17msec_omartinez

University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational Training and Language Teaching

Foreign language itinerary

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

6ECTS

Ms. Oreto Martínez Martínez

Consultant

www.viu.es

This material is for the exclusive use of VIU students. Any type of modification of the content or its reproduction in whole or in part is forbidden for those people without an accredited relationship with the VIU or without express authorization.

Editor

Legal Deposit

In progress

Valencian International University / VIU





6ECTS


Valencian International University

Índice

UNIT 1. THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA .............................................................. 7

1.1. Globalization. English as a lingua franca .................................................................................................. 7

1.2. New skills needed. The digital age and the english language teaching ...................................... 8

1.3. The council of europe ................................................................................................................................... 10

1.4. Language education policies for democratic citizenship and social inclusion (2006-2009)11

1.5. Scientific research on language learning............................................................................................... 14

1.6. Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning dimensions ........................................... 14

UNIT 2. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION RESEARCH. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF INTELLIGENCE,

LEARNING AND MOTIVATION. FROM BEHAVIOURISM TO CONSTRUCTIVISM ............................................ 17

2.1. Before chomsky: b.f skinner’s verbal behavior ......................................................................................... 17

2.2. Chomsky’s theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics. ............................................................ 19

2.3. The language acquisition device (lad) ........................................................................................................ 19

2.4. Chomsky on intelligence: generative grammar, universal grammar, flb, and fln ....................... 20

2.5. The process of learning, according to bandura ....................................................................................... 23

2.6. Vygotsky on learning and intelligence: constructivism ........................................................................ 27

2.7. Constructivism. Learning theory. Jean piaget ......................................................................................... 30

2.8. Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method ........................................................................... 34

2.9. Pedagogies based on constructivism ......................................................................................................... 35

UNIT 3. FACTORS AFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE

APPROACHES. CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................ 37

3.1. The role of transfer in interlanguage ........................................................................................................... 37

3.2. Contrastive analysis ........................................................................................................................................... 38

3.3. Transfer. Positive and negative ...................................................................................................................... 40

3.4. Specific linguistic areas where the l1 influences the l2 ......................................................................... 42

3.5. Bilingualism .......................................................................................................................................................... 44

3.6. Jim cummins the common underlying proficiency theory ................................................................. 45

3.7. Jim cummins. The iceberg methaphore ..................................................................................................... 46

3.8. Krashen on intelligence and learning: input, monitoring, and affective filters............................ 47

UNIT 4. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN POSTMODERN ERA ...................................................................... 53

4.1. Introduction. Postmodern influences in language teaching .............................................................. 53

4.2. Postmodern influences in elt. Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory....................................... 57


6ETCS

www.viu.es

6

4.3. Postmodern influences in elt. Differentiated instruction theory ...................................................... 59

4.4. Postmodern influences in elt. Universal design for learning applications .................................... 62

4.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................ 67

UNIT 5. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING .................... 71

5.1. Aspects of communicative competence .................................................................................................... 71

5.2. Communicative language teaching ............................................................................................................ 77

5.3. Glossary of linguistic terms ............................................................................................................................. 79

REFERENCES AND WEBSITES ......................................................................................................................................... 89

Unit 1 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 89

Unit 2 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 89

Unit 3 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 89

Key terms ................................................................................................................................................................. 91

Unit 4 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 91

Unit 5 ................................................................................................................................................................................ 93



7

www.viu.es

Complementary Training for Foreign Language

Discipline


Unit 1

The knowledge society. English as a lingua franca

To introduce concepts as Globalization, knowledge society and Digital Age, and Institutions such as

The Council of Europe with its Language Division and their influences in English Language

Teaching

1.1. Globalization. English as a lingua franca

The English language has unmistakably achieved status as the world\'s lingua franca through

globalization. English is now the official or dominant language for two billion people in at least 75

countries. According to the British Council, speakers of English as a second language probably

outnumber those who speak it as a first language, and around 750 million people are believed to

speak English as a foreign language. English is the most common language to communicate

scientific, technological, academic, and international trade information. English is clearly the

world\'s lingua franca, but how did it get that way? Part of the reason is the feedback loop driving

its history - a dynamic which may serve to illustrate how globalization often is the result of a natural


6ETCS

www.viu.es

8

course of events: before English infiltrated the world, many of the world\'s languages infiltrated

English.

The term \"lingua franca\" originated in Mediterranean ports in the Middle Ages among traders of

different language backgrounds. In order to carry on the business of trade, they spoke a common

\"patchwork\" language consisting of bits of Italian mixed with Greek, French, Spanish, and Arabic

words. Some of those words are still part of ordinary conversation today - in modern English.

Nearly every language on Earth has contributed to the development of English. Languages of the

Indian subcontinent provided words such as pundit, shampoo, pajamas, and juggernaut. From the

Spanish are several words that came to define the spirit of the American \"wild west:\" mustang,

canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are a few examples. English has adopted literally hundreds

of words from Arabic and Persian. Though some filtered down through other languages, these

words that evoke images from American culture have Arabic origins: tariff, sugar, hazard, jar,

almanac, shrub, alcove, alfalfa, syrup, and spinach. Long is the list of words and expressions that

came to English from \"foreign languages.\" however It is the \"different functions\" aspect of

English vs. ‘other languages' that is fiercely debated today. The speaking of English often functions

as an elevated socio-economic currency on the international market and in international

diplomacy, while local languages are pressured to be kept within the home or within communities,

or for entertaining tourists. English is the official language of the European Central Bank even

though the bank is in Frankfurt, Germany, and no predominantly English-speaking country is a

member of the European Monetary Union. English has become a commodity. Globalization of the

IT marketplace is accelerating the effect of English as a commodity. For decades English has

dominated the IT industry, from research and development, to the design of hardware and

software.

English, like so many other aspects of Western culture, has the potential to bring people together,

or the power to divide people into classified groups. As the debate goes on, English will continue

to grow and change with the same force that has always driven the patchworking of language: the

natural desire to exchange goods and ideas.

1.2. New skills needed. The digital age and the english language

teaching

The new millennium has emerged with radical changes regarding, not only social and economical

changes, but educative shifts, too. It seems clear that all these facts related to globalization and ICT

are having an impact on what and how we teach, thus, the following are considered the most

important factors affecting educational practices.

� Digital age, exchange of information and knowledge

� Globalization, the world is interconnected

� Learning languages becomes a need in order to make business

World wide organizations have launched different projects related to the new basic competences

which students are expected to achieve, among them we find The International Society for

Technology in Education (ISTE), which is engaged in improving learning and teaching by



9

www.viu.es

advancing the effective use of technology in both students and teacher education. According to

this organization there is a need to transform education in order to cope which society new trends.

These basic skills are considered the following. (NETS)

International Society for Technology in Education

Creativity and Innovation

Communication and Collaboration

Research and Information fluency

Critical thinking, Problem Solving and Decision Making

Digital Citizenship

Technology and operation concepts

2007 International Society for Technology in Education.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

10

METIRI group have also released their conclusions on their research “Engauge 21 Century Skills

related to Academic Achievement. This report states that there are emerging characteristics related

to the NET.Generation which are considered essential, thus, academic achievement must be seen

under the umbrella of different skills:

enGauge 21st Century Skills.

1.3. The council of europe

As far as Europe is concerned, The Council of Europe (founded in may 1949) with its Language

Policy Division is also carrying out programmes to contribute to the promotion of human rights,

democratic citizenship, social cohesion and intercultural dialogue. Projects are related to the

development of language education policies with a particular emphasis on plurilingualism,

Common European Standards and language education rights and responsibilities. The language

Division has been a pioneer on international cooperation in language education since 1957 for the

member states of the Council of Europe. The results of the Division’s programmes have led to a

number of recommendations which provide political support for its policy instruments and

initiatives.

The language Policy Division organized the Year of languages 2001 with the European

Commission, the aims of which are promoted in the annual day of languages. The language

Division programmes are complemented by those of the European Centre for Modern Languages,

which was set up in 1994 with the mission of the implementation of language policies and the

promotion of innovative approaches to the learning and teaching of modern languages.



11

www.viu.es

In 1995, the European Commission in The White Paper on Education and Training talked about the

need of speaking three languages: Quotes from: Fourth General Objective of the white paper on

education and training, teaching and learning: Towards the Learning Society European

Commission.( DG XXII and DGV), 1995

”t’s no longer possible to reserve proficiency in foreign languages for an elite or for those who

acquire it on account of their geographical mobility......it’s becoming a necessity for everyone.......to

be able to acquire and keep up their ability to communicate in at least two community languages

in addition to their mother tongue”. It could even be argued that secondary school pupils should

study certain subjects in the first foreign language learnt”

It concluded that language learning is becoming a need and that minority languages should be

promoted too. It was the first time they talked about new concepts such us the Digital Gap,

Multilingualism and CLIL.

Minority languages

The very spread of English can motivate speakers of other languages to insist on their own local

language for identification, for binding them emotionally to their own cultural and historical

tradition, however, there is no need to set up an old-fashioned dichotomy between local

languages and English as the \'hegemonic aggressor\': there is a place for both, because they fulfill

different functions.

It is the \"different functions\" aspect of English vs. ‘other languages' that is fiercely debated today.

The speaking of English often functions as an elevated socio-economic currency on the

international market and in international diplomacy, while local languages are pressured to be kept

within the home or within communities. As far as education is concerned, multilingualism around

Europe is becoming a growing phenomena, the model which seems to be spreading includes:

The region own language, The state Language and a Foreign or Additional one.

1.4. Language education policies for democratic citizenship and

social inclusion (2006-2009)

Within this European context, the language Policy Division has launched a project on all the

languages of education. The focus is on languages of instruction in school, often the national or

official language, and also the mother tongue of the majority of the students, being for some

others their second language, adding a third language, which is considered as a need in our

European context. It is indented to promote a coherent and holistic approach to language

education policies, in order to organize plurilingualism and diversification in a planned manner so

that decisions are coherently linked. They are addressed to all those involved in educations

decision making, from the Ministry of Education, to the Principal of the school, providing a wide

inventory of possible forms of organisation of language education, embracing not only mother

tongue languages but foreign language teaching too. (See From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual

Education: Guide for the development of language education polices in Europe).


6ETCS

www.viu.es

12

Council of Europe language education policy aims to promote

� Plurilingualism

� All are entitled to develop a reasonable degree of communicative ability in a

number of languages over their lifetime in accordance with their needs

� Linguistic diversity

� Europe is multilingual and all its languages are equally valuable modes of

communications and expressions of identity, the right to use and to learn one’s

language(s) is protected by the council of Europe Conventions

� Social cohesion

� Equality of opportunity for personal development, education, employment,

mobility, access and cultural enrichment depends on access to language learning

through life

� Democratic citizenship

� Participation in democratic and social processes in multilingual societies is

facilitated by plurilingual competence of individuals

� Mutual understanding

� The opportunity to learn other languages is an essential condition for intercultural

understanding and communication

Clil innovation

Introducing an L3 into a curriculum may pursue different objectives, from better skills in language

learning to better subject learning; however, other factors should be taken into consideration as:

greater intercultural understanding, better individual chances on the job market, better access to

scientific research or even greater national economic competitiveness.

This idea has resulted in some educational innovations; one of them is called CLIL and it is the

acronym for Content and Language Integrated Learning. This methodology involves competence

building in languages and communication and at the same time developing professional skills

which better prepare young people for the knowledge society. The CLIL basis was set up in 1990 by

the Council of Europe, however, research, development and experience is needed in order to

stablish a clear framework to be implemented in English Language Teaching. (A whole chapter will

be dedicated to this methodology along the couse).



13

www.viu.es

6 european Clil milestones

Council of Europe (ECML) CLIL

Country Profiles published 2005

The Changing European Classroom.

The Potential of Plurilingual Education

symposium, Luxembourg Presidency

conference launched Council of Europe

Workshop (ECML) Describing & Achieving

Good Practice launched

research output

2004

European Commission's Action Plan for

the Promotion of Language Learning & Linguistic Diversity 2004-

2006 published

CLILCom (Leonardo) start-up

CLILMatrix (ECML) start-up

CLILAxis (Leonardo) start-up

research output 2003 Major national initiatives

research output 2002 CLIL/EMILE, The European Dimension: Actions, Trends and

Foresight Potential, European Commission, published

availability of a comprehensive

typology of European CLIL 2001 European Year of Languages, CLIL Compendium launched

trans-national professional

development programmes for

vocational and professional

education

2000 Integrating Competencies for Working Life launched

trans-national professional

development programmes for

primary and secondary

education

1999 Learning with Languages launched, CLIL Consortium founded,

CLIL Initiatives for the Millennium published

development needs for 2000-

2010 formalized 1998

CEILINK Think Tank convened, Future Scenarios in Content and

Language Integrated Learning published, Teaching with Foreign

Languages released

experience in primary and

secondary education surveyed 1997

InterTalk released, European Centre for Modern Languages

Workshop on CLIL in Vocational and Professional Education,

Aspects of Implementing CLIL published

European network established 1996

European Networks in Bilingual Education symposium convened,

EuroCLIC Network founded, the term Content and Language

Integrated Learning introduced, Teaching Content through a

Foreign Language published, Council of Europe Workshop 12B

'Learning and Teaching Non-language Subjects through a

Foreign Language'

European-based experiences

consolidated 1995

European Commission White Paper on education and training

published

pan-European information

gathering on depth, scope and

scale of 'teaching and learning

through foreign languages'

1994 Increased availability of research and development publications

information gathering on

minority and majority language

learning needs within Europe

1993

European Models of Bilingual Education published, Council of

Europe Workshop 12A 'Language Learning for European

Citizenship'

interest in bilingual education 1992 Needs surveys and prototypes for professional development


6ETCS

www.viu.es

14

methodologies increased

through Council of Europe

activities

produced

interest shown within Europe

towards worldwide examples of

bilingual education

1991 Increasing frequency of articles published on research and

practice

interest in bilingual education

methodologies increases due to

European socio-economic

integration, and globalization

1990 Lingua

1.5. Scientific research on language learning

Early Language learning is also supported by scientific research in the field of Multilingual

Learning, in this sense, it is stated that plurilingual teaching may benefit students in terms of

language awareness in the domain of Second Language Acquisition Research. These ideas are

supported by scientists who state that infants and youngsters can be very good at acquiring

languages when they are used at home; a belief which traditionally has lead to the assumption that

we learn languages best when we are very young; nevertheless, research findings support that

successful language learning can be achieved at any age when people have the opportunity to

receive instruction, and at the same time experience real life situations in which they can acquire

the language, in this sense, new methodologies are now being implemented. (See CLIL)

1.6. Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning

dimensions

According to the CLIL Compendium Development Team; which was set up with the support of the

European Commission, multilingual curricula must arrange learning taking into account 5

dimensions based on issues relating to:

� Culture

� Environment

� Language

� Content

� Learning

Each of these includes a number of focus points implemented differently according to 3 major

factors:

� Age-range of learners

� Socio-linguistic environment

� Degree of exposure



15

www.viu.es

The dimensions are idealized and usually heavily inter-related. This means that in real-life, it is likely

that a school will wish to achieve successful outcomes in relation to more than one dimension at

the same time.

