2010—2011 ms. yi’s wci unit 4.1 post-classical middle east ... · pdf...

2010—2011 Ms. Yi’s WCI Unit 4.1 Post-Classical Middle East: Dar al-Islam, Student Info for #7

1. House of Wisdom

The House of Wisdom was an educational institution founded

in Baghdad in present-day Iraq by the Abbasid caliph al-

Ma’mum, in 830 CE. At the time, Western Europe was going

through a “Dark Age,” when learning and literacy were lost.

The Catholic Church, the sole unifying force in Europe, did not

tolerate religious differences. In stark contrast, the Islamic

world was going through the “Pax Islamica,” or the “Islamic

Peace,” a time of religious tolerance and openness to

learning. As a result, scholars from all over Afro-Eurasia—Jews,

Christians, Hindus, Zoroastrians, and Muslims—flocked over to

the House of Wisdom, where they learned from one another

and collaborated on their collective pursuit of knowledge.

These “international” scholars worked together to translate,

preserve, and improve upon ancient Egyptian, Persian, Greek,

Roman, and Indian learning. In this way, they helped preserve

the Greek classics (such as the works of Plato, Aristotle, and

Euclid) that might otherwise have been lost or destroyed. And

the House of Wisdom’s

extensive library, which

contained religious texts

and all sorts of ancient

texts (on law, poetry,

history, geography,

philosophy, and the

sciences) and which

was open to the public,

became a model for

other large libraries

throughout Dar al-Islam.


2. Library at Cordoba

In the 8th century, a new and independent Muslim emirate

was established by the Umayyads in Spain. Its capital city,

Cordoba, became a second center of learning and

intellectual life in Dar al-Islam (along with Baghdad’s House of

Wisdom). Known as a city of bibliophiles (book lovers), its most

celebrated library was run by the Spanish Umayyad Caliph Al-

Hakam Il al-Mustansir (961-976).

Al-Hakam, an accomplished scholar himself, sent bookbuyers

all over Dar al-Islam to find books for his library. Library clerks,

many of them women, carefully copied by hand the books

while calligraphers and bookbinders created beautiful text

and cover designs. Al-Hakam’s library was said to have

contained between 400,000 and 500,000 books, whose titles

filled a 44-volume catalogue. (In comparison, the largest

library in the rest of Europe, the library at the monastery of St.

Gall, boasted 36

books.) The

people of

Cordoba also

collected books

for their homes.

Those who owned

large, personal

libraries were

regarded as

important figures

in Cordovan

society.


Scholars from all over Afro-Eurasia—Jews, Christians, Muslims,

Zoroastrians—flocked to Cordoba’s famous library to study

together. Great thinkers who studied in Cordoba included

Maimonides(1135—1204), the author of the Guide for the

Perplexed. A Jewish scholar, Maimonides explained Jewish

faith in terms of Aristotle’s logic. His philosophy deeply

influenced later European thinkers, including “Scholastics” like

Thomas Aquinas.

An even more famous scholar

from Cordoba was Ibn Rushd

(1126—1198), known to the

Western world as Averroes. Ibn

Rushd was the Islamic

equivalent of Leonardo da

Vinci. He was widely regarded

as the “Ideal Man” who

excelled in numerous fields. He

wrote copiously on philosophy,

politics, music, medicine,

astronomy, mathematics,

geography, and physics. His

commentaries on Aristotle’s

works became so influential in

later European thought that he

has been called “one of the

spiritual fathers of Europe.”


3. Paper and Bookmaking

In 751, the Abbasids defeated the Tang Chinese at the Battle of

Talas in Central Asia. Among the captured Chinese were artisans

skilled in paper making. These Chinese prisoners taught their

captors the technique of making paper out of tree barks. Paper

technology quickly spread throughout Dar al-Islam.

The first paper-manufacturing plant in Dar al-Islam opened in

Baghdad in 794 CE. By 891 CE, Baghdad had over a hundred

booksellers. Most mosques had libraries. Many cities also had

public libraries. Baghdad at the time of the Mongol invasion in

1258 had 36 libraries. According to historian Will Durant, Muslim

rulers "in the 10th century might own as many books as could be

found in all the libraries of Europe combined." Books became

easily accessible and contributed to interest in all kinds of

learning. In Dar al-Islam, a well-stocked library was a status

symbol!

