo) Agulu (Anambra).



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3. Islands Lagoons and Estuaries: They include Lagos Island and Lagoon (Lagos State) Lekki

Penisula (Lagos State) Forcados, Escravos (Delta State) Bonny Island (Rivers State etc).

4. Waterfalls: some of the prominent water falls in Nigeria include the followings: - Qua falls

(CRS); - Erin water falls (Ijesha)

Water springs: They include: Ikogosi warm springs (Ondo)1

- The Yankari warm and cold springs (Bauchi State).

5. Highlands: The prominent highlands in Nigeria include the followings: Oban hills (Cross

Rivers State); Milken Hill (Enugu State); Ososo Hill (Edo State) Apata and Idanre Hills (Ondo

State) Effon Aloge Hills (Ekiti State) Olumo Rock (Ogun State); Zuma Hills (Abuja) the Jos

Plateau – comprising the Kutchi, Wadi, Zurumbi Limi etc Hills (Plateau State); Mande Hills

(Nassarawa State) the Obudu cattle Ranch Hills (Cross Rivers State); the Adamawa Highlands

(Adamawa State) the Shebsi, Kutala, Beli, Wady, Wiga Shono Hills, Alamkira Mountains, Biu

Plateau (in Gombe, Taraba and Adamawa States); the Mandara Mountains and Karawa Hill

(Borno State) – Mambilla Plateau.

Man – Made i.e. contrived environmental aesthetic phenomena in Nigeria

These include the following:

Dams – The following dams are prominent in Nigeria: Kainji Lake and dam, Shiroro and Tiga dams

(Niger State).

These enumerated environmental aesthetic phenomena in the Nigerian landscape offer

numerous economic opportunities and benefits to the inhabitants in and around them apart from their

aesthetic values, of wonder and admiration. These factors account for why many states capitals,

important towns and environmental landmarks derive their names (identity) from these aesthetic

phenomena. It is pertinent to mention that these climatic and environmental aesthetic phenomena have

strong bearings on the cultural (contrived) aesthetic products and phenomena of Nigerians. This is in

the sense that the predominant inspirations (Philosophical and religious) are often derived from, and, or

devoted to the veneration – awesome or sublime appreciation of these aesthetic phenomena. In another

perspective, the predominant products of each ethnic group of the country are outcomes of the natural

raw materials found in the various climatic and vegetation zones. For example, while wood carving is

predominant in the rain forest zone, leather works is practiced mainly in the Sahelian and savannah

zones of Nigeria. Metal works, ceramics (pottery) and some other arts and crafts are practiced in almost

all parts of the country given the widespread presence of the raw materials – metal and clay throughout

Nigeria. These can be discerned in the following.

The Cultural/Contrived Aesthetic Phenomena of Nigeria

Dwelling in these observed different geographical zones with their unique environmental

features are motley of ethnic groups that are largely of the Negro stock of the human race. The exact

number of the different ethnic groups in Nigeria is not precisely known. However, recent estimates by

some scholars like Otite (1990) in Ukpokunu (2002) puts the number of the ethnic groups of Nigeria to



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about three hundred and more. It is also important to state that strictly speaking, most of these ethnic

groups from the perspective of the anthropologists in spite of mutual counter-influences occasioned

largely by trade and cultural contacts do have certain unique traditional core values. This point is

necessary to modify the observation of Ukpokunu (2002) who seems to equate geographical and

cultural zones as synonymous when he asserts:

Simply, a culture area is a geographical region or zone occupied by one or more than one culture who share certain traits. In Wisslers view, these cultural traits (nine) include: language, art, war, knowledge, religion, property, government, society and material implements, physical environment etc. to these traits, Onwuejeogwu adds: ritual, social organization, economy, political organization and religion.

In effect, cultural area concept does not always correspond to geographical area concept in the

Nigerian context. This is especially where historical experiences and other geographical and social

factors have put diverse cultural groups into the same geographical areas such as the Niger-Delta,

Middle belt etc where can be found ethnic groups such as: Ijaw, Itsekiri, Tiv and Idoma; with distinct

cultural traits and practices which in some extreme cases hardly influence one another despite long

periods of association. This is speculated to be one of the obvious sources or ethnic tensions in the

Nigerian socio-political landscape.

The most obvious area of convergence and near homogeneity among the various Nigerian

ethnic/cultural groups is in the area of indigenous technology. This can be discerned from the

predominant production methods, processes and end-products common among these people. This

technology is marked mostly by handmade and or simple tools processes. This can be contrasted

sharply with the advanced technological processes of the industrialized western nations, and lately too,

the ‘Asian Tigers of the south east Asian nations. This is much unlike among Nigerian ethnic groups

where the local technology’s processes and products are still dominated by the traditional methods

inherited from their ancestors. It is from these processes that many indigenous products ranging from

utilitarian products such as: textile materials, clothing, items, ceramic items - plates, cups cooking and

water pots; metal implements – hoes, cutlasses, fruit harvesters; wood works – furniture (chair), beds,

shelves doors, windows) and carvings (heads, busts, caryatids, figures, figurines, staff of offices); leather

works – bags, puffs, hand and arm bands, amulets, plaques etc; bronze and brass works – bowls, bells,

gongs, priestly staffs, shrine objects, regalia etc; t o decorative and commemorative items like wooden

and metal plaques, carved relief doors and mirrors, ancestral and royal figures and figurines; ivory

carvings – insignia and figurines etc.

It is instructive to note that it is the above enumerated production methods, processes and

products that form the hub of many indigenous traditional occupations in Nigeria. These occupations

have their various guilds and methods of initiating new members to their fold. It is also pertinent to

recall that the various media, processes and end products of these aesthetic endeavors are to some

extent determined by the predominant geographical features in the environment. In addition, the end

products and unique styles of execution reflect the core values of each group and to some extent, the

relative ranking of the artist or craftsman in such cultural/ ethnic setting.

The Role of Guilds in the Education and Induction of new members into Aesthetic based

Traditional occupations in Nigeria

The aesthetic based traditional occupations in Nigeria have survived into the contemporary times



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essentially through the apprenticeship system. This apprenticeship system entails that intending new

practitioners of the occupations undergo a period of tutelage in training. During this period the

apprentice craftsmen learn the rudiments of the occupation from older apprentices and eventually from

the Master – Craftsmen (man). Overseeing the programs of the various traditional occupations are

various guilds. The guilds of the occupation are the equivalents of the modern professional occupations

and their regulatory associations such as: the Nigerian Medical Council and Nigeria Medical

Association; the Nigerian Legal council and the Nigerian Bar Association; the Nigerian Education

Council and the Nigeria Union of Teachers. The various Benin Traditional occupations exemplify the

roles of the guilds of traditional occupations. This is in terms of setting standards of products, and the

period of training of new members – the apprentices. Informing on this aspect, Ogumor (1993) writes:

The Benin carvers form themselves in to guilds of craftsmen. The elders of the guilds judge the quality of the work before it is released. They carve different objects meant for the decoration of the Oba’s palace. These include shrine panels, mortars, plates, dishes drums, staffs and heads. Some of the dishes represent the shapes of natural creatures such as cocks and leopards.

The apprenticeship system entails intending practitioners- apprentices to train under the guidance

of the master craftsmen of the various occupations for a specified period of time. The guilds also spell

out the envisaged quality of the end products of the various aesthetic based occupations. In this sphere,

the guilds are indirectly ensuring the professional competence of the member- practitioners as well as

the bench-mark of excellence expected from new entrants into the various occupations. In the recent

times, the guilds also play prominent roles in the market forces that determine the cost or prices, of the

end products of their various occupations.

Aesthetic Phenomena and the Academia in Nigeria: the Genesis of Aesthetic learning in

Nigeria’s Formal Education System

The Guilds of aesthetic based traditional occupations have played vital roles in the induction of new

members to their trade. This is mainly through the apprenticeship system. The crucial task h ere is to

ascertain how the learning of aesthetics has evolved in the Nigerian formal education system – the

academia.

The genesis of academic aesthetic learning in Nigeria can be inferred from the observation of

some scholars on the subject. This is especially through the perspective of the influence of European

Art in Africa which can be summarized as thus:

a. African aesthetic objects as the bases of traditional occupations as well as religious beliefs

baffled the European missionaries and colonizers. These Europeans in their naivety dubbed

these objects as fetish objects of heathenism i.e. paganism. Furthermore, these early Europeans

especially the Missionaries launched vigorous campaign of calumny against these Nigeria

traditional aesthetic objects. This very action of the missionaries could be regarded as the

genesis of some of the apathy towards Nigerian art and even other African aesthetic objects by

people including even Nigerians and Africans generally. It has also affected to a certain degree,

the attitudes of educational policy makers, and the general public towards the inclusion of

traditional aesthetic phenomena, products and processes in to the formal schools’ curricula.

b. Some of the primary and secondary schools established by the missionary and colonial

governments included academic art – mainly drawing and painting patterned after the English

Art styles and genre in their curricula.



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c. Meanwhile the traditional aesthetic based occupation practitioners in one perspective began to

include themes derived from the missionary and colonial life styles in their various works and

media of execution. In another perspective some ventured out of their predominant media of

wood, bronze, clay leather work etc to embrace the western aesthetic media of cement and

eventually oil paints.

d. Some of the art students in the missionary and colonial schools excelled well in the academic

art. These students were encouraged to travel to European countries to perfect their art skills

through further professional trainings in the western aesthetic media.

As aptly observed by Ogumor (1993) that:

In the schools, those who excelled in art were encouraged and sent abroad for formal training in art schools which had been established a long time there. These students apart from learning the general principles of art, took courses in painting in oils and sculpture in cement which were not common materials used in Africa art began, its influence on African art.

It is from the above process that the pioneer Western Artists and Art teachers were produced in

the Nigerian society. These people became the fore- runners of modern Nigerian art.

Historically, the foremost Nigerian artist and teacher among the pioneers is acknowledged to be

Aina Onabolu (1882 – 1963). Throwing light on his art practice and teaching career, Ogumor writes:

he was initially a self trained artist but later went to England where he acquired the western style at St. John’s Wood Art School, London and Julien Academy, Paris, between 1920 and 1922. According to him, before he started painting art was not taught in schools in West Africa. He was also the first African student to study in England. When he came back he encouraged the Nigerian government to include Art in the school curriculum. Later he went abroad to recruit expatriate teachers among which were Kenneth Murray, H.E. Duckworth, J.D. Clarke, and Dennis Duerden who came and taught art in selected schools. The result of this was that many young Nigerians were encouraged by the expatriates to take up Art as a career. These included Ben Enwonwu, J.B. Akolo, Udo Emma, Uche.Okeke and Bruce Onobrakpeya. Later, these artists, started to use cement and oil as the media of expression(Ogumor, 1993).

From the preceding, the humble beginning of Art (aesthetic) learning in Nigeria’s formal

education system can be appreciated. It is on this note that the contribution of many pioneer artists in

the growth of aesthetic education is acknowledged by this paper. This point is best appreciated when it

is noted that many of these pioneer artist apart from being accomplished artists in different media were

(and are) also accomplished art teachers. Ben Enwonwu, Bruce Onabrakpeya and a host of others’

careers reflect this point. This is because subsequent artists and art teachers at the various levels of the

Nigeria education system owe their growth and evolution to these pioneer artists.

It has not been easy to deter mine precisely the growth and spread of Art and aesthetic

education in the Nigerian formal education system. This is surmised to emanate essentially from paucity

of documented studies (a challenge to Nigerian Historians and educationists) in the Nigerian academic

front. This not withstanding Art (aesthetic) education has experienced a relatively modest growth in the

Nigerian society as well as in the formal and informal school system. This is to the extent that Art

(aesthetic) and allied subjects are studied in many primary secondary schools in Nigeria. In addition,



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some tertiary institutions of learnng also offer Art (aesthetic) courses in their schools’ programs.

The extent to which Art (Aesthetic) learning goals and objectives are being pursued especially at

the secondary level of education is an issue that is highly speculative. This is given the paucity of

publications specifically on Nigerian education. It calls for urgent critical assessment. However, it is

necessary at this point, to purview some contemporary practices and occupations that have their roots

in both traditional and academic aesthetic learning endeavors in Nigeria.

Aesthetic Bases (Media) of Some Contemporary Occupations in Nigeria

i. Metal Designers and Fabricators: etching; welding, joinery; gold, silver, brass etc.

smiting; and jewelleries and sculpting.

ii. Textiles: Textile: technologists; weavers; dye technologists; fabric designers; clothing and

fabric designers; tailors of various fabrics – clothing, curtain, furniture covers etc.

iii. Ceramic/Pottery :domestic utensils – plates, cups, bowls, cutlery, pots, water filters and

storage; and decorative/commemorative items- flower vases and pots, plaques, statues and

statuettes;

iv. Sculpture: wood; metal; cement; fiber glass; rock; sand; and found objects.

v. Graphic Arts: designers; producers; print-makers and lithographic printers; advertisers; bill

boards and vans- display men, etc.

vi. Painting: portrait painters; landscape and scenic painters; and stage designers.

vii. Beauticians: hair and skin specialists; facial experts and cosmetologists; and physiologist

(including tummy tuck) and even nutritionists.

viii. Music: composers; instrumentalists; singers; dancers; choreographers; band leaders;

producers; and marketers etc.

ix. Drama/Film/Movie/Television Industries: playwrights; drama directors; drama

producers; drama managers; drama distributors/marketers; and actors/actresses.

x. Prose-Fiction/Poetry-Literary Works: Authors; Publishers; distributors, etc.

Summary

Nigeria is a vast West African country. Encompassed in this country is a variety of physical features-

hills, mountains, rivers, lakes and some waterfalls. So also has the country various vegetations from the

Sahel through the Savannah grassland to the Mangrove rain forest. All theses reflect the climate of the

country which is tropical. It is in these varieties of physical features in these spaces that constitutes

essentially the environmental aesthetic vehicles of Nigeria. This is because they not only promote

economic opportunities to their various dwellers but offer beautiful as well as sublime sceneries to

every visitor. This holds great tourist potential for the country.

Dwelling in this vast landscape are citizens of various ethnic, linguistic groups and religious

persuasions. It is the indigenous economic, religious and aesthetic activities of these dwellers that the

contrived aesthetic phenomena of Nigeria e.g. farm and fishing implements, clothing materials and

items; wooden furniture and sculptures, metal implements, utensils and sculpture etc. emanate

essentially from. So also are the various songs, dances and musical instruments used for various rites of

passages in the country. All these depict the rich environmental and cultural heritage of Nigeria.

Conclusion

Given this array of environmental and contrived aesthetic phenomena, Nigeria is a repository of

numerous aesthetic products – material or otherwise. In a strictly traditional set-up aesthetic learning of



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the contrived aesthetic phenomena was done through induction of new members by old and seasoned-

master craftsmen. This has continued to the contemporary times though one cannot ascertain the

volume or number of new entrants into the various professions.

With the advent of colonization by the Brtiish and with it also the formal education system

formal aesthetic education has evolved. But this seems to be at a very slow pace in comparison to other

subjects in the schools’ curricula. All these coupled with the likely benefits, pose serious challenges for

aesthetic education in both the formal and informal sectors of education in Nigeria.

Recommendations

In t he light of the preceding, this paper recommends thus.

1. The need to audit the various aesthetic phenomena in Nigeria and ascertain their social and

educational statuses and values.

2. The need for synergy between and among the ministries of: Culture, Museums and

monuments, Education, Universities and other allied bodies to help promote awareness of the

economic, educational and tourist potentials of Nigeria’s vast aesthetic phenomena.

3. The need to assess the epistemological and academic statuses of aesthetic endeavors and

knowledge at the secondary level of Nigeria’s formal education system.

References

Balogun, O. (2005) Atlas. Senior Secondary Atlas. 2nd edition. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Plc.

Gross, W.S. (2002) “The Neglected Programme of Aesthetics” British Journal of Aesthetics 4(4). Pg. 403-

414.

Marchiano, G. “What to learn from Eastern Aesthetics” The Journal of Aesthetics Education 2:10: 1-7.

Ogumor (1993), Certificate Art for Junior and Senior Secondary Schools. Ibadan: university Press.

Omatseye, J. N. (1992) Educational Philosophy and the African School. Benin City: Ilupeju Press Ltd,.

Otite, O. (1990) Ethnic Plurality and Ethnicity in Nigeria. Ibadan : Shaneson Ltd..

Ukpokunu, E. (2002) “Major Culture Areas of Nigeria” in A.D. Nzemeke, and E.O. Erhagbe,(eds.)

Nigerian Peoples and Culture 2nd edition. Benin City: Mindex Publishing Co. Ltd..

Vandenabeele, B. (2003) “Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and the Aesthetically Sublime” The Journal of

Aesthetic Education 37; 1: 90=106.

The Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (2000) S.v. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) Theory of

Aesthetics and Teleology (The Critique of Judgment).



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PROBLEMS IN THE UTILIZATION OF CONTINUING EDUCATION

PROGRAMMES FOR IMPROVED ACCESS TO EDUCATION IN THE

NIGER DELTA REGION OF NIGERIA

By

DR. J.C. IHEJIRIKA

Senior Lecturer Adult and Non-Formal Education

Faculty of Education University of Port Harcourt

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This Study surveyed the perception of 300 stakeholders and adult education practitioners on the problems that restrict continuing education from providing wider access to education in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The 300 respondents were selected from continuing education centers in five out of nine states that constitute Niger Delta Region, using systematic and simple random sampling techniques. Two research questions were answered and two hypotheses tested in the course of the investigation. A 24-item structured questionnaire was used in collecting data. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and a t-test for independent variables. The results revealed that the most outstanding problems include inconsistent government policies, inadequate finance, poor organization and management, inadequate facilities and materials, and poor supervision and monitoring practice. The most favoured strategies for making continuing education more functional as identified by the study are recruitment of well qualified teachers, institution of strong organization and administrative machinery, improved funding through budgetary allocations, effective monitoring and supervisory framework, and maintenance of congenial learning atmosphere. Based on the findings, it was recommended among other things that the private sector initiative in the execution of continuing education programmes should be regulated by a statutory body to maintain standard and curb the problem of proliferation, and that external sources of funding be explored by the government to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.



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Introduction

Most African nations, on attainment of independence, pledged to develop their economies, to

democratize their political systems, and to promote social justice among their peoples. These aims

require among other things, the broadening of educational opportunities for their fulfilment. So far,

African governments have largely depended upon the formal education system for attainment of these

goals, and have devoted increasing amount of the national wealth towards that end. As adumbrated by

Ansere (1982), the returns from these efforts have not been commensurable with the level of resource

allocation made. In utter dismay, some scholars like Coombs (1986), Jolly (1969) and A’Aeth (1975)

have described the situation as an educational dilemma and have advocated the adoption of alternative

approaches such as Adult and Non-Formal Education which continuing education is a constituent

component. Others like Illich (1970) and Reimer (1972), have gone even further to suggest the

abolition of the formal school system due to its low absorptive capacity, low cost effectiveness and low

capacity to develop the country’s human and material resources.

Corroborating this view, Bock and Bock (1989) observed that in recent years, there has been

increasing disenchantment with formal education as the only principal institutional vehicle for national

development, and went further to postulate that the rising cost of education and population growth

have resulted in far less access to school and educational opportunities especially for the disadvantage

segment of the society. Realistically, everywhere in developing countries, there has tended to be a

considerable discrepancy between planned labour force needs and the economy and basic learners

needs on the one hand, and what the schools have actually provided on the other.