� The Culture Dimension

a. Build intercultural knowledge & understanding

b. Develop intercultural communication skills

c. Learn about specific neighboring countries/regions and/or minority

groups

d. Introduce the wider cultural context

� The Environment Dimension

a. Prepare for internationalization, specifically EU integration

b. Access International Certification

c. Enhance school profile

� The Language Dimension

a. Improve overall target language competence

b. Develop oral communication skills

c. Deepen awareness of both mother tongue and target language

d. Develop plurilingual interests and attitudes

e. Introduce a target language

� The Content Dimension

a. Provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives

b. Access subject-specific target language terminology

c. Prepare for future studies and/or working life

� The Learning Dimension

a. Complement individual learning strategies

b. Diversify methods & forms of classroom practice

c. Increase learner motivation


6ETCS

www.viu.es

16



17

www.viu.es

Unit 2

Language Acquisition Research. Different

perspectives of intelligence, learning and

motivation. From behaviourism to constructivism

This analysis aims to analyze, compare, and contrast the classical theoretical perspectives of

intelligence, learning, and motivation proposed by Chomsky, Bandura, Vygotsky, and Piaget under

the scope of both general learning and consequently second language acquisition (SLA)

2.1. Before chomsky: b.f skinner’s verbal behavior

(From lingtechguistics.wordpress.com)

The year was 1957. The post war era was witness to major developments in the

fields of science and technology. This easily opened doors for research in other


6ETCS

www.viu.es

18

areas. We would find, judging from the major events that took place at the time, that the human

race in general experienced a series of major events in a short period of time, pushing it to a “fast

forward mode” into the future. One of the most scientifically influential happenings during the late

1950s was the launch of the Soviet space shuttle SPUTNICK. This event marked the beginning of

the Space Era, and innocuously united the East and the West in an accomplishment shared by the

entire human race: The conquering of Space. What could the human race not be able to do?

This was the world as Chomsky would have known it: A place where scientific achievements and

new developments continued to occur in great momentum. Yet Chomsky’s interest laid mostly in

the fields of psychology, linguistics, and sociology. As a man with a deep respect for the empirical

and solid evidence of theory, he disagreed with the methodology used in an investigative book

written by B.F. Skinner, a social theorist who aimed to explain the process of learning, specifically,

language acquisition. In VERBAL BEHAVIOR, Skinner names behaviorism as the conduit for

acquiring new information. The concept of behaviorism is a combination of social exposure,

consistent interaction, and operant (constant) conditioning (Skinner, 1957). Therefore, in Skinner’s

philosophy, learning is the result of exposure to external sources, followed by modeling and

practice.

The implications of Skinner’s theory were that the internal processes that take place during

learning are superseded by social exposure. Skinner supported his behaviorist axiom with the

theoretical views that were common at the time, yet, the findings were not empirically supported

by enough research. For example, Skinner takes for granted that the studies performed on the way

animals acquire behaviors is enough evidence to support his operant conditioning theory that as

long as there is enough input and conditioning the learning will be acquired. (Skinner, 1957). This

paradigm applied to language learning in the same token. Skinner’s VERBAL BEHAVIOR offered

the linguistic community paradigms that involved identifying variables that control behaviors, the

analysis on how they interact with the individual, and the notion that reinforcement, stimulus, and

enough exposure are the conduits for acquiring language.

Pedagogies based on behaviorism

Many classical pedagogies are based on behaviorism, many of them are still very deep in laguage

learning teaching, some of them are the following.

The Audio-lingual Method

According to this method, students are considered to develop correct language habits by

repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.

Asher’s Total Physical Response

Based on the association between language and body movement. There is a shaping of response

and external rewards are faded. It is regarded as positive for those at the non-verbal stage of

language acquisition.

Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning

This type of learning emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the

learning of facts, sequenced steps, or rules.



19

www.viu.es

2.2. Chomsky’s theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics.

Noam Chomsky

Skinner’s presumed lack of further inquiry and the seemingly quick verification of a

hypothesis, Chomsky questioned Skinner’s view of language acquisition as a merely

learned skill rather than a naturally-acquired skill. By naturally-acquired, he implied

that there is a biological element to the process that goes beyond exposure and

interaction. Could language be acquired by an inherent disposition that could even

overrule environmental stimuli? These were the postulates that encompass linguistic theory,

according to Chomsky. His reaction to Skinner’s behaviorist views are what give Chomsky’s

philosophy the exposure and strength upon which, to this day, continues to be researched.

A bi-partite concept of language learning

In 1955 developed the idea of a “transformational grammar”, that is, language which is acquired,

analyzed, and transformed into what the individual decides in natural way. It is the notion of

language as a bi-partite concept: a) Language is acquired by nature, and b) language is enhanced

by social exposure (Chomsky, 1955 p. 113). Language acquisition is, in Chomskyan terms, a

comprehensive process that integrates innate and external elements under the assumption that

there is a set apparatus within each human being that enables this to happen (Chomsky, 1955).

Chomsky’s theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics.

The combination of social and cognitive elements that serve as triggers to learning under

Chomskyan perspective is notable for giving more emphasis on the study of how the brain works

during the process of language acquisition. This leads to the creation of the linguistic theory. For

this focal reason, Chomsky views the theory of linguistics as a “metatheory” where mental,

psychological, and cognitive processes supersede a mere behavioral input (Chomsky, 1955 ).

Chomsky argues that language is comprehensive: It involves listening, accepting and rejecting

information, conceptualizing the input, organizing it, and producing further language within the

parameters of the social context where the language takes place is being shared, and within the

limits of our natural capabilities (Chomsky, 1955). However, there is an additional dimension that

ultimately separated Chomsky from his contemporaries, and it is the idea that all these processes

occur in a part of the brain where a proposed “apparatus” enables all this to occur: The Language

Acquisition Device.

2.3. The language acquisition device (lad)

The metatheory of linguistics, or language learning, according to Chomsky consists on two

premises: The first premise states that humans are born with an already-established body of

common grammatical knowledge, or intelligence which can also be described as a capacity, or a

competence for language. This intelligence, which he calls linguistic corpus, is triggered by social

discourse and interaction . As interaction takes place and new language is acquired, the second

premise of Chomsky’s theory states that a specific place in the brain which he calls the “Language

Acquisition Device” or LAD. Chomsky proposes that the LAD exists inside the brain (Chomsky,

1975). It is, theoretically speaking, a congenital organ that enables the skill of acquiring language.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

20

This organ would allow individuals to use minimal rules and regulations of language to create

more words, and more sentences.

The premise of his philosophy lays Chomsky’s observations of children, and his preocupation about

how steadfastly children acquire language. Chomsky observed that the manner in which children

acquire language, make similar mistakes, and develop further words, must obey a general

mechanism that with a specific tendency of operation. These social and cognitive components of

the process of language learning imply Chomsky’s integration of psychology, human

development, and linguistics as part of his theory. That is the way that Chomsky defines “learning”.

Yet, once the learning takes place by the means that he suggested, what happens to the acquired

knowledge? Concisely, how does he define the term “intelligence”?

2.4. Chomsky on intelligence: generative grammar, universal

grammar, flb, and fln

The general definition of “intelligence” is, according to the Encarta Dictionary “the ability to learn

facts and skills and apply them, especially when this ability is highly developed” (Encarta dictionary,

2006). In a Chomskyan linguistic perspective, intelligence is defined a foundation of language that

all humans already possess as part of our biological make-up. This innate body of knowledge is

what he calls “universal grammar” or the “linguistic corpus”. This body of language knowledge

changes through time, as the individual makes additional social connections, acquires new words,

or decides how to make use of language depending on the circumstances in which it is required.

This ability to transform the language and change it through time makes it “generative” in nature.

(Chomsky, 1955).

The process of transformation of universal to generative grammar

The concept of universal grammar could be described cognitively as an innate foundation and a

capacity for language usage and production. It is found within the brain, where the Language

Acquisition Device (LAD) proposed by Chomsky would be triggered into action when the

individual is exposed to language. This exposure leads to the acquisition of new words which, as

they are learned, fall unequivocally in a pattern of use that is general to the group who is speaking.

An example of this pattern would be the subject-verb-predicate model. The implication rests in

that, as we socialize, our internal capacities already in place will act as a “word catcher” that will

automatically place the words in a pre-set order shared everyone within our own language system

and will continue to grow and expand. The process of establishing the language rules, and

expanding language further through time and level of complexity leads to deem it as “generative

grammar” (Chomsky, 1955)

Flb, fln and recursion

A recent research co-developed by Chomsky in 2002 brings out another dimension to his theory of

intelligence, and its findings serve as a demonstration of how Chomsky’s theory permeates recent

research and his argument for the inclusion of the disciplines of biology, anthropology,

psychology, and neuroscience for the study of language. This makes his theoretical perspective go



21

www.viu.es

from pragmatic to empirical. This is the theory of the Faculty of Language for Broader purposes

(FLB) and the Faculty of language for Narrow purposes (FLN) (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002).

The theory states that, within the LAD and along with the Universal and generative language, there

is a bipartite ability that distinguishes communication from humans and animals. This bipartite

diversification consists on the faculty of language in the broad purpose (FLB) and faculty of

language in the narrow purpose (FLN). Concisely, language in the broad purpose (FLB) is all the

language produced for general and immediate responses. This faculty is not only inherent to

humans, but also to animals. Its basis is the common need to express a message, and consists on

any form of communication that is possible among living things. Therefore, FLB is responsive,

immediate, and instinctive language usage that could also be explained as language of survival for

immediate purpose (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002 p. 1569).

Yet, the distinguishing factor between humans and animals in terms of communication is that,

within the FLB, there is an integrative system that involves concepts and intentions along with the

biological and neuropsychological elements that are required to perform operations that require

computation for recursion, the generation of mannerism and expression, and the ability to

correlate intonation, expression, and affect into language. This element of distinction is the FLN, or

faculty of language for Narrow purposes. The FLN involves critical thinking, decision making,

inferencing, computation, if/then conclusions, and the capacity of “recursion” (Hauser, Chomsky,

Fitch, 2002 ).

Recursion is the key element in the FLN, and is the main ingredient that sets humans apart from

other living organisms. Recursion is basically a programming technique within the brain which

assigns tasks to diverse areas to do certain duties. In other words, it is a uniquely human

component that composes the generative and universal capacity for language. This capacity for

recursion is called the Faculty of language for narrow sense (FLN). (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002 )

An FLN goes beyond the usage of language for general purposes. It is an intelligence that is

entirely decided by the individual and, since it is inherited, can be put to work at any time (p. 1571).

Yet, Chomsky et al insist that an ability of this nature must have surged in an ecological level for

reasons “other than language”. For instance, the studies that compare the language of humans to

the communication means developed by animals show that navigational skills, social relations,

general communicative language, affect, and even the use of computation and linguistics at the

same time are skills used as if for survival at some point in time

Conclusively, FLB and FLN are both natural intelligences possessed by humans. Its empirical value

within the process of quantifiable data might allow theory to turn into law, as Chomsky

taxonomized the findings on how the acquired body of communicative knowledge that is inherent

to all living things transforms into an intelligent entity of its own nature within humans. This

research conducted by Chomsky et al, as previously stated, will be a part of the depth component

of the KAM, yet, it also serves as an anchor that shows how strongly bound to current research

Chomsky’s theory really is.

Conclusion on chomsky and his interrelation to other theorists.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

22

This study on Chomsky reveals his theories of learning and intelligence under a linguistic

perspective. His metatheory of linguistics contains his theories on human intelligence. According

to his linguistic theory of learning and intelligence, all humans possess and inborn body of

knowledge, or a linguistic intelligence, in the form of human capacities and competence. This

natural body of knowledge, according to Chomsky, is triggered for usage in a cognitive way by

environmental inputs, but is only achieved through the usage of an inherent apparatus which he

deems the “Language Acquisition Device” or LAD. Within the LAD, the acquired knowledge will be

prepositioned into a pattern that is natural to the individual’s system of code and communication,

which he calls the “Universal Language” (UG). Not only will the LAD allow for the pattern of words

to take place, but will go from broad-purposed language usage (FLB) to specific, or narrow,

language usage (FLN) as a unique ability possessed by humans to use language in a more

discriminate way, so that affect, purpose, specificity, and proper usage is correctly applied.

Perhaps the most important things about Chomsky’s theory of intelligence is its granting nature:

The fact that, from the beginning, it granted that the ability to acquire intelligence is already

possessed, and that nature has granted us an apparatus ready to be put to use under our

command. Recent research by Chomsky himself shows that his views are not merely pragmatic, but

that they can be dully deemed as quantifiable, and invite further research in linguistics combining

the fields of biology, neuroscience, linguistics, anatomy, cognitive science, education, and

psychology.

Chomsky’s theory is reflected in the works of Bandura, Vygostky, Krashen, and Gardner, as it will be

demonstrated in the upcoming analysis of the Breadth component. The fact that Chomsky

identified the environment as a social trigger for the further involvement of the Language

Acquisition Device has a behavioral undertone that will be seen in Bandura’s Social learning theory.

In that theory, Bandura cites in a subtle way that inherent psychologies help activate the social

triggers that enable learning. This concretely demonstrates a Chomskyan view on the combination

of nature and nurture in the development of language as a system. Similarly, Vygostky’s theory of

Constructivism and Krashen’s Natural Order hypothesis will denote a combination of

environmental and cognitive foundations for the acquisition of new information in the form of

language, built on the foundations of prior knowledge.

Furtherly, it will be shown how Krashen would also agree with Chomsky in the rejection of context-

free language, and context-free grammar, that is, if any new language (or information) is to be

taught, it has to be relevant, natural to the learner, and boundary-free. Chomsky’s influence is even

more evident in Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory which will also be part of the Breadth

discussion: Chomsky’s undying efforts to categorize linguistics as a cognitive science and not just

as a language art have apparently reached a new peak, as Gardner includes linguistics as an

“intelligence” the way Chomsky would deem it, and not just as a discipline to be learned in school.