Gradually, Europeans learned

paper and bookmaking

technology from the Islamic

world. Paper was first used in

Constantinople by 1100, in Italy by

1102, in Germany by 1228, and in

England by 1309. Previously, mass

production of books was not

possible in Europe, who used

parchment and silk to produce

hand-crafted manuscripts.

Introduction—by way of the Islamic world—of paper would

gradually re-introduce literacy and learning to the Western

Europeans and help them end centuries of the “Dark Age” which

had begun with the collapse of Rome in the 5th century.


4. Calligraphy

Calligraphy, which means “beautiful writing,” is the art

of elegant handwriting. Calligraphy was first used by

Muslims when the Arabs began preparing copies of the

Qur’an. The words of the Qur’an were written in

calligraphy because only calligraphy was considered

worthy of the word of God. At the same time, the

Muslim belief that Allah should never be depicted in

human image spilled over to the practice of not using

visual images to depict important humans. As a result,

calligraphy was used not only to adorn the walls of

mosques but also as decorations for textiles, ceramics,

and metal works. In the Islamic world, the calligrapher

was honored above other artists, and calligraphy was

considered the highest form of art.


5. Geometric and Floral Design

Muslim art was mostly abstract, which meant that the pictures

did not represent real subjects like humans or animals. Not

only was it forbidden to depict Allah in human image, it was

generally believed that visual images

of humans and animals would

distract worshippers from praying to

Allah. Consequently, floral patterns

and geometric designs became

favorite art subjects. The most

common was the “arabesque,” a

winding stem of leaves and flowers

that formed a spiraling design. The

arabesque decorated everything

from small objects—metal boxes, ceramic bowls, tiles—to

carpets and entire walls.

Muslim artists also used geometric patterns to express the idea

that unity and order exists everywhere and at all times.

Interlacement, which was another type of arabesque, was

made of geometric patterns drawn inside a circle and

repeated several times.

Despite the religious

guidelines, paintings of both

humans and animals did exist.

They could be found in

private places like

bathhouses, women’s

apartments, and the living

quarter of the ruling classes.

Persian artists particularly

excelled at making beautiful miniature portraits of people.


6. Music of Muslim Spain

The music of Muslim Spain was one of the glorious

achievements of the Pax Islamica. Musical styles from all over

the world combined to create the distinct sound of the music

of Muslim Spain. Europe’s first music conservatory (school) was

established in Cordoba by an Arab named Ziryad, a freed

slave from Baghdad. Royal courts hired musicians from all

over Central Asia and Africa to entertain royalty and

important visitors, such as wealthy merchants. Musicians and

poets worked together to create songs that combined the

patterns and rhythms of poetry and musical styles from the

Arab, Spanish, African, and Central Asian cultures. By the 11th

century, this music was so popular that the courts of Islamic

rulers all over Dar al-Islam competed to see whose musicians

produced the most pleasing songs.

The instruments most often used in

this music included: the oud, a

short-necked string instrument that

is the ancestor of the guitar; the

rebab, an instrument brought to

Spain from the Middle East that

resembles a violin; the ney, a

simple wood flute; and the

darbuka, a goblet-shaped drum

made of pottery. The origins of

many instruments, including the

oboe, trumpet, violin, guitar, harp,

and percussion instruments can be

traced to this music of Muslim

Spain.


7. Chess

The game of chess was introduced to Dar al-Islam by

the Persians, who had learned it from India. The game

became widely popular among men and women

because of its difficulty and intellectual challenge.

Caliphs and sultans and emirs (rulers) would invite

champions of the game to chess matches at their

palaces. The Muslims continued to adapt and improve

the game. It was the Muslims who introduced chess to

Europeans, who played it widely from the 13th century

onward.


8. Polo

It is believed that the game of polo, arguably the oldest

recorded team sport in the world, was first invented by

pastoral nomadic tribes of Central Asia. The Persians

took up the sport over 2500 years ago, probably as a

training method for their famous cavalry, the Ten

Thousand Immortals. Polo matches, played on

horseback, could resemble a battle with up to 100 men

to a side.