It is important to observe that the Nigerian education system has adopted an exclusive

approach which focuses on a few rather than many due to limited educational opportunities. This

implies that Nigerian formal education system concentrate mostly on children and youths. In line with

global trend, Nigeria needs an educational approach that can accommodate young and old adults, male

and female, the poor and the rich and serve as empowerment tool for livelihood. In this wise,

continuing education with its plethora of programmes some of which are life saving and skill

acquisition oriented, becomes more admissible in the nation’s education system.

Conceptual Clarification

Continuing education, as a concept, connotes an education that is added to initial education to

complete, improve, remedy and adapt to meet new challenges. In a similar vein, Egunyomi (2001)

conceived continuing education as lasting, enduring, permanent, persisting and prolonged education. In

this sense, education goes beyond what could be provided by formal education alone. It goes on in a

recurring manner in the face of change and so is lifelong or co-terminal with life since it continues to

solve the problems of individuals throughout their life span by means of training and experience.

Continuing education covers the entire range of educational activities which are provided for all categories of learners who have successfully or unsuccessfully completed one level of education but would want to continue the pursuit of education from where they had stopped carlier. In tandem with the above view, Imhabekhai (2009:22) equated continuing education to “a la carte system”, where everyone is free to take the dosage of education as he wants and when he wants it, and is free to come back at a later date for another dose. With regards to venue, Adiseshiah (1981) explained that continuing education can be acquired in any and many places; in the schools and colleges, in work places, in play, in a church or mosque, in cultural manifestations and centers. Continuing education can



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come in the form of remedial education which gives extended opportunities for learners to make up inadequacies in their previous school experiences. As to the options, Egunyomi, Ekom, Okora and Ewa (2008) classified the forms of continuing education programmes as academic, e.g. extra-mural, basic studies and professional courses; aesthetic, such as fashion designing and other skills training programmes, and vocational technical, like secretarial/computer literacy programmes including automobile, carpentry and electrical electronics skill development training. In it’s widest sense, continuing education encompasses distance education, independent study, extension programmmes, workshops, seminars, home-study or on-line courses, conferences or hands-on training (Piontkowski, 2010).

All the above educational activities of continuing education are open to universities, colleges of

education, the polytechnics and the organized private sector. The point is that continuing education

offers participants the opportunity to continue their education in less rigid and formal style thereby

making educational opportunities widely available to all categories of people in the community. Thus, in

Nigeria, continuing education offers a wide range of education and training aimed at meeting the needs

of all shades of people thereby complementing the formal education system in the task of providing

wider education opportunities for the masses. In this wise, it provides access to education for both

quantity and equality thereby eliminating male/female accessibility irrespective of age, social or cultural

affiliations, and of course, sex.

Problem Statement

As a signatory to the Dakar 2000 forum on Education for ALL where a framework of action was agreed upon following the 1990 Jomtien Conference, Nigeria is committed to achieving a 50 percent improvement in the level of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults (UNESCO, 2000).

By implication of the country’s basic education programme launched in 1999, all forms of

education including available alternatives means of learning such as continuing education is implied to

ensure that more access to education than that provided by formal education is not only diversified but

also guaranteed. Unfortunately, providers of continuing education programmes in Nigeria-government

agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), institutions, individuals etc. operate at different

wave lengths and therefore encounter problems of varying magnitude in the utilization of continuing

education programmes for unrestricted access to education. The problem of this study, therefore, was

to identify those problems that affect the operation and functionality of continuing education

programmes in the task of providing wider access to education in the Niger Delta Region.

In order to achieve the purpose, two research questions and two hypotheses guided the study.

The research questions are:

1. What are the problems that affected the effective implementation of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?

2. What strategies can be adopted to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region?

The null hypotheses are:

1. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the

problems that besiege successful implementation of continuing education programmes in the



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Niger Delta Region of Nigeria.

2. There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on strategies

to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of

Nigeria.

Methodology

The study was limited to Niger Delta Region of Nigeria which comprises nine states that are adjacent to

the River Niger Basin. The states are Delta, Cross River, Bayelsa, Rivers, Ondo, Edo, Akwa-Ibom, Abia

and Imo. The descriptive survey design was adopted for this work. The choice of survey design was

predicated on its acknowledged efficiency and dependability in fact finding as adumbrated by scholars

like Nworgu (2006), Nwana (1981) and Kerlinger (1976). All perceive descriptive survey research as the

most reliable means of describing the occurrence and frequency of a phenomenon based on people’s

opinion and ideas.

The target population for the study comprised the entire stakeholders and practitioners

(directors, supervisors, facilitators and participants in adult and non-formal education programmes in

the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria, totaling 608 as extracted from available records. A sample size of

300 respondents (160 males and 140 females) was selected from adult educational organizations and

literacy centers in five states of Delta, Rivers, Cross Rivers, Bayelsa and Imo using systematic and

simple random sampling technique.

The instrument for data collection was a 24-item structured questionnaire titled “Continuing

Education Problems and Solutions Strategies” (CEPSS). The content and face validity of the

instrument were established by two senior colleagues in the area of Adult and Non-Formal education

who scrutinized the items to ensure their relevance. Their inputs were incorporated into the final copy

of the instrument used for the study. The pilot study conducted to determine the level of stability of the

instrument in generating the required data yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.87 using Pearson Product

Moment Correlation Coefficient.

Procedure for Data Analysis

Responses from the respondents were analyzed using frequency counts and weighted means for

research questions 1 and 2; while a t-test at 0.05 level of significant was used to test the hypotheses. To

obtain the calculated mean response for each item on the questionnaire, the modified Likert Scale was

assigned numerical values thus:

Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points Agree (A) = 3 points Disagree (D) = 2 points Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 point

Criterion mean = 4

(SD) (D) (A) (SA) 1234 +++

= 4

10

= 2.5



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To this effect, a minimum mean of 2.5 and above was used to determine importance or acceptance for

any item on the four points scale instrument while any mean below 2.5 was rejected as not accepted

Results

The results of the study are presented as follows:

Research Question One

What are the problems that affect the effective implementation of continuing education programmes in

the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?

Table 1: Distribution of Responses on the Problems that affect the effective implementation of

Continuing Education Programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

No: 300

S/N

Perceived problems (variables) SA(4) A(3) D(2) SD(1) Sum x Remarks

1. Non-regulation of fees charged 79(316) 88(264) 65(130) 68(68) 778 2.6 Accepted 2. Poor quality of teaching staff 83(332) 94(282) 60(120) 61(61) 795 2.7 Accepted 3. Poor organization and

management 123(492) 87(261) 48(96) 42(42) 891 3.0 Accepted

4. High rate of disengagement by staff

71(284) 64(192) 96(129) 60(60) 737 2.4 Rejected

5. Poor facilities and materials 115(460) 99(297) 56(112) 30(30) 899 3.0 Accepted 6. Poor supervision and monitoring 130(520) 112(336) 28(56) 30(30) 942 3.1 Accepted 7. Transportation difficulties to C.E.

centers 100(400) 95(285) 55(110) 50(50) 845 2.8 Accepted

8. Poor remuneration of staff 95(380) 87(261) 60(120) 58(58) 819 2.7 Accepted 9. Inconsistent government policies 131(524) 117(351) 31(62) 21(21) 958 3.2 Accepted 10. Poor students performance in

examination 89(356) 73(219) 66(132) 72(72) 779 2.6 Accepted

11. Inadequate funding 117(468) 132(396) 31(62) 20(20) 946 3.2 Accepted 12. Ineffective programme

coordination 97(388) 87(261) 64(128) 52(52) 829 2.8 Accepted

13. Low patronage of continuing education programmes

63(252) 60(180) 87(261) 90(90) 696 2.3 Rejected

Grand mean 2.8

The results in table 1 revealed that with the exception of item numbers 4 and 13 which weighted means

of 2.4 and 2.3 respectively fall below the criterion mean of 2.5 and therefore are rejected as being

problems, the respondents perceived all other issues as problems affecting usage of continuing

education programmes in the Niger Delta Region. Such problems and their weighted mean scores are

non-regulation of fees, 2.6; poor quality of teachers, 2.7; poor organization and management, 3.0; poor

facilities and materials, 3.0; poor supervision and monitoring, 3.1; transport difficulties, 2.8; poor

remuneration of staff, 2.7; inconsistent government policies, 3.2; students’ poor performance in

examinations, 2.6; inadequate funding, 3.2; and poor programme coordination, 2.8. Item number 9, 11,

6, 5 and 3 constitute major problems as evidenced by their weighted means being above the criterion



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and grand mean of 2.5 and 2.8 respectively.

Research Question Two

What strategies can be used to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the

Niger Delta Region of Nigeria?

Table 2: Distribution of Responses on Strategies for Improving Service Delivery of Continuing

Education Programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

S/N

Strategies (measures) /variables SA(4) A(3) D(2) SD(1) Sum x Remarks

1 Improved funding through budgetary allocation

124(496) 86(258) 40(80) 50(50) 884 2.9 Accepted

2 Recruitment of well trained and qualified teachers

128(512) 104(309) 47(94) 21(21) 936 3.1 Accepted

3 Establishment of effective supervision/ monitoring framework

134(536) 87(261) 43(86) 36(36) 919 3.0 Accepted

4 Provision of a strong organizational/ administrative structure

130(520) 83(249) 48(96) 39(36) 904 3.0 Accepted

5 Ensuring stability in policy formulation

95(380) 100(300) 65(130) 40 850 2.8 Accepted

6 Extension of open distance learning programmes to rural areas

84(336) 99(297) 62(124) 55(55) 812 2.7 Accepted

7 Provision of improved facilities and instructional resources

100(400) 127(381) 28(56) 25(25) 862 2.9 Accepted

8 Proper regulation of private initiative by a statutory body

130(520) 82(246) 63(126) 25(25) 917 3.0 Accepted

9 Shutting down all privately operated continuing education centers

48(192) 50(150) 120(240)

82(82) 664 2.2 Rejected

10 Ensuring congenial learning atmosphere

126(504) 82(246) 46(92) 46(46) 888 2.9 Accepted

11 Provision of relevant knowledge to meet learners needs

95(380) 115(345) 49(98) 41(41) 864 2.9 Accepted

Grand mean 2.8

Table 2 shows the mean scores of the proffered strategies or measures to improve service delivery of

continuing education programmes as follows: improved funding (2.9), recruitment of well trained and

qualified teachers (3.1), effective supervisory/monitoring framework (3.0), a strong

organizational/administrative structure (3.0), ensuring stability in policy formulation (2.8), extension of

open distance learning programmes to rural areas (2.7), improved facilities and instructional recourses

(2.9), regulation of private initiatives by a statutory body (3.0), ensuring congenital learning atmosphere

(2.9) and provision of relevant knowledge to meet learners’ needs (2.9). These strategies / measures

have weighted means of 2.9, 3.1, 3.0, 3.0, 2.8, 2.7, 2.9, 3.0, 2.9 and 2.9 respectively, all of which are

above the decision level of 2.5. Shutting down of privately operated continuing education centre has a

weighted mean of 2.2 and was not accepted as an important strategy.

HO1; There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the

problems that affect the effective implementation of continuing education programmes in the Niger

Delta Region of Nigeria.



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Table 3: T-test of significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on

the problems affecting the effective implementation of Continuing Education programmes in

the Niger Delta Region.

Sex/variables No Mean (-x) SD Calculated t- value

Critical t-value

Remark

Male Female

160 140

42.17 39.46

13.38 16.24

1.62

2.11

Not Significant

Not significant at P>0.05

Table 3 above shows the t-test result of male and female respondents on what constitutes problems

besieging continuing education programmes from providing unrestricted access to education in the

Niger Delta Region. The calculated t-value of 1.62 is less than the critical t-value of 2.11 alpha level.

Since this is so, the tested null hypothesis is accepted, which means that there is no significant

difference in the views of the male and female respondents on the problems militating against provision

of full access to education using continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of

Nigeria.

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the mean rating of male and female respondents on the

strategies to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region.

Table 4: T-test of significance difference in the mean rating of male and female respondent on

Strategies to Improve Service Delivery of Continuing Education Programme in the Niger Delta

Region of Nigeria

Sex/variables No Mean (-x) SD Calculated t- value

Critical t- value

Remark

Male Female

160 140

52.27 44.33

12.67 15.11

1.51

2.05

Not Significant

Not significant at P>0.05

Table 4 presents the t-test analysis of male and female respondents on the strategies/measures

to improve service delivery of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region. From the

table, it is observed that the calculated t-value is 1.51 which is less than the critical value of 2.05 alpha

level. Since the calculated value is less than the critical value the tested null hypothesis is accepted;

meaning that there is no significant difference in the opinion of male and female respondents on the

strategies for improving the service delivery of continuing education programmes based on gender.


From the analysis of data, a lot of problems which affect the delivery of continuing education

programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria are identified. The most outstanding of the problems

are inconsistent government policies which have restrictive impact on continuing education

programmes; poor organization and management of programmes, poor funding, poor supervision and

monitoring practices, improper coordination, low quality of teaching staff, poor learning

facilities/materials, transportation difficulties and non-regulation of fees charged particularly among



Page 473

private providers of continuing education programmes. These results agree with earlier findings by

Osuji (2001), Egunyomi (2001), Abiona and Abu (2000). To Osuji (2001), the problems of continuing

education revolve around non-regulation of fees charged and non-control of continuing education

activities, while Egunyomi (2000) anchored the problems on poor organization/administration,

ineffective supervision, poor finance and facilities. Abiona and Abu (2000) traced the problems of

continuing education to poor quality teaching, lack of dynamic leadership, poor

organization/administration, poor coordination and lack of effective government policies. A closer

analysis of the identified problems revealed that finance was the root of most of the problems

associated with continuing education. It is not in doubt that inadequate funding was responsible for

engagement of low quality teaching staff, poor staff remuneration, provision of poor learning facilities

and materials. Perhaps these sub-standard provisions including indiscriminate charging of fees

particularly among private providers of continuing education programmes, were deliberately put in

place to meet the exigencies of running private institutions where there is scarcity of fund.

The results also pinpointed transportation difficulties as a striking problem. This is not

surprising because during the long period of rainy season in the tropical forest region of Nigeria, rivers

and rivulets over flow their banks due to large volume of water discharged by the River Niger into it’s

delta basin. During such period, river transport becomes not only hazardous and risky but the fare

becomes exorbitantly unreasonable and restricts movement of both facilitators and learners to and

from the learning centers. The movement of the supervisors is equally restricted. All these place heavy

restrictions on the usage and ability of continuing education programmes to provide wide access to

education in the Niger Delta Region.

For the strategies/measures that can improve service delivery of continuing education

programmes, the result revealed the following as paramount: institution of a strong

organizational/administrative structure, appropriate supervisory and monitoring framework, increased

funding through budgetary allocation or other means of sourcing funds, maintenance of stability in

policy, provision of relevant knowledge to meet learners’ needs, proper regulation of fees charged by

private providers of the programme, recruitment of qualified teaching staff, extension of continuing

education services to rural areas and ensuring conductive learning environments. There is no doubt that

implementation of these measures will go a long way in providing unlimited education opportunities

using continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region.

The findings of no significant difference among the sexes on the strategies for improving

service delivery of continuing education programmes as well as on the problems militating against its

use and openness is surprising because one would have thought that given the low status of women,

their perception on the problems and strategies would have differed significantly from those of men.

That women have lower literacy level is generally acknowledged in the work of Ramdos (1990). They

also have unequal access to information and their sex roles differ from those of men (Osuala, 1995).

However, the similarities in the backgrounds of the respondents which consisted of major stakeholders,

majority of who were practitioners in adult and non-formal education) and consequent similarities in

environmental conditions might have outweighed all the other factors. This must have been responsible

for the position taken or opinions expressed in relation to the issues.



Page 474

Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made:

1. The private sector initiative in the execution of continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region should be regulated by a statutory body to maintain standard and curb the problem of

proliferation

2. Government should ensure that all continuing education centers in the Niger Delta Region are subjected to periodic monitoring and evaluation to ensure content the relation with the needs of

participants.

3. To cushion the effects of inadequate funding, governments should seek financial from international agencies for implementing continuing education within the framework of partnership.

4. Continuing education programmes in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria should be targeted to meet the educational demands of all categories of learners as a deliberate measure to extend access to

both qualitative education and education for meeting basic learning needs of the youth and the

adult population.

Conclusion

The need to strengthen continuing education programmes in view of the desire to attain the

millennium development goal of equal access to democratization of education not only in the Niger

Delta Region but in Nigeria as a whole, must be given the seriousness it deserves. As Nigeria’s

population grows by leaps and bounds, an educational approach that has both high absorptive capacity

and high propensity to develop the country’s human and material resource is called for to supplement

the formal education system which has for long adopted exclusive instead of inclusive approach.

Continuing education with its diverse options can largely and effectively be used to extend educational

access/opportunity to the masses. This could meet their basic learning needs for survival and

adaptation to the world constantly invaded by the wind of change. However, the operation of

continuing education programmes has a lot of obstacles on its way, and until governments and other

programme providers dismantle such obstacles as identified in this study, the advantages accruing from

continuing education (particularly widening access to education) will remain non-holistic and limited.

References

A’Aeth, R. (1975). Education and Development in the Third World. London: Saxon House.

Abiona, A.I. & Abu P.B. (2000), New Dimension in the Challenge of Continuing Education.

International Journal of Continuing Education and Non-Formal Education (1), (1) 117-126.

Adiseshiah, M.S.(1981). Thoughts in Continuing Education, Status and Future Direction. In C.I.

Imhabekhai. Programme Development and Management in Adult and Non-Formal Education (revised

edition), Okota Isolo: Amfitop Books.

Anseer, J.K. (1982). The Relevance of Distance Education to the Socio-Economic Development of Africa: A Case

Study of Ghana. Lagos: Unpublished Manuscript.

Bock, J.C. & Bock, C.M. (1989). Non-Formal Education Policy: Development Countries: In M.



Page 475

Boucouvalas and R. Aderinoye (Eds.). Education for Millennium Development: Essays in Honour of

Professor Michael Omelewa, Ibadan: Spectrum Books.

Coombs, P.W. (1986). The World Education Crisis: A System Analysis. London: Oxford University Press.

Egunyomi, D.A. (2001). Problems and Constraints of Continuing Education in Nigeria. Nigeria Journal

of Adult and lifelong Learning, 1(1), 41-56.

Egunyomi, D.A., Ekom, Okora, O.M. & Ewa, U. (2008), Recurrent and Continuing Education as

drives for attaining Education for all in Nigeria. In M. Boucouvalas & R. Aderinoye (Eds.).

Education for Millennium Development: Essays in Honour of Professor Michael Omolewa. Ibadan;

Spectrum Books.

Illich, I. (1970). De-Schooling Society. New York: Harper and Row.

Imhabakhai, C.I. (2009). Programme Development and Management in Adult and Non-Formal Education (revised

edition). Okota Isolo: Amfitop Books.

Jolly, R. (1969). Planning Education for Africa Development. Kenya: East African Publishing House

Kerlinger, F.N. (1976). Foundation of Behavioral Research (2nd Ed), New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Mona Pointkwoski, www.seminarinformation.com.accessed on11/18/2010

Nwanna, O.C. (1981). Introduction to Educational Research. Ibadan: Heinemann Education Books.

Nwizu, S.C. (2002). The problem of using Distance Education Media in Conscientizing Rural Adult for

Community Development. Journal of Adult Education and Development. 1, (1), 101-108.

Nworgu, B.G. (2006). Educational Research: Basic Issues and Mythology. Ibadan: Wisdom Publishers.

Osuala, J.D.C. (1995). Media for Development. Lagos ACENA Publishers.

