1990_read_baron_environmentally induced positive affect: its impact on self‐efficacy, task...

7/26/2019 1990_Read_Baron_Environmentally Induced Positive Affect: Its Impact on SelfEfficacy, Task Performance, Negotia

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Enviro nm entally Ind uc ed Positive Affect: Its Imp act on

Self-Eff icacy,Task Performan ce, Negotiation, and Con fl ict

ROBERTA. B RON^

Rensselaer

Polytechnic Inst itute

Male and female subjects performed several tasks either in the presence or ab-

sence of an environmental source of positive affect (pleasant artificial scents

produced by two commercially manufactured air-fresheners).Consistent with the

findings of previous research on the impact of positive affect, results indicated that

several aspects of subjects' behavior were influenced by this variable. Participants

exposed to pleasant scents

set

higher goals on a clerical coding task and were

more likely to adopt an effiaent strategy for performing this task than subjects not

exposed to such conditions. In addition, males (but not females) reported higher

self-efficacy in the presence of pleasant artificial scents than in their absence. Par-

ticipants exposed to pleasant scents also

set

higher monetary goals and made

more concessions during face-to-face negotiations with an accomplice. Finally,

subjects exposed to pleasant scents reported weaker preferences for handling

fu-

ture conflicts with the accomplice through avoidance and competition. Analyses

of covariance suggested that these differences stemmed largely from contrasting

levels of positive affect among subjects in the neutral and pleasant scent condi-

tions. Together, these results suggest that pleasant artificial scents may provide a

potentially useful means for enhancing the environmental quality of work set-

tings, and hence the performance and attitudes of persons in them.

In recent years, growing attention has been focused on the impact of

affective states on both interpersonal behavior and cognitive processes

(cf., Forgas Bower, 1988; Isen, 1987). Many intriguing results have been

generated by investigationsof this topic. With respect to interpersonal be-

havior, it has been found that individuals are generally more benevolent

toward others (e.g., less aggressive, more helpful) when experiencing

positive affect than when in a neutral mood or when experiencing nega-

tive affect (e.g., Baron, 1983a; Carnevale Isen, 1986; Levin Isen, 1975).

Turning to cognitive processes, it appears that even relatively mild

shifts in current affect can influence several aspects of human informa-

tion processing (cf., Isen, 19871, Affective states influence both the encod-

ing and retrieval of a wide range of information (Bower, Gilligan, Mon-

teiro, 1981; Isen, 1985). In particular, information consistent with current

moods (or those prevailing at the time of encoding) is often recalled more

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to Maryalice Citera for her aid in data collec-

tion and analysis, and to Susan Elliott, Tom Fortney, John Harvil, and Catherine Saonti for

their able assistance

n

collecting the data.

'Requests for reprints should be sent to Robert A. Baron, Department of Psychology,

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,

Y

12180-3590.

368

Journal

of

Appl ied Social Psychology 1990

20 5 pp. 368 384.

Copyright by

V.H.

Winston

8 Son,

nc.

All r ights reserved.


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ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT 369

accurately than information inconsistent with such affective reactions

(Natale Hantas, 1982). Second, individuals experiencing positive affect

seem to organize information differently-perhaps more inclusively-

than persons not experiencing such reactions (Isen Daubman, 1984).

They provide more unusual associates to neutral words and perceive

nontypical exemplars of a category as more representative of that

category than subjects in whom positive affect has not been induced

(Isen, Johnson, Mertz, Robinson, 1985). Persons experiencing positive

affect are more likely to demonstrate risk-prone behavior when potential

losses are small, but more likely to demonstrate risk-avoidance when

potential losses are large (Arkes, Herren, Isen, 1988). Finally, in-

dividuals experiencing positive affect perform more effectively on certain

tasks (ones involving creative problem solving) than do controls (Isen,

Daubman, Nowicki, 1987).

As

information on the behavioral and cognitive impact of affective

states has accumulated, many efforts have been made to apply such

knowledge to behavior in applied settings.