The Muslim world learned the game of polo from the

Persians, and quickly, it became a great favorite among

the wealthy classes because of its use of horses. The

Abbasid caliphs loved the game, which became

known as “the game of kings.” The Arabian stallions,

famed for their beautiful looks and fast speed, were

used to improve the game. Eventually, the Muslim

world introduced the game of polo to Europeans, who

also fell in love with the game. Today, polo is played all

over the world.

. Adapted from http://www.argentinapolo.com/polohistory.html

http://www.argentinapolo.com/polohistory.html


9. Agricultural & Energy Technology

Because water was so scarce in the

desert regions of Dar al-Islam, Muslim

engineers developed ingenious irrigation

techniques using underground wells.

Muslims probably learned the idea of

underground pipes to irrigate farm fields

from the Persians, who first perfected the

technique, known as the Quanat. As

early as the 10th century, dams, reservoirs, and underground wells

were constructed throughout Dar al-Islam. Underground wells

were placed as much as 50 feet deep in order to tap

underground water sources and to minimize evaporation of the

precious water.

Muslim engineers also

perfected the water

wheel, a technique

that could be

operated by man,

animals, or the wind.

When an upright pole

connected to a series

of geared wheels

was turned, four

water scoops, rising

one after another, emptied their contents into a canal. Muslim

engineers also pioneered double-action pumps that could raise

water to a height of 12 meters and windmills with vertical blades.

They also built pigeon towers to gather fertilizer for the soil,

produced kerosene fuel by distilling crude oil,

(Adapted from: http://www.1001inventions.com/1001inventions/market)

http://www.1001inventions.com/1001inventions/market


10. Numbers, Banking, and Accounting

Like the Romans, Muslims excelled at learning from other people

and tweaking and improving on what they learned. From the

Indians, Muslims adapted the concept of zero and the decimals

to develop what Europeans later called the “Arabic Numerals.”

From the Indians, Muslims also adapted the concept of banking.

To end the confusion caused by the many currencies in use all

over Afro-Eurasia, Muslim merchants developed the concept of

“checks,” which derives from the Arabic word “sakk.” The

Abbasids had central banks with branch offices and an elaborate

system of checks and letters of credit. It became possible for a

check written on a bank in one part of Dar al-Islam to be cashed

in a distant city. This was crucial in expanding international trade,

which Muslim merchants dominated, both over land and by sea.

Double-entry accounting/bookkeeping method, which is used all

over the world today, was first used in Europe by Italian merchants

around the 13th century. Some scholars believe that Italian

merchants learned of this method from the Muslim world.


11. Algebra

Muslim scholars were deeply interested in furthering the

developments of the ancient Greeks and Indians in

mathematics. They spent hours trying to stump one

another with difficult mathematical puzzles. For fun,

they made “magic boxes” that were grids containing

numbers that added up to the same sum horizontally,

vertically, and diagonally. Of the many Islamic scholars,

the most famous math scholar was Al-Khwarizmi, who

invented algebra. Algebra derives from the Arabic

word “al jabr,” which means “the bringing together of

separate parts.” In algebra, a mathematician

substitutes symbols (such as x, y, and z) for numbers in

order to solve mathematical problems.

Al-Khwarazmi,

the “Father of Al jabr”


12. The Scientific Method and Chemistry

Aristotle is often given credit for inventing the “Scientific

Method,” but it is actually the Muslim scholars who invented

the Scientific Method as we know it today. Will Durant, a

famous historian, gives Muslims credit for "introduc(ing) precise

observation, controlled experiment, and careful records.”

Briffault, in his book Making of Humanity, states that

“(I)nvestigation, accumulation of positive knowledge, minute

methods of science and prolonged observation were alien to

Greek temperament. These were introduced to Europe by the

Arabs. European science owes its existent to the Arabs.”

Muslim scientists set up the world’s first laboratories and

conducted painstaking research and experiments to test their

theories.

