2010 gcse revision guide

8/8/2019 2010 GCSE revision guide

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/2010-gcse-revision-guide 1/55

Katy Granville-Chapman ± Mar 09

GCSE Revision Guide ± syllabus with accompanying case studies

Exam Summary

Duration % of GCSE grade Content

Paper 2 TOPICS

2 hours 50% 8 questions, 2 from each of the four Units.You have to answer one from each Unit.(see table below for topics within each unit)

Paper 4SKILLS

1 hour 25% 2 skills-based questions, from varying parts of theUnits, likely to link Physical & Human.You have to do both questions.

Paper 2 ± Which topic is in which Unit?

U nit Number / Name Topics Included in U nit

1 People and the Physical World Plate Tectonics, Rivers, Coasts

2 People and Places to Live Population, Settlement

3 People and their Needs Quality of Life, Economic Activities (which includes agriculture,industry & tourism ), Energy

4 People and the Environment Quarrying, Rainforests, National Parks, Water Pollution, Acid Rain, Global Warming




Don¶t forget SHEEP!!

here can I find more details of these topics?

S ocial Factors: Anything to do with people ± population density, education,healthcare, infrastructure, employment, population structure etc.

H istorical factors: anything in the past that has affected it.

E conomic: anything to do with money: cost of land, profit potential, markets,employment etc

E nvironmental: all physical factors ± anything to do with the natural environment ± relief, features (rivers, hills), quality of the natural environment, fertility of theland, climate etc.

P olitical: anything to do with the government ± e.g. stability of it, governmentincentives, political will etc.

y Read on! Each Unit has its own A4 page, showing the key points and ideas that the OCRexaminers will expect you to know about.

y In addition, these pages also show the CASE STUDY requirements, and the SCALErequirements, both vital considerations for geographers.




Unit 1 - People and The Physical World

RIVERS

Topic Content Scale & Context

The hydrological cycle as a system with inputs, outputs, flows and stores Global water stores and transfers system diagram Hydrographs to show how the cycle works and how it responds to changes

Global / International

Context unspecified

River erosion, transport and deposition processes, and the features theyproduce Valley cross-sections, interlocking spurs, waterfalls, flood plains, meanders,

ox-bow lakes, levees: River Tees ± High Force waterfall and gorge; ox bow lakes, levees and

meanders, near the Yarm in the lower course

Small / Local Context unspecified

The causes, effects and management of river flooding an MEDC and an LEDC case study

Small / LocalRegional / National

Global / International LEDC Any MEDC

The hydrological cycle as a system with inputs, outputs, flows and stores




River erosion, transport and deposition processes, and the features they produce

The formation of Waterfalls

1.Waterfalls are found in the upper course of a river. They usually occur where a band of hard rock lies next to soft rock. They may often start as rapids.2. As the river passes over the hard rock, the soft rock below is eroded (worn away) morequickly than the hard rock leaving the hard rock elevated above the stream bed below3. The 'step' in the river bed continues to develop as the river flows over the hard rockstep (Cap Rock) as a vertical drop.4. The drop gets steeper as the river erodes the soft rock beneath by processes such asabrasion and hydraulic action. A plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall.5. This erosion gradually undercuts the hard rock and the plunge pool gets bigger due tofurther hydraulic action and abrasion.Eventually the hard cap rock is unsupported andcollapses. The rocks that fall into the plunge pool will continue to enlarge it by abrasionas they are swirled around. A steep sided valley known as a gorge is left behind and asthe process continues the waterfall gradually retreats upstream.

Meander formation

1. Meanders form due to the greater volume of water carried by the river in lowland areaswhich results in lateral (sideways) erosion being more dominant than vertical erosion,causing the channel to cut into its banks forming meanders.




1. Water flows fastest on the outer bend of the river where the channel is deeper andthere is less friction. This is due to water being flung towards the outer bend as it flowsaround the meander, this causes greater erosion (through abrasion and hydraulic action) which deepens the channel, in turn the reduction in friction and increase in energy results ingreater erosion. This lateral erosion results in undercutting of the river bank and the formationof a steep sided river cliff .

2. In contrast, on the inner bend water is slow flowing, due to it being a low energy zone,deposition occurs resulting in a shallower channel. This increased friction further reduces thevelocity (thus further reducing energy), encouraging further deposition. Over time a smallbeach of material builds up on the inner bend; this is called a slip-off slope.

1. A meander is asymmetrical in cross-section (see diagram). It is deeper on the outer bend (due to greater erosion) and shallower on the inside bend (an area of deposition).




Ox Bow Lakes

Over time meanders gradually change shape and migrate across the floodplain. As they do so meander bends becomes pronounced due to further lateral erosion and eventuallyan ox-bow lake may form.

Ox-Bow Lake formation

2. As the outer banks of a meander continue to be eroded through processes such ashydraulic action and abrasion, the neck of the meander becomes narrow and narrower.

3. Eventually due to the narrowing of the neck, the two outer bends meet and the river cutsthrough the neck of the meander. The water now takes its shortest route rather thanflowing around the bend.

4. Deposition gradually seals off the old meander bend forming a new straighter river channel.

5. Due to deposition the old meander bend is left isolated from the main channel as an ox-bow lake.

6. Over time this feature may fill up with sediment and may gradually dry up (except for periods of heavy rain). When the water dries up, the feature left behind is known as ameander scar.

Levee formation

1. By the time it reaches the lower course the river is wider and deeper and may contain alarge amount of suspended sediment.When the river floods over the surrounding land it loses energy and deposition of itssuspended load occurs.

2. Regular flooding results in the building up of layers of nutrient rich alluvium which forms aflat and fertile floodplain.

3. When the river water bursts its bank, the shallower depth of water flowing over the

surface results in frictional drag and a consequent reduction in velocity (speed) of flow.4. This results in the loss of energy and therefore deposition occurs.5. The heaviest materials are deposited first as these require the most energy to be

transported and therefore build up around the sides of the river forming raised banksknown as Levées (click on diagram above).

6. Finer material such as silt and fine clays continuing to flow further over the floodplainbefore they are deposited.




Definitions

Floodplain - the area of land around a river channel which is formed during times of flood whenthe amount of water in a river exceeds its channel capacity and deposition of rich silt occurs.

Levées - a raised river bank (can be natural features formed by deposition or artificial structuresbuilt to increase channel capacity and reduce flood risk)




The causes, effects and management of river flooding

Bangladesh Floods ± 98 and 07

Physical causes:

2 The country mainly consists of floodplain and a huge river delta.3 70% of the total area if less than 1 metre above sea level.4 10% of the land area is made up of lakes and rivers.5 Melting snow from the Himalayas adds water to the Ganges and Brahmaputra, rivers

flowing through Bangladesh.6 Monsoon rains were extremely heavy from July to September.

Human causes:

1 92% of the drainage basins that feed water into Bangladesh are in other countries.2 Deforestation in Nepal and the Himalayas contributes to deposition and flooding

downstream. It also leads to a decrease in interception and transpiration.3 The Ganges has been diverted to bring water to fields of crops however this has

removed the silt from the load and so when it floods further downstream it no longer

builds up the floodplain by depositing silt.4 There is no money available for flood protection due to the country¶s debt. For

examples poorly maintained levees leak and collapse in times of high discharge.

Effects:

1 Water supplies were contaminated for quarter of a million people due to polluted wells,sewage and floating bodies of dead cattle and people. This caused serious illness and250, 000 people suffered from diarrhoea.

2 Huge damage to communication links: main port of Chittagong was closed and roads andrailways were cut off. This meant it was harder to bring aid to people

3 400 clothing factories were closed, production was down 20% in Bangladesh¶s mostimportant export industries- shrimp and textiles.

Flood abatement:

1 Afforestation to increase the amount of rain intercepted, absorbed and transported by theplants.

2 New levees and other barriers built to stop the river bursting its banks.

Relief measures

1 The construction of temporary barriers to contain the damage.2 350, 000 tonnes of cereal was used to feed people.3 1 million tonnes of international food aid was handed out.4 Free seeds were given to farmers.

5 Machinery and man power was supplied to repair the city.6 Construction of temporary barriers to contain the damage.7 Construction of temporary shelters and the conversion of un-damaged buildings into

shelters.

2007 flood:

1 Since 1998 there have been several more big floods- the most recent was in 2007.2 298 people died and a total of 10,211,780 people were badly affected by it.3 58,866 houses were damaged by the floods up to 13 August 2007.




4 It is thought that any previous flood abatement measures have not been successful.

Flood abatement since 071 Build 7 large dams in Bangladesh to store excess water, will cost between $30-$40

million and will take 40 years to complete.2 Build 5000 flood shelters.3 Build 350km of embankment, 7m high costing $6 billion to reduce flooding along the main

river channels.4 Create flood water storage areas.5 Develop an effective flood warning system.

Boscastle ± 2004

Physical causes:

1. Boscastle is a small village on the north Cornish coast.2. Lying at the mouth of the River Valency, it is surrounded by fairly steep, wooded slopes.3. Just upstream from the village two steep-sided valleys meet, those of the Valency and

the Jordan.4. A third stream, the Paradise, also flows through the village.

1 Although the rock is sandstone which is permeable, earlier rain had infiltrated the groundhigh up on the grassy slopes behind Boscastle and by the start of the downpours it wassaturated ± creating a lot of overland flow.

2 The overland flow reduces the lag time, therefore the residents/tourists in Boscastle hadless time to react to the flooding.

3 the River Valency basin around Boscastle is small and the neighbouring streams areclose by ± resulting in an even shorter lag time because rainwater is likely to reach thechannel relatively fast due to the short distances. The basin is also round in shape,meaning that flow distances to the channel are minimised.




4 50mm fell within 2 hours, and due to the state of the ground the water drained straightinto the rivers.

5 At the beginning of the flood, the surge through the village was reportedly 10 feet high(over 3 metres).

Human causes:

1 The village car park lies at the top end of the main street ± the cars here were one of thefirst objects to be washed through the village.

2 A low bridge in the village caused one car to become trapped which led to even morematerial (branches etc) also becoming trapped behind it. Water began piling up and whenthe bridge gave way the surge was huge.