A

number of recent studies

have investigated the impact of affective states upon various aspects of

work-related behavior. Several studies have examined the potential in-

fluence of interviewers affective states on their evaluations of inter-

viewees (Baron, 1987).Other investigations have focused on the impact of

positive and negative affect on performance appraisal (Cardy Dobbins,

1986; Sinclair, 1988) or on managers reactions to poor performance by

subordinates (Dobbins Russell, 1986). Together, this research suggests

that relatively mild shifts in affective states can exert appreciable effects

on behavior in work settings (Park, Sims, Montowidlo, 1986).

Although these studies have yielded much valuable information, they

have generally viewed affective states as sources of bias-factors that dis-

tort or disrupt effective processing of task-relevant information cf., Isen,

1987). This perspective is appropriate, but its does not directly address

the possibility that affective reactions may produce beneficial results as

well.

As

noted previously, positive affect has been found to increase

benevolence toward others. In addition, one recent study indicates that it

may enhance cooperativeness, and therefore joint outcomes, in face-to-

face negotiations (Carnevale Isen, 1986). Similarly, positive affect has

been found to reduce anger and aggression (cf., Baron, 1983a). It seems

possible that such effects might prove useful in reducing costly organiza-

tional conflicts (e.g., Baron, 1988a; Thomas, in press). Finally, recent

evidence suggests that positive affect may enhance performance on dif-

ficult tasks, especially ones requiring creativity (Isen et al., 1987).


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370

ROB ERT A. BARON

The present research was conducted to obtain preliminary evidence

on the possible occurrence of such beneficial effects. In particular, it

sought to determine whether environmentally induced positive affect

would influence several work-related variables. Specifically, this study

sought to determine whether such affect would (a) enhance task perfor-

mance, feelings of self-efficacy, and self-set goals; (b) increase indi-

viduals willingness to grant concessions during face-to-face negotiations,

and (c) enhance their preferences for relatively conciliatory modes of

resolving interpersonal conflicts (e.g., collaboration or compromise as

opposed to avoidance and competition; see Thomas, 1976, in press).

Previous studies concerned with the impact of affective states have

sought to induce positive and negative affect among participants in

several different ways (e.g., exposure to pleasant or unpleasant films,

receipt of a small gift, favorable or unfavorable descriptions of other per-

sons; Arkes et al., 1988; Dobbins Russell, 1986). Although these proce-

dures differ greatly in nature, most share the following characteristic:

they would

be

relatively unusual, and thus somewhat obtrusive, in actual

work settings. The present research, therefore, also addressed an addi-

tional question: Could a less obtrusive technique prove effective in

generating positive affect, and so, perhaps, the benefits described above?

Several potential procedures for generating mild levels of positive affect

were considered. The one finally selected, however, was suggested by

previous research concerned with the impact of the physical environment

upon both affective states and behavior (cf., Fisher, Bell, Baum, 1985).

Such research indicates that both positive and negative affect can be

readily generated by environmental conditions. Stressors such as exces-

sive heat (Cotton, 1986; Baron, 1978), irritating noise (Nagar Pandey,

19871, or unpleasant aromas (Zillmann, Baron, Tamborini, 1981)

generate substantial levels of negative affect. Correspondingly, several

environmental factors appear to produce positive affective states, includ-

ing certain kinds of music (May Hamilton, 19801, pleasant climatic con-

ditions (Bowman, Giuliani, Minge, 1981), and pleasant scents or

aromas (Baron, 1983b, 1986). For several reasons, this latter environmen-

tal variable was selected for use in the present research. First, as just

reported, pleasant artificial scents have been found to induce enhanced

levels of positive affect among research participants. Second, pleasant

aromas can be readily introduced into home or work environments; in-

deed, many commercial products specifically designed to accomplish this

goal exist (air fresheners and room deodorizers). Third, as suggested by

the large sales volume for such products, efforts to generate pleasant


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ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

371

aromas are quite common in many settings. In view of these considera-

tions, it was reasoned that the presence of pleasant artificial scents, al-

though readily detected, might prove less obtrusive in certain respects

than several other strategies for generating positive affect among sub-

jects. Finally, from the point of view of potential practical applications, it

was noted that should pleasant scents yield any of the positive effects

described above (e.g., enhanced task performance, improved negotia-

tions), a simple and relatively cost- effective type of intervention might be

suggested.

