20- final thesis after senate and parapharazing, manual ...psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/51592/1/fk...

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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

MOHAMMAD REZA BAKHTIARI

FK 2012 151

DESIGN, DEVELOPEMENT AND EVALUATION OF A KENAF PNEUMATIC SEEDING MACHINE

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Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

February 2012

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DEDICATION

This thesis is specially dedicated to my beloved

family; my dear mother and father, my wife

and son, and my sisters and brothers

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Abstract of the thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy


By

Mohammad Reza Bakhtiari

February 2012

Chairman: Desa Bin Ahmad, PhD, P. Eng

Faculty: Engineering

In this study a 4-row, tractor mounted, kenaf pneumatic seeding machine was designed

and developed based on physical, mechanical and aerodynamic properties of kenaf seed

(Hibiscus cannabinus L.). The machine is made up of: (a) a chassis which is supported

to move across and over fields by at least one drive wheel and one driven wheel (two

transportable wheels); (b) four units of planters each consisting of a vacuum seed

metering system; furrow opener (furrower); seed opener; seed cover; press wheel; and

seed hopper. The vacuum seed metering system (each unit planter has one vacuum seed

metering system) includes a seed container, a seed plate having a plurality of circular

array openings and tabs, and a cover. The seed container has an adjustable upper cutoff

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brush and lower cutoff brush to dislodge any extra or double seeds picked up by the seed

plate; and a first and second separators; (c) a pulley and vacuum fan to provide negative

pressure for vacuum seed metering system; (d) a transmission power system holding a

gearbox; chains and sprockets; and pinions and crown wheels to transfer power from

drive wheel to the rotating seed plate of the vacuum seed metering system.

The pneumatic seeding machine was evaluated both in the laboratory and field using

kenaf seeds. For laboratory test, a completely randomized design (CRD) with three

replications and for field tests a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three

replications were chosen. The data were analyzed by SAS program version 9.1 and

means separation test were done using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT).

Regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between appropriate pairs of

dependent and independent variables. Based on this study, the most suitable opening

diameter and opening angle for planting kenaf seed are 3.5 mm and 120o respectively.

The results obtained also showed that the most suitable vacuum pressure to pick up and

keeping kenaf seed to plant in the soil was more than 3 kPa and the most suitable linear

speed belonged to speed range of less than 1.5 km/hr.

The average field efficiency of the 4-row pneumatic seeding machine was found to be

74%. The theoretical field capacities for different forward speeds of 2.05, 2.66, 3.63,

3.89 and 5.50 km/hr were 2.30, 2.98, 4.07, 4.36 and 6.16 ha/day. Based on these data the

economical cost of the developed pneumatic seeding machine was analyzed. The total

fixed (ownership) cost was obtained as RM4950/year; while the total variable

(operating) cost was found to be RM55.26/hour. Therefore total cost calculated for the

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machine was RM22189.44/year. Based on this study, if there are 1500 hectares of kenaf

plantation area involving 270 growers in Malaysia, for planting kenaf seed twice a year

(each time 39 days) and on time, about 35, 24 and 18 of the pneumatic seeding machines

are needed for 4-row, 6-row and 8-row planting systems, respectively.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

REKABENTUK, PEMBANGUNAN DAN PENILAIAN MESIN PENANAM KENAF SECARA PNEUMATIK

Oleh

Mohammad Reza Bakhtiari

Februari 2012

Pengerusi: Desa Bin Ahmad, PhD, P. Eng

Fakulti: Kejuruteraan

Kajian ini adalah mengenai rekabentuk dan pembinaan sebuah mesin penanam kenaf 4-

baris berkuasa pneumatik berasaskan kepada ciri-ciri fizikal, mekanikal dan aerodinamik

biji benih Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabis L.) Mesin tersebut mempunyai komponen seperti a)

chasis untuk bergerak atas permukaan ladang dengan bantuan dua roda dan salah satu

roda bertindak sebagai pemacu, b) empat unit penanam dimana setiap unit mempunyai

sistem permeteran vakum bijibenih, pembuka alur, saluran bijibenih, roda pemampat dan

tangki bijibenih. Sistem permeteran vakum bijibenih mengandungi takungan bijibenih

dan piring beserta beberapa lubang berbentuk bulat serta penutup. Takungan bijibenih

mempunyai berus bolehlaras untuk mengasingkan lebihan bijibenih yang diangkut oleh

piring bijibenih dan dua pengasing., c) talisawat dan kipas vakum untuk mengujudkan

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tekanan negatif bagi sistem pemeteran bijibenih dan d) sistem penghantaran kuasa yang

mengandungi kotakgiar, rantai dan sprocket, pinan dan roda mahkota untuk

mengagihkan kuasa dari roda pemacu ke sistem pemeteran bijibenih dan piring

pengagih.

Mesin penanam kenaf secara pneumatik tersebut telah diuji di makmal dan di ladang.