As the world’s first “true” scientists, Muslim scholars turned

alchemy, the ancient “art of transmuting metals,” into the

science of chemistry. They were the first people to separate

chemical compounds from one another. They invented

and/or perfected the processes of distillation, sublimation,

crystallization, oxidation, and precipitation. They discovered

the process of calcinations, which is used to reduce

substances to a powered form. They also discovered many

elements with their specific weights. They distinguished

between metals and alloys, noting that alloys were mixtures

and not true elements. They developed the acid-base

principal of chemistry as well as the pH scale. They also

studied the solubility/insolubility of substances. And Al-Razi’s

(d. 925) booklet, Secret of Secrets, is said to be the first known

example of a chemistry lab manual.


Unlike the Greeks who loved knowledge for knowledge’s sake,

Muslim scientists were deeply interested in practical

applications of their theories. They oversaw the beginnings of

the chemical industry by using their labs for R&D (research and

development) purposes. Muslim chemists developed

techniques for extracting minerals and metals, invented crystal

making, distilled rose-water perfume, and developed new

ceramic glazes, hair dyes, and waterproof varnishes.

The Crusades (which began in the late 12th century) increased

Muslim-Christian contacts, which led to the spread of Muslim

knowledge and technology into Western Europe. Translations

of Muslim works on chemistry (especially Al-Razi’s chemistry lab

manual) were used in many European schools standard

textbooks for many centuries.

Source: http://www.albalagh.net/kids/science/chemistry.shtml

http://www.albalagh.net/kids/science/chemistry.shtml


13. Zoology

Muslims scholars made great advances I zoology, the scientific

study of animals, during the Golden Age. Muslims were

deeply interested in animals, in part because they were so

dependent upon animals for their lifestyle, trade, and travels.

Al-Jahiz, born in 776 CE in Basra, present-day Iraq, made great

contributions to zoology. He composed some 200 works, the

most famous of which was the Book of Animals. In this book,

he collected a huge body of lore and knowledge about

animals from all kinds of sources, including the Qur’an, the

Hadith, pre-Islamic poetry, proverbs, and stories from

merchants and sailors, his own

personal observations, and his

studies of Greek texts. While

the book was full of

entertaining stories, it also

contained important scientific

theories and information. His

work deeply influenced the

11th century physician Ibn

Kakhtishu, who wrote The Uses

of Animals, an account of

medicines that could be

extracted from animals for

human use. In the 14th

century, Al-Damiri used Al-

Jahiz’s scientific information to

write The Lives of the Animals,

an encyclopedia of animals.


14. Astronomy

Muslim scientists made great advances in astronomy, the science

of celestial (heavenly) objects/bodies. Muslim astronomers

perfected the astrolabe, a device first invented by the Greeks.

This was a small, flat, brass disc marked off in degrees. By lining up

the pointer with the sun, the user could measure latitude, tell the

time of day, and determine the position or movement of the stars

and planets. Using the astrolabe and their own observatories,

Muslim astronomers made many astronomical discoveries.

In Europe, the Catholic Church lionized the incorrect idea that the

world was geo-centric. The Hellenistic Greek astronomer Ptolemy

had proposed that the earth was the center of the universe.

Since the theory fit the Biblical accounts of the creation of the

world, the Ptolemaic theory of the universe became Church

dogma (doctrine held as indisputable truth) for centuries. To even

question the theory became heresy punishable by the Church.

Using the astrolabe and their observatories, Muslim scientists made

their own observations, which they compared to Ptolemy’s tables.

They gradually compiled enough data to prove Ptolemy’s idea

incorrect. Many Muslim astronomers also learned that the earth is

a sphere (globe), that it

rotates on its own axis,

and that the sun is the

center of the universe.

Centuries later,

scientists in Western

Europe made their own

discoveries and ended

up agreeing with the

Muslim astronomers.


15. Geography and Cartography

Muslims were the best geographers and cartographers of the

Medieval period. Why? There were two (2) reasons:

Commerce and religion.

Long distance travel created a need for mapping, and

travelers often provided the information to achieve the task.

As hazardous as long-distance travel was in Medieval times,

Muslims undertook long journeys. One motive for these was

the 5th Pillar, or Hajj.

Annually, Muslim pilgrims

came to Mecca from all

parts of Afro-Eurasia.

Another motive for travels

was commerce. Muslim

merchants dominated both

maritime (Indian Ocean)

and overland (Silk Road)

routes by this time.