Osuji, S.N. (2001). Principle and Practice of Continuing Education in Nigeria. In F.E.O. Omoruyi &

S.E. Omiunu. Strategies for Strengthen Continuing Education programmes for the attainment

of Equal Access to Education by 2015, Journal of Adult Education in Nigeria. 6, 116-123.

Ramdos, L. (1990). Women and Literacy: A quest for justice. Convergence, 1 (28), 27-41

Reimer, E. (1972). School is Dead: Alternative in Education. New York: Doubleday.

UNESCO (2000), Literature for ALL: A Renewal Vision for a Ten Year Global Action Plan. Adult

Education and Development. Bonn HZ/DVV, 55, 20-25.



Page 476


TRENDS IN ADMINISTRATION OF PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN

NIGERIA

By

DR. G. G. KPEE

[email protected]

+234(0)803 675 8923 & +234(0)703 440 5533

DR. O. G. AGABI

&

MRS. L. N. NWOKO

Department of Educational Management Faculty of Education

University of Port Harcourt – Nigeria

Abstract

The history of primary school education dates back to the colonial era when the missionaries in course of

their scramble and partition for West Africa brought their Bible and pen and recruited and trained

interpreters for their missionary expedition. Since then, primary school education has metamorphosed

through different stages changing nomenclature as deemed fit by any government in power. There had been

several attempts to universalize primary education. In recent political Nigeria, attempts have been made

at making such education free and compulsory. Government has therefore made huge investments into

education with the hope that the common man may reap literacy as a dividend of democratic investments.

It is against this background the paper examines the trend of primary education in Nigeria from the pre-

colonial era to the present when at last primary education had been righty referred to as Universal Basic

Education and made free and compulsory to the extent that even nomads and migrant fisher folk are to

benefit from.



Page 477

Introduction

It is a well known fact that basic education remains the bedrock of a sound secondary education. The

Christian missions and voluntary agencies were the pioneers of formal education and in fact, primary

education in Nigeria. It was the church missionaries that introduced primary education into Nigeria,

using the Bible and pen in their hands as tools of evangelism and means to an end as anticipated.

History had it that the first primary school was established in Badagry in present day Lagos

State in 1842 by the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Subsequent efforts led to the establishment of

schools in other notable cities where the missions had their initial contact with the people. Such cities

included Lokoja, Calabar, Onitsha, Bonny, Brass and other coastal towns that were linked with deep

waterways. These missions established schools to serve primarily their quest for evangelism. The

responsibility of designing the curriculum, funding the schools and management rested squarely on

those who owned the schools (i.e. the Christian missions and voluntary agencies).

Initially and at take off, the colonial masters did not get involved in school administration

matters. However, in 1877, a considerable interest was shown by the colonial administrators in school

provisions in the form of grants-in-aid to the voluntary agencies and missionaries. The actual

involvement of colonial government was recorded at about 1892 when Sir Henry Carr was appointed

the first Inspector of Schools. This notable landmark in government involvement in the provision of

primary education was the establishment of the first government-owned primary school in Lagos in

1899 for the Muslim following their agitation in 1895, the provision of free primary education by the

Western Regional Government in 1955 and 1957 in the Eastern Region and the introduction of the

Universal Primary Education (UPE) in the whole of Nigeria in 1976. Since then, it has remained the

responsibility of the State Government with the Local Government to provide primary schools for its

citizenry. The private sector has substantially been augmenting this effort since government alone has

not been able to meet up with the society’s demand both from the qualitative and quantitative

perspectives.

According to the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004), primary education refers to that

education given in an institution of formal learning for children aged normally 6 to 11 plus. Literally,

the word primary implies first, start, beginning, or basic. However, today, since many children are

exposed to pre-primary or nursery education before primary, it looks erroneous to accept the literal

meaning of primary or basic to imply first except where we associate first to the first time the child is

being exposed to a formal classroom where he is expected to be involved totally in reflective thinking.

Since the rest of the education system is built on it, primary education has been recognized as the key

to the success or failure of the whole educational system of the country. Based on this generalization,

FRN (2004:14) projected the following as the purpose of primary education:

• the inculcation of permanent literacy and numeracy, and the ability to communicate effectively

• the laying of a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking

• citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of the society

• moulding of character and developing sound attitudes and morals in the child

• developing in the child the ability to adapt to his changing environment

• giving the child opportunities for developing manipulative skills that will enable him to



Page 478

function effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity.

• providing the child with basic tools for educational advancement including preparation for trades and crafts of the locality.

In pursuance of the goals above, the FRN (2004) maintains that:

(a) primary education shall be tuition free, universal and compulsory (b) curriculum for primary education shall include

(i) Languages a) Language of the environment b) English c) French d) Arabic

(ii) Mathematics (iii) Science (iv) Physical and Health Education (v) Religious Knowledge (vi) Agriculture/Home Economics (vii) Social Studies and Citizenship Education (viii) Cultural and Creative Arts (Drawing, Handicraft, Music and Cultural activities) (ix) Computer Education

Beside the strategies stated above government has put in place several measures aimed at

ensuring the realization of the stated goals of primary education. Government has also accepted to

welcome the contribution of voluntary agencies, communities and private individuals in the

establishment and management of primary school. Government has also stated that it shall provide

basic infrastructure and training for the realization of the goal of education at the primary school level.

The effort of government as enunciated above is commendable. However, some problems that

had bedeviled primary education even from the missionary era included school space, inadequate

funding poor infrastructures, lack of political will and the politicizing of appointment of teachers to

positions of responsibility in the education industry. The Federal Government has tried several

measures to address these problems but such efforts tend to yield little or no impact. These include the

takeover of schools, the establishment of the National Primary Education Commission (NPEC) now

Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) and the continuous adjustment of the power sharing

arrangement between the various agencies in the management of primary schools. These agencies are

the Federal Government through the National Primary Education Commission now Universal Basic

Education Commission, the State Government through the State Primary Education Board (SPEB)

now State Universal Basic Education Board (SUBEB) and the Local Government through the Local

Government Education Authority (LGEA). With all manner of experimentation, the best that is

happening to the primary school system in recent time is that salaries are more paid more regularly than

before.

Privatization of Primary Schools: Implication for quality education

Government has stated unequivocally that it welcomes the contributions of voluntary agencies,

communities and private individuals in the establishment and management of primary schools

alongside those provided by the state and local governments as long as they meet the minimum

standards laid down by the Federal Government (FRN, 2004:17). Taking due advantage of this policy,



Page 479

in recent times, there has been an emerging upsurge in private sector dominance in primary school

proprietorship, provision and management. This is simply because of the failure of government schools

to provide the right learning environment for children in government schools. Individuals and the

nouveau riche have recently emerged with model nursery and preprimary schools with fantastic, state-

of-the-art and beautiful structures, attractive enough to the eyes of vulnerable parents and pupils. These

preprimary schools metamorphose by design and proprietors’ trick and wisdom into primary schools

and later on secondary schools and now universities. These flamboyant proprietors justify their claim

for this metamorphorical process on the premise that they are out for the total development of the

child.

Private Sector Dominance in Primary Education: Implications for Quality

The quality implication of private sector dominance in primary school provision and management is

two-fold. Firstly, in a bid to maximize profit, most private schools may be recruiting substandard, ill-

experienced and less qualified teachers and though they have gigantic buildings, provide learning

environment which is not the best for the children. This is because a better environment for learning is

determined always by the quality of teachers manipulating such environment and not merely a

showcase of flashy buildings with inscriptions dotted here and there. Proprietors of these schools may

just emphasize profit motives to the detriment of quality. They may invest little or nothing in their staff

(teachers) in terms of remuneration and staff development programmes yet expect bumper harvest at

the end. They may charge higher fees in deception to imply the higher the fees, the better the quality

probably because the average African man is ostentatious in demand. Higher fees besides being

deceptive also deter availability of such opportunity for education to the less privileged majority in the

society. In response, staff may put in their best in the circumstance to commensurate with their paltry

pay, render very effective eye service passing through and delivering lesson without being seriously

committed to the pedagogical task of teaching and child upbringing.

It is therefore a very difficult task to draw a dividing line between the government owned

primary schools with qualified and well paid staff (who always abandon their duty posts for private

business and expose children under their care to wander and loiter about until end of school day) and

the private primary schools with very underpaid staff who come to school as early as 7.00am, starting

official school lessons by 8.00am and closing by 12.30pm, and commencing extramural classes by

1.00pm and ending by 5.00pm before returning home at 6.00pm. one would be forced to believe that

children in the later school where staff spent all day and children are engaged in all-work-and-no-play

are well taught than those in the former school with laissez-faire teachers. This may be far from the

truth.

The ugly news may be that most of the proprietors who have gone into school ownership as a

business venture are not professional educationists nor do they have training in school administration.

Hence their commitment to quality educational provision may remain in doubt, no matter their claim.

However, it is believed that with the growing number of existing private schools, parents now have a

large pool of schools to choose from and consequently, these schools will begin to compete for

patronage by ensuring and enhancing quality of their products as perceived by the labour market.

Secondly, the non-patronage of public schools by the ruling class (because they have a private

alternative) could worsen the quality of primary school provision at the public level. The absence of

children of the ruling class from the schools funded by them may constitute even greater problems than

the absence of seats and teaching aids in existing primary schools where buildings exist if not in the



Page 480

utmost, the absence of classrooms. It is therefore not very strange seeing school pupils gathered under

one shade tree or the other, hanging a blackboard before them for them to have their lesson. It might

be unrealistic to mention that in this computer age, most of our government-owned primary schools

had started even an introduction to computer programming not to mention introducing computer

classes or owning a computer. In contrast to this, the private schools have computers and computer

lessons even at the preprimary level. It is difficult to guess the time that government has set aside to

implement the various strategies spelt out as tenets of the National Policy on primary Education if not

now.

The fate of government-owned primary schools tend to be uncertain and bleak in the nearest

future unless government changes its perception and political will towards this sector of education

which it claims serves as the bedrock for all other forms of education. It might therefore remain an

illusion to curse a tree of not bringing forth fruits when its roots are deprived of the necessary nutrients

to make it grow.

Organisation of Primary Schools in Nigeria

Primary school in Nigeria is organised under two subheadings: internal organisation and external

organisation.

Internal Organisation

The administrative set up of a primary school is headed by a head teacher usually called headmaster or

headmistress. The head teacher occupies a very important position as primus interpares in his school

since there is at least one primary school in every village throughout the country. Sometimes the way

the head teacher handles and controls the school his headship may be the only criterion the villagers

will use in assessing the effectiveness, seriousness, relevance or otherwise of education at the primary

level. In every locality, the school headmaster is always very popular. He dictates all the tone of the

school he heads in the community, as all the staff and pupils are answerable to him. In the past, the

school headmaster combined teaching with school administration but today, administering primary

school has become so enormous that the head teacher needs more time to devote to administration as

to meet up with the ever rising demands of the office.

Roles of Primary School Headmaster

The list of the roles of the headmaster is endless. He organises the school timetable, allocates teachers

to classes and sees to the day-to-day operation of the school. He manages and maintains the school

plant, grounds, equipment, gardens and facilities. He ensures the school has a farm and supervises the

planting of crops and fruits. He ensures that on very hot labour days, teachers and students pluck and

eat the school coconut, orange and other fruits. Some headmasters have been applauded for ensuring

that prominent indigenes in the village including the head chief and his council are given proceeds from

the school farm including birds during school farm harvest time.

The headmaster coordinates the activities of teachers and parents. The village has praised a

headmaster who besides mending leaking roofs in the school building, cooked and provided pounded

yam to parents and staff at the end of the school’s Parent Teacher Association meeting and merely

nicknamed that head teacher – community friendly head teacher. The headmaster serves as the

instructional leader of the school as he goes round with his cane from class to class, sometimes sitting

down in some classes and at times perching at the window monitoring effective teaching and learning.



Page 481

Beside effectively utilizing the funds invested into the school, some head teachers had been

commended for going outside the comfort of their office sourcing for additional funds for effective

school administration. The head teacher is usually assisted by the assistant head teacher. Other

functionaries in the primary school include sports master, assembly master, labour teacher and uniform

teacher.

External Organisation

Each primary school in the educational system is linked by a chain of command. At the grassroots level,

primary school in Nigeria is supervised by the Local Government Education Authority (LGEA) headed

by an Education Secretary (who was supposed to be an educationist not a politician). The LGEA

monitors and supervises the day-to-day affairs of the primary schools in his constituency. He sees to

the opening of new primary schools at the recommendation of the Local Government Council and the

approval of the State Ministry of Education. In turn, the activities of the LGEA are co-ordinated and

monitored by the State Ministry of Education through the State Universal Basic Education Board

(SUBEB). The SUBEB recruits and promotes staff of the primary schools especially senior staff. They

further ensure that the welfare of primary school teachers in the state is properly taken care of. They

organise seminars, workshops and on-the-job trainings to improve upon the quality of teachers as they

supervise the payment of staff emoluments. The SUBEB with all its functions in turn is co-ordinated

and supervised by the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC) under an Executive Secretary.

Committees & Boards of the Universal Basic Education

Kpee (2006) had earlier recommended sundry committees and boards projecting possible compositions

and functions for an effective implementation of the Universal Basic Education Programme. These

committees include the School UBE Committee or SUBEC – the primary and most important

subcommittee for the UBE, the Local Government UBE Board (LUBEB), the Zonal UBE Committee

(ZUBEC), the State UBE Board (SUBEB) and finally the Universal Basic Education Commission

(UBEC). According to Kpee (2006), the SUBEC is the most important subcommittee for the success

of the UBE Programme because it is the committee that can provide accurate information and data on

(i) existing classrooms (ii) classrooms in effective use (iii) pupil class enrolment (iv) classroom sitting

plan (v) anticipated number of classrooms (vi) available office space/conveniences (vii) school map and

plan (viii) school intake for the past five years as to ascertain trend in enrolment and or attrition rate (ix)

actual number of teaching and non-teaching staff (x) subject allocation for teachers and subject without

teachers and finally (xi) teacher-pupil ration and all other functions and responsibilities it is charged

with.

Before the advent of the civilian government in Nigeria, monthly allocations for staff salaries

and other overhead for primary school management was routed through the Local Government

Councils. This policy had to be modified when it was noticed that most of the Local Government

Authorities diverted funds meant for payment of teachers’ salaries and allowances to other “pressing”

projects. The current trend is the deduction of allocations for primary schools from Local Government

Allocation at source, and this experiment is already yielding fruit.

Conclusion

Whatever organisational arrangements are devised in the management of primary educational system in

Nigeria, the central focus must be to achieve the followings:



Page 482

(1) Ensure the regular and prompt payment of salaries and allowances of staff in primary schools (2) Ensure that both the state and local governments provide their own share of counterpart

funding for primary schools, so that facilities provision and maintenance can be enhanced.

(3) Adequately equip the supervisory organ of the ministry and the UBEC to regularly carry out regular inspection of both public and private schools to maintain standard.

(4) Set up a program training and retraining primary school teachers on a regular and continuous basis to ensure that they remain relevant to the needs of the school system.

(5) Provide grants to assist creditable private primary schools to boot their resource base for quality education and hence make such education affordable to a larger section of the Nigerian society.

To achieve the above feats requires the cooperation of every interest group in education. This is

because achieving quality education is a collective effort.

References

Aiyepeku, T.F (1989). 6-3-3-4 System of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan. NPS Educational Publishers Ltd.

Enaohwo, J.O. (2000). Educational Futurology Praxis, Problems and the way forward. Inaugural Lecture series. Choba. University of Port Harcourt Press.

FRN (2001). Implementation Guideline for the Universal Basic Education Journal 1(1) Abuja. Federal Ministry of Education Press.

FRN (2004) National Policy on Education, 4th edition Lagos. NERDC Press.

Kpee, G.G. in Maduagwu, S.N. (2006). Administration of Universal Basic Education. The Basic Facts. Owerri. Springfield Publishers.

Lunenburg, F.C., Ornstein, A.C. (1991). Educational Administration: Concepts and Practice. California. Wadsworth Inc.

Nwagwu, N.A. (1981). Primary School Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan. Macmillan

Williams, J.C., Huber, G.P. (1986). Human Behaviours in Organisations (Third edition). Ohio. South-West Publishing Co.



Page 483


STUDENTS’ ACCESS TO INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES AS A

CORRELATE OF QUALITY OUTPUT: THE PLANNING OPTION

By

OBASI, KENNETH K., Ph.D

&

OHIA, ADANMA N., Ph.D Department of Educational Management

University of Port Harcourt

Abstract

The main thrust of this study was to x-ray the infrastructural facilities accessible to public secondary school students in Abia State, Nigeria as a correlate of quality output. It was a descriptive survey research. Two research questions and one hypothesis guided the study. Data were collected using personal observation and a 12 item structured questionnaire. Proportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to select 98 principals/vice principal (50%) and 594 sectional head teachers (50%) in 99(50%) public secondary schools. Simple percentage and access index were used to answer the research questions. Hypothesis was analyzed using mean and t-test at 0.05 level of significance. The findings revealed that students access to quality classroom and laboratory facilities (considered in this study) is poor. The researchers recommended effective planning and provision of learning facilities in good quality and quantity to guarantee the production of quality output from this level of education.

Keywords: Students’ Access, Infrastructural Facilities, Quality Output, Planning Option.



Page 484

Introduction

The development of any nation is an illusion, and keeping pace with global trends a

mirage without a well-fortified educational system. In Nigeria, secondary education plays

the consumer and producer roles by absorbing the products of primary schools and

supplying students to the different categories of tertiary education system respectively.

This is of paramount importance because it is expected that a child, who on completion

of secondary education and cannot proceed to the tertiary level, would have acquired

enough skills and knowledge to enable him be useful to himself and contribute

meaningfully to the economic growth of his society. In the National Policy on Education,

(FRN, 2004), it is stipulated that secondary education should equip students to live

effectively in this modern age of science and technology.

In the bid to increase access to education, various national and international

agencies launch different programmes, for instance, the Universal Basic Education

(UBE) that Nigeria passed into law in May 2004 as the UBE Act 2004 and Education for

All (EFA) which is a global movement led by UNESCO that aims at meeting the learning

needs of all children, youths and adults by 2015. To ensure that quality of educational

delivery is not sacrificed at the expense of quantity, the Federal Ministry of Education, in

its statutory responsibility, (FRN, 2004) in the National Policy on Education formulated

minimum standards for the provision of education at the different levels. As is often the

case, well formulated polices are poorly or not implemented at all.

UNESCO (2002) sees the issue of quality as being multi-dimensional and therefore

recognizes input-process-output framework in its assessment. This is predicated on the

input-output production function in education propounded by Coombs (1968) and Cobb-

Douglas theory of production function that represents the relationship between inputs

and outputs. It then follows that expecting quality output from the secondary system is

contingent on planning for, providing and making accessible to the students quality

infrastructural facilities that will enhance teaching and learning.

There is still a general dissatisfaction about the performance of the products of the

nation’s educational system in general. Most worrisome is the growing discontent and

distrust about the quality of public secondary school products. Nwafor (2005) observed

that the achievement level of public secondary school levers is very low.

Accessibility of students to good and adequate learning facilities like classroom

and laboratories among others will engender the production of functional graduates from

the secondary education system. Njoku (2009) corroborated this by asserting that that

classroom accommodation is an integral aspect of an indispensable input which must be

provided for students. Access to quality classroom resources in public secondary schools

has to do with the opportunity students have to make use of quality classroom space,

furniture and other instructional resources within the classroom set up. Ene (2007)

asserted that access to education is not just seeing a school to attend, but having a vital

classroom resources to work in. Access to quality classroom resources means making

the resources to be within the reach of every school child. Every child is expected to have

his own desk, chair in a well built classroom with enough space and ventilation.