Bagi ujian di makmal, ujian rekabentuk secara rawak dengan tiga replikasi telah

dilakukan manakala untuk ujian di ladang, ujian Blok Rawak telah dilaksakan dengan

tiga replikasi. Data telah dianalisis menggunakan program SAS Versi 9.1 dan ujian

perbezaan min dilakukan menggunakan Ujian Duncan (DMRT). Analisis regresi

dilakukan untuk mengukur hubungkait antara pelbagai pembolehubah. Berdasarkan

kajian ini garispusat lubang dan sudut bukaan lubang yang paling sesuai bagi penanam

bijibenih kenaf secara pneumatic adalah 3.5 mm dan 120 darjah. Kajian pengaruh

vakum menunjukkan bahawa tekanan yang paling sesuai adalah 3.0 kPa manakala

kelajuan lelurus yang paling sesuai adalah dibawah 1.5 km/jam.

Purata kecekapan ladang bagi mesin penanam kenaf empat baris secara pneumatik

adalah 74%. Keupayaan ladang teori pada kelajuan 2.05, 2.66, 3.63, 3.89 dan 5.50

km/jam adalah masing-masing 2.30, 2.98, 4.07, 4.36 dan 6.16 ha/hari. Keupayaan

ladang berkesan pada kelajuan 2.05, 2.66, 3.63, 3.89 dan 5.50 km/jam adalah masing-

masing 1.70, 2.20, 2.97, 3.27 dan 4.64 ha/hari. Berdasarkan kepada data ini analisis kos

mesin penanam kenaf pneumatik menunjukkan bahawa kos tetap yang mengandungi

susutnilai (RM2700/tahun), faedah dan cukai (RM1650/tahun), perlindungan dan

insuran (RM600/tahun) adalah RM4950/tahun manakala kos berubah yang terdiri

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daripada pembaikan dan penyenggaraan (RM2.67/jam), bahanapi (RM6.05/jam),

pelincir (RM0.907/jam), upah buruh (RM5/jam), pemandu traktor (RM5.63/jam) dan

sewa traktor (RM35/jam) adalah RM55.26/jam. Untuk tempoh setahun anggaran jumlah

kos adalah RM22189.44. Berdasarkan kajian ini, jika terdapat 1500 hektar kawasan

kenaf yang melibatkan 270 penanam di Malaysia yang menanam 2 kali setahun selama

39 hari setiap musim penanaman, jumlah mesin yang diperlukan adalah 35 unit bagi

mesin penanam 4-baris, 24 unit bagi mesin penanam 6-baris dan 18 unit bagi mesin

penanam 8-baris.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All thanks be to Allah the Lord of the World. May the blessings of Allah be upon

Prophet Mohammad SWA, all Prophets, Imams, and god-fearing people. I would like to

express my highest and deepest gratitude to Professor Ir. Dr. Desa B. Ahmad, the

chairman of my supervisory committee for his invaluable encouragement, generous

assistance, guidance and strong support throughout my study period. I am also indebted

and grateful to Professor Dr. Napsiah Bt. Ismail and Dr. Jamarei B. Othman, members of

my supervisory committee for their constructive contributions. I really appreciate them

serving on my supervisory committee.

I want to thank all the staff of the Department of Biological and Agricultural

Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) especially Dr.

Khalina Bt. Abdan, Associate Prof. Ir. Dr. Azmi Yahya, Miss Nordiyana Bt. Abd.

Razak, Mr. Zainal Abidin B. Abdul Ghani, Mr. Tajul Urus B. Osman, Mr. Mohd. Sabri

B. Hassan, Mr. Hairul Anuar B. Abd Mubin, and Mr. Zakiria B. Ismail and Department

of Aerospace, Faculty of Engineering Dr. Abdul Aziz Jaafar and Mr. Saffairus Salih, and

Dr. MD Akhir B. Hamid from MARDI whose valuable assistance have contributed in

the successful completion of this study.

I want to give the utmost appreciation to all my friends especially Mohammed S.

Abubakar, Fatai B. Akande, Azhar, Luay and also my Iranian friends Ali Hashemi,

Daryoush Safarzadeh, Iraj Yavari, and Seyed Mahmoud Samadpour, who in one way or

another rendered assistance directly or indirectly and sharing life experiences at various

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stages of my study. I would like to express my gratitude also to friends whose names are

too numerous to mention. Thank you all for influencing my life positively.

Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Arzhang Javadi, Dr. Ahmad Sharifi and Dr. Afshin

Eyvani in Agricultural Engineering Research Institute, Iran., Dr. Mohammad Loghavi

and Dr. Mahdi Kasraei from Shiraz University, Iran., Prof. Abbas Hemmat and Dr.

Amin-Ollah Masoumi from Isfahan University of Technology, Iran., and Eng. Ghasem

Asadian, Eng. Habib-Ollah Mazaheri-Laghab, Eng. Ali Ehsan Nosrati and Eng. Hassan

Ebrahimi in Agricultural and Natural Resource Research Center of Hamedan Province,

Iran. Also I would like to extend sincere thanks to all the staffs and friends at the Natural

Resource and Agricultural Research Centre of Hamedan Province in Iran, especially the

staffs at the Engineering Research Department.

Lastly, I want to thank again; my mother, father, wife and son (Ali) who have been a

source of inspiration during my study, giving me their endless love, prayers, support and

sacrifices. Thanks also to my brothers (Mohammd Ebrahim, Ismaeil, Akbar and Majid)

and sisters (Parvaneh, Fatemeh, Tayebeh and Tahereh) for all their love, prayers and

encouragement at all times in my life.

