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List of professionsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

A profession has two fundamental cores: (1) the art practiced is helpful to others; and (2) the persons so engaged in that art govern the practice in a way that is primarily for the public good[citation needed].

Professions include:[1][2]

Accountants

An accountant is a practitioner of accountancy or accounting, which is the measurement, disclosure or provision of assurance about financial information that helps managers, investors, tax authorities and others make decisions about allocating resources.

The Big Four auditors are the largest employers of accountants worldwide.

However, most accountants are employed in commerce, industry and the public sector.

British Commonwealth

In the Commonwealth of Nations, which includes the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong pre 1997 and several dozen other states, commonly recognised accounting qualifications are Chartered Accountant (CA or ACA), Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA), Chartered Management Accountant (ACMA) and International Accountant (AAIA). Other qualifications in particular countries include Certified Public Accountant (CPA – Ireland and CPA – Hong Kong), Certified Management Accountant (CMA – Canada), Certified General Accountant (CGA – Canada), Certified Practising Accountant (CPA – Australia) and members of the Institute of Public Accountants (Australia), and Certified Public Practising Accountant (CPPA – New Zealand).

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS) received its Royal Charter in 1854 and is the world's first professional body of accountants.[2]

United Kingdom and IrelandMain article: British qualified accountants

A Chartered Accountant must be a member of one of the following: o the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales (ICAEW)

(designatory letters ACA or FCA)o the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS) (designatory

letters CA)o Chartered Accountants Ireland (CAI)

o a recognised equivalent body from another Commonwealth country (designatory letters being CA (name of country) e.g. CA (Canada))

A Chartered Certified Accountant must be a member of the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (designatory letters ACCA or FCCA).

A Chartered Management Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (designatory letters ACMA or FCMA).

A Chartered Public Finance Accountant must be a member of the Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy (designatory letters CPFA).

An International Accountant is a member of the Association of International Accountants (designatory letters AAIA or FAIA).

An Incorporated Financial Accountant is a member of the Institute of Financial Accountants (designatory letters AFA or FFA).

An Associate Professional Accountant is a member of the Institute of Professional Accountants(designatory letters APA-UK or FPA).[3][importance?]

A Certified Public Accountant may be a member of the Association of Certified Public Accountants (designatory letters AICPA or FCPA) or its equivalent in another country, and is usually designated as such after passing the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination.

A Public Accountant may be a member of the Institute of Public Accountants (designatory letters AIPA, MIPA or FIPA).

Excepting the Association of Certified Public Accountants, each of the above bodies admits members only after passing examinations and undergoing a period of relevant work experience. Once admitted, members are expected to comply with ethical guidelines and gain appropriate professional experience.

Chartered, Chartered Certified, Chartered Public Finance, and International Accountants engaging in practice (i.e. selling services to the public rather than acting as an employee) must gain a "practising certificate" by meeting further requirements such as purchasing adequate insurance and undergoing inspections.

The ICAEW, ICAS, ICAI, ACCA, AIA and CIPFA are six statutory RQB Qualification Bodies in the UK. A member of one them may also become a Registered Auditor in accordance with the Companies Act, providing they can demonstrate the necessary professional ability in that area and submit to regular inspection. It is illegal for any individual or firm that is not a Registered Auditor to perform a company audit.

All six RQBs are listed under EU mutual recognition directives to practise in 27 EU member states and individually entered into agreement with the Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (HKICPA).

Further restrictions apply to accountants who carry out insolvency work.

In addition to the bodies above, technical qualifications are offered by the Association of Accounting Technicians, ACCA and AIA, which are respectively called AAT

Technician, CAT (Certified Accounting Technician) and IAT (International Accounting Technician).

Australia

In Australia, there are three legally recognised local professional accounting bodies: the Institute of Public Accountants (IPA), CPA Australia (CPA) and the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Australia (ICAA). Other international bodies such as ACCA (The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants) and ICAEW (Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales) enjoy recognition for the purposes of supporting their members in their careers. For instance, ACCA has achieved recognition by the Tax Practitioner Board, as Tax and BAS agents, in 2010.

BangladeshMain article: Accountancy profession in Bangladesh

Chartered accountancy is governed in Bangladesh by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh (ICAB).

Canada

In Canada, there are four recognized accounting bodies: the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CA) and the provincial and territorial CA Institutes, the Society of Management Accountants of Canada, also known as the Certified Management Accountants (CMA), the Certified General Accountants Association of Canada (CGA), and the Society of Professional Accountants of Canada (RPA). CA and CGA were created by Acts of Parliament in 1902 and 1913 respectively, CMA was established in 1920 and RPA in 1938.

The CA program is the most focused on public accounting and most candidates obtain auditing experience from public accounting firms, although recent changes allow candidates to obtain their experience requirements in industry at companies that have been accredited for training CAs (Note: New members that obtain their designation in industry are referred as Registered CAs, in contrast to Licensed CAs who obtain their designation through a registered public accounting firm and able to sign-off on audit opinion); the CMA program focuses in management accounting, but also provides a general approach to financial accounting and tax; the CGA program takes a general approach allowing candidates to focus in their own financial career choices. The CA and CMA programs require a candidate to obtain a degree as a program entry requirement. The CGA program requires a degree as an exit requirement prior to certification.

Auditing and public accounting are regulated by the provinces. In Canada, CAs, CMAs, and CGAs are considered equivalents pursuant to provincial and territorial legislation. However, in practice, most public accounting and auditing in Canada is performed by CAs.

As of 2006, the Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA or FCCA) is also recognized by the Canadian government as an eligible qualification to audit federal government institutions in Canada. Furthermore, The Canadian branch of ACCA is pursuing recognition for statutory audit purposes in the province of Ontario under the province's Public Accounting Act of 2004.

Starting 2011, a new framework was developed to unify the Canadian accounting profession under Chartered Professional Accountants of Canada (CPA Canada). The Society of Professional Accountants of Canada (RPA) was not included in the merger discussions. On January 1, 2013, CPA Canada was registered as a non-for-profit association, and CA and CMA members were elected as directors of the CPA Canada Board.[4]

India

Chartered accountancy is offered in India by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI), the second largest accounting body in the world. This Institute was established in 1949 under the Chartered Accountants Act, 1949 for the regulation of the profession of Chartered Accountants in India.

The ICAI set up the Accountancy Museum of India in 2009, the third museum of accounting in the world. It is currently located at ICAI's office in Noida.

Pakistan

The Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP) offeres chartered accountant studies in Pakistan. ICAP was established under The Chartered Accountants Ordinance, 1961 as a self-regulatory body.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, there are two local accountancy bodies the New Zealand Institute of Chartered Accountants (NZICA) and the New Zealand Association of Certified Public Accountants (NZACPA) the operating name of New Zealand Association of Accountants Inc (NZAA).