The following is excerpted from an article found at

http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1055354.html

Fuat Sezgin is one of the world's most prominent historians of science and technology in the Muslim

world. The 80-year-old Turkish professor is the director of the Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic

Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany, and a prodigiously

productive writer. He has compiled a 13-volume history of Islam's Golden Age of Science, including

three new books on the accomplishments of Arabic and Islamic cartographers. He says the

cartographers not only opened much of the world to Muslim traders but also paved the way for

European navigators, who later defined our modern view of geography.

"I have written in these three volumes the history of mathematical geography for the first time,

generally. Until now, it was impossible to write the [full] history of mathematical geography because

[scholars] did not know the mathematical geography in Islam," Sezgin says.

Sezgin says it has long been recognized that Muslim navigators undertook sea voyages over vast

distances, which gave them a more complete view of geography than the ancient Greeks and

Romans.

But he says he believes he is the first to compile a comprehensive collection of evidence showing how

http://www.rferl.org/content/article/1055354.html


Muslim cartographers combined the navigators' information with studies of astronomy and

mathematics to compile maps of astonishing precision for their day.

Sezgin says one of his greatest successes was tracking down a copy of a particularly famous map that

Western scholars knew existed from Arab histories but which was generally assumed to be lost. That is

the map of the world that Caliph al-Ma'mum, who reigned in Baghdad from 813 to 833 AD,

commissioned from a large group of astronomers and geographers.

"Many geographers, many astronomers, many mathematics scholars made this map. Historians of

geography knew of this map, but by its name only. I [finally] found this map in an encyclopedia in

Topkapi Sarai [Museum in Istanbul]," Sezgin says.

The map shows large parts of the Eurasian and African continents with recognizable coastlines and

major seas. It depicts the world as it was known to the captains of the Arab sailing dhows which, with

planks secured by palm-fiber ropes rather than nails, used the monsoon wind cycles to trade over vast

distances. Western historians recognize that by the 9th century, Arab sea traders had reached

Canton, in China.

Sezgin says the Caliph al-Ma'mum map illustrates how far the Muslim cartographers departed from

earlier world views. The maps of the Greeks and Romans reveal a good knowledge of closed seas like

the Mediterranean but little understanding of the vast ocean expanses beyond.

"This map [shows] the Muslims knew the continents are islands, not like the Greeks' thinking that the

seas are closed seas," Sezgin says.

But if Sezgin has devoted his life to understanding Islam's Golden Age of Science -- he has spent 55

years writing about it -- he is far from having chauvinistic views. He says Muslim scientists were able to

make such advances because they were ready to build on the work of earlier scholars -- Muslim or

otherwise. The professor says this "receptiveness" enabled Muslim science to become the world's

dominant scientific tradition within 200 years of the beginnings of the Arab conquests.

"The Arabs, the Muslims, had taken from Christians, from Jews, from [Persia] without complexes. The

Muslims were tolerant. The Muslims had accepted these Christians and Jews as teachers. That's very

important, because the period of the reception of science was [thus just] 200 years," Sezgin says.

Islam's Golden Age of Science finally ended as the stability and wealth of the Muslim world was

shaken by rival powers. European states controlled the Mediterranean trade routes by the 14th

century, and the Mongol invasions of the 13th to 15th centuries disrupted trade with China. State

patronage of science gave way to military affairs.

Still, Muslim science never disappeared. Instead, it reemerged as part of the new body of science

developing in Europe as scholars there -- in their turn -- borrowed liberally from Muslim scholars before

them.

Sezgin says Portuguese and Spanish navigators used the knowledge they gained from Muslim

cartographers while Iberia was under Arab domination to launch their own voyages of discovery.

Those great sea journeys, including the circumnavigation of the world and the discovery of the

Americas, helped lead to a modern view of Earth as a globe containing all of the major continents.

Sezgin, who mostly writes in German, says the first volume of his book on the Muslim cartographers has

just been translated into English and will be published next month. He hopes the translation will help his

work reach a broader audience, both in the West and the Muslim world.


16. Medical Advances

Contacts with India and Egypt—civilizations with a long history of

medical advances—provided Muslim scholars with opportunities to

learn from the best. They learned from Indian and Egyptian doctors

and improved on their learning by making their own advances.