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APPROVAL

I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 23rd February 2012 to conduct the final examination of Mohammad Reza Bakhtiari on his thesis entitled “Design, Development and Evaluation of a Kenaf Pneumatic Seeding Machine” in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U. (A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: WAN ISHAK B. WAN ISMAIL, PhD, P. Eng Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) MOHD KHAIROL ANUAR B. MOHD ARIFFIN, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) B. T. HANG TUAH B. BAHARUDIN, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) SHRINIVASA K. UPADHYAYA, PhD Professor Faculty of Engineering University of California at Davis United State of American (External Examiner) SEOW HENG FONG, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: DESA B. AHMAD, PhD, P. Eng Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) NAPSIAH B. ISMAIL, PhD Professor Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) JAMAREI B. OTHMAN, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Engineering Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date:

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DECLARATION I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at any other institutions.


Date: 4 June 2012

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

DEDICATION ii

ABSTRACT iii

ABSTRAK vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix

APPROVAL xi

DECLARATION xiii

LIST OF TABLES xxi

LIST OF FIGURES xxv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxix

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 5

1.3 Objective of the Study 7

1.4 Scope of the Research 8

1.5 Thesis Organization 8

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 9

2.1 General Introduction 9

2.1.1 Kenaf origin, planting history, and production

and application 9

2.1.2 Kenaf cultivation, plantation and agronomy

aspects 13

2.2 Physical, Mechanical and Aerodynamic Properties of

Seeds 14

2.2.1 Physical and mechanical properties of seeds 15

2.2.2 Aerodynamic properties of seeds 15

2.2.3 Physical, mechanical and aerodynamic

properties of kenaf seed 16

2.3 Row Spacing and Density of Kenaf Seed 18

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2.4 Seed Metering System 22

2.4.1 Vacuum seed metering system 23

2.4.2 Mechanical seed metering system 31

2.5 Seeding Machines and Components 35

2.5.1 Pneumatic (vacuum) seeding machine 36

2.5.2 Mechanical seeding machine 41

2.5.3 Punch seeding machine 47

2.6 Performance of Vacuum and Mechanical Seed Metering

Systems 48

2.7 Performance of the Mechanical, Pneumatic and Belt

Seeding Machines 49

2.8 Summary 56

3 METHODOLOGY 57

3.1 Determination of Physical, Mechanical and Aerodynamic

Properties of Kenaf Seed 59

3.1.1 Physical properties 61

3.1.1.1 Principle dimensions 61

3.1.1.2 The geometric mean diameter 61

3.1.1.3 The arithmetic mean diameter 61

3.1.1.4 The aspect ratio 62

3.1.1.5 The sphericity 63

3.1.1.6 The surface area 63

3.1.1.7 The projected area 64

3.1.1.8 One thousand kernel mass 64

3.1.1.9 The real volume of each seed, and

true density 64

3.1.1.10 The bulk density 66

3.1.1.11 The porosity 67

3.1.2 Mechanical (frictional) properties 68

3.1.2.1 The static coefficient of friction 68

3.1.2.2 The filling (static) angle of repose 69

3.1.2.3 The emptying (dynamic or

funnelling) angle of repose 70

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3.1.3 Aerodynamic properties 71

3.1.3.1 Terminal velocity 71

3.1.3.2 Drag coefficient of seeds 77

3.1.3.3 Reynolds number 78

3.1.3.4 Diameter of equivalent sphere 79

3.1.3.5 Volume shape factor 80

3.2 Effect of Moisture Content on the Physical, Mechanical

and Aerodynamic Properties of Kenaf Seeds 83

3.2.1 Physical properties 83

3.2.1.1 Dimensions of kenaf seed 83

3.2.1.2 Sphericity of kenaf seed 85

3.2.1.3 Surface area and projected area of

kenaf seed 85

3.2.1.4 Mass and volume of kenaf seed 86

3.2.1.5 True density of kenaf seed 86

3.2.1.6 Bulk density of kenaf seed 87

3.2.1.7 Porosity of kenaf seed 88

3.2.2 Mechanical properties 88

3.2.2.1 Static coefficient of friction of kenaf

seed 89

3.2.2.2 Filling and emptying angle of repose

of kenaf 90

3.2.3 Aerodynamic properties 91

3.2.3.1 Terminal velocity of kenaf seed 92

3.2.3.2 Drag coefficient of kenaf seed 93

3.2.3.3 Reynolds number of kenaf seed 93

3.2.3.4 Diameter of equivalent sphere of

kenaf seed 93

3.2.3.5 Volume shape factor of kenaf seed 94

3.3 Design 95

3.3.1 Product specifications 95

3.3.2 Concept selection 98

3.3.2.1 Overview of Methodology 98

3.3.2.2 Design criteria 100

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3.3.2.3 Conceptual design 101