3 The village consists of winding streets , causing cars and other objects to be thrown intothe houses and shops ± creating yet more debris.

Consequences:

4 By the end of the floods, 50 cars ended up wrecked in the harbour, while others weredumped in the village main street.

5 The water was so high people couldn¶t escape, so many of them had to be airlifted to

safety.6 The damage to the town (bridges, ditches and other infrastructure) was estimated at over

£250,000.7 The biggest loser was tourism because the town relies heavily on tourism, so when it was

flooded less people wanted to come and as a result Boscastle could potentially be losingseveral millions of pounds.

Abatement/response ± short term

1) Tree removal ± damaged trees removed and more trees planted in their place2) Relocation of fish due to contamination3) Trial trenches4) Footpath diversion around the car park

Since 2006:

1 Excavation of the banks of the Valency, upstream of the car park to widen the channelalong a 100- metre section.

2 This is designed to slow flood flows so that silt and debris is deposited instead of blockingthe channel downstream.

3 Between the two bridges, excavation of the bed toof the river to a depth of about 750millimetres. This will enable the Valency to carry higher flows.

4 All the rock dug up from the river bed is being taken to the car park and crushed. It isthen used to raise the height of the existing car park above potential flood levels andcreate

5 a new area of parking which will be grassed over. Almost 5,000 cubic metres of gravel

and other material from widening the river has been used on the car park.




COASTS


Coastal erosion, transport and deposition processes, and the featuresthey produce

Cliffs, headlands, caves, arches and stacks Longshore drift, beaches, spits, bars and tombolos

Small / Local Regional / National

Must be UK

The causes, effects and management of coastal erosion a UK case study to illustrate

Small / Local Regional / National

Must be UK

Cliffs and headlands:1 The bands of soft rock, such as sand and clay, erode more quickly than those of more

resistant hard rock, such as chalk. This leaves a section of land jutting out into the sea;this is called a headland. The areas where the soft rock has eroded away, next to theheadland, are called bays.

2 Coasts where the geology (rock type) alternates between strata (or bands) of hard rocksand soft rocks is called a discordant coastline. Discordant coastlines will have alternatingheadlands and bays. Concordant coastline is where the rock remains the same along thecoastline. Concordant coastlines tend to have less bays and headlands.

Example: Isle of Purbeck in Dorset (south coast of England), there are both discordant andconcordant coasts. The discordant coast has been formed into Studland Bay (soft rock), BallardPoint (hard rock), Swanage Bay (soft rock) and Durlston Head (hard rock). After Durlston Headthe rock remains hard. This concordant coast has less features.

Caves occur when the waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The water contains sandand other materials that help to grind away at the rock until the cracks become a cave.

If the cave is formed in a headland, it may eventually break through forming an arch.

The arch will gradually become bigger and bigger until it can no longer support the top of thearch. When the arch collapses, it leaves the headland on one side and a stack (a tall column of rock) on the other. E.g. Old Harry, Studland, Dorset




A bar is a long stretch of beach material (sand or shingle) that joins together two headlands. Alagoon usually forms behind the bar. An example of a sand bar is Slapton Ley in Devon.

A tombolo is a stretch of beach material that connects an island to the mainland. An example of atombolo is Chesil Beach, connecting the Isle of Portland to the mainland of the Dorset coast.

Spits are created through the process of deposition. A spit is an extended stretch of beachmaterial that projects out to sea and is joined to the mainland at one end.Spits are commonly formed where there is a prevailing wind and where there is a longshore drift.

An example of a spit is Spurn Head, found along the Holderness Coast in Humberside. It is over

3 miles (4.8 km) long, almost half the width of the estuary at that point, and as little as 50 yards(46 m) wide in places.

Tip ± learn your diagrams from the coloured handout for how features of deposition and erosion form




The Holderness Coast ± management case study

Background:

1 The Holderness Coast is on the NE coast of the UK, facing the North Sea.2 The coastline is mainly made up of cliffs (20-30m high), consisting of soft, easily eroded

boulder clay. Where the cliff line meets the Humber Estuary, a spit has formed due to thechange in the direction of the coastline - Spurn Head.

3 The cliff line is retreating at an alarming rate - greater than 1m / yr (fastest rate in Europe)- 4km of land have been lost since Roman Times, including many villages and farmbuildings.

4 Easington Gas Station (a North Sea Gas terminal) is situated on the cliffs top and itsposition is under threat.

5 The village of Mappleton is greatly under threat by coastal erosion along the coastlineand by 1998, the main road running through the village was only 500m from the cliff top;in places it is now only 50m. The village is under threat due to the easily eroded boulder clay (glacial till) which makes up the cliff line. The area suffers from erosion rates of up to2m per year.

Physical causes of rapid erosion

1. The cliffs are made up of Boulder Clay This is easily eroded by the waves and the cliffs areeasily undermined.2. The Holderness Coast is very exposed, approaching waves have a long fetch over the NorthSea.3. The waves are mainly destructive - eroding the base of the cliffs (hydraulic action etc.)4. Most of the Material eroded from the cliffs is washed out to sea, the rest is moved by rapidlongshore drift - the beaches are therefore narrow and do little to protect the coastline. (If thebeaches were wider, the waves would break on the beaches reducing their erosive power).5. The coastline is threatened further by sea-level rise.

Human impacts of the erosion:

Mappleton: Supporting approximately 50 properties, the village has been subject to intenseerosion at a rate of 2.0m per year, resulting in the access road being only 50m from the cliff edgeat its closestpoint.

South of Mappleton:Cliff House farm: pig farmers, unable to continue with business due to rapid rates of erosionthreatening the lives of their livestock. Losing 1m per month. Unable to get insurance for theproperty so will lose everything.Sue Earl lost 50% of her farm, including the main farm house.

Easington:

This section covers 1km of eroding coastline in front of the Eastington and Dimlington GasTerminals.These terminals account for approximately 25% of Britian's gas supply.




Management methods

1 Use of groynes to trap moving beach material and provide a protective beach in front of the cliff ± two rock groynes were installed at Mappleton

2 the construction of sea walls and revetments as wave-resistant structures at the base of the cliffs e.g. a rock revetment was constructed at the bottom of the cliffs in Mappleton.(total cost of scheme in Mappleton = £2m)

3 1km long sea wall used to protect Easington Gas Station (cost £4.5 million)4 Wooden groynes along Spurn Point top protect the lifeguard station

Other schemes considered:Dump waste from coal mining off the coast in a series of banks to refract waves: this would formhard stable banks, but would make the sea dirty and turn the beaches black.Submerge a bank of tyres 1km off shore




Rock groin and revetmentat Mappleton.

Easington gas terminal: closeto the cliffs.

Timber groin, destroyed by lowering of the beach ± Spurn Point

Impact of coastal management schemes

1. Saved the village and road. Mappleton row has a beach and a growing tourist trade. But -local downstream farmers (e.g. Cliff House Farm) are losing land at an even quicker rate.

The farmers profits are being threatened.2. Withernsea, a large resort town, has now to spend millions to build toe revetment sea

defences to protect the town. This is very costly.3. Industry at Easington is being threatened with the gas terminals coming too close to the

sea. This is not only dangerous but could force the gas terminal to close with the loss of 1000s of jobs

4. Essential services at Spurn Point (Coastguard, Lifeboat) are now threatened as the spit isbeing starved of material.




5. Wildlife to the rear of the Spit is losing a good migrating spot. These species are seeneven less in the area.

6. Long term effects on King' s Lynn and Amsterdam have yet to be analysed but they mayneed to take on extra sea defences

To counter this, local and regional authorities are nowadays trying set up integrated coastal zonemanagement programmes for the whole coastline.




Unit 2 - People and Places to Live

POPULATION


BO

LD

= compulsoryItalics = freedom of choice

Factors affecting density and distribution physical, economic and social, with reference to an area of high and an area

of low density

Global / International Local / Regional / National Context unspecified

Variations in population structure between countries implications of the proportion of population in young, adult & elderly groups.

Dependent population.

Regional / National LEDC

Any MEDC

The causes and consequences of population change birth & death rates, international migration.

a case study of strategies to influence population change. a case study of international migration

Regional / NationalGlobal / International

LEDC Any MEDC

Definitions:

1 International Migration: The movement of people from one country to another.2 Emigration : When someone leaves a country.3 Immigration : When someone enters a country.4 Push Factor : A factor that encourages you to leave your home country.5 Pull Factor : A factor that attracts you to move to a new country.6 Brain Drain : When a country looses a significant amount of (highly) skilled workers.7 Refugee : Someone who flees for safety (from war, for food etc).

Factors affecting density and distribution




Case study: Brazil, Sao Paulo and Mato Grosso.

1 Sao Paulo is in the South of Brazil and Mato Grosso is in the North. Sao Paulo is verydensely populated and Mato Grosso is not densely populated.

2 Average population density in Brazil is 22 inhabitants per square kilometre.3 The South-East and the South regions dominate and together contain 70% of Brazil¶s

total population on only 18% of the land area. Elsewhere the population is sparse, exceptin or near cities.

Sao Paolo reasons for high pop density:3 São Paulo, 17 million, density: 7,200/km2

4 Used to be the capital city until the government decided it was getting too crowded so thecapital was changed to Brasilia.5 São Paulo is 70 km far from the coast, 420 km from Rio de Janeiro, and 1,020 km from

Brasilia, the capital city.6 It lies of the Tropic of Cancer.7 It also lies on a plateau 760 metres above sea level.8 It¶s altitude, along with being on a tropic gives it a subtropical climate.9 In subtropical climates the winters are moderately warm, but not as hot as summer.

There is hardly ever frost or snow.10 Sao Paulo is considered the commercial and industrial centre of Brazil.11 It has some of the more expensive shops, but there are also µcommercial districts¶ formed

by cheap shops, and people from other places buy clothing, electronics and other stuff from these districts.