UNICEF (2000) recognizes adequate classroom instructional resources as the first



Page 485

ingredient in defining quality in the educational process. In fact, to this organization,

providing adequate and quality classroom instructional resources that are relevant to

the children’s learning experiences and curriculum must be the first pre-requisite in the

pursuit of quality delivery of education. This according to UNICEF (2000) is one of the

many parameters that most African countries have failed in meeting the millennium

goals for education. In reality, what is actually observed in many public secondary

schools in Nigeria portends lack of basic infrastructure (Akpan 2005, Aigboje 2007) of

which classrooms are the most conspicuous. Undie, Udida and Sale (2005) opined that

well–equipped laboratories for practical exercises are some of the facilities school

principals see as the first index of quality schools. But they conclude that many schools

including science schools, do not have quality laboratories. Ilomade (2000) in Fularinso

(2002) asserted that equipped laboratories not only facilitate effective teaching, but also

enhance teachers’ morale, particularly in state schools that lack facilities and laboratory

equipment. The researchers in this study assert that access without quality is

meaningless and quality without accessibility is not beneficial, therefore quality and

access are in a nexus.

The Problem

Government’s laudable policies show their willingness to make quality education

accessible to all but the sincerity in the implementation of the policies is questionable.

There seem to be a tilt towards producing secondary school graduates in good quantity

rather than in good quality.

It is a truism that a nation requires quality educational system to boast of

producing quality output. From the public outcry about the poor performance of

graduates from the secondary level of the education system, it is expedient to establish

empirically the quality of learning resources like classroom and laboratory facilities

accessible to the students to guarantee quality output.


Generally the purpose of this study is to ascertain the infrastructural facilities accessible

to Abia State secondary school students. Specifically it sought to identify the:

1. classroom instructional materials accessible to the students

2. extent to which students have access to well-equipped laboratories.

Research Questions

1. What classroom instructional materials are accessible to the students?

2. To what extent do the students have access to well-equipped laboratories?

Hypothesis

Ho1: There is no significant difference in the opinions of principals and teachers in the

level of access students have to good classroom facilities.

Methodology

The descriptive survey technique was used in this study. The accessible population



Page 486

comprised of 98 principals and 594 teachers; giving a total of 692. The sample size was

348 got by proportionate stratified random sampling technique.

Data were collected by direct observation and the use of a 12-item questionnaire

structured using modified Likert four-point scale of strongly agree (4), agree(3), disagree

(2) and strongly disagree (1). Test-retest method was used to validate the instrument. An

internal consistency reliability coefficient of 0.8 was got using the Pearson Product

Moment Correlation Coefficient.

Results and Discussion

Research question 1: What classroom instructional equipment are accessible to the

students?

Table 1: Mean, Frequency and quality index of students' access to classroom equipment in schools

Classroom Resources Capacity/ availability

Number in good condition

% in good condition

Access index for good ones

1. Classroom Spaces 12421 4223 34.00 0.44

2. Classroom Furniture 6327 2245 35.48 0.23

3 Chalkboards 1188 165 13.90 0.18

4. Teacher offices 233 172 73.84 0.28

5. Teacher office furniture 198 170 85.86 0.28

6. Charts 5277 250 0.047 -

Mean 4274 .1204 33.4 .097

Source: Research Survey data, 2010

As clearly shown in table 1, the proportion of facilities in good condition that students

have access to is 33% of available ones for the 6 classroom materials examined. This

proportion is worst for charts and chalkboards and better for teacher offices and teacher

office furniture. A look at the access index however gives a better picture only for

classroom spaces. The ratios for the remaining 5 materials are poorer than the

proportion of good ones. Hence the mean access index is .097 (i.e. less than 10%). This

means that even the total available facility is far short of the number required to provide

adequate quality access.

This evidence is supported by figure 1, where classrooms are dilapidated, seats are

scanty and space over crowded with students beyond the standard specification.



Page 487

Figure 1: Dilapidated classroom structures, scanty of classroom furniture but crowded with students.

Research question 2

To what extent do the students have access to well-equipped laboratories?

Table 2: Mean Frequency and quality index of students' access to laboratory resources in

schools

Laboratory Capacity/ Availability

No. in Good Condition

% in Good Condition

Access Index for Good ones

1 Physics Laboratory 68 68 100 0.348

2 Chemistry Laboratory 45 45 100 0.243

3 Biology Laboratory 218 218 100 0.172

4 Trained Lab. attendant 20 20 100 0.216

5 Computer Laboratory Nil Nil Na Na

Mean 100 0.245

Source: Research Survey Data, 2010



Page 488

Table 2 shows that students' access to subject laboratory resources is very poor. Though

very few students offer the basic sciences, the few who do, have no adequate access to

equipped laboratory resources. For the 99 sampled schools, there were only 68

laboratory spaces for physics practical, 45 chemistry laboratory spaces, 218 biology

laboratory spaces and 20 trained laboratory attendants. This clearly shows that very few

of the schools visited have some facilities that can be called usable laboratory spaces. No

single computer laboratory was found in schools visited.

Figure 2 shows a clip of some laboratory spaces in schools visited, most of them not built

to specifications. In most places, ordinary tables are used without sink and other

associated laboratory apparatus.

Figure 2: Public school laboratories in the state, some in uncompleted structures, most of

them utilizing common low tables as laboratory benches without sinks and other

apparatus.

Hypothesis

Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the opinions of principals and teachers



Page 489

in the level of access students have to good classroom facilities.

Table 3: Mean and test of differences between principals and teachers

classroom resources access

index

mean t-value 2-tailed sig. value

remarks

Principals Teachers

N 98 594

% in good condition

28 37.11 -1.41 0.159 Not significant

Access index 0.0215 0.0270 -0.698 0.498

P < 0.05

As is clearly shown in table 3, the calculated t-value on students’ access to quality

classroom resources is–1.41 for % in good condition and -0.698 for access index. These

values are not significant at 0.159 and 0.498 respectively being more than 0.05 level of

significance.

Conclusion

Table 1 shows a mean access index of 0.97 (less than 10%). That is, the students do not

have good access to classroom learning resources. In line with UNESCO (2002) input–

process-output framework, expecting quality output from the secondary system is

contingent on providing input one of which is classroom facilities in good quality and

quantity. Classroom accommodation is an integral aspect of an indispensable input

(Njoku, 2009). The results also confirm UNICEF (2000) assertion that many African

countries have failed in providing quality classroom instructional resources relevant to

children’s learning, experiences and curriculum as a requisite in the pursuit of quality

educational delivery.

Planning Implications

The outcome of this study has implications to education generally and in particular the

trained planners in the system. Consulting and employing the services of professionally

trained educational planners is very vital. Since the current trend in Nigeria is in favour of

free, compulsory basic education, the planners may opt for the Social Demand Approach

in planning the development of the system at this level. The planners need to constantly

keep in touch with the primary school board of the state to know the number of pupils

likely to be admitted into the secondary schools and also follow their successive promotion

from JSS1. Also important is the fact that the planners need to estimate the resources,

both personnel and finance for the students and bring pressure to bear on the relevant

government agency for the provision.



Page 490

References

Aigboje, C.D. (2007). Head teachers’ perception of adequacy of the facilities provided for the implementation of UBE in Nigerian primary schools. Journal of applied research in education 5(1), 58-66.

Akpan, J.R. (2005). Administrative strategies to promote quality assurance in both public and private secondary schools in Nigeria. A paper presented at the national association of educational administration and planning (NAEAP) University of Calabar11th -13th.

Ene, A.C. (2007). Access to and equity in university education in Nigeria: issues and trends (eds) J.B. Babaola, G.O. Akpan, A.O. Ayeni and S.O. Adedeji. access, equity and quality in higher education. National Association for Educational

Administration and Planning (NAEAP) publication.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education, 4th ed.,

Abuja: NERDC.

Njoku, A.C. (2009) Rural-Urban disparities in Nigerian schools enrolments, classrooms and teachers in 2005: implications for quality access and cost management. Proceedings of the 23rd annual congress of the Nigerian academy of education 128-140. Abuja: NERDC.

Nwafor, S.O. (2005) Managing and utilizing physical facilities for quality assurance in sports development in Rivers State secondary schools. African journal of education

and developmental studies. 1(2), 31-38.

Undie, J.A., Udidia, L.A. & Sule, M.A. (2005) Principals perception of educational quality in private and public secondary schools in Cross Rivers State senatorial district. A paper delivered at the National Association for Educational Administration and

Planning (NAEAP) University of Calabar

11th -13th.

UNESCO (2000). The EFA Movement (Education) Retrieved September 7, 2010 from http:www.unesco.org/en/efa/the-efa-movement.

UNICEF (2000). Defining quality in Education, Working Paper Series, Educational section Programme Division Retrieved November 5, 2011 from http://www.unicef.org.



Page 491


TEACHERS’ WELFARE PROGRAMME AS A TIME MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN RIVERS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

By

CHINYERE O. AGABI

E-mail: [email protected] Tel: +2348055169126

&

WORLU I. WALI

Dept. of Educational Foundations and Management Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni,

Port Harcourt, Rivers State..

Abstract

This descriptive survey aims at highlighting teacher welfare programmes that facilitate the elimination of time wastage in the provision of secondary school education in River State, Nigeria. For the purpose of data generation, a questionnaire was developed and administered on 140 public school principals and 40 private school principals randomly sampled from a population of 243 public secondary schools and 61 private secondary schools respectively. The study was guided by one research question and one hypothesis. The result of data analysis shows that the provision of free medical services and access to soft loans will greatly facilitate the elimination of time wastage in the provision of secondary school education in the state. The study concludes that if these welfare programmes are provided and properly managed, they will also go a long way in minimizing the frequency of labour conflicts between teachers and their employers. It recommends that welfare programmes preferred by teachers should be adopted to improve on their attitude to work and to productivity in secondary school education.

Key words: Time management, welfare, maintenance, wastage, education, teachers.



Page 492

Introduction

The provision of education and the sustenance of best practices in teaching are often tied to the

provision of infrastructure, instructional materials and qualified teachers. It is for this reason that

quality of education is often assumed to be high in schools that have adequate and well furnished

classrooms, libraries, laboratories and workshops. This quality is also assumed to be well complemented

by the presence of professionally trained teachers and the maintenance of the statutory pupil-teacher

ratio in such schools.

It is not surprising that our newspapers are rife with reports on educational developments that

are based on the provision of new educational facilities, or the renovation of dilapidated structures in

public schools. For instance, at an education summit in Edo State, Nigeria, Governor Oshiomhole of

Edo State announced a policy that will ensure that 80% of capital projects in local government areas are

directed at addressing the problem of infrastructure decay in the education sector. Specifically, the

governor advised local government chairmen to direct such projects at providing primary schools of

high quality, with all the infrastructural complements such as conveniences staff rooms, head teacher’s

office, sporting facilities, regular water supply, among others (Osauzo, 2010). On a related issue,

Alechenu (2010) reported the reiteration of the commitment of the federal government of Nigeria to

the sustenance of reading culture shown by the provision of libraries in all primary and junior

secondary schools in the country. The libraries were provided through the Universal Basic Education

Commission (UBEC). According to the report, this library project is hinged on the effort of the

Ministry of Education at re-engineering the entire education system. This high commitment to

information provision services and knowledge management is also directed at improving access and

enhancing the quality of education. In another report based on student academic performance,

Nwaoguji (2010) provides the background to the above government zeal for infrastructural

development in education. The report indicates a steady decline and decay in Nigeria’s educational

system as manifested in the November/December 2009 Senior Secondary School Certificate

Examination, SSSCE, released by the National Examination Council, NECO. According to this report,

NECO recorded a mass failure of 97% in 2008 and 95% in 2009. These figures represent the number

of candidates who could not achieve credit passes in English and Mathematics in the SSSCE organized

by NECO.

The above reports indicate that the provision of quality education requires much more than the

provision of infrastructure and the employment of professionally trained teachers. Obviously the

provision of quality education also requires the recognition and satisfaction of the needs of teachers,

not just as professionals but also as human beings with socio-economic needs and aspirations which

must be met for the sustenance of positive work attitude. The purpose of this paper is to highlight

welfare programmes that can be explored to facilitate the effective use of time in secondary schools in

River State.

What do teachers really want?

The efforts of government at developing educational infrastructure do not seem to yield the

desired result in the improvement of student academic performance; neither has it stopped teachers

from getting confrontational with their employers. More time than is necessary is spent on labour

conflicts and conflict management in the education sector than in any other sector of the Nigerian

economy. Hardly a year passes by without a teachers’ strike reported at one level of education or



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another over conditions of service. What do teachers really want?

In an investigation of the influence of teachers’ self-esteem on students’ performance in

Mathematics, Amini (2004) discovered that a teacher’s self-esteem has significant influence on students’

academic performance. The investigation also showed that students who studied Mathematics under

teachers with high self-esteem performed significantly better than students who studied the same

subject with the same curriculum under teachers with low self-esteem. It identified factors that give rise

to low self-esteem to include low job satisfaction, inferior standing in the society and relatively poor

salary. It concluded that a reversal of this situation will enhance teachers’ self-esteem and ultimately, job

performance. It therefore recommended an enhancement of teachers’ remuneration with adequate

consideration for factors that enhance teachers’ self-esteem and positive job-disposition.

In a related study, Maduagwu and Wali (2004) investigated the administration of employee

welfare programmes in post-primary education institutions in River State. Their study revealed that

welfare package for post-primary school teachers in the state consists of allowances that take care of

housing, transportation, annual leave, meal subsidy and Christmas bonus. With the exception of annual

leave allowance and Christmas bonus, other items listed in the welfare package constitute part of the

monthly pay package for teachers. Result of data analysis for the work also revealed that teachers in

post primary schools will be happier with a welfare package that includes loans, salary advances, and

financial grants. The study concluded that the present welfare package for post primary school teachers

in River State is not satisfactory; and that an appropriate and satisfactory welfare package for teachers at

this level of education should be such that enables the teacher to meet his basic socio-economic needs

in any prevailing economic situation in the society in which he/she lives.

Nwora (2009) compared the poor condition of the teaching profession in Nigeria to the

contrasting situation in the United Kingdom in which teaching is highly regarded and teachers are

classified as key workers by the UK government. His comparative analysis of education issues in

Nigeria and the UK shows that teachers in Nigeria are worse off than their counterparts in the United

Kingdom. The treatise of education issues reports that teachers in the United Kingdom are classified

as key workers, and they benefit from the Key Workers Living Scheme (KWLS) which was introduced

by the UK government around 2002/2003. By this scheme, teachers were given priority social housing

along side other professionals included in the scheme (such as the police, nurses and other allied health

workers). The KWLS ensured that teachers enjoyed an upward and comprehensive review of their

salaries to a point that made teaching very attractive. In Nwora’s (2009) analysis, the low wage given to

professionals in core fields is responsible for the poor self-worth and the shoddy practices that some of

them exhibit in the course of performing their duties. He advised that skilled and semi-skilled workers

whose services are recognized should be appreciated and rewarded accordingly.

The problem in the education sector in Nigeria and the school system in particular is summarized by

Osagie-Jacobs (2010). In the treatise of the issues in the Nigerian school system, he described the

development of education in Nigeria as progressively retrogressive. In his opinion, the money so far

spent on workshops and seminars is wasted because such efforts have not addressed the root cause of

the problem of infrastructural decay, inadequate supply of qualified teachers, poor academic

performance by students, and poor quality of graduates from Nigerian schools. Osagie-Jacob’s (2010)

work identified the root cause of the problem in the education sector as consisting of bad leadership,

corruption, frequent change of policy, and poor planning. In his opinion, it is not possible to carry out

a useful assessment on students in schools that are ill-equipped. The treatise recommends a correction



Page 494

measure that includes adequate remuneration and motivation of teachers in order to attract the best

hands and maintain best practices.

The above reviewed works indicate that a teacher’s self-worth, job satisfaction, and economic

well-being will be greatly enhanced with an employee welfare package that enables him/her to meet

basic socio-economic needs. Such welfare package should also be such that strengthens the teacher’s

ability to exercise fundamental rights without inhibition. For instance, a teacher has the right (like every

other citizen) to own movable and immovable property any where in Nigeria, as provided in section 43

of the 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2008). The teacher also has social

responsibilities that include sending his children to school and meeting other basic needs of his family

(which includes housing, feeding, clothing and health). Any condition of service that makes it difficult

for a teacher to meet these basic needs is likely to affect his self-esteem and ultimately his attitude to

work.

Teachers want a condition of service that enhances their economic prospects and advancement because

the teacher, as a professional, constitutes a key element in the constitution of the human capital in any

society. The teacher therefore expects to have easy access to all the social and economic benefits that

accrue to professionals of equal standing in the society, by virtue of their education, training and

employment.

Research Question

This study was guided by the following research question:

• What are the measures that could be taken to enhance the economic condition of teachers in

secondary schools in River State, Nigeria?

Hypothesis

There is no significant difference between administrators in public and private secondary schools on

the economic measures adopted to improve the welfare of teachers in River State, Nigeria.

Theoretical Framework

This study is premised on Adam Smith’s human capital theory which asserts that human resource

becomes capital when it acquires advanced education and training because of the higher level of

initiative and production that accrues there from. The human capital so generated and valued for its

high level of productivity and income earning capacity, as aptly stated by Black (2004), cannot be used

as collateral for loans, neither can the education so painstakingly acquired be inherited by any one; the

sustenance of the intellectual and professional skills that constitute capital for the employer therefore

lies in the ability of the employer to create and maintain employment conditions that

(a) encourage the use of professional initiative; (b) enhance optimal economic benefit for the employer and the employee; and (c) ensure job satisfaction and job security.

These three keys to optimal human capital utilization ensure the maintenance of an employer –

employee equilibrium in productivity.



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Time wastage in education

Researchers have shown that the employment conditions of teachers in Nigeria generally fall short of

the three keys to optimal employment of human capital in the school system, compared to their

contemporaries in other fields (Amini, 2004; Nwora, 2009). In a study by Ohia (2008), the career

preference of 363 students of Education in the University of Port Harcourt, randomly sampled from a

population of 1450 students, was investigated. The result of data analysis revealed that 75% of the

students were studying Education just to have a university degree, but with no intention of teaching.

They generally preferred careers with high economic prospects. Teaching was given the least

consideration by the students, while working in a finance house had the highest consideration. Other

career variables considered in the study included self-employment, civil service and work in a company.

These variables were all ranked higher than teaching in terms of preference by the students. The study

concluded that the production of teachers who are not interested in teaching is responsible for the

brain drain from the teaching profession. It recommended that the teaching profession should be made

more attractive through the improvement of conditions of service. Ohia’s (2008) work is a reflection

of the wastage of time and other vital resources in education, in the production of teachers who have

neither the intention of teaching nor of being employed in the school system.

The wastage of time and other key resources in education is further highlighted by Igwe (2008)

in a study of causes of industrial actions among teachers. The study attributed observed fluctuations in

school system productivity level to incessant industrial actions that arise from job insecurity, poor

conditions of service, financial deprivation of workers (poor and insufficient wage), and a welfare

package that is not responsive to emerging trends. Igwe’s (2008) study involved the analysis of data

generated from 200 secondary school principals randomly sampled from a population of 239 public

school principals in River State. The study recommended more financial incentives including loans for

teachers.