3.3.2.4 Design selection 106

3.4 Design of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 116

3.4.1 Design of a vacuum seed metering system for

kenaf seeds 116

3.4.1.1 Angle of openings on the seed plate 116

3.4.1.2 Diameter of openings on the seed

plate 119

3.4.1.3 Number of openings on the seed

plate 124

3.4.1.4 Diameter of the pitch circle of the

seed plate 125

3.4.1.5 Outside diameter of the seed plate 127

3.4.1.6 Thickness of the seed plate 128

3.4.2 Vacuum of negative pressure 129

3.4.3 Design of a power transmission system 137

3.4.4 Seed spacing 145

3.4.5 Plant spacing 146

3.4.6 Seed population 150

3.4.7 Plant population 151

3.5 Description of the Kenaf Pneumatic Seeding Machine 152

3.6 Detail Description of the Kenaf Pneumatic Seeding

Machine Components 155

3.6.1 Chassis (main frame) 155

3.6.2 Furrower (furrow opener) 155

3.6.3 Unit planter 156

3.6.3.1 Sub frame 156

3.6.3.2 Seed hopper 156

3.6.3.3 Seed opener 158

3.6.3.4 Vacuum seed metering system 160

3.6.3.5 Seed placement mechanism 168

3.6.3.6 Seed covering devices 168

3.6.3.7 Press wheels or packing wheels 168

3.6.3.8 Seed depth control system 169

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3.6.4 Vacuum system 170

3.6.5 Power transmission system 173

3.7 Final Design 178

3.8 Summary of Machine Design 185

3.9 Testing and Evaluation 185

3.9.1 Laboratory evaluation of the vacuum seed

metering system 186

3.9.1.1 Velocity of planter and seed plate 186

3.9.1.2 Greased belt set-up in the laboratory 187

3.9.1.3 Performance of the vacuum seed

metering system 189

3.9.2 Field performance evaluation of the pneumatic

seeding machine 192

3.9.2.1 Theoretical seeding rate (seed

density) 195

3.9.2.2 Seeding mass rate 196

3.9.2.3 Miss index 196

3.9.2.4 Multiple index 196

3.9.2.5 Quality of feed index 197

3.10 Economic Performance 197

3.10.1 Machine performance 197

3.10.1.1 Field capacity of the pneumatic

seeding machine 199

3.10.1.2 Field efficiency 200

3.11 Economic Cost Analysis 202

3.11.1 Fixed costs (ownership costs) 203

3.11.1.1 Depreciation cost 203

3.11.1.2 Interest of investment 204

3.11.1.3 Tax, shelter (housing), and insurance 205

3.11.1.4 Total fixed costs 206

3.11.2 Variable costs (operating costs) 206

3.11.2.1 Repair and maintenance 206

3.11.2.2 Fuel 207

3.11.2.3 Lubrication 208

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3.11.2.4 Labour cost 208

3.11.2.5 Total variable costs (total operating

costs) 210

3.11.3 Total cost 210

3.11.4 Estimate of the required number of the

pneumatic seeding machine and hours of operation 211

3.12 Novelties and Advantages of the Developed Kenaf

Pneumatic Seeding Machine 212

3.12.1 Novelty 212

3.12.1.1 Vacuum seed metering system 212

3.12.1.2 Chassis 213

3.12.1.3 Adjustable and flexible drive wheel 213

3.12.2 Advantages 213

3.13 Summary 214

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 215

4.1 Laboratory Test of the Vacuum Seed Metering System 215

4.1.1 Effect of diameter and angle of the opening seed

plate on the machine performance indices 215

4.1.1.1 Mean seed spacing 215




4.1.2 Effect of linear speed of the seed plate on

machine performance indices 222





4.1.3 Effect of vacuum (negative) pressure of the

vacuum seed metering system on machine performance indices 226


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4.2 Field Testing of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 232

4.2.1 Determination of real forward speed of the

pneumatic seeding machine in the field 232

4.2.2 Effect of diameter and angle of seed plate

openings on machine performance indices 233

4.2.2.1 Mean plant spacing 233




4.2.2.5 Theoretical seeding rate (seed

density) 239

4.2.2.6 Seeding mass rate 240

4.2.2.7 Number of seeds and plants per

hectare 241

4.2.3 Effect of forward speed of the pneumatic seeding machine on the machine performance indices 249

4.2.3.1 Mean of seed and plant spacing 250




4.2.3.5 Number of seeds and plants per

hectare 252

4.3 The Economic Performance 259

4.3.1 Field capacity of the pneumatic seeding machine 259

4.3.1.1 Theoretical field capacity 259

4.3.1.2 Effective field capacity 261

4.3.1.3 Field efficiency 262

4.3.2 Economic cost analysis 263

4.3.2.1 Fixed costs (ownership costs) 263

4.3.2.2 Variable costs (operating costs) 265

4.3.2.3 Labour cost 266

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4.3.2.4 Total variable costs 266

4.3.2.5 Total costs 266

4.3.2.6 Estimation of the required numbers

of the pneumatic seeding machine 269

4.3.2.7 Estimation of the total annual

operating hours for the pneumatic seeding machine 272

4.4 Summary 275

5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 276

5.1 Summary 276

5.2 Conclusions 277

5.3 Recommendations for Future Studies 281

REFERENCES 283

APPENDICES 294

A Effect of Moisture Content on the Physical, Mechanical and Aerodynamic Properties of Kenaf Seeds 295

B Gaspardo Pneumatic Seeding Machine, Planting Sweet Corn Seed on the Field 309

C 2WD John Deere 6405 Tractor 310

D 2WD John Deere 6405 Tractor Gears Number and Related Speeds Used in the Field Tests and Speed Calibration 312

E Design and Development of a Vacuum Seed Metering System for Garlic Clove Based on its Physical, Mechanical and Aerodynamic Properties 313