12 It has three airports.13 Easily accessible port.14 Underground trains.15 City buses.16 Network of roads.

Mato Grosso ± low density:

1 Population: 2.8 million2 Population Density: 3.2 /km2




3 Mato Grosso has three different ecosystems: Cerrado, Pantanal, and the AmazonRainforest.

4 Cerrado ± Climate is semi-humid with a dry winter from May to October. The soils aremostly very old, deep and naturally infertile. Pretty much worthless for agriculture.(Cerrado makes up the majority of the climate.)

5 The capital of Mato Grosso is Cuiaba, which is the 33rd biggest city in Brazil. The rest of the town are very small.

6 Largest floodable area for a region in the world.

Variations in population structure between countries

You need to understand population pyramids:

Key things to know about population pyramids1. The shape of a population pyramid gives us information about birth and death rates as

well as life expectancy.2. A population pyramid tells us how many dependants there are living in an area. There are

two groups of dependants; young dependants (aged below 15) and elderly dependants(aged over 65).

3. Those of working age are classed as economically active. Dependants rely upon theeconomically active for economic support.

4. Many LEDCs have a high number of young dependants, whilst many MEDCs have agrowing number of elderly dependants.

How may a pyramid change over time?1. A population pyramid that is very triangular (eg Mozambique in 2000) illustrates a

population with a high number of young dependants and a low life expectancy.

2. A population pyramid that has fairly straight sides (more like a barrel) illustrates apopulation with a falling birth rate and a rising life expectancy.3. Over time, as a country develops, the shape of its population pyramid changes from a

triangular shape to a barrel-like shape with straighter edges.4. Places that are experiencing an ageing population and a very low birth rate may have a

population structure that looks a little like an upside-down pyramid.

The causes and consequences of population change

Natural change:




MEDCs

Country Birth-rates Death-rates Natural increase Population growth-rate

UK 11 10 1 0.1

Bulgaria 9 14 -5 -0.5

LEDCs

Country Birth-rates Death-rates Natural increase Population growth-rate

Botswana 31 22 9 0.9

Zimbabwe 29 20 9 0.9

International Migration ± case study ± Sudan

1. Largest African country.2. Population of 40million with 66% living within 300km of the capital.3. 80% work in agriculture.4. 57.7% are adult literate.5. It is an LEDC. 6. In 1956 Sudan became independent from UK and Egypt.7. Refugee numbers at 4million in 2003, compared to 1.3million in 19838. Surrounded by NINE countries and Saudi Arabia over the Red Sea9. Over 50 ethnic groups, split roughly North and South, this causes a lot of problems for

Sudan (e.g. war and conflict)10. Many national disasters (flooding, drought etc).

11. Poor Economic climate.12. Disease.13. Lack of food and water.14. Poor Political Climate.15. War (refugee).16. High amount of Crime.17. High amount of Unemployment.18. Lack of Clean Water.19. Regular Droughts.20. Famine.21. Desertification.22. Soil Erosion.23. Deforestation and loss of wildlife.24. Civil War (1972 ± 1982).25. PERSONAL S U RVIVAL 10,500 lost boys trekked from Sudan to Ethiopia to Kenya to

escape Civil War in the South of Sudan.26. 40% of migrants are African.27. 1/8 of African migrants are Sudanese.28. 60% of Sudanese migrants were 15-44yrs; 46% were female.

Conflict ± 03-06

Described as µEthnic Cleansing.¶




2 anti-Government groups wanted more power for the people. The Government responded using its own forces and Arab militia (J anjaweed ). 700 villages were attacked. 400,000 people were killed. 2 million migrated to refugee camps inside Sudan 200,000 migrated to eastern Chad. The militia burnt abandoned villages to ensure the emigrants would not return.

Where do the Emigrants go?

1. Some tried to settle in the U SA. 2. 51% went to Saudi Arabia.3. 16% went to Libya.4. 11% went to Qatar.5. They were all skilled workers.6. Most migrants were 20 -39yrs7. In 1996 on average they were sending home $ 100 a month to their own family.8. Sudan experienced a BRAIN DRAIN.

Government involvement

1. Between ¶89 and ¶04 they encouraged the displacement of people in Upper Nile and BlueNile because of OIL RESERVES and GOLD.

2. This is so they could build infrastructures to gain access to the black gold.3. They would use armed militia to destroy crops, steal livestock, abduct and threaten

people to displace whole communities

Case study ± strategies to influence population change

History:

1. Chairman Mao says µa large population brings a strong nation¶.

2. In 1959 there was a mass famine ± 20 million died.3. Between 1960 and 1973 the population grew by 55 million each year.4. In the mid 20th century China became worried about population growth ± fertility rate was

3.2.The policy:

1. In 1974 the slogan µLater, longer, fewer¶ was introduced. Lots of advertising2. In 1979 the one child policy was introduced3. Women heavily encouraged to use contraception4. Incentives included free education, better housing, healthcare. All lost if a 2

ndchild born

5. Couples had to get state approval to marry6. Enforced abortions and sterilisations were common: There were 20,000 forced abortions

in Guangdong alone in 10 years.

7. The policy was very successful in urban area; less successful in rural areas8. From 1990 onwards the policy was relaxed as socioeconomic effects of an ageingpopulation were apparent. E.g. Second children were allowed in rural areas.

Impacts:

1. By 2006 annual growth rate fell to 0.6%2. Fertility rate was at 1.63. It is thought to have prevented 350 million births in its 30 years.4. "China still has one million more births than deaths every five weeks."




5. There are still six hundred million people in China living on less than two dollars aday

6. Fertility rates cut from 3.2 to 1.6.7. Growth from 55 million per year to 12 million per year.8. Economy has been stabilised.9. Improved public healthcare service.10. Families have more money to spend ± better quality of life.11. Disturbing effect of female infanticide.12. µSpoilt little Emperor¶ syndrome.13. There is potentially great pleasure lost by only having one child.14. There are great implications of having an ageing population.15. Disproportionate number of boys to girls. 118:100 ratio for boys to girls in China.




Unit 3 - People and Their Needs

QUALITY OF LIFE

Topic Content Scale & ContextBOLD = compulsory

Italics = freedom of choiceImbalances in the quality of life between countries QoL indicators - GDP, life expectancy, infant mortality, literacy, nutrition and

health

Global / International Context unspecified

Imbalances in the quality of life between countries

Definition of QOL - Quality of life indicators are statistics that measure a countries quality of life ±how good/happy the people are/should be.

E.g.s of QOL Indicators

1. Gross Domestic Product: The size of the economy. The total value of goods and servicessold within that nation / total population. UK ± US$27.700; Brazil US$7600; SudanUS$350

2. Annual energy consumption million tonnes of oil equivalent: UK ± 161; Brazil 156; Sudan9

3. Literacy Rate: The percentage of the population 15 years and older who can read andwrite. UK: 100%; Brazil: 88%; Sudan 60%

4. Life Expectancy: The age people in that nation are likely to live to: UK: 77; Brazil: 69;Sudan 58;

5. Doctors per 1000 population: UK: 2; Brazil: 1.27; Sudan: 0.09NB Think about why these indicators are imperfect. Also consider the value of the UN HDI(United Nations Human Development Index).




Employment structure as an indicator of economic development Proportions employed in 1sty, 2ndy & 3rdy sectors Contrasts between countries, and changes through time

Regional / National LEDC

Any MEDC

Employment structure as an indicator of economic development

1. Indicator of quality of life.2. Measured by percentages of employment in primary/secondary/tertiary industries.3. Can be shown on triangular graphs.4. This varies between LEDCs and MEDCs as shown in the Rostow model of economic

growth.

E.g. LEDC ± Bangladesh:1. Highest percentage of employment is in primary (58%)2. 13% employment is in secondary industry.3. 28% employment is in tertiary industry.

Causes:1. Lack of skills and education required for tertiary industry.2. Low GDP per person ($240 in Bangladesh) results in lower demand for tertiary

industry as people do not have the money to spend on entertainment etc.3. Not enough jobs in primary and secondary industries for high population growth (1.0).

People rely on primary sector to make a living.

E.g. MEDC France:1. Highest percentage of employment is in tertiary industry (62% in France)2. 29% in secondary industry.3. Very low percentage in primary industry (9%)

Causes:1. High GDP per person ($20,580 in France) means people have more disposable

income to spend on entertainment, education, tourism, healthcare. This results in ahigher demand, so the majority of jobs are in tertiary industry.

2. More education available gives people the required skills for tertiary industry.

3. More advanced technology allows for a lot of entertainment, tourism and healthcare.




Rapid industrial growth a case study of an industrialising LEDC to illustrate causes and

consequences

Regional / NationalGlobal / International LEDC

Causes of growth:

1. From the beginning of the 1950s to the end of the 1970s, China was a highly centralised,planned economy in which industries were controlled and given targets by the centralgovernment.

2. Starting in the 1980s, a series of reforms was introduced.3. One of the most important was the establishment of Development Zones to stimulate

industrial growth in specific regions, and to enable these areas to act as µgateways¶ intoChina. This would also encourage trade with other countries.

4. E.g. of a v successful Decelopment Zone is Pudong nr Shanghai - The local economyhas grown at an annual average rate of 20% over the last 10 years. Of the world¶s largest500 companies, 98 of them have invested in 188 projects in Pudong, making it aproduction base for many world-famous brand names including Philips, Coca-Cola,Siemens, IBM.

5. 1992 these Development Zones became more important when the Party Congressofficially approved a shift to a free market economy in key areas, where firms would beallowed to run themselves.

6. The Zones have been designed to encourage investment from large enterprises andcompanies in many countries world-wide.

7. Between 1996 and 2000, the Chinese decided to introduce changes to the way their economy was run, with the theme of enterprise at the centre.

8. The main policies aimed to:a. establish a modern enterprise system and reform state-owned companiesb. make income distribution more evenc. set up a new social security system of pensions, healthcare and unemployment

benefitd. open up the country to the outside worlde. enact new laws to guarantee the establishment of a socialist market economy.