It is a fact that Chomskyan theory has been influential and innovative. The study of Albert Bandura,

Vygotsky, Krashen, and Gardner will also be as influential and important to the theories of learning,

intelligence, and motivation. Albert Bandura, seemingly following a Chomskyan perspective on the

combination of behavioral and cognitive science, will help us explore under a different perspective

a possible approach to the study of linguistic learning.



23

www.viu.es

2.5. The process of learning, according to bandura

Albert Bandura

Nearly twenty years after Chomsky’s metatheory of linguistics, Albert Bandura

developed a learning theory that follows the paradigms established by

behaviorists and cognitive researchers. Bandura is a social psychologist, and his

social learning theory was officially established in his 1977 book SOCIAL

LEARNING. Similarly to Chomsky, Bandura proposes that a diversity of factors act

together as agents of learning. These factors can be behavioral, social, personal, and/or

environmental (Bandura, 1977). He bases the process of learning on observation and modeling.

The notion of reinforcement, stimulus and conditioning offered by Skinner is not entirely rejected

but is seen more of a tool that facilitates the acquisition of behaviors, rather than the only agents of

change in a person . Lastly, Bandura will demonstrate how his theory is applicable to language

acquisition and learning, as it shows that language is a behavior of its own.

Bandura on learning

Bandura (1977) explains the manner in which individuals learn new behaviors through a process

that involves observation, interaction, and modeling (Bandura 1977,). Similarly to Chomsky, his

theory reflects language as a very important element of development that requires both cognitive

and social input. Throughout one’s lifetime, the consistent interaction to other people’s behavior

lead to our own adoption, or imitation of the behaviors of others depending on whether we

choose to do it (Bandura, 1977,). This change in behavior is what Bandura defines as “learning”. The

fact that such learning occurs in a social and interactive context is what renders the theory the

name of “Social Learning” (Bandura, 1977). The process through which Social Learning occurs is

comprehensive, dynamic and interactive.

The process of learning, according to bandura

As it was previously stated, Bandura defines learning as a change in behaviors that results from

social exposure. The definition of behavior under Bandura’s theory is the combination of all

idiosyncratic activities performed by individuals ranging from the way they talk, to the way eat, and

walk. This is not a passive process that happens without the individual’s consent, or by instinct.

Bandura explains that learning is in fact a very active process that requires involvement from all of

whom are participating from it (Bandura, 1977).

The manner in which this involvement takes place is taxonomized into five methodologies which,

in Bandura’s theory, are part of everyday people’s life:

a) Dynamic methods: People go from one source to another to get different kinds of input,

and in the process of receiving this input new behaviors continue to be learned, accepted,

or rejected and then modeled and adopted.

b) Interactive methods: People learn from others through conversation, discourse and

open communication. The exchange of new information and feedback mediates

learning.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

24

c) Consistent methods: People are constantly exposed to other people’s behaviors either in a

communal context at work, school, church, and the neighborhood, to an independent

context through the media, and the internet.

d) Intrapersonal methods: People exchange of traits and characteristics that are inherent to

each person involved in the process of communication. Engaging in conversation, sharing

information, creating bonds, establishing rules, becoming part of a social system and a

group allows for this method of communication to set the conditions for learning.

(Bandura, 1997)

Bandura’s theory points to nearly every environmental input available to individuals throughout

their lives from peers, to media, technology, superiors, and family. In contrast, Chomsky would

place the environmental input as the element which will only be enhanced and increased though

cognitive activity. Bandura in some way declares the opposite: The consistent exposure to

environmental triggers will create a habit in the individual, the individual will undergo a process of

adaptation or adoption of the new behavior and, eventually, he or she will integrate (or completely

reject) the ideas, mannerisms, idiosyncrasies and natural features of those to whom they became

exposed in a lesser cognitive and higher social aspect It is through the adaption or the adoption of

the behaviors of others into our own what completes the full circle of “social learning”, the gist of

Bandura’s theory. Comparatively to Skinner, Bandura’s theory might at first seem to follow its

behavioral perspective. Yet, Bandura intermingles the social imputs which trigger behavior under

the premise that they do follow a natural process that is inherent to all individuals. Contrastingly to

Chomsky, Bandura does not officially defines or analyzes the internal processes that lead to

learning. Yet, he is clear in that the process of learning is worth researching under a cognitive and

psychological umbrella as it will be demonstrated in the analysis of Bandura’s definition of

intelligence.

Bandura on intelligence: social learning and brain activity

Bandura cites four major activities through which a person goes in order to a) obtain information

or new behaviors: Attention, b) keep that new information inside their brains: Retention, c) repeat

the information or behavior in a near future: Reproduction, d) become motivated to maintain it or

expand it: Motivation (Bandura, 1977)

These activities define how and why Bandura visualized them as part of a social context and a

cognitive context. Additional information will be provided showing briefly how research in

neurocognitive linguistics proves Bandura’s cognitive view of learning correctly. More detail on the

recent research in brain activity will be expanded during the Depth component of the KAM. In

summary, here are the learning processes postulated by Bandura, and the scientific support that

warrants its accuracy.

a) Attention

The process of attention consists on focused observation that searches for the functional, affective,

and unique value of the behavior (Bandura, 1997). This function, however, is done cognitively. The

Depth component of this KAM will show that research as recent as 2006, shows that the prefrontal



25

www.viu.es

and the parietal cortex in the brain attend to different attention modes (Miller, 2007). This fact

makes Bandura’s theory both behavioral and cognitive.

b) Retention

In Bandura’s behavioral perspective, retention is the process of cognitively attaining the

characteristics of the behavior and bringing them to the core of the individual’s self (Bandura, 1977

p. 40).

c) Reproduction

In Bandura’s theory, reproduction is putting the acquired behavior into action. It is also repeating

and adopting the learned behavior to apply further in a social context (Bandura, 1977 ). In the

same way, reproduction is also a cognitive and neurological process. Inoue and Mikami (2005)

demonstrate that encoding information and the reproduction of it at a later time are two functions

that occur in the neuronal activity from the lateral prefrontal cortex during serial probe

reproduction tasks. Understanding reproduction as a cognitive and neurological action allows us

to understand with more clarity why Bandura is specific about giving it a role within the process of

learning.

d) Motivation

The last method by which humans acquire information and learn is intertwined with motivation.

Bandura defines motivation as an inner stimulus that leads to mimic the learned behavior.

(Bandura, 1977 ). This inner stimulus occurs in an area of the brain that, according to research by

Kuntson, Westdorp and Sumner, (2000) is even more activated when the stimulus for motivation

comes in the shape of rewards. Concisely, the area of the brain that is active during motivational

tasks is called the striatal and mesial forebrain. This finding makes again Bandura’s theory look into

the biological nature of learning as a process that is both social and neurocognitive.

Bandura on motivation: Self-efficacy

In addition to his outlook on motivation as a process that enables learning, Bandura is specific

about the unique and particular attributes of motivation as an independent process on its own.

This is evident in the coined term “self efficacy” (Bandura, 1994).


6ETCS 26

Bandura (1994) introduced the term “self

Self efficacy entails the individual’s own perception about their performance on certain tasks

throughout their lives . Explained further, self

because the way people feel about themselves ultimately decides how much of their abilities they will

use (or believe they can use) to succeed at something.

that they can learn. This motivation comes from a diverse round of sources. Bandura attributes them

not only to the society of others, but also processes that include internal motivation, affection, and

selection. These processes come together internally, with external inpu

support, developmentally appropriate tasks, and motivation from others. It is important to point out the

implications of these events within a classroom. A student who is motivated, feels accomplished

through appropriately designed tasks, and receives positive feedback from peers and teachers develops

Bandura’s theory is then a foundation that bases further theory on how learning is a product of

environmental motivation and cognitive processes.

cognitively motivated; forethought and expectations act in an anticipatorily manner forming ideals

Conclusion on Bandura

In Bandura’s own words:“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: From

observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions

this coded information serves as a guide for action”

The above quote summarizes

adaption of new behaviors that are found in daily and everyday contact. It is an active process

where behaviors are observed and modeled in every context that rule the everyday lives of

individuals. As people observe the traits of others they accept them, reject them, embrace them,

imitate them, or adopt them. This process occurs under a methodology that is either:

or through the connection and discourse with others,

information that one person transfers to another,

others’ behaviors, and d) intrapersonal, or through the bonds established through the

communication with others.

Bandura avows that the consistent and reciprocal exchange of verbal and non

communication in everyday human interactions stimulates a change, an adoption, or an

adaptation of the behaviors of others to our own. The choice to repeat or adopt the new behavior

is entirely dependent upon the individual. Although this might seem entirely behavioral and

external, the consequences of learning preclude a theoretical perspective on the acquisition of

intelligence

It is clear that Bandura had a solidified concept of l

included the concept of intelligence as a series of events that would eventually end up stored in


www.viu.es

Bandura (1994) introduced the term “self-efficacy” as a component in human behavior.


Explained further, self-efficacy would determine performance and behavior,


use (or believe they can use) to succeed at something. A person will be able to learn as much as they feel

This motivation comes from a diverse round of sources. Bandura attributes them


. These processes come together internally, with external input. Such input comes as feedback,



designed tasks, and receives positive feedback from peers and teachers develops

that self-efficacy feeling that will encourage better performance.


l motivation and cognitive processes. Accoding to Bandura’s “most human behavior is


that delineate their capabilitie

wn words:“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: From


this coded information serves as a guide for action”

The above quote summarizes Bandura’s theory. “Social Learning” refers to the adoption and



uals. As people observe the traits of others they accept them, reject them, embrace them,

imitate them, or adopt them. This process occurs under a methodology that is either:

through the connection and discourse with others, b) dynamic, or through the active seeking of

information that one person transfers to another, c) consistent, or continuously at exposure with


avows that the consistent and reciprocal exchange of verbal and non





It is clear that Bandura had a solidified concept of learning, motivation, and intelligence. His views


www.viu.es

efficacy” as a component in human behavior.


performance and behavior,


A person will be able to learn as much as they feel

This motivation comes from a diverse round of sources. Bandura attributes them


t. Such input comes as feedback,



designed tasks, and receives positive feedback from peers and teachers develops

efficacy feeling that will encourage better performance.


Accoding to Bandura’s “most human behavior is


t delineate their capabilitie.

wn words:“Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: From


Bandura’s theory. “Social Learning” refers to the adoption and



uals. As people observe the traits of others they accept them, reject them, embrace them,

imitate them, or adopt them. This process occurs under a methodology that is either: a) interactive,

c, or through the active seeking of

c) consistent, or continuously at exposure with


avows that the consistent and reciprocal exchange of verbal and non-verbal





earning, motivation, and intelligence. His views




27

www.viu.es

the individual’s cognitive capacity. He viewed learning as the process by which individuals observe,

absorb, adapt to, or adopt someone else’s behavior patterns. The option of repeating the

behaviors is entirely left to the individual, yet, external motivators might be the key as to whether

they will preserve the newly learned behaviors or exterminate them all at once.

Finally, Bandura explains how motivation is not a simple trigger or boost of energy to accomplish a

goal. Individuals view motivation in three different ways according to his theory: They can perceive

that their role in meeting goals is imperative, through self-efficacy motivators, or they would blame

the failure of goals on external inputs.

Further theoretical analysis will show that Vygotsky also speaks of the process of learning under a

zone of proximal development (ZPD). This zone entails the need for appropriate tasks that are

developmentally agreeable to the student’s level and supported by peers and teachers for

purposes of motivation to perform at, and above, such level (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly, Krashen

advocates that an “affective filter” will pronounce the ability of a student and will promote changes

in behavior conducive to learning. Yet, it is Vygotsky’s theory that stems directly from Bandura,

adding a cognitive edge to language as a tool for development.

2.6. Vygotsky on learning and intelligence: constructivism

Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky, like Bandura and Chomsky, views learning as a process that

requires environmental input and social interaction. His theory will show how,

within a set environment, individuals serve as each other’s monitors, supporters,

and guides. His take on language as an actively-learned behavior will similarly

agree with the views of the previous philosophers. Yet, what sets Vygotsky’s

theory apart is the notion of scaffolding, or building upon a foundation, through a process of

constructivism which takes place at a developmentally appropriate and prime learning zone, and

where peers act as motivators to reach the next higher level of capacity and potential.

While Albert Bandura’s theory philosophizes on observation and modeling as the cognitive

conduits of social learning (Bandura, 1977), Vygotsky (1978) presents a different perspective where

new behaviors and learning processes are built upon current behaviors and prior knowledge. This

view of new behavior built on the foundations of current behaviors gives light to the term that

defines Vygotsky’s overall theory of “constructivism” (Vygotsky, 1978).

Constructivism places importance on discourse and interaction as the channels for learning (Feden

& Voguel, 2003) Vygotsky, however, shifts slightly from the social perspective of the theory and

focuses on language as the key to the cognitive aspect of learning (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly to

Bandura’s social learning theory, the use of language is an important element of development. In

Vygotsky’s theory, language is described as a “powerful psychological tool” that underpins the

thinking processes and helps individuals develop both cognitively and socially. Feden & Vogel

(2003) discuss that the rationale behind this philosophy is that spoken language is the first channel

used to become a part of the environment even from infancy. We continue to use language as we

progress through life, and it allows us to obtain, retain, and produce information. Concisely, brain


6ETCS 28

and cognitive activity is pushed forward by the

discourse, guided collaboration, and cooperative learning.

helps us “learn”.

Vygotsky’s theory can be summarized in his own words as he states:

Every function in the

and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside

the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical

memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual

relationships between individuals

The higher functions to which Vygotsky refers occur in a particular time and place that is inherent

to each individual as part of thei

defined by Vygotsky as the Zone of Proximal Development, or the ZPD. It is there where the

interpsychological and intrapsychological development occurs with the aid of the immediate

support systems. Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this

happen.