BIODATA OF STUDENT 338

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 339

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 The Dimensions of the Holes on the Seed Plates Used in the Study 26

3.1 Farmer Needs for a Seeding Machine 95

3.2 List of Metrics for the Seeding Machine 96

3.3 The Needs-Metrics Matrix 97

3.4 The Target Specifications for the Seeding Machine 98

3.5 A Finer Scale to Rating All of the Concepts with Respect to One Criterion at a Time 107

3.6 The Concept-Screening Matrix (Pugh Concept Selection), for the Seeding Machine 108

3.7 The Concept-Scoring Matrix for Seeding Machine 109

3.8 The Concept-Screening Matrix (Pugh Concept Selection), for Seed Metering System 110

3.9 The Concept-Scoring Matrix for Seed Metering System 111

3.10 The Concept-Screening Matrix (Pugh Concept Selection), for Seed-Furrow Opener 112

3.11 The Concept-Scoring Matrix for Rating Seed-Furrow Openers 112

3.12 The Concept-Screening Matrix (Pugh Concept Selection), for Seed-Cover 113

3.13 The Concept-Scoring Matrix for Seed Cover 114

3.14 The Concept-Screening Matrix (Pugh Concept Selection), for Press Wheel 115

3.15 The Concept-Scoring Matrix for Press Wheel 115

3.16 The Calculation of the Drive Wheel and Seed Plate Gear Ratio (For Row Spacing, xr = 30 cm) 138

3.17 The Calculation of the Drive Wheel and Seed Plate Gear Ratio (For Row Spacing, xr = 35 cm) 139

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3.18 Ratio between Teeth of Drive Wheel Sprockets and Seed Plate Gear (Nr) 143

3.19 Seed Spacing within the Row (xs) in cm (For Sprockets Teeth Number of Drive Wheel = 20) 147

3.20 Seed Spacing within the Row (xs) in cm (For Sprockets Teeth Number of Drive Wheel = 30) 148

3.21 Seed Spacing within the Row (xs) in cm (For Seed Sprockets Teeth Number of Drive Wheel = 40) 149

3.22 Technical Specifications of the Developed Pneumatic Seeding Machine in this Study 184

4.1 Analysis of Variance of the Opening Diameter and Angle of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests, CRD 219

4.2 Means of the Opening Diameter of Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests 220

4.3 Means of the Opening Angle of Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests 221

4.4 Analysis of Variance of the Linear Speed of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests, CRD 224

4.5 Means of the Linear Speed of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests 225

4.6 Analysis of Variance of Vacuum Pressure of the Vacuum Seed Metering System on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests, CRD 229

4.7 Means of the Vacuum Pressure of the Vacuum Seed Metering System on the Machine Performance Indices in Laboratory Tests 229

4.8 Equations Representing Relationship between Machine Factors and Machine Performance Indices (Laboratory Tests) 231

4.9 Real Speed of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine at Related Tractor Gears Numbers Based on Speed Calibration 232

4.10 Analysis of Variance of the Opening Diameter and Angle of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests, RCBD 243

4.11 Means of the Opening Diameter of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 244

4.12 Means of the Opening Angle of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 247

4.13 Analysis of Variance of the Machine Forward Speed on the Machine

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Performance Indices in the Field Tests, RCBD 254

4.14 Means of Machine Forward Speed on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 255

4.15 Equations Representing Relationship between Machine Factors and Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 258

4.16 Field Capacity and Field Efficiency of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine at Different Forward Speed in the Field 260

4.17 The Parameters Used in Cost Analysis of the Kenaf Pneumatic Seeding Machine 264

4.18 The Costs of Economic Parameters of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine for Planting Kenaf Seed in 2010 268

4.19 The Required Total Number of Pneumatic Seeding Machines for Malaysia for 270 and 400 Growers per Year 271

4.20 The Required Total Number of the Pneumatic Seeding Machines for Malaysia at Different Total Working Days in a Year (Dw) and Total Plantation Area (A = 1500 ha) 273

4.21 The Required Total Number of the Pneumatic Seeding Machines for Malaysia at Different Total Working Days in a Year (Dw) and Total Plantation Area (A = 3000 ha) 274

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Kenaf Plant on the Farm 10

2.2 Kenaf Stem (Bast and Core Fibre) 11

2.3 Kenaf Farm 13

2.4 The Shape, Size and Colour of Kenaf Seed 14

3.1 Methodology Flowchart 58

3.2 Three Principle Perpendicular Dimensions of Kenaf Seed: L, Length, W, Width and T, Thickness 62

3.3 The Container to Measuring Bulk Density of Seeds 67

3.4 Schematic Diagram of the Device to Measuring Static Coefficient of Friction 69

3.5 Schematic Diagram of the Measuring Static Coefficient of Friction 69

3.6 Schematic Flow of a Particle in an Immersed Fluid 72

3.7 Types of the Seed Furrow Opener 102

3.8 Types of the Seed Covering 104

3.9 Types of the Press Wheel 106

3.10 Flow Chart of Vacuum Seed Metering System 117

3.11 Dimensions of Openings (Holes) on the Seed Plate 118

3.12 Details of the Seed Plate (Metering Plate) 121

3.13 Seed Plates that Were Used in Laboratory and Field Tests for Kenaf Seed 122

3.14 One Unit of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 123

3.15 The Vacuum Seed Metering System, Testing in Laboratory 124

3.16 Schematic of Seed Plate and its Components 126

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3.17 Forces Acting on a Seed Held in a Conical Opening of a Seed Plate 130