9. New measures have been taken to tackle the inefficiency of many of its state-organisedenterprises.

Positive consequences of change:1. Over the past 15 years, 113 of the world¶s top 500 multinationals have come to China,

including many household names such as IBM, Panasonic and even McDonalds!2. Some US$31 billion of foreign funds have been invested in these Development Zones,

making them an important force in the world market.3. Despite setbacks, with the Asian stock market fall in the late 1990s and severe floods

which caused massive damage in 1998, China¶s economy grew by 7% in 1999 and itsforeign reserves (used to back up its currency) rose to a record US$155 billion.

4. China ranks first in the output of many industrial and agricultural products. These includegrain, meat, eggs, coal, cement, cotton and silk fabrics, clothing, knitwear, bicycles,

washing machines and TV sets.5. The country has the world¶s third largest economy overall, and it is the fifth largest tradingnation.

6. Social impact ± more open and liberal e.g. the one-child policy, which was established in1979, has been relaxed, allowing most Chinese in both urban and rural areas to have twochildren instead of one.

Negative impacts




1. Unequal regional distribution of wealth ± In comparison with other countries its GDP per capita (average per person) is low (ranked 122 in the world at $US5000 vs UKUS$27,500).

2. Inequalities between rich and poor mean that China has one of the highest kidnappingrates in the world and the rich feel vulnerable.

3. Suffers from a general lack of investment in its own industries, so more vulnerable toimpact of economic downturns elsewhere in the world

4. Many companies are still reluctant to invest because of their perception of its lack of respect for human rights.

5. State-run companies such as the Chinese banks are often overstaffed anduncompetitive, so they are unprofitable.

6. China has been built under the communist system of government control.7. With this control reduced, China¶s political stability may be less certain.8. Many former farmers now work either in factories or in service industries, since their land

has been taken over for other uses: this means China is increasingly reliant upon importsfrom other countries of food.

9. Global recession - impact on manufacturing because MEDCs cannot afford to buy asmany products, so demand has decreased.

10. Environmental impact ± 16 of the world¶s top 20 most polluted cities are in China!




ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES


Commercial and subsistence farming systems The interaction of factors affecting agricultural land use

A case study from the UK or EU A case study from an LEDC

Small / LocalInternational / Global

UK or EU LEDC

How farming is changing Examples from the UK or EU to illustrate set aside, milk quotas, hedgerow

removal, diversification

Small / LocalRegional / National UK or EU

Commercial and subsistence farming systems

UK case study - Thorn Park Farm, N Yorkshire: focus on interaction of factors

1. Thorn Park Farm is a commercial farm to the West of Scarborough.2. Located in an undulating valley floor, surrounded by hills ± provide shelter from prevailing

winds which blow off North Sea.3. The farm is run by the Wilson family ± they rent the land.4. Main farm is 72 ha in size, further 36 ha rented at Irton, 8 km away.5. They have a herd of 110 Friesian dairy cows.6. Each cow produces an average of 7000 litres of milk per year.7. There is one full time employee as well as the four family members.

Physical inputs ± why dairy?1. Climate is too wet for arable2. Soil is too heavy for arable3. Too small to grow crops profitably4. Good grass growing area

Inputs ± outputs - labour/products etc1. Cows must be milked twice a day, at 0600 and 1700 hours, everyday, every year!2. Milking session takes about 2 hours3. Milk must be stored in 2 large refrigeration tanks and collected by bulk tanker every

morning4. Plenty of other jobs too: grass cut for silage in April to November for example5. Cut grass needed for feed in winter or buy which reduces profits6. Late Oct-Nov, grass loses quality, cows eat Kale. Supplements are needed to maintain

quality of milk7. Income mainly comes from milk, obviously, but a by-product is manure. This can be

collected and spread over fields but can also be sold.

Changes and impacts:

1. EU Milk quotas were introduced in 1984 to cut down on over production in Europei. Farms were only allowed to produce 90% of the production from the year before.ii. So a dairy farm which produced 300,000 litres of milk was then granted a milk quota

of 270 000 litres.iii. There have been further reductions of 9%

2. A disease called BSE - beef prices fell dramatically and haven¶t fully recovered.a. The EU imposed a strict export ban on British beef and related products in 96.

Cattle over the age of 30 months banned for human consumption in the UK since1996.

b. UK's beef industry suffered huge losses from which it has still not recovered.




c. For Thorn Park: During the calving time 60-70 calves were sold, during the BSEscare there was no market for these culled calves.

d. 9% of the Wilson¶s output used to come from the sale of these calvese. Further 10% from cows culled from the herdf. Price for calves has fallen by 90% in three yearsg. Price for culled cows has fallen by 50%h. Price for milk has fallen by 37%i. Cost of inputs on farm have either gone up or stayed the same

Response to the changes:

Considered:1. Sell up and leave the farm and farming. Little profit would be made from the sale of

animals, and the land is rented from the local Scarborough Borough Council.2. Diversify into non-farming activities. The Wilson¶s investigated setting up a caravan site

on the land.

Decided:1. Try to last out the crisis, while other dairy farmers went bankrupt, hoping there would be a

shortage of milk, forcing up prices.

2. Bought more milk quota and increase the herd to 160 cows.3. Make farm processes more efficient to cope with the increase, they should eventually

make a profit.

Other e.g.s of where farming is changing in the UK:

1. Grain farmers in E Anglia: Many hedgerows removed for combine harvesters ± E.g.parish of Wivenhoe, north-east Essex, U.K - Between 1938 and 1980, 50% of hedgerowswere removed

a. Many birds/insects/animals lost habitat inc threatened species: insects like thebrown hairstreak butterfly, birds like the cirl bunting and mammals like thedormouse.

b. Soil erosion increased as the strong winds that blow across E Anglia were no

longer slowed by hedges.2. Industrialisation of farming ± agribusiness: mechanisation, technology, fertilisation etc.3. Increase in organic farming and reduction in wheat and other products containing gluten

due to increased awareness of gluten/wheat intolerance.

The CAP (COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY) Britain joined the E.C. in 1973, we came under the CAP. CAP aimed to make Europe self sufficient in food & increase reliability if farming

incomes. Intervention Price

If the world price fell below the Intervention price then the EC would buy their food For the first time farmers had a guaranteed minimum income = encouraged them to

produce more.

Grants & Subsidies For modernising farms (draining wetlands, removing trees, new buildings, infilling ponds,

fertilizers & other chemicals, machinery etc. all attracted money). Surplus

Production grew in Europe the farmers were guaranteed that the EU would buy all their produce = SURPLUS

Results of the CAP = INTENSIFICATION Farms in size as small unprofitable farms have been amalgamated into larger farms. Hedgerows removed to make larger more profitable fields




Mechanisation = number of farm workers (1941, 9% of the UK in Agriculture, by 19912.5%).

Wildlife habitats & numbers . The EU is self sufficient in many foods (eg. Cereals 109%, Wine 101%, meat 100%,

cream 102%). Surpluses of many foodstuffs (eg. Barley, Butter, Milk, Wheat & Beef) Surpluses are expensive to store. The CAP now takes up 40% of the EU budget.

1992 Reforms of the CAP = DIVERSIFICATIONQuotas - farms given a quota as to how much milk they could produce. Fined if > quota. Theresult was a drastic reduction in herd size & lots of farmers selling off excess cattle cheaply. Thisincreased the ³Beef Mountain´.Set-Aside - Farmer forced to take between 10 ± 20% of their land out of cultivation. This landcould be used but not for food production, housing or industry. Set-aside has very importantenvironmental benefitsDiversification - New ways of making money eg. Tourism (camping, bed & breakfast, openfarms, go-karting, pony trekking), other crops & animals (deer, Llamas, Ostrich, Oil seed Rape,Linseed), Forestry, Organic farming.

Subsistence farming in an LEDC ± India ± rice (good for a q on changes in an LEDC)

1. India grows 20% of the world¶s rice2. Rice is the staple diet of 65% of the total population of India, forming 90% of the country¶s

diet.3. Agriculture is the main industry, providing 70% of jobs.

Physical inputs:1. Dry, sunny weather for ripening and harvest phases2. Flat land which will stop water draining away, allowing the rice to grow in it3. Plenty of moisture for growth ± India has up to 200mm/month4. 18oC for growing (3 months) and 24oC for ripening

Changes:

HYVs1. The Green Revolution is the name used to describe changes in farming over the last 50

years.2. In the 1960s there were fears that not enough food would be grown for the growing

population.3. MEDCs (e.g USA, UK, Australia) provided money to develop a high yield variety (HYV) of

rice.4. In 1965, a new strain called IR-8 led to an increase in yield of 300%.This led to lower

prices.

Advs of HYVs:1. The new crops have become more resistant to disease.2. The HYVs have also a shorter, thicker stem so they have become more resistant to the

wind and rain.3. Farmers who can afford to buy and sustain HYVs have benefited as their yields have

increased.4. This has created a surplus of production, meaning that the farmer can sell in the cities.5. This has increased the farmers¶ QoL.6. Machinery can be purchased which means that less labourers have to be employed.7. Overall, the farmer becomes richer.




Disadvs of HYVs:1. They require large amounts of fertiliser and insecticides and are therefore costly to

maintain.2. Using chemicals has meant that the farming has become far less sustainable as a result

of soil erosion.3. Many poor farmers cannot afford the new variety and some have borrowed money that

they cannot repay to buy them. This has forced some off their land and into the cities.4. Therefore, rural inequalities have increased.

Mechanisation:1. MEDCs imported machinery (e.g. tractors) to be used instead of water buffalo.2. Only the wealthy farmers had enough land and enough money to be able to afford them

to improve farm processes.3. Many farmers, however, could not afford this and so this has increased the rural

inequalities.

Irrigation:1. Monsoon rains are vital for the rice crops, but can sometimes be unreliable.2. HYV seeds need more water than normal rice.

3. Therefore, it was important to begin to irrigate the land.4. Now, there are about 45 million ha of land irrigated in India.5. Traditionally, wells are dug to reach the water table and the water is brought up by hand,

but the Green Revolution is changing the old methods and providing them with electricalor diesel pumps.