To audit public companies an individual must be a member of either the NZICA or an otherwise gazetted body. Chartered Certified Accountant (Association of Chartered Certified Accountants or FCCA) qualification has also been gazetted under. An ACCA member can practice as long as they hold an ACCA public practice certificate (with audit qualification) in their country of origin.

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, a chartered accountant must be a member of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Sri Lanka (designatory letters ACA or FCA). It is the sole local

accountancy body, therefore to audit public companies an individual must be a member of the ICASL.

Austria

In Austria the accountancy profession is regulated by the Bilanzbuchhaltungsgesetz 2006 (BibuG – Management Accountancy Law).

Hong KongMain article: Accountancy in Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, the accountancy industry is regulated by Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants HKICPA under the Professional Accountants Ordinance (Chapter 50, Laws of Hong Kong). The auditing industry for limited companies is regulated under the Companies Ordinance (Chapter 32, Laws of Hong Kong), and other ordinances such as the securities and futures ordinance, the listing rules, etc.

HKICPA terminated all recognition of oversea bodies in 2005 for accreditation under professional accountants ordinance. In general, all British RQBs except for CIPFA were re-accredited. Please refer to HKICPA for latest recognition.

Portugal

In Portugal, there are two accountancy qualifications: the Técnicos Oficiais de Contas (TOC), responsible for producing accounting and tax information, and the Revisor Oficial de Contas (ROC), more related to auditing practices. The TOC certification is exclusively awarded by the professional organization Ordem dos Técnicos Oficiais de Contas (OTOC), and the certification to become an auditor is awarded by another professional organization, the Ordem dos Revisores Oficiais de Contas (OROC).[5] In general, accountants or auditors accredited by OTOC or OROC are individuals with university graduation diplomas in business management, economics, mathematics or law who, after further studies, applied for an exam and received the certification to be a TOC or ROC. That certification is only received after a 1-year (TOC) or 3-years (ROC) internship. Any citizen having a polytechnic degree as a bookkeeper is also entitled to apply for the exam and certification at the OTOC.[6]

United StatesFurther information: Legal liability of certified public accountants

In the United States, licensed accountants are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) and in certain states, Public Accountants (PAs). Unlicensed accountants may be Certified Internal Auditors (CIAs) and Certified Management Accountants (CMAs). The difference between these certifications is primarily the legal status and the types of services provided, although individuals may earn more than one certification. Additionally, much accounting work is performed by uncertified individuals, who may be working under the supervision of a certified accountant. As noted above the majority of

accountants work in the private sector or may offer their services without the need for certification.

A CPA is licensed by a state to provide auditing services to the public. Many CPA firms also offer accounting, tax, litigation support, and other financial advisory services. The requirements for receiving the CPA license vary from state to state, although the passage of the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination is required by all states. This examination is designed and graded by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.

A PA (sometimes referred to as LPA—Licensed Public Accountant) is licensed by the state to practice accountancy to a similar extent as are CPAs, except that PAs are generally not permitted to perform audits or reviews (Delaware is an exception, in that PAs are permitted to perform audits and reviews). A PA's ability to practice out of state is very limited due to most states having phased out the PA designation. While most states no longer accept new PA license applicants, six states still accept PA applicants for limited practice privileges within the state. As with the CPA, the requirements for receiving the PA license vary from state to state. Most states require a passage of either 2 or 3 (out of 4) sections of the CPA exam or passage of the Comprehensive Examination for Accreditation in Accounting which is administered and graded by the Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation (ACAT).

A certified internal auditor (CIA) is granted a certificate from the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), provided that the candidate has passed a four-part examination. One of the four parts is waived if the candidate has already passed the CPA Exam. A CIA typically provides services directly to an employer rather than to the public.

A person holding the Certificate in Management Accounting (CMA) is granted the certificate by the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), provided that the candidate has passed an examination of two parts and has met the practical experience requirement of the IMA. A CMA provides services directly to employers rather than to the public. A CMA can also provide services to the public, but to an extent much lesser than that of a CPA.

The United States Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that there are about one million persons[7] employed as accountants and auditors in the U.S.

Pharmacists

PharmacistFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

For the precursor profession, see Apothecary.

The mortar and pestle is an international symbol of pharmacists and pharmacies.

Pharmacists, also known as druggists in North American English and chemists in Commonwealth English, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. The role of the pharmacist has shifted from the classical "lick, stick, and pour" dispensary role (that is, "lick & stick the labels, count the pills & pour liquids"), to being an integrated member of the health care team directly involved in patient care.[1][2] Pharmacists undergo university-level education to understand biochemical mechanisms of action of drugs, drug uses, and therapeutic roles, side effects, potential drug interactions, and monitoring parameters. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology. Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers.

Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy or Doctor of Pharmacy degree.

The most common pharmacist positions are that of a community pharmacist (also referred to as a retail pharmacist, first-line pharmacist or dispensing chemist), or a hospital pharmacist, where they instruct and counsel on the proper use and adverse effects of medically prescribed drugs and medicines.[3][4][5] In most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the legal scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing (also referred to as "pharmacist prescriber") and administering certain medications (e.g., immunizations) in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of other settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military, and government.

Contents 1 Nature of the work

o 1.1 Education and credentialing o 1.2 Practice specialization

2 Training and practice by country o 2.1 Australia o 2.2 Canada o 2.3 Germany

o 2.4 Japan 2.4.1 History 2.4.2 Contemporary

o 2.5 Sweden o 2.6 Pakistan o 2.7 Tanzania o 2.8 United Kingdom

2.8.1 Education and registration o 2.9 Vietnam o 2.10 United States

2.10.1 Pharmacy School Accreditation 2.10.2 Education 2.10.3 Specialization and credentialing 2.10.4 Earnings and wages

3 Noted people who were pharmacists 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

Nature of the workSee also: Pharmacy

Historically, the fundamental role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check and distribute drugs to doctors for medication that had been prescribed to patients. In more modern times, pharmacists advise patients and health care providers on the selection, dosages, interactions, and side effects of medications, and act as a learned intermediary between a prescriber and a patient. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe and effective use of medication. Pharmacists may practice compounding; however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. In some jurisdictions, pharmacists have prescriptive authority to either independently prescribe under their own authority or in collaboration with a primary care physician through an agreed upon protocol.[6]

Increased numbers of drug therapies, ageing but more knowledgeable and demanding populations, and deficiencies in other areas of the health care system seem to be driving increased demand for the clinical counselling skills of the pharmacist.[1] One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care.[7] Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmaceutical care has many benefits that may include but are not limited to: decreased medication errors; increased patient compliance in medication regimen; better chronic disease state management; strong pharmacist–patient relationship; and decreased long-term costs of medical care.

Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries. Thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. These roles may include, but are not limited to:

clinical medication management, including reviewing and monitoring of medication regimens

assessment of patients with undiagnosed or diagnosed conditions, and ascertaining clinical medication management needs

specialized monitoring of disease states, such as dosing drugs in renal and hepatic failure

compounding medicines providing pharmaceutical information providing patients with health monitoring and advice, including advice and

treatment of common ailments and disease states supervising pharmacy technicians and other staff oversight of dispensing medicines on prescription provision of non-prescription or over-the-counter drugs education and counseling for patients and other health care providers on optimal

use of medicines (e.g., proper use, avoidance of overmedication) referrals to other health professionals if necessary pharmacokinetic evaluation promoting public health by administering immunizations

Education and credentialingSee also: Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, and Doctor of Pharmacy

The role of pharmacy education, pharmacist licensing, and continuing education vary from country to country and between regions/localities within countries. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a pharmacy school or related institution, and/or satisfy other national/local credentialing requirements. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional (undergraduate) coursework, followed by about four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy (e.g., PharmD- Doctorate of Pharmacy). Pharmacists are educated in pharmacology, pharmacognosy, chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, microbiology, pharmacy practice (including drug interactions, medicine monitoring, medication management), pharmaceutics, pharmacy law, physiology, anatomy, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, drug delivery, pharmaceutical care, nephrology, hepatology, and compounding of medications. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on laboratory tests, disease state management, therapeutics and prescribing (selecting the most appropriate medication for a given patient).

On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, to dispense medication of various types in the areas they have trained for. Some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology.

Practice specialization

Specialties include:

Academic Pharmacist

Clinical Pharmacy Specialist

Community Pharmacist

Compounding Pharmacist

Consultant Pharmacist

Drug Information Pharmacist

Home Health Pharmacist

Hospital Pharmacist Industrial Pharmacist Informatics Pharmacist Locum Pharmacist Managed Care Pharmacist Military Pharmacist

Nuclear Pharmacist

Oncology Pharmacist

Pharmacist prescriber

Regulatory-Affairs Pharmacist

Veterinary Pharmacist

Pharmacist Clinical Pathologist

Pharmacist Clinical Toxicologist

Training and practice by countrySee also: Doctor of Pharmacy

AustraliaSee also: Australian Pharmaceutical Advisory Council

The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists.[8] It conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists.

Wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated.[citation needed] The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week.[9] Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the award wage; the average male pharmacist earns $65,000, a female pharmacist averages $56,500.[citation needed] Over recent years, wages have stagnated, and even gone backwards. There are more graduates expected in the next few years making it even harder to get a job. Job security and increase in wages with regards to CPI could be unlikely.[citation needed] This is due to the large numbers of pharmacy graduates in recent years, and government desire to lower PBS costs. Contract and casual work is becoming more common. A contract pharmacist is self-employed and often called a locum; these pharmacists may be hired for one shift or for a longer period of time. There are accounts of underemployment and unemployment emerging recently.[citation needed]

Canada

The Canadian Pharmacists Association (CPhA) is the national professional organization for pharmacists in Canada.[5] Specific requirements for practice vary across provinces, but generally include a Bachelor's of Science in Pharmacy from a recognized university, successful completion of a national board examination through the Pharmacy Examining Board of Canada, and practical experience through an apprenticeship/internship program.

The vast majority (80%) of Canada’s licensed pharmacists work in community pharmacies, another 15 percent in hospital or institutional pharmacies, and the remainder work in situations that may not legally require licensed pharmacists such as associations, pharmaceutical companies, and consulting firms.[1] The wages for pharmacists, at about CAD $95,000, have been said to be slightly better than Australia but not as good as in the USA.[citation needed] This likely depends on what parts of Canada and or the USA are compared. Wages being significantly higher in Canada than the prospect for most developing countries, recruitment of pharmacists from South Africa and other countries with acute health workforce shortages to work in private franchise chains is subject to controversy.[10]

British Columbia

A Pharmacist must be registered with the College of Pharmacists of British Columbia to practice in this province. A Bachelor of Science in Pharmaceutical Sciences is the minimum requirement to practice as a pharmacist in BC. The University of British Columbia is the only institution in the province that trains pharmacists.

BC Professional association/college College of Pharmacists of British Columbia British Columbia Pharmacy Association

Germany

In Germany, the education and training is divided into three sections, each ending with a state examination:

University: Basic studies (four semesters) University: Main studies (four semesters) Community Pharmacy / Hospital Pharmacy / Industry: Practical training (12

months; 6 months in a Community Pharmacy).

Today, many pharmacists work as employees in public pharmacies. They will be paid according to the labour agreement of Adexa and employer associations.

Japan

History

In ancient Japan, the men who fulfilled roles similar to pharmacists were respected. The place of pharmacists in society was settled in the Taihō Code (701) and re-stated in the Yōrō Code (718). Ranked positions in the pre-Heian Imperial court were established; and this organizational structure remained largely intact until the Meiji Restoration (1868). In this highly stable hierarchy, the pharmacists — and even pharmacist assistants — were assigned status superior to all others in health-related fields such as physicians and acupuncturists. In the Imperial household, the pharmacist was even ranked above the two personal physicians of the Emperor.[11]

Contemporary

As of 1997, 46 universities of pharmacy in Japan graduated about 8000 students annually.[12] Contemporary practice of clinical pharmacists in Japan (as evaluated in September 2000) focuses on dispensing of drugs, consultation with patients, supplying drug information, advising on prescription changes and amending prescriptions. These practices have been linked to decreases in the average number of drugs in prescriptions, drug costs and incidence of adverse drug events.[13]

Sweden

In Sweden, the national board of health and welfare regulates the practice of all legislated health care professionals, and also is responsible for registration of pharmacists in the country. The education to become a licensed pharmacist is regulated by the European Union, and states that minimum educational requirements are five years of university studies in a pharmacy program, of which six months must be a pharmacy internship. To be admitted to pharmacy studies, students must complete a gymnasium (school for 15–18-year-olds) program in natural sciences after elementary school (6–15-year-olds). In Sweden, pharmacists are called Apotekare. At pharmacies pharmacists work together with another class of legislated health care professionals called receptarier, who have completed studies equal to a bachelor of science in pharmacy, i.e., three years of university. These latter also have dispensing rights >

Pakistan

In Pakistan, the Pharm.D. (Doctor of Pharmacy) degree is a graduate-level professional doctorate degree. Twenty-one universities are registered with the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan for imparting Pharmacy courses. In 2004 the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan and the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan revised the syllabus and changed the 4-year B.Pharmacy (Bachelor of Pharmacy) Program to a 5-year Pharm.D. (Doctor of Pharmacy) program. All 21 universities have started the 5-year Pharm.D Program. In 2011 the Pharmacy Council of Pakistan approved the awarding of a Doctor of Pharmacy degree, a five-year programme at the Department of Pharmacy, University of Peshawar.