3.18 Full Schematic Drawing of Power Transmission System 144

3.19 A Part of Power Transmission System 144

3.20 Pneumatic Seeding Machine (Rear View) 153

3.21 Pneumatic Seeding Machine (Side View) 153

3.22 Pneumatic Seeding Machine (Front View) 154

3.23 Pneumatic Seeding Machine (with Details) 154

3.24 Pneumatic Seeding Machine (Seed Hopper) 157

3.25 Inside of the Seed Hopper (Seed Box) 158

3.26 Vacuum Seed Metering System and Seed Opener 159

3.27 Seed Opener 159

3.28 Vacuum Seed Metering System 160

3.29 Pneumatic Seeding Machine 161

3.30 Details of Vacuum Seed Metering System 161

3.31 Details of Seed Container 162

3.32 Details of Cover 163

3.33 Kenaf Seed Plate (Right View) 164

3.34 Details of the Kenaf Seed Plate 166

3.35 L-shaped Handle on the Pneumatic Seeding Machine for Adjusting Seed Planting Depth 169

3.36 Vacuum System (Side View) 171

3.37 Vacuum System (Front View) 171

3.38 Vacuum System (Rear View) 172

3.39 Transferring Vacuum Pressure to the Vacuum Seed Metering System 172

3.40 Transmission System (Closed Cover) 174

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3.41 Transmission System (Opened Cover) 175

3.42 Transmission System (Drive Shaft to Counter Shaft) 175

3.43 Transmission System (Counter Shaft to Input Shaft of Gearbox) 176

3.44 Transmission System (in Gearbox) 176

3.45 Transmission System (Output Shaft of the Gearbox to Pinion and Crown Wheel) 177

3.46 Transmission System (by Cardan to Pinion and Crown Wheel of the Vacuum Seed Metering System) 177

3.47 Transmission System (to Vacuum Seed Metering System) 178

3.48 The Seed Container of the Vacuum Seed Metering System 179

3.49 The Cover of the Vacuum Seed Metering System 179

3.50 The Seed Hopper of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 180

3.51 The Perspective View of One Unit planter of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 181

3.52 An Exploded Perspective View and the Details of One Unit planter of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 181

3.53 The Perspective View of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 182

3.54 The Side View of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 182

3.55 The Front View of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 183

3.56 The Top View of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine 183

3.57 Vacuum Seed Metering System, Laboratory Test for Kenaf Seed (Rear View) 187

3.58 Vacuum Seed Metering System, Laboratory Test for Kenaf Seed (Side View) 188

3.59 A 4-Row Tractor Operated Pneumatic Seeding Machine under Field Evaluation 193

3.60 Pneumatic Seeding Machine on the Field 194

3.61 Pneumatic Seeding Machine on the Field (Side View) 194

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3.62 Pneumatic Seeding Machine in the Field (Rear View) 195

4.1 Effects of the Opening Diameter of Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Laboratory Tests 220

4.2 Effect of the Opening Angle of Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Laboratory Tests 221

4.3 Effects of the Linear Speed of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Laboratory Tests 225

4.4 Effects of the Vacuum Pressure of the Vacuum Seed Metering System on the Machine Performance Indices in the Laboratory Tests 230

4.5 Kenaf Field in this Study 235

4.6 Determination of Plant Spacing in the Field Tests 235

4.7 Determination of Miss Index in the Field Tests (Seeding by the Seed Plate with Opening Diameter of 3.5 mm) 236

4.8 Determination Multiple Index in the Field Tests (Seeding by the Seed Plate with Opening Diameter of 3.5 mm) 238

4.9 Determination Multiple Index in the Field Tests (Seeding by the Seed Plate with Opening Diameter of 4.5 mm) 238

4.10 Kenaf Farm in this Study (four Months after Planting) 239

4.11 Kenaf Plant on the Farm in this Study 240

4.12 The Shape, Size and Colour of Kenaf Seed (Rip and Unrip) 241

4.13 Effects of Opening Diameter of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 245

4.14 Effects of Opening Diameter of the Seed Plate on the Seed and Plant Spacing in the Field Tests 245

4.15 Effects of Opening Diameter of the Seed Plate on the Seed and Plant Population in the Field Tests 246

4.16 Effects of Opening Angle of the Seed Plate on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 248

4.17 Effects of Opening Angle of the Seed Plate on the Seed and Plant

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Spacing in the Field Tests 248

4.18 Effects of Opening Angle of the Seed Plate on the Seed and Plant Population in the Field Tests 249

4.19 Effects of Forward Speed of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine on the Machine Performance Indices in the Field Tests 256

4.20 Effects of Forward Speed on the Seed and Plant Spacing in the Field Tests 256

4.21 Effects of Forward Speed on the Seed and Plant Population in the Field Tests 257

4.22 Effects of Forward Speed of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine on the Theoretical Field Capacity (TFC) 261

4.23 Effects of Forward Speed of the Pneumatic Seeding Machine on the Effective Field Capacity (EFC) 262

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ANOVA ANalysis Of VAriance

DMRT Duncan’s Multiple Range Test

CRD Completely Randomized Design

RCBD Randomized Complete Block Design

LSD Least Significant Difference test

ns Not Significant

SD Standard Deviation

df Degree of Freedom

CV Coefficient of Variation

SAS Statistical Analysis System

d.b. Dry Basis (seeds moisture content)

w.b. Wet Basis (seeds moisture content)

LKTN Lemago Kenaf dan Tembakau Negara (LKTN: National Kenaf and

Tobacco Board)

TPU Taman Pertanian Universiti (TPU: University Agricultural Park)

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CHAPTER 1

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Agriculture is the most important resource for producing food in the world. The

increasing world population has posed a great challenge to the food production sector.