Vygotsky on learning: zone of proximal development and scaffolding

Vygotsky theorized that all human beings possess a “zone of proximal development, or ZPD”. Thi

concept can be paraphrased as a measure of the potential of an individual at a certain human

developmental stage versus the potential the individual could develop with added input and

guidance from a mentoring environment. The notion of a ZPD presupposes

potential is unlimited and the capacity is expandable depending on the quality of input received

from the immediate support systems, for instance, peers (Vygotsky, 1978 ). Concisely, Vygotsky’s

theory directly implicates sociology as an

connects the individual with its environment is language (Vygotsky, 1978, )

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) entails that cognitive development is interdependent on

environmental input, mostly in the form of peer influences that are created, strengthened and,

eventually, solidified through language.

process of interaction, input, and development, occurs within an organized system. Th

based on six steps through which individuals are guided towards the actual learning with the

assistance of peers. This systematic approach to learning is called “scaffolding” (Vygotsky, 1962).

The process of scaffolding can be paraphrased as a

where the individual’s prior and current knowledge comes together with that of other people. The

discourse that comes from sharing, particularly when tasks need to be accomplished with the aid

of others who can help accomplish them, are conducive to learning. To this day, scaffolding is one

of the methodologies that persist in most classrooms.

ideas and information that occurs among students. Theoretically, the o

environment is one in which students who know more than others will help their peers to attain

the higher classroom goals by sharing their knowledge with the others, thus benefitting everyone


www.viu.es

and cognitive activity is pushed forward by the social contributions that come as a result of

discourse, guided collaboration, and cooperative learning. In other words, it is language what

Vygotsky’s theory can be summarized in his own words as he states:

Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,



emory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual

lationships between individuals.


to each individual as part of their biological and psychological make-up. This time and place is



Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this

Vygotsky on learning: zone of proximal development and scaffolding

Vygotsky theorized that all human beings possess a “zone of proximal development, or ZPD”. Thi



guidance from a mentoring environment. The notion of a ZPD presupposes



theory directly implicates sociology as an essential part of cognitive development. The conduit that

connects the individual with its environment is language (Vygotsky, 1978, )


in the form of peer influences that are created, strengthened and,

eventually, solidified through language. An additional dimension to this theory also states that this

process of interaction, input, and development, occurs within an organized system. Th



The process of scaffolding can be paraphrased as a period of constructive dialogue and interaction



can help accomplish them, are conducive to learning. To this day, scaffolding is one

of the methodologies that persist in most classrooms. It is exemplified in the constant exchange of

ideas and information that occurs among students. Theoretically, the o



www.viu.es

social contributions that come as a result of

In other words, it is language what

child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,



emory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual


up. This time and place is



Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this

Vygotsky theorized that all human beings possess a “zone of proximal development, or ZPD”. This



guidance from a mentoring environment. The notion of a ZPD presupposes that such human



essential part of cognitive development. The conduit that


in the form of peer influences that are created, strengthened and,

An additional dimension to this theory also states that this

process of interaction, input, and development, occurs within an organized system. This system is



period of constructive dialogue and interaction



can help accomplish them, are conducive to learning. To this day, scaffolding is one

It is exemplified in the constant exchange of

ideas and information that occurs among students. Theoretically, the optimal learning



University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational Training

www.viu.es

in the classroom as a learning community. These

sociology, and Vygotsky identifies them as the MKO’s or “More Knowledgeable Others” (Vygotsky,

1964).

Vygotsky on motivation: mko and zpds

In Vygotsky’s theory knowledge, or intelligence, is developed further

social systems and within the interactions with peers particularly those who are more

knowledgeable, or MKOs. A MKO is not a set individual. It is whoever possesses the skills or

knowledge about a specific subject or task at hand w

towards more learning on that subject or task. A MKO can be a peer, a family member, a role

model, or the teacher. The MKOs directly affects the ZPD by helping individuals teach their higher

potentials by raising their levels of competence. The ways in which they do this include, but are not

limited to motivating and engaging the learners, breaking the tasks into subtasks that can be easily

accomplished, and maintaining focus (Vygotsky, 1978). The specific rol

the students the opportunity to engage in this type of collaboration and being the guide who will

direct this process not as an authoritarian, but in a way in which the kids feel compelled to become

like the teacher (Vygotsky, 1978).

Conclusion on Vygostky

Vygotsky writes:

In this sense, education in every country and in every epoch has always been social in nature.

by its very essence it could hardly exist as anti

high school, in the military schools and in the schools for the daughters of the nobility … it was never

the teacher or the tutor who did the teaching, but the particular social environment in the school

The above quote basically reaffirms Vygotsky as a behaviorist and social theorist whose main

theoretical framework consists on mutual interaction, consistent input, and collaborative learning.

These basic elements coexist within

social development. Building upon a foundation of knowledge is what makes his theory a

“constructivist” philosophy. The main idea is that learning is a process of input and output

between those who know more and people who need to learn from them.

The discourse that occurs from the exchange of ideas and knowledge from those who are most

knowledgeable to others, help people build upon their current body of knowledge, and learn new

information. The strategy to do this is called scaffolding, and the aim of it is to create and build

confidence and skill among the learners in their zones of proximal development. These zones of

development are the target that aims to be reached and elevated through the s

place in the classroom. In basic terminology, Vygotsky advocates for a learning environment in

which students help each other learn more things, and where the teacher serves as a coach that



in the classroom as a learning community. These students serve as pillars within the classroom


Vygotsky on motivation: mko and zpds

In Vygotsky’s theory knowledge, or intelligence, is developed further through the exposure to



knowledge about a specific subject or task at hand which will eventually lead the rest of the group



sing their levels of competence. The ways in which they do this include, but are not


accomplished, and maintaining focus (Vygotsky, 1978). The specific role of the teacher is to give



978).

In this sense, education in every country and in every epoch has always been social in nature.

by its very essence it could hardly exist as anti-social in anyway. Both in the seminary and in the old



which was created for each individual instance”

(Vygotsky, 1997 p. 47)



These basic elements coexist within regular human development, and are the basic foundations of


The main idea is that learning is a process of input and output

ho know more and people who need to learn from them.



strategy to do this is called scaffolding, and the aim of it is to create and build


development are the target that aims to be reached and elevated through the s



and Language Teaching


29

students serve as pillars within the classroom


through the exposure to



hich will eventually lead the rest of the group



sing their levels of competence. The ways in which they do this include, but are not


e of the teacher is to give



In this sense, education in every country and in every epoch has always been social in nature. Indeed,

Both in the seminary and in the old



which was created for each individual instance”

(Vygotsky, 1997 p. 47)



regular human development, and are the basic foundations of


The main idea is that learning is a process of input and output



strategy to do this is called scaffolding, and the aim of it is to create and build


development are the target that aims to be reached and elevated through the sociology that takes




6ETCS

www.viu.es

30

guides the cooperative learning among peers. This community of learners will develop sociology of

mutual support; engaging learning experiences, and focuses so that new experiences and learning

can occur. Through this social component, Vygostky proposes that development is enhanced, for it

is through the experiential processes that the internal development of individuals as healthy

members of the community will take place.

The theory of constructivism as a whole conveys the extrinsic and intrinsic need for environmental

input that will allow the individual to bring out their prior knowledge, connect it to current and

new information, and then produce new behaviors. This process occurs within the person’s

appropriate zone of development (ZPD) with the aim of extending the capacity and potential of

the individual towards a higher goal. Concisely, constructivism is a very similar take on learning as

in Bandura’s social learning, with the exception that Vygotsky emphasizes in the cognitive aspect

of language as an acquisition process that will require scaffolding to easily enter the realms of the

mind.

2.7. Constructivism. Learning theory. Jean piaget

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and

meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas (During infancy, it is an

interaction between their experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns (Piaget called these

schemas) Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy; Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has

had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an

underlying theme of many education reform movements. Research support for constructivist

teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other

research contradicting those results.

Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated

mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes

of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.

When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing

framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are

aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a

faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from

others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about

the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they

may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to

the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external

world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which

failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it

violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing

our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.

It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy, In fact, constructivism is a

theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their

experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In



31

www.viu.es

both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their

experiences. However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote

active learning or learning by doing

The learner as a unique individual

Social constructivism views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and

backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism not

only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes

and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997).

The importance of the background and culture of the learner

Social constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her version of the truth, influenced

by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol

systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a

member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses

the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of

the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible

to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young

children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical

world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the

background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also

helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the

learning process (Wertsch 1997).

The responsibility for learning

Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the

learner (Glasersfeld, 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner

being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the

responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive

role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasizes that learners construct their own understanding and that

they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find

regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

The motivation for learning

Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source of

motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is

strongly dependent on the learner’s confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings

of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand

experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external

acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). This links up with Vygotsky’s "zone of

proximal development” (Vygotsky 1978) where learners are challenged within close proximity to,

yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of

challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex

challenges.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

32

Instructors as facilitators

According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators

and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives a didactic lecture that covers the subject

matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the

former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active

role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and

towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This dramatic change of role implies that a

facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A

teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back;

a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates

the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a

monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A

facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience ‘in mid-air’ by taking the initiative to

steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.

The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking

(Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution

process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support

the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such

as consultant and coach.

A few strategies for cooperative learning include

� Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions

� Jigsaw Classroom: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and

teach it to the others in their group

� Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular

controversy (Woolfolk 2010)

The nature of the learning process, Learning is an active, social process

Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge is

first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals (Bruning et al., 1999; M.

Cole, 1991; Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social constructivists, the process of sharing

individual perspectives-called collaborative elaboration (Meter & Stevens, 2000)-results in learners

constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone (Greeno et al., 1996)

Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learn to

discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging

guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman 1996). In fact, for the

social constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist

prior to our social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our own

activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world.

Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings

through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is thus



33

www.viu.es

a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat and Floden

1994). McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states that learning is not

a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviours

that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are

engaged in social activities.

Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning

by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when

speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development,

converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intrapersonal level, while

speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture.

Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner

A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the

instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt and

Willard-Holt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and

requires that the instructor’s culture, values and background become an essential part of the

interplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their version of

the truth with that of the instructor and fellow learners to get to a new, socially tested version of

truth (Kukla 2000). The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the learner

(McMahon 1997). This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner. This

entails that learners and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and

then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at

the same time (Savery 1994).

Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning (Archee and Duin

1995; Brown et al. 1989). The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the

relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.

Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal teaching,

peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, anchored

instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.

Collaboration among learners

Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive

at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field (Duffy and Jonassen 1992).

Most social constructivist models, such as that proposed by Duffy and Jonassen (1992), also stress

the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive

approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that

of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental

level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as

determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable

peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of development. Through a


6ETCS

www.viu.es

34

process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to

the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process (Vygotsky 1978).

2.8. Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method

The importance of context

The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the

learning itself (McMahon 1997). Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the

assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all

domains" (Di Vesta 1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our

understandings to authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not

working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex

interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One

social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in

activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar

to the applied setting (Brown et al. 1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an

effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic

practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently

successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman 1996:25).

Assessment

Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of

assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the

essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than

viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a

two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the

assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their

current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that

performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are

seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000).

According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive

process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and

courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for

further development.

Engaging and challenging the learner

Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond

their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to

enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotsky’s zone of proximal

development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as

determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as

determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable

peers) (Vygotsky 1978).



35

www.viu.es

Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of

development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing,

which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely

important role in development.

To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the

complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning.

Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the

problem itself (Derry 1999).

Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the

foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and

Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and

form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has

been extensively used in curricula.

It is also important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them,

it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief

systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners

(Rhodes and Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The

emotions and life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered

as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned

(Brown et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996).

The structuredness of the learning process

It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is

built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning

environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual

understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure

that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning

objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to

discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.

Final remarks

A constructivist learning intervention is thus an intervention where contextualized activities (tasks)

are used to provide learners with an opportunity to discover and collaboratively construct meaning

as the intervention unfolds. Learners are respected as unique individuals, and instructors act as

facilitators rather than as teachers.

2.9. Pedagogies based on constructivism

In fact, there are many pedagogies that leverage constructivist theory. Most approaches that have

grown from constructivism suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach.

Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen. They are left to make

their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions. It also emphasizes that learning is not an "all or


6ETCS

www.viu.es

36

nothing" process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by

building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore important that teachers

constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that the students'

perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended. Teachers will find that since

the students build upon already existing knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the

new information, they may make errors. It is known as reconstruction error when we fill in the gaps

of our understanding with logical, though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers need to catch and try to

correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to occur

because of our innate retrieval limitations.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess

but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and

posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning (DeVries et al., 2002). (ex: I wonder

why the water does not spill over the edge of the full cup?) Teachers also intervene when there are

conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students' resolutions and self-regulation,

with an emphasis on the conflict being the students' and that they must figure things out for

themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is accomplished by integrating the need to read

and write throughout individual activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a

story, encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having the students

reenact a story that they may know well, both activities encourage the students to conceive

themselves as reader and writers.



37

www.viu.es

Unit 3

Factors afecting second language acquisition.

Social and cognitive approaches. Constrastive

analysis

This analysis aims to compare the different theoretical studies which have focused on studying

factors affecting second language acquisition. It departs from the idea that bilingualism raises

metalinguistic awareness; the different factors are studied under the umbrella of Contrastive

Analysis.

3.1. The role of transfer in interlanguage

To what extent is transfer responsible for the form and function of a person’s interlanguage? In

order to answer this question, it will be necessary to examine what is meant by a number of

commonly used terms such as transfer, interlanguage and interference. It will also be of use to

review the history of interlanguage as a concept in order to understand where it came from and


6ETCS 38

where it may be going. There has been debate as to whether ‘transfer’ is a valid concept for use in

discussing language acquisition at all. Extremes range from Lado (1957) who proposed that second

language learners rely almost entirely on their native language in the process of learning the target

language, to Dulay and Burt (1974) who suggested that transfer wa

creation of interlanguage. It may be useful to briefly consider the historical context of the

development of interlanguage.

3.2. Contrastive analysis

Lado (1957) and Fries (1945) are the names most closely associated with the CA h

specific attempt to rationalise and order language teaching materials, Fries wrote:

“The most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to

be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner”.

The basic concept behind CA was that a s

constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural ‘picture’ of another

language. Through a process of ‘mapping’ one system onto another, similarities and differences

could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the

potential problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. Structurally different areas of the

two languages involved would result in interference. This term was used t

from the L1 which would have an effect on the acquisition of the L2. This was the origin of the term

transfer, and a distinction was made between positive and negative transfer. Positive transfer

occurred where there was concordanc

would take place with little or no difficulty. Negative transfer, on the other hand, occurred where

there was some sort of dissonance between the L1 and L2. In this case, acquisition of the L2 would

be more difficult and take longer because of the ‘newness’ (hence, difficulty) of the L2 structure.