A Pharmacist holding a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D) qualification can use the prefix Dr. before their name.

Tanzania

In Tanzania, pharmacy practice is regulated by the national Pharmacy Board, which is also responsible for registration of pharmacists in the country. By international standards, the density of pharmacists is very low, with a mean of 0.18 per 10,000 population. The majority of pharmacists are found in urban areas, with some underserved regions having only 2 pharmacists per region. According to 2007–2009 data, the largest group of pharmacists was employed in the public sector (44%). Those working in private retail pharmacies were 23%, and the rest were mostly working for private wholesalers, pharmaceutical manufacturers, in academia/teaching, or with faith-based or non-governmental facilities. The salaries of pharmacists varied significantly depending on the place of work. Those who worked in the academia were the highest paid followed by those who worked in the multilateral non-governmental organizations. The public sector including public retail pharmacies and faith based organizations paid much less. The Ministry of Health salary scale for medical doctors was considerably higher than that of pharmacists despite having a difference of only one year of training.[14]

United KingdomSee also: Consultant pharmacist

In the United Kingdom, most pharmacists working in the National Health Service practice in hospital pharmacy, community pharmacy or in primary care trusts. Pharmacists can undertake additional training to allow them to prescribe medicines for specific conditions.[15]

In British English (and to some extent Australian English), the professional title known as "pharmacist" is also known as "dispensing chemist". A dispensing chemist usually operates from a pharmacy or chemist's shop (also called a "drug store" elsewhere), and is allowed to fulfil medical prescriptions and sell over-the-counter drugs and other health-related goods.

The new professional role for pharmacist as prescriber has been recognized in the UK since May 2006, called the "Pharmacist Independent Prescriber". Once qualified, a pharmacist independent prescriber can prescribe any licensed medicine for any medical condition within their competence. This includes controlled drugs except schedule 1 and prescribing for the treatment of addiction.[16]

Education and registration

Pharmacists, pharmacy technicians and pharmacy premises in Great Britain are regulated by the General Pharmaceutical Council (GPhC). The role of regulatory and professional body was previously carried out by the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain,

which remained as a professional body after handing over the regulatory role to the GPhC in 2010.[17]

The following criteria must be met for qualification as a pharmacist in Great Britain:

Successful completion of a 4-year Master of Pharmacy degree at a GPhC accredited university. Pharmacists holding degrees in Pharmacy from overseas institutions are able to fulfill this stage by undertaking the Overseas Pharmacist Assessment Programme (OSPAP), which is a one-year postgraduate diploma. On completion of the OSPAP, the candidate would proceed with the other stages of the registration process in the same manner as a UK student.

Completion of a 52-week preregistration training period. This is a period of paid employment in an approved hospital or community pharmacy under the supervision of a pharmacist tutor. During this time the student must collect evidence of having met certain competency standards set by the GPhC.

A pass mark in the GPhC registration exam. This includes a closed-book paper and an open book/mental calculations paper (using the British National Formulary and the GPhC's "Standards of Conduct, Ethics and Performance" document as reference sources). The student must achieve an overall mark of 70%, which must include at least 70% in the calculations section of the open book paper.

Satisfactorily meeting the GPhC's Fitness to Practice Standards.[18]

Pharmacists in Northern Ireland are regulated by the Pharmaceutical Society of Northern Ireland. They operate separate but broadly similar registration requirements to the GPhC.[19]

There are currently too many Pharmacists graduating in the UK, making it very difficult for newly graduated Pharmacists to secure employment. One of the reasons for this is the fact that many new Schools of Pharmacy have opened in the past decade. In a survey conducted by the British Pharmaceutical Students' Association (BPSA) it was found that 92% of registered Pharmacists thought that there were too many Pharmacists in the UK.

Vietnam

School students must take a national exam to enter a university of pharmacy or the pharmacy department of a university of pharmaco-medicine. About 5- 7% of students pass the exam. There are 3 aspects to the exam. These are on math, chemistry, and physics. After being trained in the university students receive a 5 - year bachelor’s degree in pharmacy (universitary pharmacist to discriminate between college pharmacist or vocational pharmacist). An alternative method of obtaining a Bachelor's degree is as follows. School pupils study in a college of pharmacy or a vocational school of pharmacy. After attending the school or college they go to work. And with two years of practice they could take an exam to enter university of pharmacy or the pharmacy department of a university of pharmaco-medicine. This exam is easier than the national one. Passing the exam they continue studying to gain 3 - year bachelor’s degrees or 4 -

year bachelor’s degrees. This degree is considered equivalent to a 5 - year bachelor’s degree.

United States

In the United States, the majority (65%) of pharmacists work in retail settings, mostly as salaried employees but some as self-employed owners. About 22% work in hospitals, and the rest mainly in mail-order or Internet pharmacies, pharmaceutical wholesalers, practises of physicians, and the Federal Government.[4]

All graduating pharmacists must now obtain the Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) degree before they are eligible to sit for the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) to enter into pharmacy practice.[20]

Pharmacy School Accreditation

The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education (ACPE) was founded in 1932 as the accrediting body for schools of pharmacy in the United States.[21] The mission of ACPE is “To assure and advance excellence in education for the profession of pharmacy.”[22] ACPE is recognized for the accreditation of professional degree programs by the United States Department of Education (USDE) and the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA).[23] Since 1975, ACPE has also been the accrediting body for continuing pharmacy education. The ACPE board of directors are appointed by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP), the American Pharmacists Association (APhA), the National Association of Boards of Pharmacy (NABP) (three appointments each), and the American Council on Education (one appointment). To obtain licensure in the United States, applicants for the North American Pharmacist Licensure Examination (NAPLEX) must graduate from an ACPE accredited school of pharmacy. ACPE publishes standards that schools of pharmacy must comply with to gain accreditation.[24] There are currently 30 standards organized within six major categories of 1) mission, planning, and evaluation, 2) organization and administration, 3) curriculum, 4) students, 5) faculty and staff, 6) facilities and resources. A Pharmacy school pursuing accreditation must first apply and be granted Pre-candidate status.[25] These schools have met all the requirements for accreditation, but have not yet enrolled any students. This status indicates that the school of pharmacy has developed its program in accordance with the ACPE standards and guidelines. Once a school has enrolled students, but has not yet had a graduating class, they may be granted Candidate status. The expectations of a Candidate program are that they continue to mature in accordance with stated plans. The graduates of a Candidate program are the same as those of fully accredited programs. Full accreditation is granted to a program once they have demonstrated they comply with the standards set forth by ACPE. The customary review cycle for established accredited programs is six years, whereas for programs achieving their initial accreditation this cycle is two years. These are comprehensive on-site evaluations of the programs. Additional evaluations may be conducted at the discretion of ACPE in the interim between comprehensive evaluations.