There are many factors that affect the increase of crop yield, such as improved seed

variety, environment and tool conditions, but if all these factors are at an optimum, then

increasing production will only be possible with an increase in planting area. However,

the available planting areas are limited in the world. Therefore, it is important to find

alternative methods of increasing crop yields per unit area. Nevertheless, there are many

available methods for increasing crop yields per hectare. These include choosing high

yielding crop varieties, good crop establishment, suitable and timely irrigation,

appropriate weed control, and favourable growth conditions on suitable soils.

For good crop husbandry seeds must be planted at a suitable depth, with appropriate row

spacing, spacing between seeds within rows, and seed density. It is only when these

conditions are combined together that better yields can be achieved. Thus, suitable seed

planting methods are important for increasing crop yields per hectare.

Seed broadcasting (by hand or machine) is not a suitable method; it has many

disadvantages such as, delay planting, labour intensive, irregular planting, problems in

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protective and harvesting stages. Therefore, in order to mechanize agricultural

operations, it is recommended that seeds be planted by machine (grain drill or row crop

planter). After the global revolution in the agricultural field occurred, the initial

functioning of farming that became mechanized was that of the agricultural crops being

planted or seeded (John-Deere, 1981).

Seed planting equipments are generally divided into four types; row-crop planters, grain

drills, seed broadcasters, and specialized planters. Row-crop planters are designed to put

the seeds in a row form in which the seeds are at a distance from each other which lets

the handling of weeds easier by cultivation as well as harvesting becomes more

systematic. On the other words, row-crop planting is the name given to the crops that are

planted away from one another that allows machines like harvesters and cultivators to

function properly. To plant crops such as the corn, cotton, soybeans and sugar beet the

use of row-crop planters are adopted, as these crops are required to be placed in rows

which will help in the managing of the weeds and proper harvesting. Solid planting is

when there is very less space in between the rows just to let the cultivation and other

functioning which is cultural to take place. The use of grain drills or seed broadcasters

may be adopted to do solid planting. The equipment that gives much exact distribution

of seeds along with the depth of seeding to be in an even manner is the grain drills. The

seeds are covered in seed broadcasters as it does not contain any furrow opener that is

open. For plantation of grain crops like wheat, barley, rice, oats, grain sorghum and rye

along with bromegrass such as grassed and legumes, timothy, clover, beans, fescue,

alfalfa, peas and soybeans usually solid planting is used. Planters such as the potato

planters, transplanters and vegetable planters are used for those crops that need more

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specialized and unique operations (John-Deere, 1981; Jacobs & Harrell, 1983).

Plantation of seeds in uniformity in rows or on the beds that is on a plain land, or

crinkled land (planting on flat land, on beds or in furrows) is the aim of many planters

and grain drills, these however does not include broadcast planters. Various critical tasks

must be executed by these planters to achieve their aim, these tasks include; open a

furrow in the soil, meter the seed, place the seed in the soil, cover the seed, and firm the

seedbed (Karpenko & Zelenev, 1968; John-Deere, 1981; Jacobs & Harrell, 1983).

Five tasks are performed by these equipments, such as (1) for seeds to properly sprout,

the placement of the seeds must be beneath the soil’s surface this function is known as

the furrow opener which is also called the furrower function, hence, to successfully

accomplish this task, a mechanism to open the soil must be given by the planting

equipment. The runners or shoes, shovel, double disk, lister openers are the most known

kinds of furrow openers, openers of disk and the running of combination. A proper place

is made in the soil by the furrower where the seed is kept in the right place. Difference in

the conditions of soil, the furrow must manage and sustain the depth of where the seed is

placed. Due to the conditions in the environment, the seeds may not get developed

properly if they are placed to deep or to high. (2) The rating of the seed is managed by

the seed metering system, to get the maximum output from the crops that have been

planted, the rate of seeds per hectare (seeds per acre), or kilograms per hectare (pounds

per acre) are used. For any machine used for plantation of seeding, the main task that it

performs is that of seed metering. A single seed is metered and is then kept in the soil at

one time by few systems of seed metering, however, placing more than a single seed at a

particular time may be the habit of some planters. Random devices, finger pickup and air

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devices including both pressure and vacuum are the categories of system of metering

seeds for planters of row-crop. Fluted kind of feed cup, picker wheel, opening

adjustable, cut-off place being adjustable and system of air are few of other devices for

metering. (3) How the crop is developed greatly depends on the placement of the seeds

and the distance between them, this can be measured by the seed placement device.