LEDC Kuna Indians, Panama± good for interaction of factors/sustainability and stewardship/TRF:

1. They live in the Comarca de San Blas forest on the northern slopes of the mountains of Panama.

2. 60,000 Kuna live in about 60 villages3. They live in either the forest or small islands

4. They grow their food in the forest among the trees so the trees are not destroyed.5. They grow: Maize, Coffee, Cocoa, Chilli pepper, Pineapples, Bananas, Other fruit

Changes:

1. The Pan-American highway has been built and so now the area is more accessible.2. Farmers go there and cut down the trees to make space for their crops.3. They plant rice, manioc and bananas.4. The soil is not very good as it used to be the forest floor and so the topsoil is lost easily.5. This means that the crops do not grow very well after 3 or 4 years6. They sell this land to cattle ranchers who graze cattle on it until the land is completely

useless.7. This destroys the Kuna Indians¶ environment.

8. The Kuna originally thought that the highway would be good as it would be a method totrade, but they were also afraid of what the new settlers would do to the land.

Response:

1. The Kuna Indians managed to persuade the authorities to make this a National Park.2. This protected the area and so now it is a major study area for tropical forest research.




Location of manufacturing and distribution industries The interaction of factors affecting the location of industry A case study of manufacturing industry location A case study of distribution industry location

Small / LocalRegional / National

Must be UK only

Location of manufacturing and distribution industries

Location of a manuf ind - Alcan smelter, Lynemouth, Northumberland

1. The smelter was opened in 1974 at a cost of £54 million.2. Owned by the Canadian aluminium company, Alcan, who are now known as Rio

Tinto Alcan.3. Large area of flat land available4. Lynemouth is central for supplying aluminium for firms in the UK, Ireland and

Northern Europe.5. There is a port, originally built for using coal, only 13km from Lynemouth and there is

a direct rail route between Blyth and Lynemouth.6. To avoid disrupting locals, the company bought the land from the local farmers.7. Alcan now own over 4,500 acres of land.8. Cheap power = important: To produce 1 tonne of aluminium uses as much electricity

as a family uses in 20 years.9. There is a power station alongside the Lynemouth smelter.10. And next to that is a coal mine, supplying the power station directly.11. Employment: The government was concerned about unemployment and it gave a

grant of £28 million to create jobs here.12. For years coal mining was the main employer here but the mines shut down.13. Many of the smelter¶s workers are former coalminers.14. This means they are used to heavy work.

Location of a dist ind ± Argos, Acton Gate, Stafford, 1998

1. They chose a site alongside junction 13 of the M6, where the A449 trunk road crosses it

2. Easy access to the motorway was the most important factor 3. The warehouse is in central England so it can deliver overnight to all eleven regional

bases within drivers working hours4. The company also had a workforce at Penkridge within 5km so they were able to retain

their workforce as well as take employee from the town of Stafford5. Flat Greenfield land and therefore easy to develop.6. However it was not a perfect location as it is too small and there is no room to expand




Tourism and its effects Two case studies of the development, benefits, problems, interdependence

and management of tourism for sustainability

Small / LocalRegional / NationalOne EU (not UK) One LEDC

Tourism and its effects

Kenya ± LEDC

Development

1. One reason for the boom in 70s and 80s was the release of the film ³Born Free´ and ³Outof Africa´

2. 80s larger aircraft brought long haul travel prices down, making Kenya more accessible3. In 1995 there were 34,211 hotel beds with 44% occ rate4. In 1996 850,000 tourists visited5. In 1997 only 750,000 tourists visited due to the Kenya tourist crisis ethnic unrest in the

coastal areas and the Asian economic downturn6. In 2000 there were >1million7. In 2006: 1,600,000 tourists visited8. First National Park est in 1946 Nairobi National Park

Positive impacts:

1. Accounts for over 750,000 jobs (Kenya Ministry for Tourism)2. Stimulates growth in other industries e.g. farming, manufacturing etc = multiplier effect3. One of the main pull factors = wildlife, so many National Parks have been created to

preserve this and reduce poaching4. Construction of new houses/hotels and businesses creates jobs for local people and

develops skills.5. Also encourages the improvement of the infrastructure, particularly the roads linking

Nairobi to the National Parks, such as the Masai Mara and Nairobi international airporthas been developed as a main international hub

6. Generates US$ 500million and 10% of the GDP for Kenya

Negative impacts:

1. Maasai tribes were forced away from their grazing area by the Maasai Mara NationalPark Authority

2. Safari minibuses often disturb natural animal behaviour and can scare them, affectingtheir mating patterns e.g. there may be 30-40 minibuses surrounding one animal

3. This also causes soil erosion and interferes with the functioning of the ecosystems4. Local people living around tourist areas rarely receive full economic benefit due to

leakage. E.g. in the Masai Mara <2% of the money spent benefits the local5. Hot air balloons disturb animals due to the shadows they cast and the noise of their

burners e.g. Maasi Mara

6. Coastal envts such as in Mombassa ar being damaged e.g the coral reef is stepped onby tourists and parts are removed, damaging thie fragile ecosystem7. The political unrest in 07-08 caused the tourism to reduce by 54% in the first quarter of

2008. It is now recovering.8. Safari minibuses should stay 25m from animals; if the animals start to reduce in numbers

this will have a serious impact on tourism as this is Kenya¶s most important primaryresource

9. Role of national parks in sustainability is questionable as it increases the number of tourists in a limited area




10. Tourism in Kenya is concentrated around honeypots/hot spots; this means that it isvulnerable e.g. in 97 the ethnic clashes meant that there was a dramatic drop in touristrevenues and therefore also GDP

Management for sustainability:

1. Kenya¶s govt have a plan called ³Vision 2030´. Tourism has been id¶d as one of the keydrivers in achieving this vision.

2. In 97 they set up Kigio Conservancy, which is a sustainable tourist destination, built usinglocal methods and resources and without modcons, such as electricity, aiming to providea natural wildlife experiences.

3. Ecotourism is growing in Kenya. Activities include: conservation activities which arebecoming more popular with tourists e.g. re-location of a giraffe in 03 from the KarenBlixen Giraffe Orphanage in Nairobi.

4. Many of the lodges are introducing water conservation schemes by restricting water pumping to certain times of the day, installing low pressure showers.

MEDC - Mallorca

1. Mallorca is the biggest island off the coast of Spain.

2. The island main source of income used to be farming; it also used to be the poorest placein Europe until 40 years ago; when the island began to be a popular tourist destination.

3. It has a population of 700, 000 people but 11 million visit each year.

Development:

1. Mallorca started to become a popular tourist destination in the 1950s when there firststarted to be package holidays.

2. Air travel was also developing and it became a lot quicker and cheaper to go on holiday.3. Mallorca was a popular spot as it was close to the UK (so not too expensive) but also had

a lot of sun.

Environmental impact:

1. When Majorca first became popular as a tourist destination there was a rush to developthe coast so it could accommodate as many people as possible. This resulted in vast,ugly hotels being built, that are really just big concrete blocks.

2. At the moment there is a big demand for more villas and flats to be built as a lot of peoplewant to buy second homes.

3. The beaches are also under threat from erosion as they are so over-crowded; the sand ismostly being carried away by people.

4. The island has the highest amount of cars per person in Europe and this leads to a lot of pollution and lots of traffic jams. This is because of the poor public transport and cheapcar rentals.

5. The tourist boom has resulted in too much waste being produced on the island and theamount of waste is increasing by 10-15% each year.

6. There is also a shortage of water, which means that water has to be shipped to the islandand this is a factor which limits the amount of tourists that can visit the island.7. People on holiday tend to give little consideration to the environment as they are only

there for a short amount of time.

Economic impact:

1. 85% of the island¶s income is from tourism.2. It gone from being one of the poorest areas in Spain to being one of the most affluent.3. Tourism has almost destroyed farming, once the islands main source of income.




4. People have deserted their farms where they once grew olives and reared sheep andhave abandoned them for easier jobs in tourism.

5. Only 2% of the islands GDP now comes from farming.6. This has resulted in a loss of economic independence and a mono-economy (an

economy that depends on one thing).7. There is a big demand for second homes and they are taking over villages which

damages the local community and culture.8. Out of 250,000 second homes, 50,000 are owned by Germans.9. There is a large demand for more houses to be built but as it is a relatively small island

this would make a big impact.10. Many second homes have been built with µBlack Money¶ (money that hasn¶t been

declared to a taxman).11. Property prices have increased by 30% within a year. This means that many locals,

especially first time buyers can¶t afford to buy houses.12. Also local culture dictates that young people can¶t get married if they don¶t have a house

to live in- which means they can¶t get married.13. -This leads to locals being hostile towards foreigners. This is a bad thing for the island

as 30,000 foreigners live there all years round and it is not good for there to be a bigdivision in society.

Social/cultural impact:

1. Lots of places along the coast have been taken over with British restaurants and bars.This means there is no atmosphere of being in a foreign place as it is rare to hear Spanish being spoken or to find Spanish food. There is also little evidence of Majorcanculture along the coast because it is mainly full of foreigners.

2. Inland people tend to cling to their cultural identity and have their own local dialect tokeep local traditions alive.

3. Most foreign visitors have little interest in the Majorcan culture.4. There is a tendency among German homeowners on the island to form ghettos, which

separates them from the local people.5. It is becoming increasing difficult to preserve culture when it is based on the land. The

landscape that was created by man to make it suitable for farming over many generations

is collapsing as it is not being restored and it will only take a generation for it to becompletely destroyed.

6. Some people fear that the culture (such as traditional songs and dances) are only beingreserved for special occasions and that it is becoming too artificial.

Sustainable tourism

1. Sustainable means that something is being persevered so that it can continue for futuregenerations without consequence.

2. Calvia is creating a model for sustainable tourism based on local Agenda 21.3. This has three main objectives:4. -To foresee and plan for the future and to improve and make the most of the islands

culture and heritage.

5. -To redevelop and rehabilitate the worst places in the town.6. -To diversify- move the economy away from being completely dependent on tourism.7. They have taken action against over developments. By blowing up hotels and

demolishing the worst eyesores and replacing them with green, open areas.8. They are promoting off peak holidays to avoid the summer rush.9. They introduced an eco-tax in 1999 and charged tourists an extra euro per person per

night but this was abandoned in 2003 because locals complained it was damagingbusiness.