Education

A Pharmacy student must complete eight years of professional level training at a pharmacy school, or 4 years after receiving a bachelors degree. A bachelors degree is not required as some pharmacy schools only require two years of undergraduate education and the completion of a list of prerequisites. Competition to obtain entry into pharmacy school, however, limits the number of students admitted without a bachelors degree. Before schools went to the all PharmD programs students could do 5 years of professional undergraduate level training and receive a BScPharm with the option of continuing for one more year for the PharmD. There are currently 116 accredited pharmacy schools in the United States (late 2009), and 6 of these schools offer "accelerated" 3-year PharmD programs by attending school almost year round – with fewer breaks for summer and holidays.[citation needed] There also is one fully accredited "distance/online" 4-year PharmD program offered by Creighton University.[citation needed] Pharmacists receive a PharmD (Doctor of Pharmacy) upon graduation, and licensure after passing the NAPLEX and MPJE. Both the PharmD and the BScPharm take the same licensure exams.

Mandatory courses may include:

Anatomy Biochemistry Biology Immunology Communications /

Public Speaking

Economics

Physics Humanities Microbiology Molecular Biology Organic Chemistry

Medicinal Chemistry

Pharmaceutical Care Pharmacokinetics Pharmaceutics Pharmacology Physiology Pathophysiology

Toxicology

Besides taking classes, additional requirements before graduating may include, for instance, a certain number of hours for community service, e.g., working in hospitals, clinics, and retail.

Specialization and credentialing

American pharmacists can become certified in recognized specialty practice areas by passing an examination administered by one of several credentialing boards.

The Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties[26] certifies pharmacists in six specialties: o Ambulatory care pharmacy (starting 2011)o Nuclear pharmacy o Nutrition support pharmacyo Oncology pharmacyo Pharmacotherapy , which has two subspecialties: cardiology and infectious

diseaseo Psychiatric pharmacy

The Commission for Certification in Geriatric Pharmacy certifies pharmacists in geriatrics specialty practice.

The American Board of Applied Toxicology[27] certifies pharmacists and other medical professionals in applied toxicology.

Earnings and wages

According to the 2010 "Pharmacy Compensation Survey":[28]

Directors of Pharmacy $125,200 Retail Staff Pharmacists $113,600 Hospital Staff Pharmacists $111,700 Mail Order Staff Pharmacists $109,300 Clinical Pharmacists $113,400

According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics – Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2010–11 Edition:[4]

Median annual wages of wage and salary pharmacists in May 2008 were $106,410. The middle 50 percent earned between $92,670 and $121,310 a year. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $77,390, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $131,440 a year.

Actuaries

ActuaryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Actuary

Damage from Hurricane Katrina. Actuaries need to estimate long-term levels of such damage in order to

accurately price property insurance and set appropriate reserves.

OccupationNames Actuary

Activity sectors Insurance, Reinsurance, Pension plans, Social welfare programsDescription

Competencies Mathematics, finance, analytical skills, business knowledge

Education required See Credentialing and exams

An actuary is a business professional who deals with the financial impact of risk and uncertainty. Actuaries provide expert assessments of financial security systems, with a focus on their complexity, their mathematics, and their mechanisms (Trowbridge 1989, p. 7).

Actuaries mathematically evaluate the probability of events and quantify the contingent outcomes in order to minimize the impacts of financial losses associated with uncertain undesirable events. Since many events, such as death, cannot be avoided, it is helpful to take measures to minimize their financial impact when they occur. These risks can affect both sides of the balance sheet, and require asset management, liability management, and valuation skills. Analytical skills, business knowledge and understanding of human behavior and the vagaries of information systems are required to design and manage programs that control risk (BeAnActuary 2005a).

The profession has consistently ranked as one of the most desirable in various studies over the years. In 2006, a study by U.S. News & World Report included actuaries among the 25 Best Professions that it expects will be in great demand in the future (Nemko 2006). A study published by job search website CareerCast ranked actuary relative to other jobs in the United States as number 1 in 2010 (Needleman 2010), number 2 in 2012 (Thomas 2012) and number 1 in 2013 (Weber 2013). The study used five key criteria to rank jobs: environment, income, employment outlook, physical demands and stress.

Contents 1 Disciplines 2 History

o 2.1 Need for insurance o 2.2 Early attempts o 2.3 Development of theory o 2.4 Early actuaries o 2.5 Development of the modern profession

3 Responsibilities o 3.1 Traditional employment o 3.2 Non-traditional employment o 3.3 Remuneration

4 Credentialing and exams o 4.1 Exam support o 4.2 Pass marks and pass rates

5 Notable actuaries 6 Fictional actuaries 7 References 8 External links

Disciplines

Actuaries' insurance disciplines include life; health; pensions, annuities, and asset management; social welfare programs; property; casualty; general insurance; and reinsurance. Life, health, and pension actuaries deal with mortality risk, morbidity, and consumer choice regarding the ongoing utilization of drugs and medical services risk, and investment risk. Products prominent in their work include life insurance, annuities, pensions, mortgage and credit insurance, short and long term disability, and medical, dental, health savings accounts and long term care insurance. In addition to these risks, social insurance programs are greatly influenced by public opinion, politics, budget constraints, changing demographics and other factors such as medical technology, inflation and cost of living considerations (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).

Casualty actuaries, also known as non-life or general insurance actuaries, deal with risks that can occur to people or property other than risks related to the life or health of a person. Products prominent in their work include auto insurance, homeowners insurance, commercial property insurance, workers' compensation, title insurance, malpractice insurance, products liability insurance, directors and officers liability insurance, environmental and marine insurance, terrorism insurance and other types of liability insurance. Reinsurance products have to accommodate all of the previously mentioned products, and in addition have to reflect properly the increasing long term risks associated with climate change, cultural litigiousness, acts of war, terrorism and politics (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).