There is a connection between the numbers of crops that have developed hence; the

placement of the seeds becomes vital for its yield. Even when the conditions are stable,

there are high chances of more crops to yield if only the seedbed is properly made and

the placement of seed is done in the right manner. When the condition of soil is not

even, the placement of seeds must be done in uniformity by the planters. The unit of

grain drill seeding has furrower which is fully able to deal with the uncertainties and to

put the seeds where ever it is needed. Drop of gravity and the device of drop of power

are the two kinds of machines that place the seeds in to the right opening of the furrow.

The individual seeds can be placed through drilling or through hill dropping in a team by

gravity drop as well as the system of power drop. To ensure there is required space

among the seeds or hills, is the main task of the machine of seed placement which will

take the seed from the device of metering and will then send it to the furrower. (4) To

ensure the seeds that are planted are covered properly is another important task of the

seed covering device. By adopting the shovel, paddle, chain covers or disk the seeds can

be successfully covered. The covering of seeds can also be done by the planters few of

the press wheels. If seeds are spread (broadcasted) in various directions and covering it

is important than using other seed covering means must be adopted. The following are

the seed covering ways that can be adopted to cover the seeds; cultipacker, drag bars,

spike-tooth harrow and covering shovels. (5) Making the seedbed even; press wheel is

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present for today’s seed planters to even out the seedbed and cover soil in which the

seed is planted. The quality of the crop increases if the seedbed is firm as it gives the

seed planted good moisture in soil. The use of a steel press wheel band or steel press

wheel may be adopted if much tighter seedbed is required. The role of a metering

machines driving unit may be played by the seed packer wheel, wheel that firms seeds or

the press wheel (John-Deere, 1981; Jacobs & Harrell, 1983).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Kenaf is an important and economical crop in Malaysia. Ahmad (2010), Director

General of LKTN, reported in his study that kenaf has been decided to be planted as

“New Sources of Growth” by the government of Malaysia, and after palm oil and rubber

this will become the third main economic item in the country. By the year 2010, the area

for the plantation of kenaf increased to 1500 ha from 42.2 ha in the year 2005, this is

about 36 times more area for plantation in 270 estates. Based on the future forecast done

by the LKTN, by the year 2011 this area will increase to 3000 ha in 400 estates.

However, for plantation of kenaf seed an appropriate seeding machine does not exists.

So far, many planters (seeding machines) have been designed and fabricated, but the

existing seeding machines are only suitable for seeds that have almost regular shape or

crops with row plantings of more than 50 cm such as corn and sugar beet. Kenaf seeds

are irregular in shape, and looks somewhat like a shark’s teeth, fairly triangular in shape

and sometimes looks like a kidney, with roughly pointed corners (Anonymous, 2012).

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Besides the irregular shape and size of kenaf seeds, it has a high angle of internal friction

and is most suitable for row plantings of 30-40 cm. The physical, mechanical and

aerodynamic properties of kenaf seed are completely different from that of corn and

sugarbeet. Therefore, existing seeding machines with high numbers of missing and

multiple planting characteristics are not suitable for planting kenaf seeds. Thus, there is a

need to design a new planter (seeding machine) based on physical, mechanical and

aerodynamic properties of kenaf seed.

Generally, there are two common types of row-crop planters (precision seeders or

seeding machines): mechanical planters (mechanical seeding machines) and pneumatic

planters (pneumatic seeding machines). In pneumatic seeding machines, the air system

(pressure or vacuum) are used to meter seeds. Pneumatic seeding machines consist of

seed (metering) plate with metering openings on a predetermined radius. The seeds are

collected from the hopper by the meter openings through the application of the

pneumatic when the rotation is done in the seed plate. The backing plate consists of a

race machine through which the pneumatic vacuum pressure is put on the opening of the

meter. The quality of work improves, the rates of seeds are more accurate with less

default, the handling and variations of upkeep and seed drift are better, and its

implementation has a wide spectrum. These are the few benefits which the precision

pneumatic seeders have over mechanical seeders (Özmerzi, et al., 2002; Karayel, et al.,

2004).

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1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to design, develop and evaluate a pneumatic seeding

machine for kenaf seeds. The following specific objectives would help to achieve the

above main objective:

1. To determine physical, mechanical and aerodynamic properties of kenaf seeds at

different moisture contents.

2. To design and develop a vacuum seed metering system and a pneumatic seeding

machine based on physical, mechanical and aerodynamic peoperties of kenaf seed.

3. To evaluate the vacuum seed metering system in the laboratory and the pneumatic

seeding machine in the field for planting kenaf seeds.

4. To develop relationship between machine factors and the machine performance

indices of the developed pneumatic seeding machine.

5. To determine the field efficiency, and theoretical and effective field capacity of the

developed pneumatic seeding machine.

6. To determine the economic analysis of the kenaf pneumatic seeding machine.

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1.4 Scope of the Research

The scope of the research was to develop a machine which can be used on a flat field

with good soil pulverization and enable appropriate weed control. The operational speed

for this machine should be less than 3 km/hr.

1.5 Thesis Organization

The thesis presented in five chapters. Chapter One discusses the introductory aspect of

the study and contains the problem statement, main objective, specific objectives and the

limitation of the study. Literature review is presented in Chapter Two, which overviews

relevant information about the study. The methods and materials used are discussed in

Chapter Three. Chapter Four discusses the results and findings of the study. Chapter

Five presents the conclusion and recommendation for future work. The thesis ends with

the reference section.

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