In the present research, therefore, subjects were either exposed or not

exposed to pleasant artificial scents (generated by commercially available

products) while performing several different tasks (a clerical coding task,

face-to-face negotiations, rating their preferences for various modes of

conflict resolution). It was tentatively predicted that exposure to this en-

vironmental factor would induce mild levels of positive affect among

participants, and so would also yield at least some of the beneficial effects

produced by such reactions in previous research (cf., Baron, 1984; Car-

nevale Isen, 1986; Isen et al., 1987). Given the exploratory nature of this

project, however, firm hypotheses concerning which of these potential

effects would be observed were not formulated.

Method

Subjects and Design

Eighty undergraduates (40 males, 40 females) participated in the

study. Subjects took part in the investigation in order to satisfy a course

requirement.

A

2

x 2 factorial design based upon the presence or absence of

pleasant artificial scent and sex of subjects was employed. Subjects were

randomly assigned to one of the cells of this design as they appeared for

their appointments.

Procedure

Tasks

performed by subjects.

Subjects participated in the study along

with a same-sex accomplice. They were told that they would each

perform several work-related tasks. In fact, however, the accomplice par-

ticipated in only one of these: face-to-face negotiations (see below).

The first task was described as a marketing survey and required sub-

jects to open and sniff the contents of five identical plastic bottles. In


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372 ROBERT A. BA RON

reality, this task was employed to strengthen the manipulation of the

major independent variable (exposure to pleasant artificial scents). For

subjects in the

pleasant scent

condition, the bottles contained five per-

fumes or colognes found, in previous research, to generate positive affec-

tive reactions (Baron, 1983b, 1986). For subjects in the

neutral scent

condi-

tion, in contrast, the bottles contained substances found, in pre-testing, to

produce relatively neutral affective reactions. These were: sesame oil,

WD-40

(a commercial lubricant), wood workers glue, soy sauce, and

Sting-Eze (an over-the-counter remedy for insect bites and stings.) Sub-

jects sniffed each bottle and then rated the pleasantness (unpleasant-

pleasant) and appealingness (unappealing-appealing) of its contents.

Each bottle held cotton to which several drops of the appropriate material

had been applied.

The second task involved clerical coding and was identical to one

employed in previous research (Baron, 1988a). Subjects were given a

sheet containing coded orders for various products; they then had to

determine the price of each item by searching for it in a code book. After

this, they determined the size of the discount that should

be

applied to

the item by consulting a price-discount schedule. They were permitted to

work on this task for

5

min. Prior to actually performing the clerical

task, subjects completed a brief form on which they indicated how many

orders they thought they could complete and their ability to perform

these tasks (low-high). These items provided measures of self-set goals

and self-efficacy, respectively (cf., Bandura, 1986; Baron, 1988a).

Following completion of the clerical task, subjects were taken to a

second room where they were rejoined by the accomplice. (Ostensibly,

this person had been performing the same tasks in an adjoining, third

room.) Subjects then participated in negotiations with the accomplice.

The procedures employed in this situation closely resembled ones used in

several previous studies (Baron, 1988b). Briefly, the subject and ac-

complice were asked to imagine that they were executives in a large com-

pany and that they represented the Marketing and Production Depart-

ments, respectively. They were then asked to negotiate about

two

issues:

How l,OOO,OOO in surplus funds in the budget for equipment and sup-

plies should be divided between their departments, and how

10

position

cuts necessitated by a reduction in the budget for personnel should be

allocated to their respective units. An exchange of eight offers and

counter-offers then followed. The accomplice began by demanding fully

$800,000 and indicating willingness to accept only

3

of the 10 position

cuts. This person then made only two small concessions with respect to

the funds and only one small concession with respect to position cuts


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ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED POSITIVE AFFECT

373

during the discussions. (The accomplice reduced his or her monetary

demands to $750,000 on trial 4 and to $700,000 on Trial 6; the accomplice

increased the number of position cuts he or she would accept to

4

on trial

7). In sum, this person behaved in a relatively confrontational manner

throughout the negotiations?