Both major classes of actuaries are also called upon for their expertise in enterprise risk management (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009). This can involve dynamic financial analysis, stress testing, the formulation of corporate risk policy, and the setting up and running of corporate risk departments (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011b). Actuaries are also involved in other areas of the financial services industry, and can be involved in managing corporate credit, company evaluations, and tool development (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).

History

Mathematician Nathaniel Bowditch was America's first insurance actuary

Need for insurance

The basic requirements of communal interests gave rise to risk sharing since the dawn of civilization. For example, people who lived their entire lives in a camp had the risk of fire, which would leave their band or family without shelter. After basic exchange came into existence, more complex forms developed beyond a basic barter economy, and new forms of risk manifested. Merchants embarking on trade journeys bore the risk of losing goods entrusted to them, their own possessions, or even their lives. Intermediaries developed to warehouse and trade goods, and they often suffered from financial risk. The primary providers in any extended families or household always ran the risk of premature death, disability or infirmity, leaving their dependents to starve. Credit procurement was difficult if the lender worried about repayment in the event of the borrower's death or infirmity. Alternatively, people sometimes lived too long from a financial perspective, exhausting their savings, if any, or becoming a burden on others in the extended family or society (Lewin 2007, p. 3).

Early attempts

In the ancient world there was not always room for the sick, suffering, disabled, aged, or the poor—these were often not part of the cultural consciousness of societies (Perkins 1995). Early methods of protection, aside from the normal support of the extended family, involved charity; religious organizations or neighbors would collect for the destitute and needy. By the middle of the 3rd century, 1,500 suffering people were being supported by charitable operations in Rome (Perkins 1995). Charitable protection is still an active form of support to this very day (GivingUSA 2009). However, receiving charity is uncertain and is often accompanied by social stigma. Elementary mutual aid agreements and pensions did arise in antiquity (Thucydides). Early in the Roman empire, associations were formed to meet the expenses of burial, cremation, and monuments—

precursors to burial insurance and friendly societies. A small sum was paid into a communal fund on a weekly basis, and upon the death of a member, the fund would cover the expenses of rites and burial. These societies sometimes sold shares in the building of columbāria, or burial vaults, owned by the fund—the precursor to mutual insurance companies (Johnston 1903, §475–§476). Other early examples of mutual surety and assurance pacts can be traced back to various forms of fellowship within the Saxon clans of England and their Germanic forbears, and to Celtic society (Loan 1992).

Non-life insurance started as a hedge against loss of cargo during sea travel. Anecdotal reports of such guarantees occur in the writings of Demosthenes, who lived in the 4th century BCE (Lewin 2007, pp. 3–4). The earliest records of an official non-life insurance policy come from Sicily, where there is record of a fourteenth-century contract to insure a shipment of wheat (Sweeting 2011, p. 14). In 1350, Lenardo Cattaneo assumed "all risks from act of God, or of man, and from perils of the sea" that may occur to a shipment of wheat from Sicily to Tunis up to a maximum of 300 florins. For this he was paid a premium of eighteen per cent (Lewin 2007, p. 4). In current terminology, this would be an ocean marine contract for a rate-on-line of 18%.

Development of theory

2003 US mortality (life) table, Table 1, Page 1

The 17th century was a period of extraordinary advances in mathematics in Germany, France, and England. At the same time there was a rapidly growing desire and need to place the valuation of personal risk on a more scientific basis. Independently from each other, compound interest was studied and probability theory emerged as a well understood mathematical discipline. Another important advance came in 1662 from a London draper named John Graunt, who showed that there were predictable patterns of longevity and death in a defined group, or cohort, of people, despite the uncertainty about the future longevity or mortality of any one individual person. This study became the basis for the original life table. It was now possible to set up an insurance scheme to

provide life insurance or pensions for a group of people, and to calculate with some degree of accuracy how much each person in the group should contribute to a common fund assumed to earn a fixed rate of interest. The first person to demonstrate publicly how this could be done was Edmond Halley. In addition to constructing his own life table, Halley demonstrated a method of using his life table to calculate the premium someone of a given age should pay to purchase a life-annuity (Halley 1693).

Early actuaries

James Dodson's pioneering work on the level premium system led to the formation of the Society for Equitable Assurances on Lives and Survivorship (now commonly known as Equitable Life) in London in 1762. This was the first life insurance company to use premium rates which were calculated scientifically for long-term life policies, using Dodson's work. The company still exists, though it has run into difficulties recently. After Dodson's death in 1757, Edward Rowe Mores took over the leadership of the group that eventually became the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1762. It was he who specified that the chief official should be called an 'actuary' (Ogborn 1956, p. 235). Previously, the use of the term had been restricted to an official who recorded the decisions, or 'acts', of ecclesiastical courts, in ancient times originally the secretary of the Roman senate, responsible for compiling the Acta Senatus (Ogborn 1956, p. 233). Other companies which did not originally use such mathematical and scientific methods most often failed or were forced to adopt the methods pioneered by Equitable (Bühlmann 1997, p. 166).

Development of the modern professionMain article: Actuarial science

In the 18th and 19th centuries, computational complexity was limited to manual calculations. The actual calculations required to compute fair insurance premiums are rather complex. The actuaries of that time developed methods to construct easily used tables, using sophisticated approximations called commutation functions, to facilitate timely, accurate, manual calculations of premiums (Slud 2006). Over time, actuarial organizations were founded to support and further both actuaries and actuarial science, and to protect the public interest by ensuring competency and ethical standards (Hickman 2004, p. 4). However, calculations remained cumbersome, and actuarial shortcuts were commonplace. Non-life actuaries followed in the footsteps of their life compatriots in the early 20th century. In the United States, the 1920 revision to workers' compensation rates took over two months of around-the-clock work by day and night teams of actuaries (Michelbacher 1920, pp. 224, 230). In the 1930s and 1940s, however, rigorous mathematical foundations for stochastic processes were developed (Bühlmann 1997, p. 168). Actuaries could now begin to forecast losses using models of random events instead of deterministic methods. Computers further revolutionized the actuarial profession. From pencil-and-paper to punchcards to microcomputers, the modeling and forecasting ability of the actuary has grown exponentially (MacGinnitie 1980, pp. 50–51).

Another modern development is the convergence of modern financial theory with actuarial science (Bühlmann 1997, pp. 169–171). In the early 20th century, actuaries were developing many techniques that can be found in modern financial theory, but for various historical reasons, these developments did not achieve much recognition (Whelan 2002). However, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a distinct effort for actuaries to combine financial theory and stochastic methods into their established models (D'arcy 1989). Today, the profession, both in practice and in the educational syllabi of many actuarial organizations, combines tables, loss models, stochastic methods, and financial theory (Feldblum 2001, pp. 8–9), but is still not completely aligned with modern financial economics (Bader & Gold 2003).