Ultimately, human capital is developed and employed to guarantee systemic growth and

productivity. Poor management can render it counterproductive. In which case it ceases to function as

capital and becomes a source of wastage. As much as the employer strives for optimal productivity, the

employee who possesses the desired professional skills and expertise also strives to achieve optimal

economic benefit from his or her employment. The employer and the employee need to strike a

balance that is favourable to both parties. In the school system, the ability of education managers to

identify the point of equilibrium between the demands of the education sector and the economic

expectations of teachers is vital in the elimination of time wastage from labour conflicts and shoddy

practices, thereby improving productivity. To this end, it is important that education managers explore

all factors that can enhance teacher productivity, and fully employ them for the goodness of the school

system.

Time management in the school system

Formal education is time based. It is so much so that the assessment of a student’s rate of learning is

measured by the length of time used by the student to acquire knowledge from formal instruction. Slow

learners, average learners and fast learners (also known as gifted) are identified and classified according

to the speed of learning. The various levels of education, (primary, secondary and tertiary) have their

programmes planned on a fixed time. By the age of six, an average Nigerian child is expected to be in

primary one and to spend the next five or six years of life in primary school (FRN, 2004). Between ages



Page 496

eleven and eighteen, the Nigeria child is expected to be in a secondary school. The duration of tertiary

education depends on the type of institution and the course of study. Classroom activities are also

organized on a fixed schedule. This arrangement of education programmes and activities is not peculiar

to Nigeria; it is the general standard for formal education. Slight variations in the duration of any

particular level of education may exist between countries.

The recent introduction of e-learning enables learners to study and learn at their convenience.

The e-learning is a new dimension in organized education which enables the learner to study through

the use of the internet and other computer-related electronic devices. E-learning education programmes

are also organized on a relatively stable time schedule that ensures that a learner completes the

programme for one level of education before he/she is introduced a higher level of instruction and

learning. In this way, the amount of information given to a learner at any point in time is carefully

controlled. E-learning is unique because it allows the learner to study at his/her own pace with CDs,

DVDs and other electronic devices. The problem is that in e-learning, it is difficult to control the

learning audience by age definition, especially when teaching is done through the internet. This is

because in the present age and time, the internet has been made generally and easily accessible to all

with the proliferation of cyber cafés; desk tops, lap tops and even GSM handsets that can be bought at

very low price. At very little cost, one can access almost any website (some at no cost) in search of

knowledge in almost all areas of human activity.

In all countries, whether developed or developing, the age range for each level of education is

predetermined. It is for this reason that a learner may be considered too young or too old for any

particular level or type of education. This is why labour conflicts in education, and all other issues that

result in wastage of education time should be avoided so that optimal use of time can be achieved,

especially in the school system where education is age-specific.

Importance of time in education

Longman (2005) defines the word ‘time’ as the thing that is measured in minutes, hours, days,

years, etc on a clock; an occasion when something happens or someone does something. It is a point at

which something happens. Time is often used in relation to a plan or an activity. Although time is

generally measured on the face of a clock, education time is measured on a calendar in terms of weeks,

months and years. A disruption of education time scheduled on a calendar often results in the

elongation of the period of schooling, because certain activities must be carried out before education at

any particular level can be described as complete. Such activities include completion of planned

curriculum, administration of tests and examinations.

The elongation of the period of education may arise from labour conflicts, civil unrest, military

upheaval or a natural disaster of uncontrollable magnitude. In Nigeria, the most frequent cause of

disruptions in the school calendar is labour conflict between teachers and their employers. This conflict

often arises as a result of delay in salary payment, poor conditions of service, poor remuneration and

non payment of allowances [Maduagwu & Wali (2004); Amini (2004); Ohia (2008); and Igwe (2008)].

The length of time employed by managers of education to resolve these conflicts greatly influences the

extent of elongation that reflects in the school calendar.

It is important at this point to re-assert the opinion of Akinwumiju and Agabi (2008) that time

is the only resource that cannot be stored because it fizzles away if not properly utilized. The school

manager needs proper time tabling in both curricular and co-curricular activities; precise schedule of



Page 497

duties and adequate delegation of functions to effectively utilize the limited time available to the school.

Although, time cannot be stored but the use of time as an education resource may be conserved if

adequate and conscious plan is made to guard against conflicts and other issues that may result in the

wastage of education time. All the research works reviewed in this paper agree that teachers’ welfare

plan may include the participation of teachers in major decisions that affect the school; the

improvement of the welfare package of teachers; and a general improvement in teachers’ condition of

service.

Methodology

Research design

This is a descriptive survey of the welfare package considered most favourable by secondary school

teachers in River State Nigeria.

Sample and sampling technique

A total of 140 public school principals and 40 private school principals were randomly sampled from a

population of 243 public schools and 61 private schools respectively.

Research instrument

Data for the study was collected with a Teacher Welfare Programme Questionnaire, TWPQ.

The instrument had two parts, the first part required respondents to provide information on

demographic variables concerning the school and the respondent. The second part required the

respondents to rank each of a 30 – item welfare programme on a 4 point Likert scale with responses

ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree and based on the following arrangement:

Strongly agree = 4 points

Agree = 3 points

Disagree = 2 points

Strongly disagree = 1 points

Validity and Reliability

The validity of the research instrument, TWPQ, was ascertained by experts in Educational

Management whose observations and suggestions led to necessary modifications before it was

administered. Reliability of the TWPQ was established by a test – retest method. The instrument was

administered to 10 randomly selected secondary school administrators in Obio/Akpor Local

Government Area. Two weeks after that, a second test was also administered on the same group of

administrators. The Pearson Product Moment correlation co-efficient of 0.80 ensured a high reliability.

Administration of instrument

The TWPQ was personally administered to principals of public and private schools. This was to

ensure that questions and issues that may arise in the course of responding to the questionnaire may be

directly addressed. Administration of instrument yielded a 90% response rate.



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Statistical procedure

Responses to the questionnaire items were graded on a Likert scale that ranged from 4 to1 with

4.0 as the highest score. Data generated from the survey was analysed using mean score, rank order,

and z-test. The statistical analysis was tested at 0.05 level of significance and z critical value of 1.96.

Presentation and Discussion of Findings

Research question

What measures could be taken to enhance the welfare condition of teachers in River State

secondary schools?

The answer to the above research question is presented in table 1.

Table 1

Mean scores of measures to improve the welfare of teachers in River State secondary schools

Bulk payment of housing allowance per annum 3.00

Provision of subsidized rental accommodation for teachers 3.06

Weekly payment of transport allowance 2.33

Free transportation 2.50

Free medical services for teachers and their family members 3.39

Provision of soft loans/salary advance 3.17

Introduction of a savings scheme 2.72

Introduction of annual lottery for teachers 2.50

Table 1 shows welfare programmes that are preferred by teachers and the extent of their

preferences. From the table, the provision of free medical services is the most preferred, with a mean

score of 3.39. This is followed by the provision of soft loans/salary advance with a mean score of 3.17.

The provision of staff accommodation within the school premises at a subsidized rate is ranked higher

than the bulk payment of housing allowance at the beginning of every year. This is not surprising,

considering the difficult terrain of River State and the poor road network in the state. With a subsidized

housing scheme for teachers in the school premises, teachers will be protected from the hassles of

travelling long distances everyday on a bad road, to get to work. The preference for free medical

services and soft loans reflect the humble position of teachers on the socio-economic ladder. Teachers

are among the least paid professionals in Nigeria and primary and secondary school teachers are worse

off in terms of remuneration. Although the remuneration of teachers in River State is relatively higher

than what obtains in some other states in Nigeria, it is still very poor compared to what is given to their

contemporaries in the banks and multi-national establishments.

Welfare programmes given the least consideration by teachers as shown in table 1 include the

introduction of savings scheme; provision of fare-free transportation by road and by water; annual

lottery for teachers; and weekly payment of transport allowance (presented in order of preference). This

is also not surprising because the provision of subsidized housing preferred by most teachers would

eliminate the desperate need for a convenient and cheap means of transportation. The soft loan

preferred by most teachers, if granted, will also take care of the need for a savings scheme.



Page 499

Null Hypothesis

There is no significant difference between administrators in public and private secondary

schools on the economic measures adopted to improve on the welfare of teachers. The result of the

test of this null hypothesis is presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Z-test of measures adopted by administrators of public and private secondary schools to

improve on teachers’ welfare.

Secondary school administrators N P PP Z-Cal CRV Decision

Public schools 140 .043 .045 -

.13

1.96 Not

Sign.

Private schools 40 .054

Where

N = Number of respondents

P = Mean score

PP = Weighted mean

Table 2 shows that the calculated z – value of -.13 is less than the z – critical value of 1.96 at

0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis is therefore accepted and we state that there is no significant

difference between administrators of public and private secondary schools on measures adopted to

improve on the economic welfare of teachers. This is an indication that teachers, as professionals, have

similar expectations with regards to the socio-economic benefits from their employment.

Conclusion The

economic welfare of teachers in public and private secondary schools in River State, Nigeria will be

greatly enhanced if certain welfare programmes are adopted for teachers. Such programmes include (in

order of preference):

(1) The provision of free medical services; (2) The provision of access to soft loans and salary advance; (3) The provision of staff accommodation within school premises; (4) The provision of housing allowance as a lump sum at the beginning of every year.

Much more time would be used by teachers for classroom teaching and less time would be lost

in the guise of such common issues as difficulty in getting transportation to work, and travelling far

distances in quest cheap medical help. It will also be morally justified to seriously sanction any teacher

found using school time for any private money making venture. If these welfare programmes are

provided and properly managed, they will also help to minimize the frequency of labour conflicts

between teachers and their employers. In the long run, formal education will be provided on a fixed

and stable education calendar. Although there is no significant difference in the welfare programmes

preferred by school principals in public and private schools, it is a well known fact that teachers in

private schools in Nigeria do not participate in trade union activities and rarely get confrontational with



Page 500

their employers. This does not make them lower in professional ranking than their counterparts in

public schools. The recognition and provision of the welfare programmes that they find desirable will

facilitate the enhancement of efficiency in Nigerian private schools.

Recommendations

In addition to the recommendation of authors reviewed in the course of this work, that teachers should

be paid a living wage and treated like key professionals, this paper recommends as follows:

1. Welfare programmes preferred by secondary school teachers be adopted to enhance their productivity and to improve on their attitude to work. This will ensure that less time is spent on

conflicts and other issues that amount to a diversion and wastage of education time.

2. Teachers found guilty of shoddy activities such as extorting money from parents, students or visitors to the school; buying and selling goods in the classroom in the course school activities;

falsifying school system information for monetary or social gains; or any other unprofessional

activity, should be punished according to the rules of the school.

3. School principals found guilty of aiding activities that are contrary to teachers’ professional ethics should be punished in accordance with the provisions of the Teachers code of conduct

as provided by the Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria (TRCN, 2004).

When all these have been done, managers of education in River State would have succeeded in

eliminating, or curtailing to the barest minimum, unwholesome behaviour by teachers, and the

frequency of school system conflicts. More time will ultimately be spent on teaching and learning than

in the management of conflicts.

Suggestions for further research

Allowances and other on-the –job benefits for teachers constitute one fraction of issues that bring

teachers, state / federal government and education interest groups in Nigeria into frequent

confrontation that often results in the closure of schools and the wastage of education time. Other

issues include poor maintenance of school system infrastructure, delay in the provision of instructional

materials, and inadequate material support for research. There is a need to highlight the present

situation in public and private schools in relation to these issues and to proffer suggestions for

improvement, where necessary.

References

Akinwumiju, J.A. and Agabi, C.O. (2008). Foundations of school management. Port Harcourt,

University of Port Harcourt Press.

Alechenu, J. (2010, July, 22). FG renews commitment to reading culture. The Punch; 17 (20658), 9

Amini, C.M. (2004). Influence of teachers’ self-esteem on students academic performance in secondary

schools. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and Education; 1 (9), 61-63.

Black J. (2003). Dictionary of Economics (3rd edition), Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2004). National Policy on Education (4th edition). Lagos, NERDC



Page 501

Press.

---------- (2008). Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and Fundamental Rights: Enforcement

procedures & rules (Three-in-one edition). Abuja, Federal Government Press.

Igwe, R.U. (2008). Factors responsible for the regular industrial actions among teachers in Rivers State.

Journal of the School of Education. River State College of Education; 1(2), 162 – 168.

Longman (2005). Dictionary of Contemporary English (4th edition). England); Pearson Education Ltd.

Maduagwu, S.N. and Wali, W.I. (2004). Administration of employee welfare programmes in post–

primary institutions in River State. Nigerian Journal of Empirical Studies in Psychology and

Education; 1(9), 200 – 207.

Nwaoguji, C. (2010). NACCIMA decries mass failure in NECO. Daily Sun; 6 (1825), 12; July 23rd

Nwora, U. (2009), Dignifying labour in Nigeria. http//www.nigeriavillage.square.com/articles/uche-

nwora/dignifying-labour-in-nigeria-11.html (13th July 2009).

Ohia, A.N. (2008), Career preference among Education under-graduates in University of Port

Harcourt: Implications for teaching manpower development. African Journal of Educational

Research and Development; 2(1), 8 – 16.

Osagie-Jacobs, O. (2010), The collapse of Nigerian schools. http://focusnigeria.com/nigerian-

schools.htm (5th October, 2010).

Osauzo, T. (2010, October 12) Devote 80% of capital projects to education Oshiomhole urges LGS.

Daily Sun 6(1897), 11.

Teachers Registration Council of Nigeria, TRCN (2004), Teachers code of conduct. Abuja, TRCN.



Page 502


ENHANCING RURAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: FUNCTIONAL

LITERACY EDUCATION OPTION

By

AKANDE JOSHUA OLUSOLA, Ph.D

Department of Continuing Education, Faculty of Education

Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This article explores the role of functional literacy in enhancing rural dwellers' participation in the rural development process. The study provides a review of a wide range of literature on rural development, literacy and functional literacy. This is then considered within the case study experience of University Village Association (UNIVA) Nigeria as an example of the initiative to promote functional literacy for rural development. Findings reveal that functional literacy remains an option to empower rural dwellers to participate meaningfully in the rural development process in Nigeria. Accordingly, functional literacy is to be promoted to enhance rural development in Nigeria.

KeyWords: Rural Development, Literacy, Functional Literacy and Rural

Communities



Page 503

Introduction

According to UNESCO statistics, nearly one billion adults cannot read and write (UNESCO,

2008). From the Executive summary of righting the wrongs, the real figure of illiterate people is

probably nearer to two billion and still more if numeracy and the actual use of these skills are

taken into account (Adult Education and Development, 2008, p. 13). Although the phenomenon

of illiteracy is on the decline throughout the word, it is still of such magnitude as to challenge the

efforts of all who believe in the wide diffusion of the arts of written communication among

people living in modern society (Smyth, 2006). In this wise, the problem of illiteracy has gradually

become perennial and has almost acquired a continuous resistance to all prescribed solution

(Omolewa, 1992). It is for this reason the international organizations – UNESCO, UNICEF,

World Bank and WHO are working round the clock to ensure eradication of illiteracy.

According to Akande (2006), illiteracy, poverty and HIV/AIDS are the triad scourges ravaging

people’s life all over the world. These triad scourges are so contiguous that it is almost

impracticable to separate one from the other. High illiteracy rate has been a contributing factor to

disease, high level dependency, underdevelopment and other social ills. Moreover, in Nigeria, the

problem of illiteracy has persistently remained intractable to the extent that Nigeria is regarded as

one of the nine countries with high illiteracy. Others include Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt,

India, Indonesia, Mexico and Pakistan. It is disheartening to note that up till now the problem of

illiteracy lingers on in Nigeria. For example, Table 1 below shows the low percentage rate of

literacy in English Language in some geo-political zones of Nigeria. Proficiency in English

Language as the official language of communication in Nigeria is considered vital to all forms of

functionalities to attain self-fulfillment and national development.

Table 1: Adult Literacy Rate in English Language by Geo Political Zone

Geo Political Literacy in English

Zone Male Female Both Sexes

North Central 65.1 47.3 56.4

North East 49.8 33.4 42.0

North West 39.7 23.2 31.7

South East 80.7 67.5 73.8

South South 81.1 66.7 74.0

South West 75.5 62.6 69.1

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2010.

Table 1 reveals the literacy rate in English Language by geo-political zone: North Central,

56.4% for both male and female; North East, 42.0%; North West 31.7%, South East 73.8%;

South South 74.0% and South-West 89.1%.



Page 504

Table 2: Adult Literacy Rate In Any Language By Geo-Political Zone

Geo Political Literacy in English

Zone Male Female Both Sexes

North-Central 70.4 52.8 61.9

North-East 73.1 51.4 62.8

North-West 79.4 60.2 70.1

South-East 81.6 69.3 75.1

South-South 82.3 68.2 75.4

South-West 83.7 72.1 77.9

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2010.

Table 2 reveals the literacy rate in any language by geo-political zone North Central

61.9%; North East 62.8%, North West 70.1; South East 75.1%, South South 75.4%, South West

77.9%.

Findings in Table 1 and Table 2 suggest a mass illiteracy rate in Nigeria. To this effect,

development process has been slowed down. Therefore, for meaningful development to take

place there is the urgent need to arouse the consciousness and awareness of the entire population

to the execution of mass literacy programmes in Nigeria. This assertion corroborates the views of

Barton (1994), Jones (1999) Schaffner (2005) and Payne (2006) that literacy is pivotal to

development in all ramifications. It is also essential for achieving the goals of eradicating poverty,

reducing child mortality, curbing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring

sustainable development, peace and democracy (International Literacy Statistics, 2008).

The objective of this paper is to examine the role of functional literacy in enhancing rural

dwellers’ participation in rural development process. For the purpose of this study,

a person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his (her) group and community and also for enabling him (her) to continue to use reading, writing and calculation for his(her) own and the community’s development (and vice versa (UNESCO, 1975).

It is from the above perspective that the experience of University Village Association

(UNIVA) Nigeria is examined.

Concept of Rural Development

The term “rural development” enjoys a variety of definitions among scholars, professionals,

researchers, and various academic associations. To this end, the word “rural development” defies

unimodal definition. However, to put “rural development” into proper perspective, the two

terms “rural” and “development” are to be properly analyzed.



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Rural

The word “rural” means many things to different people. According to Imhabekhai (2009), the

term “rural” has so many connotations. Some of these connotations he contended are negative

and derogatory. Sharing identified view with Ekong (2003), Adisa, (2008) highlights some

characteristics of a rural community. These include:

- high level of poverty, especially among those in women headed households;

- endemically low productivity;

- smallness of cultivable land owned by a farmer;

- technical inefficiency of agriculture due to poor production methods;

- low per capital income of the average rural dwellers.

Social infrastructural including educational facilities, health facilities, water supply, electricity

supply and communication facilities are poor relative to the level in the urban sector and physical

infrastructure including transportation facilities, storage facilities, processing facilities and

irrigation facilities are generally poor.

On the basis of the above, rurality in developing countries depicts an environment or community

with less than 20,000 people. It also shows lack of many social infrastructures such as housing,

education, transport and cottage industries are conspicuously. Rural dwellers in most of the

developing countries are therefore of low status, down-trodden, subordinated, ignored, illiterate,

poor and oppressed (Opeke and Okwilagwe, 2000). The quality of life in rural areas is therefore

very low. Rural dwellers are ignorant, malnourished and disease-trodden.

Indabawa and Mpofu (2006) submit that rural community is found in remote or rural

setting. The people in these types of communities exhibit the following tendencies:

• Live mainly off the land, often on a seasonal basis. • Closely knit, usually through kinship networks and relationships. • Lower expectations and demands on services from government or its agencies. • More likely to undertake community development projects to help solve local problems and issues.