These two concepts of transfer were central to CA and reflected an essentially behaviourist model

of language learning, which described the acquisition of

Reflecting Skinner’s interpretation of laboratory experiments on rats (1957), where positive and

negative stimuli induced certain ‘learned’ behaviours, language acquisition (certainly FLA) was

described in the same way. The broad acceptance that these views had in the 50s and 60s

encouraged the Audiolingual Method of teaching which focused on extensive drilling in order to

form the required ‘habits’. Error was seen as an unwanted deviation from the norm and an

imperfect product of perfect input.

Challenging Skinner’s model of behaviourist learning, Chomsky (1959) proposed a more cognitive

approach to language learning which involved the use of a LAD. This device, he argued, was

reserved exclusively for processing and p

cognitive processes. Moreover, Chomsky posited that there are ‘language universals’ which all


www.viu.es


ng language acquisition at all. Extremes range from Lado (1957) who proposed that second


language, to Dulay and Burt (1974) who suggested that transfer was largely unimportant in the


development of interlanguage.

analysis

Lado (1957) and Fries (1945) are the names most closely associated with the CA h




The basic concept behind CA was that a structural ‘picture’ of any one language could be



tified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the


two languages involved would result in interference. This term was used to describe any influence



occurred where there was concordance between the L1 and L2. In such a situation, acquisition





of language learning, which described the acquisition of language in terms of habit formation.



y. The broad acceptance that these views had in the 50s and 60s



t product of perfect input.



reserved exclusively for processing and producing language, and was separate from other


www.viu.es


ng language acquisition at all. Extremes range from Lado (1957) who proposed that second


s largely unimportant in the


Lado (1957) and Fries (1945) are the names most closely associated with the CA hypothesis. In a




(1945: 9)

tructural ‘picture’ of any one language could be



tified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the


o describe any influence



e between the L1 and L2. In such a situation, acquisition





language in terms of habit formation.



y. The broad acceptance that these views had in the 50s and 60s





roducing language, and was separate from other




39

www.viu.es

babies have access to and which are essentially innate in humans. This idea of ‘innateness’ was

particularly interesting and brought into question the practices of Audiolingualism. Language, it

was argued, was not simply a matter of habit formation, but rather had its own natural agenda and

its own developmental course. Certain aspects of vocabulary learning may follow behaviourist

principles, but an important piece of counter-behaviourist evidence is that children say things they

could not possibly have heard from those around them such as “runned” and “falled”. Chomsky

argued that children were perceiving regularities and forming rules for how the language works

rather than simply imitating other people. Importantly, language was said to be rule-governed,

structure-dependent and fundamentally generative.

The Birth of Interlanguage. Error analysis

Although Selinker (1972) coined the term “interlanguage”, it was Corder (1967) who is considered

responsible for raising issues which became central to studies of IL. Building on ideas already

explored by scholars such as Nemser (ibid.) above, Corder suggested that there was a structure in

learner language, and that certain inferences could be made about the learning process by

describing successive states of the learner language, noting the changes and correlating this with

the input. Moreover, Corder argued that the appearance of error in a learner’s production was

evidence that the learner was organising the knowledge available to them at a particular point in

time. Errors, he stated, were the most important source of information, accounting for the fact that

learners have a ‘built in syllabus’ and that a process of hypothesis formulation and reformulation

was continuously occurring. The value of error-making in language learning was consequently

reassessed, with a move away from seeing error as a purely negative phenomenon. Error analysis

became a valuable tool in the classroom for teachers and researchers. Various taxonomies were

devised to account for certain types of error (e.g. Dulay and Burt 1974). It was suggested that

spoken and written texts produced different kinds of errors, that there were differences between

grammatical and lexical errors, that it was possible to construct a gradation of serious and less

serious errors.

In short, language learning began to be seen as a process which involved the construction of an IL,

a ‘transitional competence’ reflecting the dynamic nature of the learner’s developing system. As a

result of the variety of errors and the difficulty associated with interpreting them, Corder proposed

a ‘general law’ for EA and IL. He suggested that every learner sentence should be regarded as

idiosyncratic until shown to be otherwise (Corder, 1981). This is an important concept to bear in

mind since it emphasises the fact that IL is a personal construct and process, and that while it may

be true to say that certain tendencies are typical of certain learners from the same linguistic

background, it cannot be true to say that all learners from that background will have such

tendencies. As Kohn (1986) notes: for the analysis of (inter)language processes, group knowledge is

of absolutely no importance. It is the learner’s own autonomous and functional knowledge and his

own certainty or uncertainty which determines his interlanguage behaviour. (1986)

Evaluating Acquisition

It is perhaps useful at this point to briefly focus on language learning and consider the difficulties

of defining terms such as ‘acquisition’. Sharwood Smith (1986) claims that if a language item is

used spontaneously by the learner in ‘90% of obligatory contexts’, then it can be said to be


6ETCS

www.viu.es

40

acquired. But what does this mean? If a learner’s production closely reflects L2 norms of speaking,

can it be assumed that the learner’s competence is also at a similar level? Clark (1974) warns about

the dangers of ‘performing without competence’ where a student uses correct chunks of the

language without analysis, giving the impression that the norm has been attained. Conversely,

Sharwood Smith points out that it is equally possible that a learner may have 100% competence

but 90% performance -‘competence without performance’. For example, a rule may be ‘acquired’

(competence) without showing itself due to semantic redundancy or as a result of processing

problems. A learner may be able to hear the sound /Ø/ very clearly and know that it is the correct

phonological representation of “th” in the word “think”, but nevertheless produces the sound /z/

instead. This clearly rejects the simplistic notion that performance reflects competence and that

the relationship between performance and competence is a complex one.

3.3. Transfer. Positive and negative

Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) suggest that there are two possible ways of describing the term

‘interference’. One is from a psychological perspective, which suggests that there is influence from

old habits when new ones are being learned. The second is from a sociolinguistic perspective

which describes the language interactions which occur when two language communities are in

contact. Three such examples are borrowing, codeswitching and fossilisation. Borrowing essentially

means the incorporation of linguistic material from one language into another, for example, the

borrowing of thousands of words from old French into Anglo-Saxon after the Norman conquest of

1066. Such words maintain their general sound pattern but alter the phonetic and phonological

system of the new language. ‘Integrated borrowing’, according to Dulay and Burt (1974b), occurs

when the new word in question is fully incorporated into the learners IL. Selinker (1992) argues that

this is in fact transfer. ‘Communicative borrowing’ on the other hand, reflects a communicative

strategy which helps to get over the deficiencies of the L2. The learner falls back on structures or

patterns from the L1 in order to get a message across. Selinker (1992) notes that if communication

is successful, then transfer will (or may) happen. The danger is that successful communication does

not depend entirely on formal correction. Persistent errors (e.g. wrongly incorporated errors, covert

errors) could lead to fossilisation where a learner, uncorrected for the reasons mentioned above,

but still able to successfully get their message understood, has no sociofunctional need to alter

their IL and so it fossilises in that state. Code switching describes the use of two language systems

for communication, usually evidenced by a sudden, brief shift from one to another. This

phenomenon is not an indication of a lack of competence, but rather tends to obey strict structural

rules. Certain structural combinations, for example, are not possible, e.g. switching before relative

clause boundaries or before adverbial clauses is ‘illegal’.

A more behaviourist interpretation of interference was mentioned earlier; two types were

suggested:

1. Positive transfer

2. Negative transfer



41

www.viu.es

Both of these types refer to the automatic and subconscious use of old behaviour in new learning

situations. Specifically, semantic and syntactic transfer of this nature reflects the most commonly

understood uses of the term. Corder (1983) suggested the need for a word other than ‘transfer’

which he claimed belonged to the school of behaviourist learning theory. He suggested the term

‘Mother Tongue Influence’. Sharwood Smith (1986) refined the idea still further by suggesting

‘Cross Linguistic Influence’, which would take into account the potential influence of L3 on L2

where another learned language,

but not the L1 might have an effect on the learning of the L2. Also encompassed within the

meaning of CLI is the notion of possible L2 influence on L1. ‘Transfer’ is also used by educational

psychologists to refer to the use of past knowledge and experience in a new situation, e.g. a literate

SLL does not have to learn that written symbols represent the spoken form of the new language.

Similarly, concepts such as deixis are already acquired when a learner comes to learn a second

language. For many people, the proof of the pudding is seen in transfer errors which reflect the

equivalent structures of the L1. Thus, for example, if a Japanese learner consistently omitted the

indefinite articles of a sentence, then negative transfer could be claimed. Conversely, if a French

learner regularly included the correct definite or indefinite articles in a sentence, then positive

transfer could be cited. The ‘proof’ would be in the fact that in Japanese the article system does not

exist, while French has a similar article system to English. Generally speaking, in terms of article use,

Japanese and French learners of English do tend to follow the pattern suggested above. Is the case

therefore closed? Certain evidence suggests that the situation is somewhat more complex.

Felix (1980) describes an English boy learning German who used the word “warum” to mean both

“why” and “because”. Felix points out that in, say, Spanish or Greek, this one equivalent word does

carry these two meanings. So had the boy been Spanish, his error would almost certainly have

been identified as interference. Errors, Felix suggests, will always correspond to structures in some

language.

Butterworth (1978) noticed that Ricardo, a 13 year old Spanish boy learning English, often used

subjectless sentences. He therefore attributed this to interference since it is perfectly acceptable to

omit the subject in Spanish. Felix, however, points out that it is also common in FLA to miss out the

subject of a sentence. Dulay and Burt (1974), after studying 513 errors produced by Spanish

children learning English, concluded that overall, less than 5% of the total errors were exclusively

attributable to interference. Felix (1980) is clear that in certain circumstances interference does

occur. Nevertheless he concludes: “Our data on L2 acquisition of syntactic structures in a natural

environment suggest that interference does not constitute a major strategy in this area”. (1980:

107). There is also the perhaps surprising phenomenon of a lack of positive transfer where learners

make mistakes that they should not have made given the similarity of their L1 background to the

L2 in question (Richards, 1971).

LoCoco (1975) in a study of learner error suggested that 5% to 18% of the errors observed should

not have been made if positive transfer was in fact at work in the learner’s IL. Coulter (1968) noted

how CA predictions were specifically falsified in an experiment on Russian learners of English. In

Russian, there are five forms of the plural which contrast clearly with singular items in the

language. Interference theory would suggest therefore that there would be no difficulty in

acquiring the s-morpheme of English plurals. If anything there would be a positive transfer of


6ETCS

www.viu.es

42

complexity to simplicity since English has just the one plural form. Extended observation of the

Russian subjects showed that this was not the case. In tests of production they failed to

consistently produce the required plural forms.

All of this suggests that while transfer seems to be a reasonable and logical explanation for some

part of the nature and form of ILs, there are certain reservations that should be born in mind. Only

certain structures or forms seem to be transferable from the L1 and the identification of these items

is further complicated by the variables of context and the individual in question.

3.4. Specific linguistic areas where the l1 influences the l2

Lexis

There seems to be considerable evidence for the influence of L1 lexis on IL/L2. Ringbom (1978), for

example, studying Swedish and Finnish learners of English, suggested that the results from his

study showed clear and unambiguous evidence of CLI.

Negation

Hyltenstam’s study (1977) showed that learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds go through the

same stages of development in the acquisition of the negative particle in Swedish. Wode’s research

(1981) was aimed at finding a universal sequence, true in essentials of all learners of all languages.

He suggested that learners go through five distinct stages of development:

1. Anaphoric sentence external: “No”

2. Non-anaphoric sentence external: “No finish”

3. Copula ‘be’: “That’s no good”

4. Full verbs and imperatives with “don’t”: “You have a not fish” or “Don’t say

something”

5. “Do” forms: “You didn’t can throw it”

(Taken from Cook 1991: 19)

Studies suggest that learners from different L1 backgrounds do in fact follow the developmental

order suggested by Wode.

Word Order

Once again, there is evidence and counter evidence of transfer in studies related to word order.

Studies have focused on whether, for example, SVO L1s carry this pattern over into the L2.

Rutherford (1983) suggested that Japanese learners did not use their L1 SOV in learning English.

McNeill (1979) in fact argues for the SOV pattern as being the basic, universal word order in L1

acquisition.



43

www.viu.es

Subject Pronoun Drop

Theroleof CLI in Subject Pronoun Drop (SPD) is not clear. There seems to be much evidence that

such deletion takes place in the L2 of Romance language speakers, but it is also argued that such

deletion is not restricted to speakers whose L1 has SPD. Meisel (1980) found that Romance

speakers in their L2 dropped pronouns more in the third than first person. This, seemingly, cannot

be explained by transfer.

Semantic Differences

In a study of Dutch learners, Bongaerts (1983) found that few of them had problems with the

semantic distinction between:

1. “Easy to see” and

2. “Eager to see”

Bongaerts argued that this was because of a similar semantic distinction in Dutch which facilitated

positive CLI. In another study, Bongaerts found that French, Hebrew and Arabic L1 learners had

considerably greater difficulties understanding and acquiring the same semantic distinctions.

Relative Clauses

Schachter (1974) conducted a study involving four groups of students with different L1

backgrounds -Arabs, Persians, Japanese and Chinese. In a quantitative study which involved

counting the number of relative clauses produced spontaneously in a classroom situation, he

found that the students could be divided into two distinct groups. Results showed that the Arab

and Persian learners made the most mistakes when using relative clauses. Significantly, however,

this group of students used relative clauses two or three times more than the Japanese and

Chinese students. Schachter suggested that right-branching relative clause structures in Arabic and

Persian, which is the same in English, were responsible for the relatively greater use of the clauses

in spontaneous speech. As for the Japanese and Chinese students, Schachter attributes their

limited use of relative structures to avoidance strategies. This occurs where a learner, confronted

by a form of the L2 that they are unfamiliar with or they find difficult, will simply avoid using that

structure. Sometimes, this is very difficult to identify since relatively proficient students will be able

to bypass using, for example, a certain difficult structure by using another similarly appropriate

structure. Another effect of avoidance strategy, as seen in the study mentioned above, is the

possibility that a certain structure (such as a relative clause) may hardly be used, or used very

occasionally in set phrases which the student knows to be correct. Simply quantifying the errors

made in relation to this structure will not give a clear picture of an individual learner’s competence.

This is one of the main weaknesses of EA which can only assess what the learner chooses to show

in their production.