10. They are also encouraging Agro-tourism where tourists go and stay on farms. Thisencourages the tourists to be interested in the Majorcan culture and brings the farmers a




much needed extra source of income. It also means that the money goes directly to localpeople and into the local economy. It encourages µlow volume, high quality¶ tourism asthis kind of holiday encourages people who will spend more money and are not justinterested in the cheap sun and fun. It also takes pressure of the more crowed coastalareas. The only problem with this scheme is that many farmers don¶t want tourists stayingon their farms.

11. Many people want to encourage more tourists to visit in the winter but this could meanthat there are the same amount in the summer, extra in the winter which results in moretourists overall.

12. The biggest opposition to Local Agenda 21 is the locals who work in the establishedtourists business and make a lot of money. Many believe that without the young Britishtourists the industry would collapse as they are prepared to spend a lot of money to havea good time.

13. Many people think it is important to make sure they don¶t lose tourists completely or getrid of what attracts them to the island.




ENERGY


The changing importance of fossil fuels, nuclear power and alternativesources

the reduction in coal production, and increasing use of natural gas the nuclear debate opportunities for, and consequences of the development of alternative

sources strategies for sustainability

Regional / National

Must be UK

Consequences for communities as energy supplies change a case study of the effects on economic activities and communities of

changes in energy production

Small / Local

Any MEDC

Reduction in coal and increase of natural gas/oil:1. UK coal industry has been in decline since 1920s when competition ->loss of world

markets2. During 30s, lack of investment and strikes threatened the industry3. In 1948 coal industry nationalised4. Govt modernised pits and supported mining communities5. Numerous smaller pits closed to be replaced by µsuper pits¶6. Coal failed to make a profit despite this, esp due to industrial disputes e.g. in 19847. In early 90s, govt decided to close many pits in preparation for privatisation8. The ³sell off´ took place in 94 and since more unprofitable mines or those wth geolog

problems, e.g. thin seams have closed.9. In 1950 ± 220mn tonnes of coal mined in UK by 688,000 miner. In 2000, 43mn tonnes by

7000 miners10. Decline happened because it became harder to sell coal11. Most sold to power stations, but they chose to import cheaper coal and build new gas fire

stations that use natural gas.

12. Environmental concerns over the damage caused by mining and clean air legislationaffected coal¶s image

13. International agreements about pollution and the threat of acid rain/climate change led tostrict limits on CO2 and SO4.

14. Competition from oil:a. UK has extensive oil fields in the North and Irish Seas ±b. Oil was cheap and in demand from industry and transport

15. Competition from gas:a. Large reserves of gas were discovered in the NBorth Sea in 1965b. Consumption of natural gas has increased yto 32% of UK¶s energy from about

5% in 1955c. ³Dash for gas´ happened in the 1990s as power stations chose gas over coald. It is cleaner than coal

e. Large reserves meant it was cheaper than coal The British government is ploughing £100m into the country's coal industry, in order to

save the remaining pits from closure.




Consequences for communities as energy supplies change

Holmewood ± decline in coal and development of alternative sources:

1. Holmewood is on N Derbyshire coalfield2. Most houses built here between 1901-1908 for miners3. Population of 776 in 1901 trebled by 1911 due to the expansion of the mine.

Impact:

4. Pit closed in 1970 and the area lost 2299 mining jobs5. In 1985, 34% of people who lived in NE Derbyshire still depended on the mining industry

for employment6. Since then, all of the deep mines have closed7. Many more jobs have been lost in other traditional industries such as iron and steel,

chemicals, engineering and railways8. Few alternative jobs to turn to9. A few miners were redeployed to collieries outside the region10. Indirectly, jobs were lost in the supporting industries ± estimates say for every 100 mining

jobs lost, a further 50 jobs were also lost ± negative multiplier effect.

11. E.g. in NE Derbyshire, British Coal was supplied by over 60 firms in the Chesterfieldarea.

12. In 1987 Holmewood had an unemployment rate of 18% vs UK ± 10%13. Long term male and youth unemployment has remained higher than national average

since the pit¶s closed14. Loss of shops and services dus to drop in income15. Substandard infrastructure and poor housing without amenities -> are unattractive to new

investors16. Mining left spoil heaps of waste rock, subsidence where the land had sunk and pollution

problems17. Local councils had limited resources to make improvements ± e.g. Lanwith colliery closed

in 1978, but reclamation work didn¶t begin until 1986.18. Many impacts of unemployment ± e.g. lowered mental and physical health, less car

ownership, more children on free school meals etc

Redevelopment:

1. Local authorities used a range of grants and initiatives to revitalize the area2. Industrial estates located in enterprise zones encouraged new industries to the area3. The Holmewood enterprise zone is linked to M1 and has improved infrastructure4. Offers financial and tax incentives e.g. no rates to pay for 10yrs, fast track planning and

administration procedures5. The landscaped area has purpose built units. The aim was to create 60 jobs per Ha6. The industrial estate is growing, but Holmewood itself only provides 23% of the national

average7. Recent private housing has been bought by commuters who work in Sheffield,

Chesterfield and Nottingham.




The nuclear debate:

For:1. Supplies of oil and gas are running low2. Relatively safe form of energy

i. No-one in Britain has died as a result of a radiation-related accident in 35years.

ii. Chernobyl produced more deaths than all the deaths in history fromnuclear accidents put together.

3. The reliability of nuclear power will reduce our dependence on gas from Russia and oilfrom the middle east ± delivery of which cannot be guaranteed.

4. Nuclear power is much more efficient than fossil fuels5. 1 KG of uranium produces 3.7 million times more energy than 1 Kg of coal6. Nuclear power emits no greenhouse gases once built.7. by 2030, world CO2 emissions are estimated to be 62% higher than today, hence the

importance of energy that doesn¶t emit Greenhouse gases8. very quiet«No columns of smoke9. Therefore less impact on local community and birds.

Against:

1. Expensive compared with other alternativesi. Nuclear power/Kwh costs £3-4ii. Onshore wind/Kwh costs £1.5-2.5

2. Nuclear power stations are an obvious target to terrorists.i. A terrorist attack on the scale of 9/11 could potentially kill 20 million

people in heavily populated area e.g. Kobe3. Waste is extremely expensive to dispose of and takes tens of thousands of years to

decayi. It costs 70 billion dollars to clear up 10 years worth of nuclear waste.

4. Nuclear stations have to be constantly monitored for safety reasons.5. With our current technology, the uranium we have will last about 30-60 years, depending

on the demand, but in theory we can last 3 millenniums with the amount of radioactive

material in the earth¶s crust.6. If you doubled nuclear power use in the UK you would reduce CO2 emissions by only

8%.7. Oil and gas are not only used for energy but also for making materials especially plastics.

Nuclear cannot replace this.8. Nuclear reactors are expensive to build and they only last about 40-50 years.

Decommissioning and refitting will cost $200-500 million and is an important aspect of planning for the use of nuclear power.

9. Nuclear reactors are unsightly and scar the land.10. The radioactivity of the area caused by the reactor can be bad for the people around it

and give them diseases like cancer.11. Large amounts of water are needed to cool them down12. Power plants that are left and not decommissioned can leave lava (radioactive material).




The development of alternative forms of energy:

The government has pledged that 10% of the UK's energy will come from renewable energysources by 2010 - a promise backed up by a £100m boost announced by Prime Minister TonyBlair.But at present less than 3% of Britain's electricity comes from alternative sources and to Ian Fells,Professor of Energy Conversion at Newcastle University, achieving the target by 2010 would be"difficult".

Hydroelectric power Almost all the UK's electricity generated from renewable sources comes from the twohydroelectric dams in Scotland.Benefits: Very powerful. A tried and tested form of energy production which has already provedsuccessful.Problems: Requires a dam to be built which environmentalists say risks disturbing river or estuarine ecosystems. The structures are also large and expensive to build."We have run out of space for large hydro," says Ian Fells, (Professor energy conservation)

Wind:One of the world's fastest growing energy technologies.

There are about 60 wind farms around the UK and the first off-shore farm was opened last year off Blyth, Northumberland.However, just 0.25% of the Britain's energy needs are currently met through wind power.Benefits: The UK is one of the windiest countries in Europe so it makes sense to harness theenergy.

According to Mark Johnston, energy specialist, the UK has the potential to provide three times itscurrent energy requirements with wind power.It is also cheap to harness.Problems: Each wind turbine is large - about 70m across - and some people object to the idea of them dotting the landscape.They generate a relatively low amount of power and Professor Fells reckons 1,500 turbines wouldhave to be built by 2010 for 2.5% of our energy to come from the wind.The wind does not blow all the time so we would need to use a battery technology to store the

energy, which is expensive to do.

Tidal and wave energy:Waves can be used to turn a generator or turbine - as on Islay where the UK's first, and only,commercial wave power station was opened in 2000.Tides can also be used to fill a hydroelectric dam.Benefits: As an island nation, Britain has a huge coastline which it could use for these forms of power.The UK's coastline could be harnessed

A US company is considering building a plant to harness tidal power off the Welsh coast, usingthe aggregate from slag heaps to build a "hollow island" which would have its own regular tides."This would benefit the environment in two ways: by clearing up the Welsh countryside and byproviding clean reusable energy," says Mark Johnston.

Problems: The Islay power station only generates 500kw - a relatively low rate of power.Ian Fells says 10,000 such stations would be needed around the Scottish coast to create asmuch power as the two nuclear power stations in Scotland.There are few sites with a great enough difference between low and high tides to makeharnessing tidal power possible.

Solar:Energy from the sun can be harnessed in solar cells - also called photo-voltaic cells. These canbe small enough to meet specific energy needs such as heating a house's water or groupedtogether in large banks.




Benefits: While solar energy is expensive to harness at present, it is rapidly coming down in price.Mark Johnston says it should be as cheap as wind within a decade.We could rely on this source more in the summer although at least one company has developeda cell which can be used in low light and possibly even moonlight.Problems: It is expensive to harness so it would need a high level of subsidy to make it viable.