In the light of the above, the success of rural development programmes ultimately depends

on the degree of effective participation and commitment by the rural population. Hence,

functional literacy for adults, vocational training schemes for youths, small-scales cottage

industries and craft activities, health, nutrition and welfare schemes, integrated rural development

projects, community self-help development schemes and population education should be

formulated and executed with full involvement of the rural population (Adepoju, 1982). It is by

so doing the rural dwellers can be integrated into developmental schemes.

Development

Literature is replete with definitions of development (Kamla, 1991; Openjurum 2004’ Ezimma,

2004). It is commonly held that development is not a cluster of benefits given to people in need

but rather a process by which a population acquires a greater mastery over its own testing. It is in

this context that most development experts now view development as a dynamic integrated and

multidimensional process of change which involves economic, political, social, cultural and

ethical factors. This process requires the active involvement and participation of target

populations and their empowerment to take measures to solve the problems of under-

development.



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In view of the above, development has to do with changing attitudes of rural poor people about

themselves and about their abilities to induce change. Launching the process of sustainable

development in this wise, according to Ritchey-Vance (1994) requires building a sense of self–

worth and awakening the hope of the poor, marginalized rural dwellers, creating the space and

the fora for them to debate their problems, opening access to information, fostering rural

community organizations capable of making their voices heard. This brings the inevitability of

functional literacy among the rural dwellers to fore.

Inferred from the concepts of “rural” and “development”, rural development”, according to

Imhabekhai (2009), entails efforts directed toward initiating policies, programs and projects

meant for the improvement of the standard of living of people in rural communities. However,

the target beneficiaries, the rural dwellers, must be actively involved in need identification,

designing, implementing and evaluating the programmes or projects. In this case, for rural

development programmes to be sustainable, they must be all-embracing and participatory using

functional literacy as a tool box.

Functional Literacy

The term “literacy” originally focused on the ability to read, write and calculate with

understanding in any given language (Fasokun, 2002). However, in recent years there are varieties

of literacy to describe competence in various fields of knowledge varieties of literacy in African

context, include traditional literacy or basic literacy, functional literacy and post literacy. The

focus of this paper is on functional literacy as a tool for rural transformation and development in

Nigeria.

According to National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal Education

(NMEC) in conjunction with UNICEF in Nigeria (2008), functional literacy is linked with

learners skill of reading, writing, and computing with jobs, skills, and attitudes for better

economic productivity. Hence, we talk of vocational literacy, scientific literacy, technological

literacy, public literacy, visual literacy and information literacy. Functional literacy from this

perspective is geared towards the development of active citizenship, improved health and

livelihoods and gender equality. Functional literacy therefore is the practical use of literacy in

finding solutions to problems. In this way, functional literacy is not merely better as strategy to

induce desirable changes in rural communities, but it is a necessity if the MDGs are to be

achieved by the year 2015.

Profile of Rural Communities in Nigeria

Evidence abound that Nigeria’s rural communities are not attractive to live in (Ekong, 2003,

Ezimah, 2004, Imhabekhai 2009). There is inadequate or poor modern amenities, high illiteracy

rate resulting in various social ills such as high mortality rate, poor sanitation, poor-housing, poor

nutrition and diseases (Ezimah, 2004). The quality of life in Nigeria’s rural areas is therefore very

low. This implies that there is a high level of underdevelopment in rural communities of Nigeria.

According to the National Bureau of Statistics’ report on National Literacy survey, 2010,

adult literacy rate is low nation-wide (about 57.9%) the rates are higher in Urban than in the rural

areas. Also, adult literacy rates for males are higher than those of females.

Table 3: National Adult Literacy Rates by Residence

Adult Literacy Urban Rural Overall

English 73.6 49.5 57.9



Page 507

Any Language 83.0 65.5 71.6

Source: National Bureau of Statistics 2010.

Table 3. above shows that literacy rate in English is higher in urban (73.6%) than in rural areas

(49.5%). Also, literacy rate in any language is higher in urban (83.0%) than rural (65.5%).

Table 4: National Adult Literacy Rates by Sex

Adult Literacy Male Female Both Sexes

English 65.1 50.6 57.9

Any Language 79.3 63.7 71.6

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2010. Table 4 reveals that literacy rates in English for males (65.1%) are higher than those of females

(50.6%). Also, literacy rates in any language for males (79.3%) are higher than those of females

(63.7%).

In view of the survey findings, low literacy remains a real counter development factor in

rural areas in Nigeria. However, efforts have been made to raise the literacy levels of rural

communities as well as employment skills. In this regard, the following efforts have been made to

improve literacy in rural areas in Nigeria. These efforts include:

• The introduction of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) • Construction and renovation of primary schools • Establishment of adult literacy centres • Introduction of nomadic education • Establishment of vocational skills acquisition centres • Introduction of free mid-day meals in schools in some parts of the country among others.

These programmes were established in the hope of reducing high rate of illiteracy in

Nigerian rural communities. It is worthy of note that rural development connotes a

comprehensive mode of social transformation which must involve all elements of the population

including the rural populace. The past efforts of the Governments in Nigeria to develop rural

areas have not yielded remarkable results. They have only exposed further the areas of learning

needs of the rural dwellers. Until these learning needs are met through functional literacy, rural

socio economic development may remain a mirage.

University Village Association (UNIVA)

University Village Association (UNIVA) is an NGO founded by Professor Michael Omolewa -

Ambassador, permanent Delegate to UNESCO. The NGO started its literacy drive in 1989 as

part of a movement towards achieving the realization of the declaration of Jomtien Forum of

1990. This drive has brought a lot of improvement in literacy rate in Nigeria. Over the years more

than seven thousand male and female adult learners across ninety seven communities in Nigeria

have been empowered (UNIVA, 2006).

At the home front, UNIVA works with Universities, Federal and Local Agencies of mass

education. At the international level UNIVA has among its partners, Pro-literacy, UNESCO,

UNICEF, IFESH and the British Council. All these agencies at one time or the other worked in

the areas of material development, innovative approaches to literacy promotion, capacity

building, community development and provision of resources to reach the un-reached.



Page 508

UNIVA Objectives

The broad objectives of UNIVA are to:

- influence government policy and effect changes in government attitude to the realization of Education for All (EFA) goals, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the activities of

the United Nations Literacy Decade 2003–2012 and the UNESCO’s Literacy Initiative for

Empowerment (LIFE);

- develop literacy programmes with special attention to the disadvantaged groups such as women, the marginalized groups, rural dwellers, the National Union of Road Transport

Workers and HIV/AIDS victims;

- promote functional literacy education for skills development.

To attain its objectives, UNIVA adopts Real Literacy Material (RLM) approach. Through

this approach, adult learners are being mobilized to generate public interest as well as get people

involved in mass literacy activities.

Impact Assessment of UNIVA Functional Literacy Education on Rural Development

UNIVA has contributed immensely to government’s effort of using functional literacy for rural

development in Nigeria. Rural dwellers through functional literacy programmes have acquired

basic skills that enabled them to get involved actively in rural development. Some of the skills so

acquired in functional literacy programmes include:

- Farm planning and management; - Skill in farm maintenance and improvement; - Applications of new inputs, varieties and improved farm practices; - Storage, food processing and preservation; - Leadership skills for generating community enthusiasm and collective action; - New improved technical skill applicable to particular goods and services; - General skills for administration, planning, implementation, information flows and promotional activities;

- Knowledge of government services, policies, family improvement in health nutrition, child care, family planning and home economics;

- Entrepreneurial skills; - Logistics of revenue collection and management; - Accidents reduction on roads.

In this wise, findings reveal that functional literacy remains an option to empowering

rural dwellers to participate meaningfully in the rural development process in Nigeria.

Functional Literacy and Implications for Enhancing Rural Dwellers’ Participation in the

Development Process

Functional Literacy is pivotal to rural dwellers’ participation in the rural development process.

According to Egenti (2001), there is a significant relationship between the level of rural dwellers’

functional literacy and their participation in rural development activities. This is premised on the

notion that functional literacy education, if fostered in the rural communities, can be an effective



Page 509

weapon by which the rural dwellers can deal with problems besetting them. The basic argument

in favour of functional literacy education is that in terms of developmental decision-making, the

rural dwellers are in a better position to appreciate the type of rural community programmes that

may best satisfy their needs.

Also, functional literacy education enhances self-growth, self-reliance, self-direction and

self-help among the rural dwellers. Functional literacy education, in this regard, equips rural

dwellers to learn to work together and organize themselves as a body for the progress of their

rural community. Functional literacy education makes rural dwellers to identify their problems,

plan solution, put their plan into action and evaluate the success by themselves.

Moreover, functional literacy education and rural development are joint mechanisms for the

mobilization of the rural dwellers young and old to induce desirable changes in rural

communities. Functional literacy education enhances cooperation, team work, group dynamics,

growth and development in rural communities.

Functional literacy education is a weapon against poverty. As rural dwellers become

functionally literate, they are economically empowered to develop their rural communities. They

also utilize their skills to promote innovations geared towards developing rural communities. In

view of the above, it is necessary to give an accelerated impetus to functional literacy education as

a strategy to foster rural development in Nigeria. Emphasis should not be placed only on formal

education but on informal/non-formal functional literacy education. Government of Nigeria in

collaboration with international organizations should demonstrate genuine commitment

financially, politically and morally to the promotion of functional literacy for rural development.

It is by so doing the MDGs could be realized in Nigeria by 2015.

Conclusion

This paper has discussed the role of functional literacy education in fostering rural development

in Nigeria. Past efforts to develop rural communities have failed simply because they are state-

centered and not people-centered. For developmental programmes to be productive and meet

the needs of the beneficiaries, it is important that the people concerned be involved in such

developmental process. However, for rural dwellers to participate in the development of their

rural areas, it is essential that they be functionally literate. The paper highlights the success story

of UNIVA as an example of the relevance of functional literacy education to rural development.

The implication for the government of Nigeria and policy makers is to harness all resources to

promote functional literacy education for rural development in Nigeria.

References

Adepoju, A (1982). Pattern of migration, living conditions & community development in rural areas of South-west Nigeria, Lagos: Federal Ministry of Social Development, Youth, Sports and Culture.

Adisa, B.O. (2008). Nature of rural environment for extension practice, In O.A. Akinyemiju and D.O. Torimiro (Eds) Agricultural extension: A comprehensive treatise, Ikeja, Lagos: ABC Agricultural Systems Ltd pp. 68-75.

Adult Education and development (2008). Executive summary of writing the wrongs (71). Pp. 13-16.

Akande, J.O. (2006). Eradicating the triad scourge of illiteracy, poverty and HIV/AIDS in the Nigerian society: Implications for adult and non-formal education, In Adult Education, A publication of Nigerian National Council for Adult Education, Vol. 12. Pp. 71-85.



Page 510

Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: An introduction to the ecology of written language. Oxford: Blackwell.

Ekong, E.E. (2003). Rural sociology: An Introduction and analysis of rural Nigeria. Uyo: Dove Educational Publishers.

Ezinma, M.O.A. (2004). Knowing adult education, New Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd.

Egenti, M.N. (2001). The influence of citizens’ participation in self-help projects on the welfare of people in Imo State”. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, University of Ibadan.

Fasokun, T.O. (2002). Adult education in practice, gaborane, botswana: distance education unit, centre for continuing education. University of Botswana.

Imhabekhai, C.I. (2009). Management of community development: programmes and projects. Benin: UNIBEN Press.

Indabawa, S and S. Mpofu (2006): The social context of adult learning in Africa, Hamburg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for Education.

International Literacy Statistics: A review of concepts, methodology and current data: Montreal: UNESCO Institute for statistics.

Jones, P. (1999): ‘Globalization and the UNESCO mandate: Multilateral prospects for educational development, In International Journal of Educational Development. Vol 19, Issue 1, pp. 17-25.

Kamla, B. (1991). “Participatory development demands participatory training “In Adult Education and Development. No 36, p. 5.

Omolewa, M. (1992). ‘Mass literacy campaign in nigeria”, present problems and future prospects in Adedoja, T.A. et al (eds) Issues in Nigerian Education, Lagos: Text and Leisure Publishers.

Opeke, R and Okwilagwe, (2001). Nigerian rural women as targets of development efforts: the issue of relevant information. International Journal of Continuing and Non-formal Education, Vol 1. No 1.

Openjuru G. (2004). Adult Literacy and development link: A perspective from a non literate’s literacy practices and environment. Adult Education and Development , 64. Pp. 7 & 19.

Pangne, G. (2006). RE-counting illiteracy: Literacy skills in the sociology of social inequality in the British.In Journal of sociology, Vol. 57, Issue 2.

Ritchey – vance, M. (1991). The art of association: NGOs and civil society in Colombia, Arlington: Inter-American foundation.

Smyth, J.A. (2006): UNESCO’s International Literacy Statistics, 1950-2000, Background paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006. Paris: UNESCO.

Schaffner, J. (2005). Measuring literacy in developing country household surveys: Issues and evidence”. Background paper for EFA Global Monitoring report 2006: Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO, (1975). Experimental world literacy programme. Paris: UNESCO

UNIVA, (2006). Literacy: A key to empowering members of the national union of road and transport workers. Ibadan: UNIVA.



Page 511


INCULCATING GOOD STUDY HABITS FOR SUCCESSFUL

ADJUSTMENT OF STUDENTS IN THE U.B.E. PROGRAMME

By

DR. (MRS.) IJEOMA .M. OPARA

[email protected] (08035475322)

and

OVENSEHI HENRY IMWENOGHOMWEN

Department of Educational Psychology Guidance and Counselling

University of Port Harcourt Rivers State

[email protected] (07030413395)

Abstract

The study investigated inculcating good study habits for successful adjustment of students in the U.B.E. programme. Four (4) research questions and four (4) null hypotheses tested at 0.05 Alpha level guided the study. The study adopted a descriptive survey design. A sample of 580 J.S.3. Upper Basic class was drawn from the population through stratified random sampling technique involving 262 males and 318 females from Obio-Akpor Local Government Area. An instrument titled “Study Habit Inventory” (SHI) which was adopted from Bakare (1977) was used for data collection. The reliability of the instrument (SHI) was established using Cronbach Alpha technique for internal consistency of the instrument. The reliability coefficients of the eight (8) sections of A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H are 0.65, 0.72, 0.68, 0.81, 0.66, 0.70, 0.86 and 0.62 respectively. SHI had a reliability coefficient of 0.77. Data collected were analyzed using mean, standard deviation and t-test. The result revealed that apart from homework and assignments, reading and note taking and concentration; students have problems in other areas such as allocation of time to their studies, study period procedures, written works, examination and consultation of their teachers. These results and their implications were discussed. Among other things it was recommended that government should include study habits as one of their objectives for successful adjustment of learners in the U.B.E. programme.



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Introduction

The U.B.E. programme was launched to achieve certain educational objectives. Three out of the five

objectives of this educational programme are:

• To develop in the entire citizens a strong consciousness for educational and a strong

commitment to its vigorous promotion.

• Reduce drastically drop-out rates from the formal school system through improved relevance

and efficiency.

• Ensure the acquisition of the appropriate levels of literacy, numeracy, manipulative and life

skills as well as the ethical, moral and civic values needed for laying the foundation for lifelong

learning. (Federal Republic of Nigeria 2004).

The achievement of these objectives demands successful adjustment of the learners to the

school system. Successful adjustment of the learner to the school means the process of bringing an

individuals’ behaviours in conformity with the norms of the school setting. It is a continuous or on-

going activity and it is geared towards adaptation of the individual to school life and culture

(Agbakwuru, 2009). Gates and Jersild in Mangal (2008) defined adjustment as a continual process in

which a person varies his behaviour to produce a more harmonious relationship between himself and

his environment. The definition sees adjustment as a continual process and it may last until the students

are able to show they can cope by making appropriate responses to the demands of the school.

One cordial factor that influences the learners school adjustment is study habits. Research

report by Onyejiaku (1987) revealed that study habits alone contribute as much as 33-45% to one’s

academic success. Since the repeated experience of success influences positively school adjustment, the

role of good study habits in students adjustment in the U.B.E. programme cannot therefore be

overemphasized. A habit is something that is done on a scheduled, regular and planned basis that is not

relegated to a second place or optimal place in one’s life. To study is to buy out the time and dedicate

self to the application and the task of study which is to become engrossed in a process of learning,

practice, enlightenment – education of one’s self. Therefore, study habits are the ways that one study –

the habits that he/she has formed during one’s school years. Asagwara and George (1996) defined

study habits as those strategies which a learner applies in the process of acquiring knowledge, ideas and

skills. It also means the process of buying out a dedicated scheduled and un-interrupted time to apply

one’s self to the task of learning. That is the learners stable, regular and acquired patterns of acquiring

knowledge, ideas and skills. Umezuruike (2006) defined study habits as the techniques a student

employs to go about his or her studies which are consistent and have become stereotyped as a result of

long application and practice. It logically follows then that the kind of study habits one adopts will

certainly influence ones outcome in learning since academic performance is, to a large extent, a function

of one’s study habits. One’s study habits can be good or bad. Good study habits include being

organized keeping good notes, reading your textbooks, listening in class and working everyday while

bad study habits include skipping class, not doing your work, watching television or playing video

games instead of studying.

Research reports (Onyejiaku, 1987, Kemjika 1998, and Bakare 1977) have identified a number

of components of study habits. These include homework and assignments; time allocation; reading and

note taking; study period procedures; concentration, written work; examinations and teacher

consultation. One’s habits in each of these areas can be good or bad. While good study habits make the



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acquisition of knowledge, ideas and skills easy and thus facilitates successful school adjustment, bad

study habits do the opposite. Viewed in this way, it is logical to state that the level of achievement of

the noble objectives of the U.B.E. programme significantly depends on the degree of school

adjustment of the learners. The degree of school adjustment of the learners in a related way depends on

the students study habits.

Sadly, the U.B.E. programme was launched without any conscious effort to determine the study

habits of Nigerians, for whom the programme is targeted. The results of this situation have been that

besides partial achievement of the noble goals of the U.B.E. programme, educationists knew nothing

regarding the study habits of learners in the U.B.E. programme. This state of affair has made it

impossible for them to device appropriate ways of manipulating students study habits to bring them in

harmony with the objectives of the U.B.E. programme. In the present circumstance therefore, the

problem of this study posed as a research question is “what are the components or areas of study habits

that students are encountering problems in?”.

The main purpose of the study is to find out the components or areas of study habits that

students are encountering problems in. Specifically, the study seeks to:

1) Find out the extent male and female students do their home work and assignments and allocate

time for their studies.

2) Investigate the extent male and female students do their reading and note taking and involve

themselves in study period procedures.

3) Determine the extent male and female students concentrate while studying and do their written

work.

4) Find out the extent male and female students perform in their examination and consult their

teachers on their study.

To guide the study, four null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of

significance.

1) There is no significant difference between mean responses of male and female students with

regards to their home work and assignments and allocation of time to their studies.


regards to their reading and note taking and their involvement in study procedures.


regards to their concentration while studying and their written work.

4) There is no significant difference between mean responses of male and female students in their

examination and consultation of their teacher in their study.

Methods

The study adopted a descriptive survey design. A descriptive survey is the study in which the researcher

collects data usually from a large sample drawn from a given population. It describes certain attributes

or features of the sample as they are and as required by the study at the particular time without

manipulating any independent variables of the study (Nwankwo 2011). It sought to study the opinions

of the JS3 male and female students on the components or areas of study habits that they encounter

problems in. The target population was all the JS3 upper basic class in Obio-Akpor Local Government



Page 514

Area. As at the time of the study, there were 3,156 JS3 students, (source: Obio/Akpor Basic Education

Unit). A sample of 580 JS3 Upper Basic class was drawn from the population through stratified random

sampling technique of which 262 were males and 318 females. The instrument used for data collection

was a questionnaire titled “Study Habits Inventory” (SHI) adopted from Bakare (1977). The instrument

is a 45 item Likert type instrument scored on a 5-point scale of Almost Never (AN), less than Half of

the Time (LHT), About Half of the Time (AHT), More than Half of the Time (MHT) and Almost

Always (AA). The instrument has eight (8) sections namely: Homework and Assignment, Time

Allocation, Reading and Note Taking, Study Period Procedures; Concentration, Written Works,

Examinations and Teacher Consultation. The researchers administered the instrument directly and

retrieved same from the respondents. Data collected was analyzed using mean scores, standard

deviations and t-test statistic tested at 0.05 level of significance.