Muslim doctors experimented with herbal drugs, using them as

treatment and as anesthetic during surgery. They used plants like

coriander for their curative powers and hashish (a strong narcotic) as

sedatives during surgery. Muslim physicians had a great

understanding of the functions of parts of the body,. Ibn al-Nafis, a

13th century physician, thoroughly understood the blood circulation

system. He was the first to explicitly state that blood moves from the

heart, transits through the lungs to mix with air before returning to the

heart. Muslim physicians also pioneered the technique of using

needles to remove cataracts.

Al-Haytham (965—1040), Latinized as Alhacen or Alhazen, a Muslim

mathematician from Basra, Iraq, became known in Europe in the 13th

century as the author of a monumental book on optics—the

mathematical theory of vision. In his Kitâb al-Manâ zir, he offered a

new solution to the problem of vision, combining experimental

investigations of the behavior of light with inventive geometrical proofs

and constant forays into the psychology of visual perception—all

systematically tied together to form a coherent alternative to the

Euclidean and Ptolemaic theories of "visual rays" issuing from the eye .

(Source: http://harvardmagazine.com/2003/09/ibn-al-haytham.html#)

Al-Razi (865—925), a physician from Persia, wrote the Continence, a

24-volume medical encyclopedia, which became hugely influential

on European thinking on medicine. He

described clinical signs of many diseases,

wrote about diagnosing and treating

smallpox and measles, and the importance of

hygiene and clean air in treating illnesses.

http://harvardmagazine.com/2003/09/ibn-al-haytham.html


Ibn Sinna, Latinized as Avicenna (born 980),

another famous physician from Persia, wrote

the 14-volume Canon of Medicine, a huge

collection of his vast knowledge of Greek

and Arabic medical systems. He the Canon,

he described various diseases (including

smallpox and measles) and their causes,

symptoms, and cures. He emphasized the

need for hygiene and clean air, for

understanding the functions of parts of the

human body, and the contagious nature of

certain communicable diseases, such as

tuberculosis. He was also deeply interested

in human psychology and wrote a great

deal on the effects of the mind on the body

The Canon was translated into Latin and was used as a standard

reference book in European universities until the 17th century.

Al-Zahrawi (born 936) from Cordoba, Spain, was the most renowned

of all Muslim surgeons. Sometimes called “the pharmacist surgeon,”

he wrote Al-Tasrif, a famous manual on surgery that later became the

chief reference work for surgery in Italian and French universities for

centuries. The manual included sections on the preparation and

dosage of drugs, nutrition, public health, anatomical dissection, and

techniques for performing

various types of surgeries

(including amputation of

limbs and crushing bladder

stones). The sections on

surgery are illustrated with

drawings of about 100

surgical instruments, many of

which he invented himself,

including a pair of forceps used in child birth and catgut to stitch

internal incisions. He also used antiseptics to cleanse wounds, a

practice that Europeans would not learn of until centuries later.


17. Public Healthcare: Hospitals & Pharmacies

Muhammad’s statement that Allah had provided a cure for every

illness inspired the Muslim world’s interest in treating diseases. This,

coupled with the 5 Pillars of Islam, led to the creation of the first

hospital in the world. An early hospital that became a model for

future hospitals was founded in Damascus, present-day Syria,

staffed with physicians paid by the government. Hospitals were

designed to promote health, cure diseases, and teach and

expand medical knowledge. By the 9th century, there were

hospitals in all large Muslim towns. The most advanced hospitals—

like the “Aduidi” hospital founded by the Abbasid Caliph Harun

al-Rashid in Baghdad—attracted outstanding medical scholars

and were housed in large buildings with lecture halls, libraries,

pharmacies, laboratories, and patient wards with beds. Patients

with communicable diseases, as well as those recovering from

surgery, were placed in a separate part of the hospital.

In addition to hospitals, pharmacies also developed in Baghdad

to provide medicine to treat diseases. Much like today’s

pharmacies, Muslim pharmacies filled prescriptions ordered by

physicians. Drugs

were considered so

important and

dangerous that they

were carefully

supervised, both

during preparation

and while in storage.