Responsibilities

Actuaries use skills primarily in mathematics, particularly calculus-based probability and mathematical statistics, but also economics, computer science, finance,and business to help businesses assess the risk of certain events occurring and to formulate policies that minimize the cost of that risk. For this reason, actuaries are essential to the insurance and reinsurance industry, either as staff employees or as consultants; to other businesses, including sponsors of pension plans; and to government agencies such as the Government Actuary's Department in the UK or the Social Security Administration in the US. Actuaries assemble and analyze data to estimate the probability and likely cost of the occurrence of an event such as death, sickness, injury, disability, or loss of property. Actuaries also address financial questions, including those involving the level of pension contributions required to produce a certain retirement income and the way in which a company should invest resources to maximize its return on investments in light of potential risk. Using their broad knowledge, actuaries help design and price insurance policies, pension plans, and other financial strategies in a manner which will help ensure that the plans are maintained on a sound financial basis (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2009).

Traditional employment

On both the life and casualty sides, the classical function of actuaries is to calculate premiums and reserves for insurance policies covering various risks. Premiums are the amount of money the insurer needs to collect from the policyholder in order to cover the expected losses, expenses, and a provision for profit. Reserves are provisions for future liabilities and indicate how much money should be set aside now to reasonably provide for future payouts. If you inspect the balance sheet of an insurance company, you will find that the liability side consists mainly of reserves.

On the casualty side, this analysis often involves quantifying the probability of a loss event, called the frequency, and the size of that loss event, called the severity. Further, the amount of time that occurs before the loss event is also important, as the insurer will not have to pay anything until after the event has occurred. On the life side, the analysis often involves quantifying how much a potential sum of money or a financial liability will be worth at different points in the future. Since neither of these kinds of analysis are purely deterministic processes, stochastic models are often used to determine frequency and

severity distributions and the parameters of these distributions. Forecasting interest yields and currency movements also plays a role in determining future costs, especially on the life side.

Actuaries do not always attempt to predict aggregate future events. Often, their work may relate to determining the cost of financial liabilities that have already occurred, called retrospective reinsurance, or the development or re-pricing of new products.

Actuaries also design and maintain products and systems. They are involved in financial reporting of companies' assets and liabilities. They must communicate complex concepts to clients who may not share their language or depth of knowledge. Actuaries work under a strict code of ethics that covers their communications and work products, but their clients may not adhere to those same standards when interpreting the data or using it within different kinds of businesses.

Non-traditional employment

Many actuaries are general business managers or financial officers. They analyze business prospects with their financial skills in valuing or discounting risky future cash flows, and many apply their pricing expertise from insurance to other lines of business. Some actuaries act as expert witnesses by applying their analysis in court trials to estimate the economic value of losses such as lost profits or lost wages.

There has been a recent widening of the scope of the actuarial field to include investment advice and asset management. Further, there has been a convergence from the financial fields of risk management and quantitative analysis with actuarial science. Now, actuaries also work as risk managers, quantitative analysts, or investment specialists. Even actuaries in traditional roles are now studying and using the tools and data previously in the domain of finance (Feldblum 2001, p. 8). One of the latest developments in the industry, insurance securitization, requires both the actuarial and finance skills (Krutov 2006).

Another field in which actuaries are becoming more prominent is that of Enterprise Risk Management, for both financial and non-financial corporations (D'arcy 2005). For example, the Basel II accord for financial institutions, and its analogue, the Solvency II accord for insurance companies, requires such institutions to account for operational risk separately and in addition to credit, reserve, asset, and insolvency risk. Actuarial skills are well suited to this environment because of their training in analyzing various forms of risk, and judging the potential for upside gain, as well as downside loss associated with these forms of risk (D'arcy 2005).

Remuneration

The credentialing and examination procedure for becoming a fully qualified actuary can be intensely demanding. Consequently, the profession remains very small throughout the world. As a result, actuaries are in high demand, and they are highly paid for the services

they render (Ezra 2011). In the UK, where there are approximately 9,000 fully qualified actuaries, typical post-university starting salaries range between GBP £25,300 and £35,000 ($40,500 and $56,000) and successful, more experienced actuaries can earn well in excess of £100,000 ($160,000) a year (Lomas 2009).

Credentialing and examsMain articles: Actuarial credentialing and exams and :Category:Actuarial associations

Becoming a fully credentialed actuary requires passing a rigorous series of professional examinations, usually taking several years in total. In some countries, such as Denmark, most study takes place in a university setting (Norberg 1990, p. 407). In others, such as the U.S., most study takes place during employment through a series of examinations (SOA 2012, CAS 2011). In the UK, and countries based on its process, there is a hybrid university-exam structure (Institute and Faculty of Actuaries 2011a).

Exam support

As these qualifying exams are rigorous, support is usually available to people progressing through the exams. Often, employers provide paid on-the-job study time and paid attendance at seminars designed for the exams (BeAnActuary 2005b). Also, many companies which employ actuaries have automatic pay raises or promotions when exams are passed. As a result, actuarial students have strong incentives for devoting adequate study time during off-work hours. A common rule of thumb for exam students is that, for the Society of Actuaries examinations, roughly 400 hours of study time are necessary for each four-hour exam (Sieger 1998). Thus, thousands of hours of study time should be anticipated over several years, assuming no failures (Feldblum 2001, p. 6). In practice, as the historical passing percentages remain below 50% for these exams, the "travel time" to credentialing is extended and more study time is needed. This process resembles formal schooling, so that actuaries who are sitting for exams are still called "students" or "candidates" despite holding important positions with substantial responsibilities.

Pass marks and pass rates

Unlike some other professions, the actuarial profession is generally reluctant to specify the pass marks for its examinations. This has led to speculation over the years that the profession runs a quota system, perhaps (a) to limit the supply of those who pass the exams and qualify in the profession or (b) because a high fail rate might give the impression of difficulty and high value to a qualification that is not easy to obtain. This concern is confirmed by a former Chairman of the Board of Examiners of the Institute and Faculty of Actuaries who made the following denial (Muckart):

Although students find it hard to believe, the Board of Examiners does not have fail quotas to achieve. Accordingly pass rates are free to vary (and do). They are determined by the quality of the candidates sitting the examination and in particular how well prepared they are. Fitness to pass is the criterion, not whether you can achieve a mark in the top 40% of candidates sitting.

Regarding this concern, the CAS has stated (CAS 2001):

The Board further affirms that the CAS shall use no predetermined pass ratio as a guideline for setting the pass mark for any examination. If the CAS determines that 70% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then those 70% should pass. Similarly, if the CAS determines that only 30% of all candidates have demonstrated sufficient grasp of the syllabus material, then only those 30% should pass.