Kellerman (1984) reviewing several studies of the kind mentioned above, cautiously suggests that

CLI operates on the surface form of IL reflecting such processes as transfer. He goes on to argue

that CLI operates on IL at smaller and larger levels than the sentence. Advanced learners, he claims,

are equally affected by CLI as are beginners. The only difference perhaps, is that beginners tend to


6ETCS

www.viu.es

44

show CLI more overtly in their syntax whereas advanced learners tend to show CLI in less obvious,

more discreet ways. e.g. through subtle semantic errors or through the use of avoidance strategies.

Conclusion

In conclusion it seems clear that there is considerable evidence to support the role of CLI in the

development of IL. Studies indicate that in certain situations and under certain conditions, the

influence of the L1 can be clearly demonstrated. It is the nature of these situations and conditions

that is not always clear. The effect of CLI on IL is not necessarily instant or predictable. This is

reflected in the development of IL which is non-linear -like a flower, development takes place at

many different points at the same time, resulting in more of a spiral model of development. While

the predictions of a pure UG hypothesis are in doubt (at least in SLA), several studies suggest that

there are universal parameters which a natural language will not violate. The creation of IL can

perhaps most importantly be seen as a process which is internally consistent, has many qualities of

a natural language, and which is in direct opposition to a view of language learning as a system of

habit formation. It can be concluded that three aspects of this process are continually occurring:

1. The learner is constantly making hypotheses about the L2 input available to them.

There is much evidence to suggest that the hypotheses tested will not contravene

universal boundaries of natural language.

2. There will be a selective use of the L1 knowledge. The process of selection, and the

extent to which it is conscious or unconscious is unclear.

3. There may be influence from other ILs known to the learner. There would seem to

be a need for further investigation to determine precisely the role of transfer in the

development of IL and the acquisition of L2.In the position we are at present, it can

only be tentatively suggested that the three aspects of the process mentioned

above, must all interact in some as yet unknown way.

3.5. Bilingualism

“Languages embody the intellectual wealth of the people that speak them. Losing any of them is

like dropping a bomb on the Lovre” Ken Hale, linguist.

Bilingualism has been defined by different researchers, one definition by the international

Baccalaureate Organization in 2007 is: Social and emotional conditions for learning that value all

languages and cultures and affirm the identity of each learner and promote self teem. Additive

bilingualism is defined as the kind of bilingualism which does not replace that of the mother

tongue, vs. Subtractive bilingualism which does not affirm identity and result in learners with poor

self esteem, because another language has replaced that of mother tongue. (Lambert)

In this sense Multilingual programmes will aim at developing cognitive, language and literacy skills

in both first language and the second, or third, through the use of the students l1 as the medium of

instruction for part of the curriculum. These programmes should begin at the primary education



45

www.viu.es

and must encourage parental involvement. In this context, studying factors affecting second

language acquisition is regarded as beneficial in order to understand the way how the different

languages are acquired in an interdependent way.

3.6. Jim cummins the common underlying proficiency theory

Canadian Linguist James Cummins advanced the theory, in the 1980s that people who are learning

a second language are not faced with a totally unmapped territory. They posses a common

framework of language structures and functions that can be described as a common underlying

proficiency drawn form the person’s knowledge of one language to help him or her learn the

second or additional language. The theory holds that there is an interdependence factor between

languages. In short, that to the extent that instruction in the first or native language (L1) is effective

in promoting proficiency in L1, transfer of this proficiency to another language (L2) will occur

provided there is adequate exposure and motivation to learn L2.

Based on the interdependence hypothesis, the first and second languages have a common

underlying proficiency (CUP). Although the surface features of any two languages (e.g.

pronunciation, fluency) may be different, the underlying cognitive/academic proficiency skills are

common across languages. Cummins represented this concept of bilingual proficiency as a “dual

iceberg” in which CUP skills (e.g. semantic and functional meaning) underlie the surface level

language (ex pronunciation and vocabulary differences of l1 and l2. the CUP principle implies that

linguistic exposure and experience in two languages can promote the cognitive academic skills

underlying both languages.

This theory provides excellent support to the advocacy for bilingual education, especially with

respect to the positive use of l1 to learn l2. Common Underlying proficiency is also linked to the

cognitive academic proficiency (CALP) that Cummins believes should be the goal of high quality

bilingual education because this is the type of language that allows for the transfer of academic

skills (e.g. literacy development) from on language to another.

Bilingual or multilingual individuals who have meaningful exposure and experience with two

languages in school or another environment, develop CUP skills which enable the development of

cognitive and academic skills in both languages. With enough time and good instruction, the

individuals’ two languages are interdependent and come to exist within one central processing

system. Cummins contribution is crucial regarding first language development, it is now accepted

that the child’s first language is not a hindrance in terms of learning an l2 or l3. Cognitive –

academic skills learned in the native language will transfer to the new language and that such skills

are interdependent across languages.

He also stated the literacy skills which can be transferred

� Directionality

� Sequencing

� Ability to distinguish shapes and sounds


6ETCS

www.viu.es

46

� Knowledge that written symbols correspond to sounds and can be decoded in

order and direction

� Activation of semantic and syntactic knowledge

� Knowledge of text structure

� Learning to use cues to predict meaning

� Awareness of the variety of purposes for reading and writing

� Confidence in oneself as a reader and writer

What skills do not transfer:

� Critical and Cultural literacy, for example in order to make interpretations of a text

given a specific cultural world view.

3.7. Jim cummins. The iceberg methaphore

One of the ideas which support the advantages of multilingual programmes regarding the student

cognitive skills improvement is The Iceberg Metaphor. In terms of language proficiency, the part of

the iceberg which is immediately visible, above the water line, is the BICS, which is the acronym for

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills, and it is the language needed to interact in socials

contexts such as parties, taking to a friend, It is the language used in everyday communication or

informal settings. Below the water line, we find the CALPs, meaning Cognitive Academic Language

Proficiency which refers to formal academic learning. This level of language achievement is crucial

for student’s success at school.

Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills

Conversational fluency: social language, ability to converse and understand everyday

discussions

Includes “Silent Period”

Lasts 1 – 3 years

Early production: 1000 words (0-1 year)

Speech Emergence: 3000 words (1-2 years)

(First 2 years)

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency

Academic proficiency: “school” language, ability to read, write, speak and listen at an

academic level

Intermediate fluency: 6000 words (1-5 years)

Advanced and continuing language development: 7000 words+ (5-7 and even 10 years)



47

www.viu.es

Jim Cummins, establishes that thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation are

intrinsically related to CALP, thus, It would be linked to reading comprehension strategies and

writing processes; good CALP acquisition is needed in order to understand explanations, lecture

presentations or participate in class discussions, vs., less cognitive demanding situations such as a

telephone conversation, witting notes, or a face to face conversation in which BICS takes place.

3.8. Krashen on intelligence and learning: input, monitoring,

and affective filters

Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition focuses on the process of

obtaining, retaining, and producing verbal communication. Much like the

theories of Bandura and Vygotsky, Krashen renders the role of language and its

acquisition as a social learning process that involves a number of cognitive

methods. Krashen and Bandura would coincide that acquiring language is a

social learning process that involves observation and modeling through the

constant interaction and exposure to language in everyday life. Krashen and Vygotsky would agree

that language acquisition is also a cognitive process in which recognition, prior knowledge,

retention, and other mental processes build a foundation of knowledge that later helps to interact

with the social environment. Yet, Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition mentions two

different processes by which humans input external codes from their day-to-day interactions:

Acquiring and Learning. These two ways of obtaining language are the axis of what Krashen’s

theory of intelligence, motivation, and learning.

Language learned, language acquired

The theory of language acquisition combines both social and cognitive elements as part of a

process which is a) acquired, and b) learned (Krashen, 1987). In theory, these two processes are

independent and based on each individual’s performance. The language which is “acquired”

pertains to the cognitive component of human development. It occurs naturally along with other

developmental processes that begin with infancy. For it to be triggered, however, there must be

complete verbal interaction. Krashen would agree that during the stage of language acquisition

the natural language that results from the communicative act itself, that is, from the input, the

feedback, the responses, the non-verbal communication, and the affect that results as a

consequence of establishing a communicative relationship are the key to establishing a foundation

for further learning.

Krashen’s language acquisition theory reflects Chomsky’s Universal Grammar (UG), in the concept

of a language which is naturally obtained. Yet, much as with Chomsky’s faculty of language for

narrow purposes, Krashen offers a “learned” language system theory. In Krashen’s view, language

that is learned happens through the input one receives formally during academic instruction. The

basic difference between these two systems is that acquired language is considered to be a

“natural” consequence of mutual and consistent exposure to language during dialogue, whereas

“acquired” language refers to rules and regulations about language that are learned to use it in

diverse settings, for example, grammar and spelling tasks (Krashen, 1987).


6ETCS

www.viu.es

48

Krashen would agree that the acquisition of natural language is more important in terms of

relevance than the instructional language learned in school. For once, people are constantly and

consistently engaged in some sort of communication during school hours, socialization, work, and

home. Language comes as a need to enter the immediate environment, and to establish

connections among speakers. Learned language is the teaching of the proper use of language

according to the accepted grammatical rules of the culture: The way to use it, tense agreement,

subject and verb agreement, the use of articles and the proper use of adverbs, and every other

regulation that makes it general and for formal usage, for deferential purposes, and for specific

reasons (Krashen, 1987 p. 67). The manner in which he defines the preponderance of natural versus

learned language lays in his Monitor hypothesis of language acquisition.

Monitor hypothesis

Krashen explains that natural language is bound to exist in a higher echelon of relevance in an

individual’s process of language acquisition because it consists on the primary utterances that are

emitted to convey a thought or idea. In a secondary tier within this concept, learned language

would serve as the mold and frame that watches over the manner in which natural language is

expressed. Krashen refers to it as “monitor” because of the rules and regulations that grammar,

semantics, syntax, and spelling bestows upon the regular usage of language. Therefore, an

individual’s natural tendencies to use language will be in constant interaction with the tasks that

are expected from learned language. Eventually, a constant exposure to monitor language

(through the academic use of language rather than its natural usage), both systems will coexist

throughout the person’s lifetime.

The monitor hypothesis is evident in certain instances of second language learning where more

emphasis is given to the correct spelling, semantic and syntactic use of the words rather than on

the word itself. This is the reason why Krashen discourages favoring monitoring over free-based

learning. In his view, if teachers adopt the teaching of language as a recital of rules and

regulations, it will never come naturally to the student. Krashen rather embraces the allowance of

free-flowing vocabulary and the affective and receptive methodologies of language teaching so

that the learner makes it a relevant part of the process as she or he would with natural language.

(Krashen, 2007).

Krashen even advocates free-based language learning to this day with the use of the internet, and

any text-based exposure to second and first languages (Krashen, 2007). This does not mean that

monitoring is considered a reductionist approach to second language teaching, on the contrary, it

is a resource that defines and solidifies words within their contexts. The monitor language is what

sets apart distinction and defines academics in society; it is not necessary to quote research or

theory to state that those individuals who are deemed educated and intelligent are often

characterized for the proper and careful use of learned language. Yet, Krashen hypothesized that

these individuals might have acquired this skill in a manner which might be similarly acquired by

other first and second language learners if the optimal learning conditions are in place and

effective teaching goals are met. This is what Krashen called the “Natural Order” hypothesis of

language acquisition.



49

www.viu.es

Krashen’s natural order hypothesis

The Natural Order hypothesis by Krashen is based on the premise that when language is learned by

acquisition (not formally), there are still grammatical structures that will come, as the name implies,

naturally throughout the process (Krashen, 1987). This is a theoretical perspective much similar to

Chomsky’s Universal Grammar, in that the syntactic, grammatical (and we could also say semantic)

formation of communicative language and spoken words will follow a specific pattern that is

natural to the language to which the individual is mostly exposed. Concretely, an example of this

process could be the learning of the Spanish language. The syntactic pattern of saying the noun

followed by the adjective that describes it is inherent to the Spanish language and the opposite of

English in which the adjective is said before the noun. Krashen’s Natural Order theory would agree

that, with constant and consistent exposure to the target language, even these differences in

grammar and syntax could be overlooked by the learner, as they will understand them as a natural

element of the language to which they are becoming exposed.

Krashen’s input hypothesis and vygotsky’s zpd

Krashen’s Natural Order hypothesis and Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development theory are very

similar in explaining learning as a process in an individual’s prior knowledge and foundation are

very important for the further acquisition of new information. In second language acquisition

terms, an individual’s first learned language will be what will serve as a foundation to acquire the

second one. This concept is very evident in the theoretical views of Vygotsky and Krashen.

As previously analyzed, Vygotsky’s theory of Zone of Proximal Development explains that learning

consists in a collaborative and mutual exchange of information between those who are More

Knowledgeable than Others (MKO) and those whom they will help with specific tasks. These

interactions occur within an individual’s zone of proximal development, or the appropriate

developmental cognitive state at which an individual is at the moment when he or she is about to

learn a new task. As discussed, individuals often work one step above their zone, which is the

moment where they need to learn a new task and obtain the help of others more knowledgeable

than them. The ultimate goal of the collaboration between MKO’s and the rest of the learners is to

increase and expand knowledge within that zone, and increase the potential for further

development; i.e.: To reach the top of the zone, which was already set at a higher cognitive level.

Krashen similarly defines the process of acquiring a new language (or language learning) through

his Input theory. It was previously analyzed that, in Krashen’s terms, “acquired” language is that

language learned naturally by people, and “learned” language refers to formal grammatical studies

of language. Granting this, Krashen’s theory is similar to Vygotsky’s ZPD in that the process that

involves receiving input in the second language one step ahead of the current foundation of

knowledge of the learner. Just like with the ZPD, the goal is that the learner reaches a higher level

of knowledge by being exposed to new information. In Krashen’s theory, the equivalent to a zone

of proximal development would be a “natural communicative input” (Krashen, 1997) While

Vygotsky theorized about acquiring a new skill under a ZPD, Krashen theorized about the

individual acquiring new vocabulary under a pattern of “basic language , plus” (Krashen, 1987 p.

45), in other words, using the current linguistic competence of the student and adding new

terminology in a consistent basis. This is a similar pattern to Vygotsky’s ZPD theory where the


6ETCS

www.viu.es

50

current zone of student development would be increased by the addition of more and new skills

through collaborative learning (Vygotsky, 1978).