Prior to the start of negotiations (but after receiving instructions about

them), subjects were asked to complete a brief form on which they indi-

cated their goals with respect to division of the funds and position cuts

(how much of the $1,000,000 and how many of the cuts they would try to

attain).

Following conclusion of the negotiation task, subjects completed a

final questionnaire on which they rated the experimental rooms on two

dimensions (unpleasant-pleasant;

uncomfortable-comfortable ,

and

their current feelings or mood (negative-positive, pleasant-unpleasant,

bad-good). In addition, they indicated how likely they would be to

handle future conflicts with the accomplice in five different ways:

through avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise, or col-

laboration. These five patterns have been identified by Thomas (1976, in

press) as basic modes of behavior in many conflict situations. The items

used to assess subjects preferences for each of these strategies were iden-

tical to ones employed in several previous studies (e.g., Baron, 1985,

1988b) and have been found to correlate substantially

TS

generally .75 of

higher) with appropriate scales on the Killmann-Thomas

MODE

instru-

ment (Killmann Thomas, 1977). Ratings on all items were

on

7-point

scales.

The presence or absence of pleasant artificial scent. Two procedures were

employed to vary the presence or absence of pleasant artificial scent and

thus, presumably, subjects affective states. First, as noted previously, the

initial task performed by subjects involved exposure to either pleasant or

neutral aromas. Second, depending upon experimental condition

(pleasant scent or neutral scent), two commercial aerosol air-fresheners

were either sprayed or not sprayed into the two rooms occupied by sub-

jects. In addition, the solid forms of these products were either present (in

the pleasant scent condition) or not present (in the neutral scent condi-

tion) in these rooms. The level of air fresheners employed was such that

the odor of these substances was immediately detectable upon entry into

3Because the air-fresheners were or were not sprayed into the room where negotiations

took place, it was impossible

to

keep the accomplices blind with respect to the scent vari-

able. However, these individuals were carefully rehearsed to assure that their behavior

remained constant across these conditions. Observations of their behavior by two in-

dividuals not otherwise involved in the conduction of the study revealed no differences in

their actions in the pleasant scent and neutral scent conditions.


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374 ROBERT A.

BARON

the experimental rooms. However, the concentration was rated by sub-

jects in pilot studies as being well within the range actually used by in-

dividuals in their own homes. The specific air fresheners employed were

chosen on the basis of pre-testing in which 10 pilot subjects rated the

pleasantness of a wide range such products. The two which received the

most positive ratings were selected for use in this study. These were

Renuzits Fresh n Dry Powder Soft, and Glades Rainshower Fresh.

Two different air fresheners with distinct aromas were used in order to

counteract the rapid habituation

to

such aromas experienced by most

persons. These products were sprayed into the two rooms occupied by

subjects in a random order. Thus, neither was consistently associated

with the performance of any of the experimental tasks. The two rooms

were identical in all major physical features, and other environmental fac-

tors (e.g., temperature, humidity) were constant between them. Because

of the lingering quality of air fresheners employed, it was necessary to

conduct scent and

no

scent sessions on alternate days.

Results

Ratings of the Pleasant and Neutral Scents Employed in the Initial Task

Multivariate analyses of variance were performed on subjects ratings

of the pleasant and neutral scents contained in the plastic bottles. As ex-

pected, the effect of the scent variable was highly significant for ratings of

both pleasantness, F 5,72) 30.04, p < .001, and appealingness,F 5,72)

21.03, p

1990_read_baron_environmentally induced positive affect: its impact on self‐efficacy, task...

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