.


18. Navigation and Shipbuilding

Along with the Indian merchants, Muslim merchants were

“masters of the Indian Ocean.” Their knowledge of

geography and technological advances in

navigation and shipbuilding allowed them to

dominate trade and travel in the Indian

Ocean. Two Muslim innovations of particular

importance were the astrolabe (see

“Astronomy”) and the dhow.

The Dhow, a sailing vessel still in use in the Indian ocean, used

both the square and the triangular sail. The triangular sail—

known as the “Lateen Sail”—allowed the dhows to sail both

into and against the wind, which made possible long-distance

ocean voyages!! In the Indian Ocean, the dhow used the

monsoons as “free fuel” to move across the Indian Ocean. In

the winter, the winds blew to the southwest, bringing the

dhows down the coast of

East Africa (which Muslims

called the “Zanj.”) In the

summer, the monsoons

reversed direction, and the

dhow would sail up to Arabia

and India. From the Zanj, the

Muslim traders picked up

wood, ivory, ostrich feathers,

and even slaves.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus set sail on three small caravel

ships—which used the triangular “lateen sail” borrowed from

the Islamic world. He also set out with a Muslim navigator, an


Arab translator, and an astrolabe perfected by Muslim

astronomers. He also had with him a copy of Marco Polo’s

travelogue and a magnetic compass, a Chinese invention. As

you all know, he was looking for a direct sea route to India

and China in search of spices. Of course he had no idea that

a continent blocked his way, nor did he know the true size of

the earth, something that many Muslim astronomers and

geographers already knew with fair accuracy.


19. Muslim Travelers

Muhammad encouraged Muslims to travel “as far as China”

for learning. The wealth of the cities in Dar al-Islam depended

on trade. And the 5th Pillar of Islam asked Muslims to go on a

Hajj to Mecca at least once during their lifetime. These

reasons propelled Muslims to become the world’s greatest

cartographers and travelers of the time!

Ibn Battuta (1305—1369?) dreamed of visiting every major

city in Dar al-Islam. Sometimes called the Marco Polo of the

Islamic world, he managed to travel about 75,000 miles in 29

years! His written accounts, called the Rihla, are

tremendously valuable, as they are the only historical source

of information about many of the places he visited. Though

some scholars question

the accuracy of some

of his information (much

as they question Marco

Polo’s veracity), his

travels ranged from

Timbuktu, the famous

city of Mali in Wet

Africa, all the way to

Beijing, China. As a

Muslim, he took

advantage of the

generosity shown to pilgrims—he was often given gifts (of

horses, gold, ,and even slaves) and stayed for free in

dormitories, private homes, and even in the palaces of Muslim

rulers. For 7 years, he worked for the Sultan in Delhi, India. On

his travels he met several Sultans who welcomes him into their


company. His descriptions are filled with exciting adventures;

he almost died several times. He survived robbers, shipwrecks,

pirates, wars, and the Bubonic Plague/Black Death!

Mansa Musa (r.1312—1337) was a rich ruler of Mali, the

Western African kingdom that grew wealthy from its gold-salt

trade across the Sahara. (Mansa means “king,” and Musa

means “Moses” in Arabic.) In 1324, he began his famous Hajj

to Mecca. It was this pilgrimage that awakened European

interest in the incredible wealth of Mali. He traveled from the

upper Niger River in Mali across the Sahara to Cairo, Egypt.

Accounts vary, and some may be exaggerated, but

according to some, Mansa Musa’s caravan included 60,000

men, including 12,000 personal slaves finely dressed in silk.

Mansa Musa rose on horseback and was preceded by 500

slaves, each carrying a gold-decorated staff. 80 camels

tagged along, each carrying 300 pounds of gold! He

generously gave away so much gold that Cairo’s gold market

was staggered by a gargantuan inflation. It took Cairo several

decades to recover from the inflation. Mansa Musa impressed

the rest of Dar al-Islam with his incredible wealth and his

commitment to Islam. He brought back to Timbuktu a group

of Islamic scholars, who set out to turn Timbuktu into an

important center of Islamic learning.

2010—2011 ms. yi’s wci unit 4.1 post-classical middle east ... · pdf...

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