The Input hypothesis is Krashen’s suggestion for the development of second language curricula,

under the premise that not all learners will learn at the same time, or at the same rate, therefore,

this formula for input would result in an effective way to monitor student language learning

(Krashen, 1997).

Krashenon motivation: the affective filter

According to Krashen, a student becomes more motivated through free-based learning, free-based

web surfing, and free-based reading (Krashen, 1987, 2001, 2007). This reflects a vestige of

Chomskyan theory, since Chomsky also rejects that language could be learned without a context.

In fact, as previously analyzed, Chomsky advocates for the integration of language as a natural

acquisition to all humans. Therefore, Krashen’s view on language to be learned without

boundaries, in a natural environment, and with relevance, blends both theories together.

Within Krashen’s penta partite theory of language learning and acquisition there is a fifth

hypothesis that points at one particular element as a trigger of motivation: This element is the

Affective filter. The affective filter is a combination of variables that facilitate learning. Within these

variables motivation is a key factor as well as other types of affect such as fear, anxiety, self-

confidence, and other feelings that occur during the learning process (Krashen, 1987). Krashen can

be credited with research-based evidence supporting his claim that students who are highly

motivated, and are well-liked are more likely to have less levels of anxiety and thus their affective

filter will be open to acquisition of new information, instead of blocked by disturbing emotional

obstacles that would impede accepting input from the environment. This is where the term

“mental block” is often referenced. (Krashen, 1987)

The synergism between affect and motivation

Krashen’s theory also points out to motivation as part of the learning process. The affective filter

serves as a facilitator for learning thanks to a series of variables. Motivation is a key factor that,

depending on the positive or negative influence of emotions, will occur, cease. Feelings such as

fear, and anxiety will block the student’s mind and disable the capability of learning; the opposite

would occur in a positive, open environment where the proper teaching practices take place

(Krashen, 1987).

Krashen, Bandura, and Vygotsky can all be credited with the advocacy of effective learning through

cooperative learning, and with the view of the classroom as a microcosmic stratus of society.

Within this environment of mutual support, teaching, learning, and guidance, individuals become

part of a sociology that aims nothing but to acquire, and expand towards new skills and

information; a social group that engages in activity that promotes social change.

Conclusion on krashen and the similarities among theories

When revisiting Chomsky, Bandura and Vygotsky, their philosophical view of language is viewed

as a tool that is best used when the individual feels that it is important, natural, and relevant to

them. In Chomsky’s theory, the inherent nature of language makes it a foundation for the



51

www.viu.es

acquisition of new communication, and the natural organization of such information within the

brain (Chomsky, 1955). In Bandura’s theory, language is an important part of an individual’s social

development, since verbal communication is the tool that brings together all social systems

(Bandura, 1964). In Social learning, motivation is a key element for this to occur. Bandura’s

theorizes that from the contact with others, individuals will make connections and become part of

a social system. The motivation that comes out of making these connections result in people

imitating and often acquiring new behaviors learned through the input that comes from the

behaviors of others (Bandura, 1964).

Similarly, in Vygotsky’s view, the collaborative interaction of learners as part of a social system

within the classroom takes place between students who are MKOs (More Knowledgeable than

Others), and their peers. The cooperative learning with MKOs helps empower their peers to absorb

new information, and to allow learning to take place as a process. A difference from Bandura,

however, is that Vygotsky theorizes that this process occurs within a student’s ZPD (Zone of

Proximal Development) and that the goal of the relationship between the MKOs and their peers is

to extend the peers’ ZPD by increasing the knowledge, and expanding their learning potential

(Vygotsky, 1978). Concisely, both Bandura and Vygotsky concide in that the learner’s role within a

society that invites the acquisition of new behaviors and skills is the underlying motivator that

enables the learning to occur.

This is how, whether cognitively, intra or inter psychologically, socially, or behaviorally, these

theorists embody the promotion of social change through the theoretical notions of learning and

acquisition that are promoted in their philosophical benchmarks.

Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition is one that combines social learning and cognitive

development. It agrees with Bandura in that language is a process that is learned through

observation and modeling. It does give importance to language as a social process that is

necessary as a tool that empowers psychological development through the use of cognitive

abilities leading to changes in behavior, which coincides with Chomsky, and Vygotsky as well.

Language, therefore, is a two-fold composite made of natural and monitor verbal codes, one is

natural, and one is a monitor of the other. Both codes are used simultaneously, and are equally

important.

Krashen is a cognitive and social theorist, and his theories can be used as continuums of Chomsky,

Bandura and Vygotsky. Its influence in today’s development of curricula is most evident in the

focus that schools give to learning as a natural process that should not be taught in isolation, but

as part of the student’s environment. Krashen can be credited with a change in the views of

education and of second language learning. Perhaps his theory could be summarized in the saying

“Less is More”, that is, allow students to learn the basics within a framework of constant exposure,

and the brain will do the rest. This cognitive part is what brings us to Chomsky, as a foundation

theorist and modern theorist who also visualizes the learning process as a brain ability, but with a

twist on how exactly humans are able to perform it.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

52



53

www.viu.es

Unit 4

English language teaching in postmodern era

The aim of this session is to analyse the concept of postmodernism and its implications in ELT.

4.1. Introduction. Postmodern influences in language teaching

Quoting assistant professor Reza Pishghadam “Postmodernism is a concept which appears in a

wide variety of disciplines or areas of study including art, music, film, literature, architecture, and

technology and nowadays has burst into popular usage as a term for everything from rock music to

the whole cultural style and mood of recent decades”. Another strain of postmodernism refers to

the radical changes of the society: the end of the last vestiges of European colonialism after the

Second World War, the development of mass communications and a media culture and the

shrinking of the globe by internal marketing. If postmodernism is the dominant spirit of the time

and has influenced many fields of study, this question may spring to mind: Has postmodernism

affected the field of English language teaching both in theory and practice too? “


6ETCS 54

According Reza Pishghadam, TELL, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2008, “There seem to have been lots of

implications of the foregoing in ELT, but the authors outline a few of the main ones.

Postmodernism seems to have influenced ELT from the 1990s when for the first time the concept

of method was put into question. For many centuries, the ELT profession was preoccupied with the

quest for the elusive 'best' teaching method (Kelly, 1969; McArthur, 1983) in the sense of a

'predetermined packaged deal' of static attitudes, theories, methods,

generalizable across widely varying audiences, that would successfully teach students a foreign

language in the classroom. After the genesis of Direct method in the 1920s which generally marks

the beginning of this “method era”

such methods flourished, to name a few, audio

languished after a while for all of them:

� Sought to find the best method of teaching English,

the best results or learning outc

� Had universal claims, trying to prescribe their procedures for all learners around the

globe assuming that a 'one

method benefits alll, regardless of how it is subjectively perceived by the different

teachers involved.

� Were scientific, based on theories from other disciplines including linguistics,

psychology, and sociology; and were teacher

magnifying the role of experts.

According to Brown (2000), method in this sense can be viewed as a generalized, prescribed set of

classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives, or a set of theoretically unified

classroom techniques thought to be generalized across a w

But in 1989, the concept of method went under serious attack (Pennycook, 1989). Pennycook

(1989), Long (1989, 2003), Prabhu (1990), Stern (1991), Richards (1990, 2003), and Kumaravadivelu,

(1994, 2003a) for most of them what the teachers need is to view critically all the standard

orthodoxies of ELT, investigate the interests served by such orthodoxies, conceptualize or view

ourselves as "transformative intellectual" or as "professionals who are able and willing to

upon the ideological principles that inform (our) practice, either see practice and theory as

informing each other, or, better still, do away with this distinction all together, connect

pedagogical theory and practice to wider social issues, work t

power over the conditions of our labor, and embody in (our teaching) a vision of a better and more

human life. Likewise, Nunan (p. 172,

It has been realized that there never was and probably never be a

recent years has been on the development of classroom tasks and activities which are consonant

with what we know about SLA, and which are also in keeping with the dynamics of the classroom


www.viu.es

shghadam, TELL, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2008, “There seem to have been lots of



method was put into question. For many centuries, the ELT profession was preoccupied with the


'predetermined packaged deal' of static attitudes, theories, methods, techniques (Strevens, 1977)



the beginning of this “method era” (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) up to the end of the 1980s lots of

such methods flourished, to name a few, audio-lingual, silent -way, total –physical response and

languished after a while for all of them:

Sought to find the best method of teaching English, that is, the method that yields

the best results or learning outcomes in a given period of time.

Had universal claims, trying to prescribe their procedures for all learners around the

globe assuming that a 'one-size-fits-all cookie-cutter approach' or a 's


eachers involved.

Were scientific, based on theories from other disciplines including linguistics,

psychology, and sociology; and were teacher-proof, guru-based

magnifying the role of experts.



classroom techniques thought to be generalized across a wide variety of contexts and audiences.



them what the teachers need is to view critically all the standard


ourselves as "transformative intellectual" or as "professionals who are able and willing to



pedagogical theory and practice to wider social issues, work together to share ideas and exercise


p. 172, 1991) argues:

It has been realized that there never was and probably never be a method for all, and the focus in



www.viu.es

shghadam, TELL, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2008, “There seem to have been lots of



method was put into question. For many centuries, the ELT profession was preoccupied with the


techniques (Strevens, 1977)



(Richards & Rodgers, 2001) up to the end of the 1980s lots of

physical response and

that is, the method that yields

Had universal claims, trying to prescribe their procedures for all learners around the

cutter approach' or a 'superior'


Were scientific, based on theories from other disciplines including linguistics,

based, and, therefore,



ide variety of contexts and audiences.



them what the teachers need is to view critically all the standard


ourselves as "transformative intellectual" or as "professionals who are able and willing to reflect



ogether to share ideas and exercise


method for all, and the focus in



itself.



55

www.viu.es

Other criticisms might be summed up as:

� Methods and approaches ignore a careful consideration of the context in which

teaching and learning occur,

� Choice of teaching method cannot be determined in isolation from curriculum

development processes and other planning and implementation practices,

� "Guru-led methods" are full of claims and assertions about second language

learning, few of which are based on a research foundation, and

� It is very difficult for teachers to use approaches and method in ways that precisely

reflect the underlying principles of the method since they find many of the

distinctions used to contrast method do not exist in actual practice (i.e., similarity of

classroom practices of methods), especially at a later stage.

Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2001, 2003a) argues that any meaningful process of decolonization of FLT

method requires a fundamental shift from the concept of method to the concept of postmethod.

This entails a greater awareness of issues such as teacher beliefs, teacher reasoning, and teacher

cognition, and a transform of disempowered periphery or merely classroom consumers into

strategic teachers, strategic researchers, or technicians in the classroom, reclaiming their teacher

autonomy that empowers teachers to theorize from their own practice and practice what they have

theorized,. This bottom-up 'pedagogic mediation' is the essence of what he, following Widdowson

(1990), calls "principled pragmatism," a key element of postmethod pedagogy that is sensitive to

language teachers' local needs, wants, and situations. It could therefore be argued that no

conceptualization of ELT as a postmethod language pedagogy is possible without being willing to

entertain the ethos of postmodernism. All attempts motivated by such trends:

� Downplay the role of experts outside the field;

� Disbelieve in grand theories and supermethods, embracing only local and

situation-based decisions;

� Are subjective, giving more power to the teachers as reflective, strategic

researchers always involved in classroom-oriented action research;

� Seek to dispute the theory/practice dichotomy;

� Celebrate the diversity of the individual learners, rejecting one-size-fits-all

philosophy;

� Are pragmatic, using every theory which is suitable in the classroom; and

� Empower classroom participants to critically reflect upon the social and historical

conditions that give rise to social inequalities and to question the status quo that

keeps them subjugated or marginalized.

Constructivism versus instructivism

Furthermore, learner-centered constructivism rather than teacher-centered instructivism is another

major constituent of postmodernism. While instructionism is basically dependent upon the hidden

assumption that knowledge can be transferred intact from the mind of the teacher to the mind of


6ETCS

www.viu.es

56

the learner (Cahoone, 2003), constructivists believe that learning is an active process of knowledge

and understanding construction whereby learners build up or construct a series of approximations

to the target concepts through becoming involved in active and social interaction and

collaboration with the surrounding as well as others, matching new versus given information and

establishing meaningful connections as well as through trial and error, hypothesis testing and

creative representations of input. Constructivist theories, therefore, call for a subtle shift in

perspective for the person who stands in front of the classroom: From someone who ‘teaches’ to

somebody who 'facilitates' learning; from teaching by imposition to teaching by negotiation

(McGroarty , 1998).

Many endeavors have been made to outline the features of the ELT methodology on constructivist

lines such as Reinfried, (2000). More notably, he places “constructivist” FLT in opposition to the

traditional forms of “instructivism” in language pedagogy. He hence defines instructivism as

directed by a pedagogical-psychological concept, according to which learners are considered as

“reactive beings” either accepting or rejecting the material offered by the teacher. Constructivists,

he holds, postulate that learning is a process which is highly subjective, autonomous, and active,

and can be achieved by dint of process-action-oriented methodology including cooperative

learning, active, and interactive forms of work as well as teaching by projects. It is evident that the

principles of methodology and procedure discussed above reflect the general consensus of the

TESOL theorists in the ‘90s as well. However, bringing the various principles, procedures, and

strategies under the one roof of ‘constructivist TESOL’ reflects a form of novelty which offers

coherence and a superstructure for the various concepts of learning and teaching involved in the

field (Reinfried, 2000). McGroarty (1998) argues that the most productive future directions for

theory building and research in applied linguistics derive from the extent to which the field's

practitioners take insights from constructivist scholarly approaches.

Different intelligences

Incidentally, the proposal of the diversity of intelligences propounded by Howard Gardner (1983)

led Reid (1987), Oxford (1990), O’Malley & Chamot (1990) to attach more importance to styles and

strategies of learners and teachers in the classrooms, or what Rodgers (2000) calls Multi-

intelligencia or Strategopedia. Teachers were expected to be familiar with different styles and

strategies of the learners, trying to cater for them. Besides, it was found that people in different

cultures have different styles and strategies of learning a language (Oxford, 1990). Therefore, it was

suggested that diversity of learners in each class and country be taken into account.