As with wind, this is an intermittent source of energy which might need a battery technology tomake it reliable.




Unit 4 - People and The Environment

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT & THE ENVIRONMENT


BO

LD

= compulsoryItalics = freedom of choice

The extraction of raw materials by mining or quarrying A case study to illustrate opportunities, conflicts and environmental costs

Small / local Any MEDC

Tropical rainforests, a fragile ecosystem the global distribution of TRFs how the ecosystem operates at a local scale local consequences of change stewardship and sustainable development the significance and effects of the attitudes and values of decision-makers

Small / localInternational / global

LEDC

N

ational parks, land use conflicts a case study to illustrate a variety of conflicts strategies for conservation the significance and effects of the attitudes and values of decision-makers

Small / localRegional / national

Must be UK

Water pollution in a river, lake or sea the causes and effects of pollution strategies for sustainability a case study

Scale unspecified

Context unspecified

The extraction of raw materials by mining or quarrying

Peak District ± Derbyshire

A case study to illustrate opportunities, conflicts and environmental costs

1. The Peak district (in Derbyshire) has the largest area of limestone quarrying in the UK.2. Limestone is used mainly in construction industry (cement, bricks, roads)3. There are 12 main quarries in the Park. The largest quarries are:- Hope, Tunstead/Old

Moor, Ballidon, Darlton and Eldon Hill.4. Limestone from the Peak District is supplied to the East Midlands, North Western and

Yorkshire regions5. Limestone has been extracted since the Roman times and in the 20th century, extraction

increased from 1.5 million tonnes in 1951 to 8.2 million tonnes in 19916. During the 20th century, the amount of limestone quarried in the Peak District gradually

increased.7. It went from 1.5m tonnes in 1951 to 8.2m tonnes in 19918. This was because the demand increased to build roads and buildings.

Making cement:1. Cement is a mixture of limestone and shale which are both mined in the Peak District.2. The cement works at Hope, the largest quarry, supplies 10% of Britain with cement, using

1,730,000 tonnes of local limestone and 305,000 tonnes of local shale a year.3. It employs 200 people and is the largest single local employer.




Other products:1. Fluorspar ± a product used in refrigerators, solvents, aerosol propellants and

anaesthetics.2. Typical annual output = 60,000 tonnes3. Barytes - a mineral which uses include gas drilling and paint manufacture.4. Typical annual output = 20,000 tonnes5. Calcites ± a mineral used for ornamental finishes, chippings for flat roofs and in wall

surfaces. They give the white paint on the roads a sparkle.

Benefits:1. Quarrying provides jobs for the local people and accounts for 10% of male employment in

rural areas.2. In some cases, quarrying and environmentalists work together to minimise damage and

preserve natural wildlife by giving the land back to nature when they are f inished with it.3. The land is often turned into reservoirs which are used by tourists for recreation.

Negative impacts:1. There is noise pollution as the explosions used are very loud.2. There is blight on the land because the quarry makes a white scar on the land.

3. Lorries transporting for the quarries cause problems in small rural roads, causingcongestion and also problems for tourists which affects the tourism industry.

Conflicts:1. National Parks were set up to preserve the area of beauty and at the same time preserve

economic activities in the areas.2. Authorities find it difficult to find a balance between the two, leading to conflict.3. The quarries were set up before the area became a national park and so they have rights

to stay there until 2040.




National parks, land use conflicts

Peak District

1. North England east of Manchester, west of Sheffield.2. Area of 1438km2.3. Established in 1951 ± oldest national park in Britain.4. Aim is to protect the scenery including several honeypot sites, and custom such as dry-

stone walling and well-dressing.

Land uses and conflicts:

Conservation and farming1. Intensive farming reduces the diversity of grassland wildlife (through fertilising, ploughing

and reseeding) and can pollute the water supply (through the use of chemicals andfarmyard slurry).

2. Extensive farming reduces the need for drystone walls that are of landscape and historicinterest, and which may then be neglected or removed.

Strategy ± conservation/V and As

1. The Authority's Farm Conservation Scheme encourages farmers to manage land intraditional ways that compliment the National Park Authority's own conservation aims.

2. It also co-ordinates schemes to provide grants for conservation work.

Water supply, recreation and conservation1. There is a great demand for water sports facilities on the many reservoirs in the Park e.g.

Longdendale Reservoir and Ladybower Reservoir.2. However, recreational use may pose a threat to the purity of the water supply as well as

to the conservation of wildlife and landscape.3. Farming around reservoirs may also cause pollution through the use of chemicals and

through farmyard slurry and silage making.

Strategy ± conservation/V and As

1. The Authority limits recreation to fishing on 12 reservoirs, sailing on 5 reservoirs andoccasional water ski-ing on the Longdendale Reservoir.

2. Past applications for a further sailing club on Ladybower Reservoir have been turneddown.

3. The use of power boats is generally restricted to rescue vessels.

Tourism and conservation1. 22 million visitor days per year, the most visited national park in UK.2. Provides jobs and income.3. Large numbers of walkers using the footpaths in popular areas such as the Pennine Way

or Dovedale, cause erosion of the vegetation and soil.4. Climbers on the gritstone edges or large parties of walkers on the moorland may disturb

wild birds.

Strategy ± conservation/V and As1. More robust paths are constructed using stone or even artificial materials.2. Hard surfaced tracks along redundant railway lines provide alternative walking routes as

well as routes for cyclists and horse riders.3. The siting of car parks and visitor facilities can help to spread visitors over a wider area.4. Rangers give help and information to visitors.

Mineral extraction, conservation and quiet enjoyment1. Extraction of limestone leaves large unsightly quarries.




2. There is much pollution of the air from dust and traffic.3. Quarry traffic causes congestion in villages and also damages the roads and the

foundations of village buildings.4. The processing of fluorspar needs fine grinding to separate out impurities and involves

the dumping of large amounts of waste in artificial lagoons.

Strategy ± conservation/V and As1. The Park Authority insist that landscape schemes for screening and restoration are

undertaken as part of the process of mineral extraction. New proposals are judgedagainst these criteria:

a. The national and local need for the mineral.b. The lack of practicable alternative available sources.c. The extent to which the proposal would affect the landscape and environment of

the Park.




Water pollution in a river, lake or sea

USA ± Exxon Valdez oil tanker

1. On 24 March 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker grounded on a reef in Prince WilliamSound, 40 miles (65 km) off the Alaskan coast. Worst in US history

2. It dumped 11 million gallons (41.8m litres) of crude oil into the waters and contaminatedabout 1,300 miles (2,080 km) of coastline .

3. Its captain, Joseph Hazelwood, admitted drinking vodka before boarding the vessel, butwas acquitted of operating a ship while intoxicated

4. The Exxon Valdez spill was not the biggest in the world, but was by far the deadliest towildlife :

5. It killed an estimated 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbour seals, 250 baldeagles, up to 22 killer whales, and an unknown number of salmon and herring

6. Twenty years on, Prince William Sound looks back to normal, but local fishermen andenvironmentalists say it is crippled

7. Only two species, bald eagles and river otters, have recovered from the spill, according togovernment scientists who work for the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council(EVOSTC).

8. Exxon, now Exxon-mobil - which has established a $900m fund to settle government

damage claims - says the area has suffered no lasting damage.




Tropical rainforests, a fragile ecosystem

The global distribution of TRFs ± Equator. Minimum normal annual rainfall between1,750 millimetres (69 in) and 2,000 millimetres (79 in) occurs in this climate region!

How the ecosystem operates at a local scale

An example of sustainable use + stewardship of TRFs ± Kuna Indians Panama:

1. The Kuna Indians live in the Cormarca de San Blas forest, on the northern slopes of the mountains of Panama.

2. There are a total of 49 Kuna communities.3. 60,000 Kuna live in 60 villages in the forest.4. The Rainforest in Panama carries over 10,000 different varieties of plants, over a

1,000 species of birds, some of them which are totally alien to North America andEurope.

5. They grow maize, coffee, cocoa, chilli pepper, pineapples, bananas and other fruit.6. They grow these crops among the trees, so the forest is not destroyed.7. A new road has made the area accessible to settlers from the rest of Panama via the

Pan-American Highway.

Problems: The New Settlers: Local consequences of change

1. Settlers clear large areas of forest and plant crops of rice, manioc and bananas.2. These grow well for 3-4 years before the soil becomes infertile.3. They then sell the land to cattle ranchers who graze cattle until the land is useless.4. The soil then gets washed off the unprotected slopes by the heavy rain. (over 6000

mm each year)




5. Increase in noise and air pollution from machinery6. Destruction of animal habitats and rare plant species used by locals for medicinal

purposes7. Impact of external influences on community and culture of Kuna Indians8. Also consider the multiplier effect ± negative and positive

Solution / Sustainable Development:1. The Kuna Indians persuaded the authorities to make their part of the forest into the

Udirbi National Park. It is now a major study area for TRF research and study how tofarm tropical forest areas - more than 30% of Panama¶s national territory is nowprotected

2. Experts agree that by leaving the rainforests intact and harvesting its many nuts,fruits, oil-producing plants, and medicinal plants, the rainforest has more economicvalue than if they were cut down to make grazing land for cattle or for timber.

3. The latest statistics show that rainforest land converted to cattle ranching yields theland owner $60 per acre and if timber is harvested, the land is worth $400 per acre.However, if these renewable and sustainable resources are harvested, the land willyield the land owner $2,400 per acre.




THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT


Acid Rain the causes & physical processes

the consequences strategies to alleviate, including the importance of global citizenship andinternational co-operation

Global / International

UK and EU

Global Warming the causes & physical processes the consequences strategies to address the effects the challenges of global interdependence and responsibility, including

sustainable development and Local Agenda 21

International / Global

Unspecified

Global Warming

The causes & physical processes

1. Global warming is the warming of the atmosphere worldwide2. Greenhouse effect:3. This is a naturally occurring regulation of the earth¶s temperature, and gases.4. Water vapour, methane and CO2 form a natural blanket of air around the earth5. Short wave radiation hits earth: some reflected by ozone/absorbed by ozone6. Short wave reflected off earth as long wave7. Long wave is then either absorbed by greenhouse gases/ trapped in ozone reflecting

back endlessly, and causing the earths temperatures to rise8. However the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation has led to a massive increase in

the amount of CO2 released into the atmosphere9. We are also releasing larger quantities of other greenhouse gases, such as methane

and nitrous oxide10. If the Earth didn¶t have an atmosphere, its surface would on average be as cold as

the moon, about -18c11. Greenhouse gases exist naturally, heating the earth by trapping energy from the sun12. In the last 2000 years mankind has disturbed the natural greenhouse effect13. The main cause of global warming is the increase in the greenhouse effect14. CO2 is produced when fossil fuels are burned. LEDC¶s developing also poses a

threat, because they would use more fuel etc.15. Methane is produced as the decay of our waste material16. Water vapour is adapted by the water cycle, deforestation and urbanisation




Implications of global warming ± for the world:

1. Scientists estimate temperatures to rise between 1.4 and 5.8c in the next 100 years2. Predictions by the Climate Research Unit at the University of East Anglia put global

sea level rises between 12cm and 67cm by 2050.3. By far the worst effects will be felt in low-lying areas of countries like Bangladesh and

Pakistan - but there will also be some serious consequences for the UK.

Impacts of global warming for the UK:

1. Some researchers argue that global warming may already have had a significant effecton the climate in the UK. Four of the five warmest years for more than three centurieshave occurred in the last 10 years.

2. By the 2050s, annual temperatures in the south east of the country could be on averagemore than 2C warmer than they are now - 30 years later that may rise to more than 3C.3. As well as hotter, we are also likely to get much wetter, both through increased rainfall

and rising sea levels, due to melting ice caps.4. The recent floods and storms in the UK could also be part of a pattern of more extreme

weather occurring as a result of climate change.5. But Prof Phil Jones, of the Climatic Research Unit, is keen to point out that, as a single

event, the floods do not have much significance, instead long term trends will have to bestudied.

6. Studies of long term trends at the Climate Research Unit have found that winter precipitation could increase by more than 20% by the 2080s.

7. By contrast, in summer, central and southern UK could be much dryer than it is now withup to 18% less rainfall by 2080s.

8. With hotter weather, the demand for water would increase significantly as would

evaporation from reservoirs.9. It is possible that the gulf stream could slow down or move further south and this would

mean that the UK could end up with a climate more like that of Newfoundland.10. Research also suggests that the varieties of plants grown in the UK will also be affected

by global warming.11. Maize could become more widely grown in the UK12. If we got a couple of degrees warmer our current range of arable crops would shift

northward and maize, more often grown in Southern Europe and North America, wouldbecome more popular in the south and the midlands.




1. Fruits that are also associated with warmer climates, like peaches andnectarines, would also be grown more widely. And the hot summers could alsobe a real boost to the British wine industry.

2. Warmer seas around the UK are likely to attract fish that, up until now, havefavoured more southern waters. Recently fishermen have reported seeingsurprising numbers of mullet, anchovies and various species of shark.

3. Insect-borne diseases could become more common4. Farmers fear the destructive Colorado beetle could get more of a foothold if the

weather warms. In residential areas cockroaches could become more commonalong with fleas and mites.

5. Bloodsucking ticks, scorpions and poisonous spiders and even malaria carryingmosquitoes all might become a feature of life in a hotter UK.

6. And of course if we don't cover up in the sun, increased levels of skin cancer andcataracts are also a possibility.

Sustainability:

1. New types of energy are needed ± renewable2. Sustainability is to manage resources or run projects or industries for future

generations3. Walking/cycling ± not cars4. Less aircraft journeys5. Smaller/more efficient cars6. Recycle7. Energy-efficient light bulbs8. Insulating houses/double glazing/9. Renewable energy ± e.g. solar panels/ wind energy

The challenges of global interdependence and responsibility, including sustainabledevelopment and Local Agenda 21

E.g. Kyoto Protocol:

1. After seven years of debate between leaders, politicians and scientists, on 16th February2005 the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to control climate change finally became international law.

2. The Protocol was drawn up in Kyoto, Japan in 1997 to implement the United NationsFramework Convention for Climate Change

3. Industrialised nations who sign up to the treaty are legally bound to reduce worldwideemissions of six greenhouse gases (collectively) by an average of 5.2% below their 1990levels by the period 2008-2012.

4. For the protocol to come fully into force, the pact needed to be ratified by countriesaccounting for at least 55% of 1990 carbon dioxide emissions.

5. With countries like the US and Australia unwilling to join the pact, the key to ratificationcame when Russia, which accounted for 17% of 1990 emissions, signed up to theagreement on 5th November 2004.

6. The final ratified agreement means Kyoto will receive support from participating countries

that emit 61.6% of carbon dioxide emissions.7. The protocol is officially the first global legally binding contract to reduce greenhousegases.

8. Most of the countries in the pact agree that it will be a difficult task to meet their Kyototargets; already nations are falling behind their targets.

a. Spain and Portugal in the EU were 40.5% above 1990 levels in 2002.b. Canada, one of the first countries to sign, has increased emissions by 20% since

1990, and they have no clear plan to reach their target.c. Japan is also uncertain about how it will reach its 6% target by 2012.




Local Agenda 21: E.g. Calvia Mallorca

1. At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the United Nations agreed that the beststarting point for the achievement of sustainable development is at the locallevel.

2. In fact, two thirds of the 2500 action items of Agenda 21 relate to local

councils.3. Each local authority has had to draw up its own Local Agenda 21 (LA21)strategy following discussion with its citizens about what they think isimportant for the area.

4. The principle of sustainable development must form a central part of thestrategy.

5. LA21 regards sustainable development as a community issue, involving allsections of society, including community groups, businesses and ethnicminorities.

6. LA21 follows the principles of sustainable development and the goal of ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, both now and in the future.

7. Calvia, Mallorca have developed its own targets to achieve LA21




Acid Rain

Causes & physical processes

1. Acid rain has a pH of less than 5.62. It can be caused Naturally by gasses emitted from volcanoes and those from biological

processes that occur on the land, in wetlands, and in the oceans.3. Acid rain can be produced Artificially by things such as:4. Electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles and Coal power plants emitting

sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.5. Coal power plants are one of the most polluting. The gases can be carried hundreds of

kilometres in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited. In thepast, factories had short funnels to let out smoke, but this caused many problems locally;thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels. However, dispersal from these taller stackscauses pollutants to be carried farther, causing widespread ecological damage.

Consequences:

1. Acid rain in water can damage or kill aquatic creatures (such as fish)2. At pHs lower than 5 most fish eggs will not hatch and lower pHs can kill adult fish.

3. This is very widespread: The United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA)website states: "Of the lakes and streams surveyed, acid rain caused acidity in 75percent of the acidic lakes and about 50 percent of the acidic streams".

4. Soils can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some key microbes are unable totolerate changes to low pHs and are killed.

5. High altitude forests are especially vulnerable as they are often surrounded by cloudsand fog which are more acidic than rain:

6. Acid rain can also cause damage to certain building materials and historicalmonuments. This results when the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with thecalcium compounds in the stones (limestone, sandstone, marble and granite) tocreate gypsum, which then flakes off.

7. This result is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can causethe inscription to become completely illegible. Acid rain also causes an increased rate

of oxidation for iron. This has affected the Taj Mahal in India quite famously8. Annual cost of damage from acid deposition in Europe is estimated at US$0.5-3.5

billion

Case study

Ever since the 1980¶s, Great Britain has been a leading emitter of Sulphur dioxide andCarbon Dioxide, which all contribute to making acid rain, and Global Warming.

However emissions of sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen have since been reduced,although the UK still remains a considerable producer of acidic pollution compared toother European countries such as Germany and France.

Most of the UK sulphur dioxide comes from power stations (65% in 1999) and other industries (22% in 1999) whilst the largest source of nitrogen oxides is road transport

(44%) and power stations (21%). Freshwater acidification is a serious problem in susceptible parts of the UK. Theseinclude central and southwest Scotland, the Pennines, parts of Cumbria, central andNorth Wales and parts of Northern Ireland.

Many historic monuments and buildings are affected by air pollution in the UK, inparticular York Minster and Westminster Abbey.

Greater use of natural gas instead of coal has led to a drop in acid rain Some of the UK's most environmentally sensitive upland lakes and streams are

recovering from the impact of acid rain, the government has said.




Acidic sulphur in Britain's water has generally halved in the last 15 years, the Departmentfor Environment, Food and Rural Affairs said research showed.

Since 1970 there has been a 74% decline in sulphur dioxide emissions from 3.8 milliontonnes to one million tonnes in 2002, and a 37% decline in emissions of nitrogen oxides.

Natterjack toads in the south of England may have died out due to the acidification of their spawning grounds, while salmon and trout fisheries in small Welsh rivers have alsosuffered significant declines.

The research, by University College London, is based on 22 of the most sensitive watersin the UK, which have been monitored continuously since 1988.

In some sites, acid-sensitive mosses and other aquatic plants were found for the first timein 15 years.

And at three of the most acidic sites identified, juvenile brown trout have recently beenfound for the first time since 1988.

Strategies to alleviate, including the importance of global citizenship and international co-operation

1. In the United States, many coal-burning power plants use a ³wet scrubber´ which iscommonly used in many other countries.

2. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hotsmoke stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurryform is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with thesulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutralcalcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber. That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.

3. In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as gypsum when thepurity of calcium sulfate is high. In others, they are placed in landfill.

4. A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmosphericpollutants have been agreed e.g. Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol under theConvention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution.

5. In 1990 the Clean Air Act Amendments were passed. The overall goal of the AcidRain Program established by the Act is to achieve significant environmental and

public health benefits through reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogenoxides, the primary causes of acid rain. To achieve this goal at the lowest cost tosociety, the program employs both regulatory and market based approaches for controlling air pollution.

Paper 2

2010 gcse revision guide

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