Notable actuariesNathaniel Bowditch 

Early American mathematician remembered for his work on ocean navigation. In 1804, Bowditch became America's first insurance actuary as president of the Essex Fire and Marine Insurance Company in Salem, Massachusetts. Under his direction, the Company prospered despite difficult political conditions and the War of 1812.

Harald Cramér Swedish actuary and probabilist notable for his contributions in the area mathematical statistics, such as the Cramér–Rao inequality (Cramér 1946). Professor Cramér was an Honorary President of the Swedish Actuarial Society (Kendall 1983).

James Dodson Head of the Royal Mathematical School, and Stone's School, Dodson built on the statistical mortality tables developed by Edmund Halley in 1693 (Lewin 2007, p. 38).

Edmond Halley While Halley actually predated much of what is now considered the start of the actuarial profession, he was the first to mathematically and statistically rigorously calculate premiums for a life insurance policy (Halley 1693).

James C. Hickman Notable actuarial educator, researcher, and author (Chaptman 2006).

David X. Li Canadian qualified actuary who in the first decade of the 21st century pioneered the use of Gaussian copula models for the pricing of collateralized debt obligations (CDOs). The Financial Times called him "the world's most influential actuary," while in the aftermath of the Global financial crisis of 2008–2009, to which Li's model has been credited partly to blame, his model has been called a "recipe for disaster".

Edward Rowe Mores First person to use the title 'actuary' with respect to a business position (Ogborn 1956).

William Morgan Morgan was the appointed Actuary of the Society for Equitable Assurances in 1775. He expanded on Mores's and Dodson's work, and may be rightly considered the father of the actuarial profession in that his title became applied to the field as a whole.(Ogborn 1973).

Anette Norberg 

Skip for the Swedish Women's Curling Team at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Norberg has won gold medals at the 2010 Winter Olympics, the 2006 Winter Olympics, seven European Curling Championships, and two World Curling Championships.

Maurice Princet French actuary and close associate of artist Pablo Picasso. Princet is considered "Le Mathématicien du Cubisme" ("The Mathematician of Cubism") for his "critical influence on Picasso's development as an artist at the birth of cubism" (Boyle 2002).

Frank Redington Developed the Redington Immunization Theory

Isaac M. Rubinow Founder and first president of the Casualty Actuarial Society (CASF 2008).

Elizur Wright American actuary and abolitionist, professor of mathematics at Western Reserve College (Ohio). He campaigned for laws that required life insurance companies to hold sufficient reserves to guarantee that policies would be paid (Stearns 1905).

Architects Dentists

DentistFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search This article is about the dental profession. For tooth care, see oral hygiene and dental surgery.

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (November 2011)

Dentist

Description

Competenciescritical thinking, analytical skills, professionalism, management skills, and communication

Education required

Doctor of Dental Medicine or Doctor of Dental Surgery

A dentist, also known as a 'dental surgeon', is a health care practitioner that specializes in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and conditions of the oral cavity. The dentist's supporting team aides in providing oral health services. The dental team includes

dental assistants, dental hygienists, dental technicians, and in some states, dental therapists.

Training

All dentists in the U.S. must graduate from high school and complete required courses such as general biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, and statistics/calculus. While most dental schools require at least a bachelors degree, a few schools may consider admitting exceptional students after only 3 years of college. To apply, students must take the Dental Admissions Test. Admission to dental school is competitive, and is generally determined based on factors such as GPA, DAT scores, recommendation letters, and extracurricular activities. To become a licensed dentist, one must then complete an accredited dental school curriculum and successfully master all clinical competencies and national board exams. Most dental school curricula require four years of training, however, some states require dentists to complete a post graduate residency program as well. In the U.S., a newly graduated dentist is then awarded the DDS, Doctor of Dental Surgery, degree or the DMD, Doctor of Dental Medicine, degree depending on the dental school attended. The degrees are equivalent. A newly graduated dentist can then pursue further specialty residency training ranging from 2 to 6 years. Additionally, dentists participate in continuing education where they attend lectures to learn of recent developments, practice new methods, and earn continuing education hours. There are specific requirements for dentists to attend continuing education hours, and dentists who accumulate additional training are better prepared to handle a variety of cases and surprises during treatment. In the UK the training is similar except it is generally a five year undergraduate course leading to a BDS (Bachelor of Dental Surgery).

Responsibilities

An independent suburban dentist

By nature of their general training, a licensed dentist can carry out most dental treatments such as restorative (dental restorations, crowns, bridges), orthodontics (braces), prosthetic (dentures), endodontic (root canal) therapy, periodontal (gum) therapy, and exodontia (extraction of teeth), as well as performing examinations, taking radiographs (x-rays) and diagnosis. Additionally, dentists are allowed to engage in oral surgery when performing invasive procedures such as dental implant placement.[1] Dentists can also prescribe medications such as antibiotics, fluorides, pain killers, local anesthetics, sedatives/hypnotics and any other medication that serve in the treatment of the various conditions that arise in the head and neck.

Dentists need to take additional qualifications or training to carry out more complex procedures such as General anesthesia, oral and maxillofacial surgery, and implants. While many oral diseases are unique and self-limiting, poor conditions in the oral cavity can lead to poor general health and vice versa. Conditions in the oral cavity may be

indicative of systemic diseases such as osteoporosis, diabetes, AIDS, different blood diseases(including malignancies) etc.

Specialties Main article: Specialty (dentistry)

Official specialties

Dental public health - The study of dental epidemiology and social health policies.

Endodontics - Root canal therapy and study of diseases of the dental pulp. Oral and maxillofacial pathology - The study, diagnosis, and sometimes the

treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases. Oral and maxillofacial radiology - The study and radiologic interpretation of oral

and maxillofacial diseases. Oral and maxillofacial surgery - Extractions, implants, and MaxilloFacial surgery

which also includes correction of congenital facial deformities. Orthodontics and dentofacial orthopaedics - The straightening of teeth and

modification of midface and mandibular growth. Periodontology (periodontics) - Study and treatment of diseases of the gums (non-

surgical and surgical) as well as placement and maintenance of dental implants Pediatric dentistry (formerly pedodontics) - Dentistry for children Prosthodontics - Dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some

prosthodontists further their training in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics", which is the discipline concerned with the replacement of missing facial structures, such as ears, eyes, noses, etc.

Specialists in these fields are designated "registrable" (in the United States, "board eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pediatric dentist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local accreditation requirements (U.S., "Board Certified").

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