Results

The results presented in line with null hypotheses that guided the study are presented in the tables

below.

Table 1: T-test analysis showing differences in mean responses of male and female students with

regards to their home work and assignments and allocation of time to their study.

Areas of

study habit

Group N X SD df t-cal t-crit Result

Home work

and

assignment

Male 262 15.65 7.11

578

-3.05*

1.96

Significant Female 318 17.34 6.05

Allocation of

time

Male 262 19.15 6.65

578

-0.92*

1.96

Not

significant Female 318 19.68 7.19

* Significant at 0.05 level.

Table 1 showed that the mean scores of the group of male and female were 15.65 and 17.34

respectively for home work and assignment. Mere looking at the two mean scores there were slight

difference between them in favour of female students. When these mean scores were statistically

compared using t-test a calculated t-value of -3.05 was obtained against a critical t-value of 1.96 at

degree of freedom of 578 and 0.05 level of significance. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant

difference was rejected, indicating that there is a difference in mean responses of male and female

students with regards to their home works and assignments. Also, the mean scores of 19.15 and 19.68

for the male and female students respectively showed that the two groups differ slightly in their mean

ratings of responses regarding allocation of time to their studies. The result in the table also showed

that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degrees of freedom, the t-calculated of -0.92 is less than the t-critical of

1.96. This result means that male and female students do not differ significantly in their responses

regarding allocation of time to their studies.




Page 515

regards to their reading and note taking and involvement in study period procedure.

Areas of

study habit


Reading and

note taking

Male 262 11.18 3.67

578

2.53*

1.96


Involvement

in study period

procedures

Male 262 12.58 4.12

578

-0.40*

1.96

Not


* Significant at 0.05 level

Table 2 revealed that the mean scores of the group of male and female students were 11.18 and

10.44 respectively for reading and note taking. At critical look, there are not much differences between

the two mean scores. When t-test analysis was employed to compare these mean scores a calculated t-

value of 2.53 was obtained. This calculated t-value (2.53) was more than t-critical of 1.96, that is t-cal >

t-critical at 0.05 level of significance. The null hypothesis was rejected. Therefore, there is a significant

difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their reading and note

taking. Also the mean scores of 12.58 for the males and 12.72 for the females revealed that the two

groups differ slightly in their mean rating responses with regards to their involvement in study period

procedures. The result in the table further showed that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degree of freedom,

the t-calculated of 0.92 is less than the t-critical of 1.96 to make for significant difference. Based on this,

the null hypothesis was retained.


regards to their concentration while studying and their written work.

Areas of

study habit


Concentration Male 262 13.05 2.78

578

-5.08*

1.96


Written work Male 262 10.78 3.15

578

1.78*

1.96

Not



Considering the mean scores of 13.05 and 14.30 for the males and females respectively in table

3, it is evident that males and females differ in their mean rating responses with regards to their

concentration while studying. The result in the table also showed that the t-calculated (-5.08) is greater

than the t-critical of 1.96 at 578 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. In light of this, the null

hypothesis was rejected. The conclusion which is drawn from the result is that male and female

students differ significantly in their concentration while studying. Also the result indicated that the

mean scores of the group of male and female students were 10.78 and 10.32 respectively for written

work. At critical look there are not much differences between the two mean scores. When t-test



Page 516

analysis was employed to compare these mean scores a calculated t-value of 1.78 was obtained. This

calculated t-value (1.78) was less than t-critical of 1.96 at 578 degree of freedom and 0.05 alpha level. In

light of this, the null hypothesis was accepted. The conclusion which is drawn from the result is that

male and female students do not differ significantly in their written works.


regards to their examination and consultation of their teachers.

Areas of

study habit


Examination

Male 262 15.62 5.72

578

0.37*

1.96

Not

significant

Female 318 15.45 5.12

Consultation

of their

teachers

Male 262 9.56 3.10

578

-0.93*

1.96

Not



Table 4 revealed that the mean scores of the group of male and female students were 15.62 and

15.45 respectively. Mere looking at the two mean scores there were slight difference between them in

favour of male students. When these mean scores were statistically compared using t-test a calculated t-

value of 0.37 was obtained which was less than a t-critical value of 1.96 at degree of freedom of 578 and

0.05 alpha level. Hence, the null hypothesis of no significant differences was accepted indicating that

male and female students do not differ significantly in their examination. Also the mean scores of 9.56

for the males and 9.82 for the females in table 4 showed that the two groups differ slightly in the mean

rating responses with regards to the consultation of their teachers in their study. The result in the table

further showed that at 0.05 alpha level and 578 degree of freedom, the t-calculated of -0.93 is less than

the t-critical of 1.96 to make for significant difference. Based on this, the null hypothesis was retained.

Discussion

The result of statistical investigation of hypothesis one showed that there is a significant difference in

mean responses of male and female students with regards to their homeworks and assignments. The

result notwithstanding, a closer observation of the mean scores of the two groups showed that female

students have higher mean score than male students. This means that female students do their

homework and assignment more than the male students. This is in agreement with Onuoha (2008) who

found out that there is a significant difference in the study habits of male and female secondary school

students in Imo State as a result of peer group influence. The disagreement was He also asserted that

male students had more effective study habits than their female counterparts. On the other hand, the

same research question one and hypothesis one investigated the extent male and female students

allocate time for their studies. The mean scores of 19.15 and 19.68 for the male and female students

respectively showed that the two groups differ slightly in their mean ratings of responses regarding

allocation of time to their studies. The hypothesis was tested with t-test of independent means and the

result showed that male and female students do not differ significantly in their responses regarding

allocation of time to their studies. Onuoha (2008) opined that students who place studies in its proper



Page 517

perspective are likely to have little difficulties disregarding the many distracting influences which

compete with their study time.

In a related way, the second research question and hypothesis sought to find out the extent

male and female students do their reading and note taking and involvement in study period procedure.

The research question revealed that the mean scores of the males is slightly higher than that of the

females in the reading and note taking. When t-test analysis was employed, there was a significant

difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their reading and note

taking. Ipaye in Onuoha (2008) opined that an hour is a suitable work unit as a general rule for reading,

note taking and learning from text books. The same research question two and its corresponding

hypothesis investigated the extent male and female students involve themselves in study period

procedure. The result revealed that the mean scores of the females was slightly higher than that of the

males. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant difference between mean responses

of male and female students with regards to their study period procedure. The slight difference in the

mean scores of the two groups may be unconnected with their study period procedure but amount of

counselling derived. Okadele (1987) viewed that counselling influences students to cultivate effective

study habits.

The result of research question three and its corresponding hypothesis showed that male and

female students differ significantly in their concentration while studying. However, keen observation of

the mean scores of the two groups showed that the female scored slightly higher than the males. This is

also an indication of the fact that female students concentration while studying was higher than that of

the males. This situation equally buttresses the fact that male students are more distracted than the

female students. Also research question three and its corresponding hypothesis investigated the extent

male and female students do their written work. The result revealed that the mean scores of the males

was slightly higher than that of the females. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant

difference between mean responses of male and female students with regards to their written work.

On the other hand, research question four and its corresponding hypothesis examined the

extent male and female students perform in their examination. A closer observation of the mean scores

of the two groups revealed that male students have higher mean score than female students. This

means that male students perform well in their examination than the female students. When t-test

analysis was employed, there was no significant difference between mean responses of male and female

students with regards to their examination. Olayinka (1999) in recommending ways to study effectively

and pass examination said: participation in group discussions when students also have similar objectives

meet to discuss their problems and find solutions to them is a functional approach to effective study.

Also research question four and its corresponding hypothesis verified the extent male and female

students consult their teacher in their study. The result revealed that the mean scores of the females was

slightly more than that of the males. When t-test analysis was employed, there was no significant

difference between mean responses of male and female student with regards to the consultation of their

teachers in their study. This is in agreement with Dansereau (1979) who posited that one of the

problems of students was lack of consultation of teacher with their academic problems.

Conclusion

The result of this study revealed that both male and female students do their home work and

assignment, reading and note taking and also concentrated while reading. But have problems with



Page 518

allocation of time to their studies, study period procedures, written works, examinations and

consultation of their teachers. All these problems may have arised because of inadequate counselling of

students concerning their study habits.

Recommendations

In the light of the results of this study, the following recommendations are hereby made:

1) Government should include study habits as one of their objectives for successful adjustment of

learners in the U.B.E. programme.

2) Counsellors and teachers should adequately advice and guide the students in their study habits

especially in the areas they encounter problems.

3) Students should endeavour to form good study habits and consult their teachers and counsellor

in their academic problems.

References

Agbakwuru, C. (2009). School Adjustment. Owerri: Joe Mankpa Publishers. Asagwara, C.G. & George, I.N. (1996). School adjustment and academic success. Calaboar: Bon Universal Ltd. Bakare, C.G.M. (1977). Study habits inventory. Ibadan: University Press. Dansereau, D.F. (1979). Development and evaluation of a learning strategy training programme. Journal

of Educational Psychologist 22, 248-254. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education Yaba Lagos: NERDC Press. Kemjika, O.G. (1998). Relationship between study habits and students achievement among secondary

school students in Rivers State. Nigerian Journal of Professional studies. Mangal, S.K. (2008). Advanced educational psychology. New Delhi Rajkamal Electric Press. Nwankwo, O.C. (2011). A Practical guide to research writing. Port Harcourt: Pam Unique Publishers Co.

Ltd. Okadele, F.C. (1987). Improve your study skills. Ogun; Nigeria: Adeniyi Printing Press. Olayinka, M.S. (1999). How to study effectively and pass examination. The Prime Counsellor 1(2) 1-8. Onuoha, J.A. (2008). Socio-psychological factors influencing study habits among secondary school students in Imo State.

Unpublished (Ph.D) Dissertation. University of Port Harcourt. Onyejiaku, F.O. (1987). Techniques of effective study. Calabar: Wusen Press Ltd. Umezuruike, O.G. (2009). Tips for effective learning. Owerri: Assumpta Press.



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OBAFEMI AWOLOWO’S PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION:

AN ANALYTICAL INTERPRETATION.

By

PROFESSOR J. D. OKOH

and

DR. CHIDI OMORDU

Department of Educational Foundations Faculty of Education

University of Port Harcourt.

Abstract

This work attempts to establish Obafemi Awolowo as an African Philosopher of education. The work

sets up criteria for selecting an African Philosopher of education. Awolowo satisfies most of the criteria.

He wrote about man, the society, values and knowledge, and attempted to link all of them with

education. Furthermore, the research highlighted Awolowo’s Philosophical ideas and their implications

for the Nigerian system of education. Finally, it was the view of the writers that Africans should do their

best to recognize their good leaders in all walks of life and uphold their lives and shinning qualities for

the youth to emulate.



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Introduction

Since the advent of Western education in Nigeria in 1843, the Nigerian educational system has in one

way or the other been influenced by the idea of foreign educational philosophers such as John Amos

Comenius (1592-1670), John Locke (1632-1704), John Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), John Pestalozzi

(1746-1827), J.F. Herbert (1776-1841), Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), John Dewey (1859-1952). Some

of these foreign educational philosophies have been found to be irrelevant to the educational aims and

objectives of the post-independent Nigerian society. It is imperative at this time to think of indigenous

philosophers and the implications of their philosophy to the Nigerian system of education.

Moreso, about a decade ago, one of the vibrant topics of debate among African and non-

African scholars centred on the existence of African philosophy. This debate in recent years has

become unnecessary. What is necessary now is, does African philosophy exist? If it does, it should be

shown, done and written rather than being debated. According to Okoh (2003:25), “the works of Plato

and John Dewey are the models and to the extent that any philosophizing about education resembles

these models”. They may be regarded as technical philosophy of Education. In what way or ways can

we compare the works of Obafemi Awolowo to those of Plato or Dewey?

The Nigerianization process of our aims of education must be aligned towards the goals and

aspirations of the Nigerian society. In agreement with this, Okoh (2005:31) affirms that, “it is better for

us to adopt our past to the present, than to barter our heritage for alien and foreign experience”. It is

on this basis that this work attempts to explicate Obafemi Awolowo’s philosophy of education and to

align it with the Nigerian National Policy on Education.

Who is a Philosopher of Education?

From the traditional perspective philosophy has an ideal model often referred to as “Technical

Philosophy of Educaiton”. All other philosophies of education as expressed through ideological,

religious belief systems, nationalism and so on, are classified as “Non- technical philosophies of

Education”. According to Okoh (2003:25), “a technical philosopher of education constructs theories

about metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, then he develops a positive conception of what

education ought to be in the light of his philosophical theories”.

In the contemporary period, Africa has witnessed the emergence of the two strands of

philosophers mentioned above. As Omordu (2009:2) puts it, “it is relatively easy to classify many

African philosophers under the category of “non-technical” philosophers viz: Nnamdi Azikiwe,

Kwame Nkurumah, Leopold Sengor and so on. These set of African philosophers are undoubtedly

powerful political thinkers and ideologues whose philosophies on a variety of subjects have greatly

influenced the people of their countries, Africa and beyond. But following the established definition of

a technical philosophy of education, this research is designed to project and establish Obafemi

Awolowo as a technical philosopher of education and to show the implications of his philosophy to the

Nigerian education.

Criteria for Selecting an African Philosopher of Education

Okoh (1998:28) sets down five criteria for selecting an African philosopher of education. These are:

1. Development of a philosophic position: Has the person attempted to develop a philosophic



Page 521

position?

2. Demonstration of expertise in education matters: Has the person demonstrated a measure of

expertise in the exposition of his thought concerning education?

3. Capacity of message to change human affairs: Could the person be regarded as an influential

thinker whose educational message has changed the course of human affairs?

4. Contribution of new ideas to the existing theories or criticism of old theories.

5. Emergence from theory to practice: Has the work of the person emerged effectively in practice

anywhere in Nigeria. Has his work continued to be effective for notable period of time?

If there is any Nigerian thinker whose ideas have influenced the lives of millions of people it is

Obafemi Awolowo. As a politician he has been very progressive and pragmatic. As a philosopher, and

thinker, he has been most successful in influencing the lives of people. Indeed, he is more of a thinker,

a philosopher than a politician. As a philosopher, Omoregbe (1990:52) describes Awolowo as “an

eminent thinker with deep prophetic insight”.

Awolowo wrote about man, the society, value and knowledge and attempted to link all of them

through education. He formulated a philosophic position which he called Democratic Socialism. Like

Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Awolowo showed the relationship between the world of thinking and

doing, theory and practice. Convinced that thought without practice is empty and practice without

thought is blind, Awolowo successfully transformed his ideas into practice by introducing the free

Universal Primary Education in the Western Region in 1955. Although he could not have the full

opportunity to demonstrate his educational ideas, nevertheless with the limited time and resources he

had his free education programme touched the lives of millions of Nigerians.

Highlights of Awolowo’s Philosophy of Education

Awolowo’s tools of philosophy was put to work on problems of man. He translated the theoretical

findings of philosophy into some kinds of intellectual and workable theme for practical process of

education. He constructed theories about metaphysics, epistemology and axiology, and then developed

a positive conception of what education ought to be in the light of his philosophical theories. This can

be seen in the following highlights.

Education For All-Round Development of Man

Man in Awolowo’s philosophy is a composite of both spiritual and physical elements. His education is

geared towards the development of all the composite parts in order to achieve ‘whole being’. Taking his

metaphysics for granted, the only way by which an individual can realize his human potentials to the

fullest is to nurture his thought (mind). This implies that education is a necessary condition for

becoming human. In his opinion, if thought is left to itself, it will be dominated by the body and

ultimately, corrupted, debased and its growth stunted. The power of thinking in man is therefore to be

developed by education.

Awolowo believes that what nature intends is that the various parts of man should work

harmoniously. For him, a man who only has his physical part educated has only been trained to carry

out specific operations; Such a person might be very obedient but left to himself. Conversely, if it is

one’s intellect that is developed, one might be a genius of theory but when it comes to actualizing

oneself such a person will be found wanting. In order to satisfy the physical aspect of educational

development, Awolowo built an international standard stadium sited at Ibadan, which is said to be the



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first stadium in Africa.

Community Education Based on Indigenous Practice

Awolowo considered African style of education as being guided by foreign concepts and ideology and

called for the type of education that will reflect African ideology of socialism. He shunned colonial

mentality and advocated for indigenization of education. One way in which he demonstrated his love

for indigenous education was the introduction of mother-tongue in nursery and the early stage of

primary education. He taught that any education to be given must be such that prepares the recipient to

realize himself and contribute positively to the growth of the society. He favoured the inculcation of

certain skills and values to the student. Social, political responsibilities, job orientation, spiritual and

moral values are as far as Awolowo is concerned, worthwhile and should be employed to equip the

child in preparation for the realities of the environment in which he finds him/herself.

Education for Community Spirit as Against Individual Spirit.

Like the traditional African society, Awolowo wanted to achieve a society where the interest of the

community is priced over and above the interest of a single individual. In the process he is convinced

that the only way to achieve this is by enthroning socialism as against capitalism. He believed that the

capitalists have thwarted the design of nature by greedily and selfishly appropriating to themselves

alone nature’s free gifts to all men.

Awolowo advocated in the principle of welfarism. For him capitalism breeds competition and

militates against the spirit of cooperation which every community should be known for. According to

Awolowo (1968:166) “for every single entrepreneur who succeeds or survives, there are probably more

than a thousand or ten thousand that have gone completely under, never to rise again”. In the capitalist

ruthless struggle the casualties always outnumber the survivors by far. He espoused in the satisfaction

of the greatest number and not a single individual:

Whatever good and beneficial ideals are held in minds of men, especially in the

mind of the vast majority of the people, and cherished by them, will materialize

sooner or later, provided the people concern remain constant and faithful in

cherishing the ideals and in devising constructive means for achievement

(Awolowo, 1969:200).

By implication, Awolowo is saying that since the majority of Nigerians cannot finance their own

education (majority interest) it becomes imperative that government provides education free of charge.

Education should not be left to the dictates and interest of the wealthy few, who consequently, will use

same for further exploitation and domination of the poor majority.

Awolowo’s Educational Ladder

Like Plato, Marcus Fabric Quintilian, John Amos Camenius, and Jean Jacques Rousseau, Awolowo

worked out an educational ladder that should serve as a guide for the education of the child. His stages

of education are as follows:

(i) Primary education: 6years

(ii) Secondary education: 3 years (Modern school, an equivalent of today’s junior secondary)

(iii) Higher School Certificate (H.S.C):2 years



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(iv) University education: 3years

It is important to note that Awolowo was able to transform his educational theories to practice.

Although he had a limited scale of opportunity, yet, he demonstrated what he preached in practice. The

point to note here is that not all educational ideas can effectively emerge in practice. The practice need

not be implemented by the educator himself. For example, Plato’s education ideas was not put into

practice in Greece. Rousseau did not also implement his ideas himself. But in the case of Awolowo, his

thoughts and actions have brought about a change in behaviour of millions of people.

Education and Welfarism

The central theme and objective of Awolowo’s socio-political philosophy is the welfare of man in the

society. We discover that since social class and inequality negate this objective, Awolowo decided to

evolve and create the ideal political condition for its realization. His target is to create a society where

the natural resources of the land are equitably distributed without fear or favour. A society where

equality becomes the bench mark for the distribution of goods and services. And finally, a society

where social services such as health and education will become inalienable right of the people to be

given free of charge.

Nigeria can be said to have benefited from Awolowo’s philosophy. Awolowo’s dream has

invariably, translated into:

(i) A free and democratic society

(ii) A just and egalitarian society

(iii) A United strong and self-reliance nation

(iv) A great dynamic economy, and

(v) A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens. (NPE 2004:6)

Education for Democratic Socialism

The well-being of the individual in Awolowo’s point of view is, “from each according to his ability and

to each according to his needs”. Consequently, he maintained that man is entitled to maximum care so

that he can be useful to himself and to the society. The duty of the state therefore is to ensure an

atmosphere that is conducive to a full development of all the potentialities in man, while ensuring that

the principles of equality are observed.

Awolowo recognized and advocated for a policy of free education at all levels since early fifties.

For him it is the duty of the state to provide free education for all her citizens. He explained that since

all citizens are not equally endowed financially, thus causing class inequality in the acquisition of

education by all citizens; the government therefore owes it as a duty to provide education for all

citizens.

On the issue of making education free, vis-à-vis the limited financial resources, Awolowo

proffered a solution. According to him in Awolowo (1968:76), “a substantial amount of money can be

realized if all fringe benefits being enjoyed by government functionaries are abolished”. As a social

good, education should be made available to all who desire it. It should not be provided on the basis of

creed, colour, race or social status. It will be an unfair treatment for any government to provide good

education to the rich and powerful at the expense of the poor. Social opportunities should be available

on the basis of free access.



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Education and the Dignity of man

Awolowo devotes his work, ‘The People’s Republic’ (1968) to his philosophy of man. ‘The sole object

of our discourse in this work is man” (Awolowo 1968:211). His concern is that man, especially in the

underdeveloped nations of the world, is suffering and sad with himself and others in the society. In

fact, economic poverty, ignorance, disease and political dominion have dehumanized him and made

him a shadow of his true being and person. But this situation can be changed for better if we have

recourse to Socratic advice: “Man know thyself”. Following his metaphysics, the only way by which an

individual can realize human potentials to the fullest is to nurture his thoughts. It implies that education

is a necessary condition for becoming really human. This follows that the development of human

person through education is a natural goal, worthy of pursuit for itself.

Equality of Education Opportunity

Although Awolowo postulated that all human beings are equal and are created in God’s own image, he

is no doubt, aware of individual differences as well. He recognizes difference in innate talents or talent

ability. He never claimed equality of talents for all men nor has he ever demanded that it is possible to

make all men equal as to their respective abilities. He spelt out in the following three terms, his

socialism and the basis for equality.

• All men have innate talents or ability. What those talents are, and how many they are, we do

not know until all of them are given equal opportunity to develop.

• Even when all the talents have been developed to the fullest limit possible, each one must be

given equal opportunity to contribute to social development.

• When all talents in the society are not fully developed it is not the individuals that are

adversely affected alone who suffer; the society and political development of the society

itself is absolutely a function of the aggregate efforts of the members of the society

(Awolowo, 1966: 64).

Thus, the most prominent and practical of Awolowo’s social theory could be said to be the

emphasis on social mobility and stratification. He does not advocate equalization of men because men

have different natural or innate endowments and talents, and are born and influenced by different

geographical climate and cultural factors. But his welfare programme provides equal chance for all to

develop. It is in line with this that he became the first in Nigeria to advocate a free education policy and

to implement it as leader of government in Western Nigeria in 1955. He did not stop there; Awolowo

campaigned consistently and vigorously to the extent that in 1966, he was the first to suggest that “free

education” be included in the Nigerian Constitution.

Education and Enthroning Federalism

One of the key areas of interest in Awolowo’s socio-political philosophy is his choice of federalist

constitution for Nigeria. Since the early nineteen thirties, Awolowo has been a convinced federalist. He

states that.

In 1951 when the controversy on the form of Nigeria’s constitution began, I

had already been for more than eighteen years a convinced federalist. In the



Page 525

early thirties, I was a fanatical admirer of the Indian National Congress (a

federalist state), and of the three of its illustrious leaders (Awolowo,

1960:160).

Awolowo criticizes the policy of quota system of admission into the Federal institutions of

learning. He agrees that between the various ethnic groups, there were differing standards of civilization

as well as uneven stages in the adoption of Western Education and the emulation of Western

civilization. A Unitary constitution with only one central government for him,

would only result in frustration to the more pushful and more dynamic ethnic groups, whereas, the division of the country into regions along ethnic line would enable each linguistic group not only to develop its own peculiar culture and institutions but to move forward at its pace, without being unnecessarily pushed or annoyingly slowed down by others (Awolowo, 1960:164).

It is however, his conviction that while some groups are more developed, especially in terms of

acquiring Western Education, others are not. It would then be stupid of any government according to

him, to think that all ethnic groups will develop at the same rate. He suggested that it is the duty of the

government in this regard to create equal opportunities for all the groups to realize their potentials

rather than trying to give more opportunities to some at the expense of the others.

Implications for Nigeria Educational System

The telnets of Awolowo’s philosophy of education can be translated into the Nigerian educational

system in the realization that:

• Education is an inalienable right of every citizen of the society.

• The essence of education is to develop the “whole” man so as to realize himself and to

contribute to the development of the society at large.

• The individual that is to be educated is a complex being and has a lot to do for himself if he is

to achieve self realization.

• It is the responsibility of the state to ensure individual development.

• Education should be properly funded by the government, as it is a social responsibility.

• Proper education must be all-round: Physical, mental and moral. Thus, the curriculum must be

designed as to give room for a balanced development.

• Equal educational opportunities should be created for all citizens so that they can develop

maximally.

• Education should not be discriminatory. All citizens should be left to compete freely among

themselves.

• The various states of the federation should be encouraged to develop at their pace without

unnecessarily ‘pushing’ or ‘pully’ down one another by any policy of government aimed at

equalization of education.

• Finally, that education should be made to respond to the needs/problems of the Nigerian

Society.



Page 526

Conclusion

This research was carried out in an attempt to establish an indigenous philosopher of education in the

post- independent Nigeria, and the implications of his educational ideas to the new realities. The work

also attempts to show the challenges facing the present day Nigerian leaders who have the available

resources, time and scope to emulate Chief Awolowo’s quality of sincerity, focus, and devotion to duty.

The paper recommends that we must do our best to recognize good leaders in all walks of life in our

society and uphold their lives and shining examples for the youths to emulate.

References

Awo (1960). The autobiography of chief obafemi awolowo, London: Cambridge University press.

Awolowo, O. (1966). Thoughts on the Nigerian Constitution, Ibadan: Oxford University Press.

Awolowo, O. (1969). The strategy and tactics of the people’s republic of Nigeria, Ibadan: Macmillan Nigeria Publishers Ltd.

Awolowo, O. (1968). The people’s republic. Ibadan: Oxford University Press.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th edition), Lagos: NERDC Press.

Okoh J. D (1998). Educational ideas of outstanding Nigerian educators, Owerri: Corporate Impressions.

Okoh, J. D (2003). Philosophy of education: the basics, Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers.

Okoh, J. D. (2005). The risk of an education system without a philosophical base. An Inaugural Lecture series No. 38 Presented to the University of Port Harcourt.

Omordu, C. (2009). Obafemi Awolowo As a Philosopher of Education: An Analytical Interpretation. An Unpublished Ph.D Dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt.

Omoregbe, J. I. (1990). Knowing Philosophy, Ikeja: Joja press Limited.



Page 527


INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION ON TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN OSUN STATE, NIGERIA

By

O. E. OLAJIDE, Ph.D

and

G. A. NWOGU

Department of Adult Education Faculty of Education

University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

Abstract

The extent to which tourism contributes to the socio-economic and political development of any country is still a subject of debate. Therefore, this study examined the influence of community participation on tourism development in Osun State, Nigeria using Osun/Osogbo groove as a case study. The study adopted the survey research design of ex-post facto .250 respondents were selected through purposive and simple random sampling techniques. An instrument tagged “Community Participation on Tourism Development Questionnaire (CPTDQ) (r = 0.81) was used for data collection. Two hypotheses were tested. Data were analysed using chi-square. Results showed that community participation in the tourism development correlated significantly with decision making process (X2 cal. = 25.308, X2 crit. = 11.070, df = 5, p < .05). Similarly, tourism businesses correlated significantly with benefit sharing schemes (X2 cal. = 61.28, X2 crit. = 3.182, df = 3, P<.05). Based on the results, the study recommended that there is need for benefit-sharing schemes that will provide opportunities for local people and alleviate poverty while contributing to achieving sustainability in tourism development. Keywords: Community, Participation, Tourism, Development, Benefit-Sharing.



Page 528

Introduction

Tourism is the world’s largest industry and one of the fastest growing industries worldwide (UNCTAD,

2007). In many countries, tourism has become one of the main contributors of their Gross Domestic

Product (GDP). It is the world’s largest employer and one among the major sources of substantial

foreign exchange earnings (Richards, 2003; Mwandosya, 2007). It is through this observation that many

people believe that the industry is well placed as one of the major means through which development

of local communities can be achieved (Scheyvens, 2002; Beeton, 2006). One approach to enhance this

development through tourism is to involve local communities and ensure that their potential role is

tagged and maintained through active participation in the industry (Beeton, 2006).

However, it is imperative to note that participation of these communities is central to the

sustainable development of the industry not only because tourism has had a close connection with the

local communities, particularly as hosts and guides (Scheyvens, 2002), but also because “the

destinations of tourists are communities and it is in the community that tourism happens” (Mbaiwa,

2005). In this context, participation is a process through which stakeholders among the local

communities who are often the intended beneficiaries of community tourism, influence and share

control over development initiatives and the decisions and resources which affect them (Havel, 1996).

Participation, therefore, seeks collaboration or partnerships and the commitment necessary to ensure

sustainability of tourism development (Wolfensohn, 1996).

Paradoxically, the outcomes of participation are usually a reflection of a certain level of

involvement of relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process which in turn enables people to

make informed commitments to a particular tourism project (Havel, 1996). Manyara and Jones (2007)

citing Akama (1999) posited that “local communities are hardly involved in tourism development” and

they are usually without a voice in the development process (Havel, 1996). To Mbaiwa (2005), this

situation is contrary to the principles of sustainable tourism development which, among other things

emphasize the participation of local communities. Moreover, many scholars have argued that

community participation in tourism activities not only lead to getting local community support for the

industry but also acts as a crucial component to achieving sustainable development of the industry

(Kibicho, 2003; Cole, 2006).

Nevertheless, Nigeria offers a wide variety of tourist attractions such as extended and roomy

river and ocean beaches ideal for swimming and other water sports, unique wildlife, vast tracts of

unspoiled nature ranging from tropical forest, magnificent waterfalls, some new rapidly growing cities

and climatic conditions in some parts particularly conducive to holidaying (Okeyi, 2003). Other

attractions include traditional ways of life preserved in local customs; rich and varied handicrafts and

other colourful products depicting or illustrative of native arts and lifestyle, and the authentic

unsophisticated but friendly attitude of many in the Nigerian population. However, many of these

attractions are still largely untapped and even at their raw states. They are still being enjoyed by few

outsiders, either very rich visitors in quest of exoticism or adventurous people in search of new

challenges and experiences.

Therefore, the lack of required modern infrastructural facilities and in some parts of the country

acute conditions of under-development and poverty can be seen which many potential Nigeria bound

tourist may not like to be confronted with. It is as a result of the aforementioned that this study tends

to examine the influence of community participation on tourism development in Osun State, Nigeria.


Tourism development is one area that needs government attention in her quest for job creation.

While oil and gas sector has taken much of the government concentration, other sectors of the



Page 529

economy have recorded dwindling fortune which has made it difficult for investors to look in this

direction. Consequently, the absence of tourism infrastructural facilities and not been part of benefit-

sharing has also made the people in the community to exhibit a lukewarm attitude to participate in

tourism, thereby creating an apathy on the development of tourism in Nigeria.

Objectives of the Study

The objectives of this study are

(i) to access the extent of local people’s participation in the tourism development decision-

making process; and

(ii) to access if tourism business in the area have developed benefit-sharing schemes.

Hypotheses

The following hypotheses will be tested:

H1: There will be no significant relationship between community participation in the tourism

development and decision-making process.

H2: There will be no significant relationship between tourism businesses and benefit-sharing

schemes.

Community Participation and Development Initiatives

Community participation has become a common element in many development initiatives, such

as community-based programmes, which assume participatory methods and has been promoted by

development organizations, notably the World Bank, to address the inefficiency of highly centralized

development approaches particularly in the developing world (Baral and Heinen, 2007). Today, many

development initiatives solicit the participation of all concerned stakeholders, at the relevant level, not

only for the sake of efficiency and equity of the programmes, leverage of donors and demands of local

communities, but also for sustainability of these initiatives (Ribot, 2004). Consequently, the real

outcome of soliciting such community participation is to create and produce an enabling environment

needed by these stakeholders, especially local communities who have been vulnerable to negative

impacts of tourism attributed partly to the fact that many tourism resources occur in their areas, to have

a real stake in development activities (Havel, 1996; Songorwa, 1999). This requires involving local

communities in decision-making and strengthening their ability to act for themselves. One approach to

achieve this is "through investments in human capital, such as education and health, investments in

social capital such as local-level institutions and participatory processes, and support for community

based development efforts planned and implemented from bottom up" (Havel, 1996). However, given

the fact that the central point underlying people's participation may be the degree of power distribution,

these efforts are less likely to succeed unless responsive institutions and the legal and policy framework

that facilitate and support local participation are in place (Havel. 1996: Tosun. 2004: Wang and Wall,

2005).

Tourism Benefits-Sharing Schemes

Sharing tourism benefits with local communities has always been seen as one of the various modes of

community participation in the industry. In other words, participation of local communities through

sharing the benefits of tourism is one of the major viewpoints for community participation in tourism

(Timothy. 1999: Tosun. 2000: Li, 2005; Li, 2004). Various studies and numerous different international

development agencies have established that tourism is one of the powerful tools for poverty alleviation,

especially due to its associated potential economic gains and due to the fact that tourism is a significant

or growing economic sector in most countries with high levels of widespread poverty (Wilkerson, 1996;

Chok and Macbeth, 2007; Zhao and Ritchie, 2007; Scheyvens, 2007). Although there is no standard



Page 530

method for assessing the adequacy of community participation levels (Li, 2005), the way benefits from

the tourism industry are shared has been argued to be the focus of community participation This,

however simply implies that communities can be involved or attracted to participate in the tourism

industry through sharing with them the benefits obtained from the industry, and one precondition for

a successful community tourism programme, according to Songorwa (1999), is that equitable benefits

of tourism must remain in the hands of the majority community members in an open and easily

understood manner.

Methodology

The study employed the survey research design of ex-post facto type as this helps in describing the

various manifestations of variables as it occurs without manipulations.

Population

The population for this study comprises of the stakeholders, community members and staff of

Osun/Osogbo groove in Osun State, Nigeria.

Sample and Sampling Procedure

The sample for this study was made up of 250 respondents. However, purposive and simple random

sampling techniques were used to select all the respondents for this study.

Research Instrument

The major instrument used for this study was Community Participation on Tourism Development

Questionnaire (CPTDQ). The questionnaire was a close-ended likert type technique of summated

ratings, and the responses were on a four point rating of Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly

Disagree (SD) and Disagree (D). This was supported by oral interview for content analysis.

Data Analysis

The data collected were coded and inferential statistics of chi-square (X2) was used to test the

hypotheses at significant of 0.05 alpha level.

Findings and Discussion

The results of the data analysed are presented in this section.

Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant relationship between community participation in the

tourism development and decision-making process.

Table 1: Chi-square Contingency Table Showing Relationship between Community

Participation in the Tourism Development and Decision-Making Process in

Osun/Osogbo Groove, Osun State, Nigeria.

N X2 Calculated Value X2 Critical Value DF P Remark

250 25.308 11.070 5 0.05 Sig.

It could be observed from the table above that there was a significant relationship between community

participation in the tourism development and decision-making process (X2 cal. = 25.308, X2 crit. =

11.070, df = 5, p < .05). The table showed that the X2 critical value was less than the X2 calculated

value, hence tourism development was a good factor for community participation in decision-making

process.



Page 531

Hypothesis 2: There will be no significant relationship between tourism business and benefit-sharing

schemes.

Table 2: Chi-Square Contingency Table showing Relationship between Tourism Businesses

and Benefit-Sharing Schemes in Osun/Osogbo Groove, Osun State, Nigeria.

N X2 Calculated Value X2 Critical Value DF P Remark

250 61.28 3.182 3 0.05 Sig.

The above table showed that there was a significant relationship between tourism businesses and

benefit-sharing schemes (X2 cal. = 61.28, X2 crit. = 3.182, df = 3, p < .05). It was observed that the X2

critical value was less than the X2 calculated value, hence benefit-sharing schemes were good factors for

tourism businesses.


The findings of the first hypothesis revealed that there was a significant relationship between

community participation in the tourism development and decision-making process. This finding

corroborates Ribot (2004) who reported that many development initiatives solicit the participation of

all concern stakeholders at the relevant level, not only for the sake of efficiency and equity of the

programmes, leverage of donors and demands of local communities, but also for sustainability of these

initiatives. In addition, Havel (1996) and Songorwa (1999) said that the real outcome of soliciting such

community participation is to create and produce an enabling environment needed by these

stakeholders, especially local communities who have been vulnerable to negative impacts of tourism

attributed partly to the fact that many tourism resources occur in their areas, to have a real stake in

development activities. However, this requires involving local communities in decision-making and

strengthening their ability to act for themselves.

The second hypothesis revealed that there was a significant relationship between tourism businesses

and benefit-sharing schemes. The finding of this study agrees with Timothy (1999), Tosun (2000), Li

(2004) and Li (2005) who reported that participation of local communities through sharing the benefits

of tourism is one of the major viewpoints for community participation in tourism. Also, the finding

corroborates Wilkerson (1996), Chok and Macbeth (2007), Zhao and Ritchie (2007) and Scheyvens

(2007) who reported that various studies and numerous different international development agencies

have established that tourism is one of the powerful tools for poverty alleviation, especially due to its

associated potential economic gains and due to the fact that tourism is a significant or growing

economic sector in most countries with high levels of widespread poverty. In addition to this,

Songorwa (1999) said to have a successful community tourism programme, equitable benefits of

tourism must remain in the hands of the majority community members in an open and easily

understood manner.

Recommendations

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are thereby made:

(i) There should be benefit-sharing schemes that will create opportunities for local people and

alleviate poverty while contributing to achieving sustainability in tourism development.

(ii) There is the need to raise people’s awareness of the importance of village general meetings

as important avenues through which public opinion can be collected and feedback from

leaders can be communicated.



Page 532

Conclusion

Community participation has become a key element in many development projects. However, it has

underlined that tourism is a well placed poverty reduction tool that if used properly can contribute

significantly in efforts towards poverty alleviation, especially in developing countries. Taking into

consideration that participation in the tourism decision-making process and sharing the benefit of

tourism development are central to community participation, it is therefore, imperative to say that

community participation in this context is a situation whereby a member of the community who lives in

a particular area directly or indirectly participates in tourism decision-making and/or operates a

tourism-related business or works in tourism as an individual or in a group.

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