Chaos/complexity

Larsen-Freeman in 1997 tried to apply chaos/complexity theory of physics to TESOL. She first

argues that chaos/complexity is the science of process rather than state, of becoming rather than

being. She then points to many striking similarities between the new science of chaos/complexity

and second language acquisition and goes on to draw a number of chaos /complexity parallels in

the language class. Her persuasive argument is concluded with the fact that languages go through

periods of chaos and order as do other living systems, and their creative growth occurs at the

border between these two (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). According to her, like all open systems, second

language learning is a complex system in which learning is open, complex, non-linear, dynamic,



57

www.viu.es

emergent, evolving and changing, self-organizing, feed-back sensitive, adaptive, and

unpredictable. Van Lier (1996) also viewed the classroom as a complex system in which events

occur in non-linear fashion and multitude of forces interact in complex, self-organizing ways,

creating changes and patterns that are part predictable and part unpredictable. Also Larsen-

Freeman (2002) argues that a chaos/complexity perspective substantiates a social participation

view of SLA besides the psychological acquisitionist perspective and encourages us to think (of

dichotomous pairs) in relational terms.

In fact, English teachers should be aware of the political dimension in ELT and mistrust underlying

ideologies that construct the global nature of English as neutral. They should critically evaluate the

implications of their practice in the production and reproduction of social inequalities (Pennycook,

1994). Various facets of this critical turn including critical approaches to TESOL (Pennycook, 1999),

gender and language education (Davis and Skilton-Sylvester, 2004), testing techniques (Shohamy,

2001) discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1995), and critical classroom discourse analysis

(Kumaravadivelu, 1999) have been explored from critical pedagogic perspectives. In fact, the

amount of attention paid to this area has been so considerable that a new subfield called critical

applied linguistics (Pennycook, 2001) has been advanced to cater to this felt need”.

4.2. Postmodern influences in elt. Gardner’s multiple

intelligences theory

lThe proposal of the diversity of intelligences by Howard Gardner has influenced ELT Considerably.

This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which

students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform and understand

in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). "we are all able to know the world through

language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the

body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an

understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the

so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and

combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."

Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone

can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test

student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward

linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-

quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to

be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad

spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines

could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of

means." The learning styles are as follows:

Visual-Spatial

Think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments.

They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings,


6ETCS

www.viu.es

58

verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D

modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.

Bodily-kinesthetic

Use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like

movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be

taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include

equipment and real objects.

Musical

Show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in

their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by

turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical

instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.

Interpersonal

Understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many

friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars,

dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor,

video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.

Intrapersonal

Understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in

tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will,

confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools

include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the

learners.

Linguistic

Using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in

words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by

encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games,

multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.

Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating.

Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like

to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games,

investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.

At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, No two students enter a

classroom with identical abilities, experiences, and needs. Learning style, language proficiency,

background knowledge, readiness to learn, and other factors can vary widely within a single class

group. Regardless of their individual differences, however, students are expected to master the



59

www.viu.es

same concepts, principles, and skills. Helping all students succeed in their learning is an enormous

challenge that requires innovative thinking.

4.3. Postmodern influences in elt. Differentiated instruction

theory

Differentiated instruction is an instructional theory that allows teachers to face this challenge by

taking diverse student factors into account when planning and delivering instruction. Based on this

theory, teachers can structure learning environments that address the variety of learning styles,

interests, and abilities found within a classroom. Differentiated instruction is based upon the belief

that students learn best when they make connections between the curriculum and their diverse

interests and experiences, and that the greatest learning occurs when students are pushed slightly

beyond the point where they can work without assistance.

Vygotsky, bruner and gardner influences

The perfect model of differentiated instruction rests upon an active, student centered, meaning-

making approach to teaching and learning. The theoretical and philosophical influences embedded

in differentiated instruction support the three key elements of differentiated instruction itself:

readiness, interest, and learning profile (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000).

Lev Vygotsky proved that individuals learn best in accordance with their readiness to do so (Allan &

Tomlinson, 2008). This theoretical influence provides a concrete foundation for differentiated

instruction. The readiness of the individual should match what a student learns, how they learn it

and how the student demonstrates what they learned when using differentiated instruction.

The philosophical idea that interest based options seize on intrinsic motivation, supports the

second key element of differentiated instruction, student interest. According to Jerome Bruner (as

cited by Allan & Tomlinson, 2000), when interest is tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding

and the student becomes a more autonomous learner.

As we have mentioned before, the American psychologist, Howard Gardner, developed the theory

of multiple intelligences, his theory states that people have different intelligences and learn in

many different ways. Gardner’s theory suggests that schools should offer individual-centered

education, having curriculum tailored to a child’s intelligence preference (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000).

Essentially, Gardner supports the third key element of differentiated instruction, which accounts for

different student learning profiles.

Differentiated instruction integrates constructivist learning theories, learning styles, and brain

development with research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest and intelligence

preferences toward students’ motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools

(Anderson, 2007). According to educational psychologist Kathie Nunley, differentiated instruction

became an essential part of US educator's repertoire as the make-up of the general classroom

moved from homogeneous groupings of students prior to the 1970s to the ever increasing variety

of learners seen in the heterogeneous classroom make-up in the last 40 years (Nunley, 2006).


6ETCS

www.viu.es

60

By using differentiated instruction, educators can meet all individual student needs and help every

student meet and exceed established standards (Levy, 2008).To differentiate instruction is to

recognize students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning

and interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to teaching and

learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction

is to maximize each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or

she is and assisting in the learning process.

Identifying Components/Features

According to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in

the education environment. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three elements of the curriculum that can

be differentiated: Content, Process, and Products (Figure 1).

Adapted from Oaksford, L. & Jones. L.,2001.

These are described in the following three sections

Content

1. Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include

acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a

differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to

important learning. Access to the content is seen as key.

2. Align tasks and objectives to learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction view

the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Goals are most

frequently assessed by many state-level, high-stakes tests and frequently administered

standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in



61

www.viu.es

a continuum of skills-building tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the

next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.

3. Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. The instructional concepts should be

broad-based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the

concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction

should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should

be adjusted to suit diverse learners.

Process

1. Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are essential.

Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new

content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas

followed by small group or paired work. Student groups may be coached from within or

by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. As one of the

foundations of differentiated instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic

process, changing with the content, project, and on-going evaluations.

2. Classroom management benefits students and teachers. To effectively operate a

classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organization and

instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-

Ability Classrooms (Chapter 7), Carol Tomlinson (2001), identifies 17 key strategies for

teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated

instruction.

Products

1. Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. Meaningful

pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating

pre- and on-going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of

approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in

classrooms of diverse students. Assessments may be formal or informal, including

interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures.

Students are active and responsible explorers. Teachers respect that each task put before

the learner will be interesting, enganging and accessible to essential understanding re

thend skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time.

2. Vary expectations and requirements for student responses. Items to which students

respond may be differentiated so that different students can demonstrate or express their


6ETCS

www.viu.es

62

knowledge and understanding in different ways. A well-designed student product allows

varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of

difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.

Additional Guidelines That Make Differentiation Possible for Teachers to Attain

1. Clarify key concepts and generalizations. Ensure that all learners gain powerful

understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. Teachers are

encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners

comprehend.

2. Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend rather than merely measure instruction.

Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and it

should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning.

3. Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. The tasks, activities, and

procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning.

Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or

equipment for different students in the classroom.

4. Engaging all learners is essential. Teachers are encouraged to strive for the development

of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Vary tasks

within instruction as well as across students. In other words, an entire session for students

should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity.

5. Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks.

A balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. Based on pre-

assessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-to-

lesson. Teachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning.

4.4. Postmodern influences in elt. Universal design for learning

applications

Universal Design for Learning is a theoretical framework developed by CAST to guide

the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Dolan & Hall, 2001;

Meyer & Rose, 1998; Pisha & Coyne, 2001; Rose, 2001; Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000a,

2000b, 2002; Rose, Sethuraman, & Meo, 2000). The concept of UDL was inspired by the universal

design movement in architecture. This movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate

the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset.

Universally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in

addition they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. Curb cuts, for example, serve their intended

use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing



63

www.viu.es

strollers, young children, and even the average walker. And so, the process of designing for

individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone.

Similarly, but uniquely, UDL calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind,

so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. Traditional curricula present a host of

barriers that limit students’ access to information and learning. Of these, printed text is particularly

notorious. In a traditional curriculum, a student without a well-developed ability to see, decode,

attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can.

In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so

that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. A UDL curriculum takes on the burden of

adaptation so that the student doesn’t have to, minimizing barriers and maximizing access to both

information and learning.

The UDL framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of 3 principles These

3 principles parallel 3 fundamentally important learning components and 3 distinct learning

networks in the brain: recognition, strategy, and affect (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The common

recommendation of these 3 principles is to select goals, methods, assessment, and materials in a

way that will minimize barriers and maximize flexibility. In this manner, the UDL framework

structures the development of curricula that fully support every student’s access, participation, and

progress in all 3 essential facets of learning.

Principles of the Universal Design for Learning Framework

1 Provide multiple and flexible methods of presentation to give students with diverse

learning styles various ways of acquiring information and knowledge

2 Provie multiple and flexible means of expression to provde diverse students with

alternatives for demonstrating what they have learned

3 Provide multiple and flexible means of engagement to tap into diverse learners’

interest, challenge them appropriately and motivate them to learn

The three UDL principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one

orchestrated by a distinct set of networks in the brain.

Critical to successfully implementing UDL theory is the use of digital materials. Digital materials,

unlike the conventional pedagogical mainstays, speech, printed text, and printed images, have an

inherent flexibility. They can be modified in a host of ways, depending on the needs of the student.

This flexibility makes it feasible to customize learning materials and methods to each individual.

Differentiated Instruction and the Universal Design for Learning Principles


6ETCS

www.viu.es

64

Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the

three principles of UDL. The following section looks at the appropriate teaching methods,

recognition, strategic, and affective, in order to address the ways in which differentiated instruction

coordinates with UDL theory. Certain instructional techniques have been found to be very effective

in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the

learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode.

Recognition

The first UDL principle focuses on pattern recognition and the importance of providing multiple,

flexible methods of presentation when teaching patterns—no single teaching methodology for

pattern recognition will be satisfactory for every learner. The theory of differentiated instruction

incorporates some guidelines that can help teachers to support critical elements of recognition

learning in a flexible way and promote every student’s success. Each of the three key elements of

differentiated instruction, content, process, and product, supports an important UDL Teaching

Method for individualized instruction of pattern recognition.

The content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the first UDL Teaching Method for

recognition networks, provide multiple examples, in that they encourage the use of several

elements and materials to support instructional content. A teacher following this guideline might

help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing

them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. Also, while

preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting

smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. For students with physical or cognitive

disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital in order for them to access the pattern being

taught. Other students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective

that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help to ensure that each

student’s recognition networks are able to identify the fundamental elements identifying a pattern.

This same use of varied content examples supports a second recommended practice in UDL

methodology, provide multiple media and formats. A wide range of tools for presenting

instructional content are available digitally, thus teachers may manipulate size, color contrasts, and

other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. These can be saved for future

use and flexibly accessed by different students, depending on their needs and preferences.

The content guidelines of differentiated instruction also recommend that content elements of

instruction be kept concept-focused and principle-driven. This practice is consistent with a third

UDL Teaching Method for recognition, highlight critical features. By avoiding any focus on

extensive facts or seductive details and reiterating the broad concepts, a goal of differentiated

instruction, teachers are highlighting essential components, better supporting recognition.

The fourth UDL Teaching Method for recognition is to support background knowledge, and in this

respect, the assessment step of the differentiated instruction learning cycle is instrumental. By

evaluating student knowledge about a construct before designing instruction teachers can better

support students’ knowledge base, scaffolding instruction in a very important way.



65

www.viu.es

Strategic learning

People find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching

methodologies need to be varied. This kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs

of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the 4 UDL Teaching Methods. Differentiated

instruction can support these teaching methods in valuable ways. Differentiated instruction

recognizes the need for students to receive flexible models of skilled performance, one of the four

UDL Teaching Methods for strategic learning. As noted above, teachers implementing

differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and

at varying levels. As a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches,

knowledge, and strategies for learning.

When students are engaged in initial learning on novel tasks or skills, supported practice should be

used to ensure success and eventual independence. Supported practice enables students to split

up a complex skill into manageable components and fully master these components.

Differentiated instruction promotes this teaching method by encouraging students to be active

and responsible learners, and by asking teachers to respect individual differences and scaffold

students as they move from initial learning to practiced, less supported skills mastery.

In order to successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need flexible

opportunities for demonstrating skill. Differentiated instruction directly supports this UDL

Teaching Method by reminding teachers to vary requirements and expectations for learning and

expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring.

Affective learning

Differentiated instruction and UDL Teaching Methods bear another important point of

convergence: recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. Supporting

affective learning through flexible instruction is the third principle of UDL and an objective that

differentiated instruction supports very effectively.

Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management

and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organizational and instructional

practices. Engagement is a vital component of effective classroom management, organization, and

instruction. Therefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty

of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention

during the instructional episode. These practices bear much in common with UDL Teaching

Methods for affective learning: offer choices of content and tools, provide adjustable levels of

challenge, and offer a choice of learning context. By providing varying levels of scaffolding when

differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices

about their learning environment.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

66

An example

UDL Teaching Method Supportive Differentiated Instruction Feature(s)

Provide multiple examples. In preparation for this lesson, the teacher created multiple

examples of finding and identifying seeds. Additionally, the

teacher provided several examples of finding appropriate texts

to complete the assignment. Students have multiple examples of

texts from which to find information about the life cycle of seeds.

As another example, fast growing seeds were planted in the

classroom, giving students the opportunity to observe the seed

life cycle.

Highlight critical features. Teacher provides critical information for the lesson through oral

presentation and highlights critical features in written form, then

monitors students to check their focus on important features of

the lesson. Additionally, by having texts available in digital

format, the teacher or students may literally highlight critical

features of the text in preparation of lesson assignments.

Provide multiple media and

formats.

The teacher located several (4–5) resources, in this case books of

different reading difficulty, containing the same science

constructs on seed life cycles. The books were then made

available digitally as well as in audio format for flexible

accessibility. Thus, materials were available in a variety of media

and formats.

Support background context. Several levels of preparation were designed to support

background context:.

Before this assignment the teacher and students found seeds in a

variety of vegetables and fruits. In this way, the concept of seeds

was brought out of the abstract; students had experiences

seeing and finding seeds from a range of plants.

Careful instruction was organized to teach students the concept

of finding a book that is “just right,” helping students to find a

book that is challenging, yet not too difficult. This, helped keep

students work and learn in their “zone of proximal development”

when obtaining background information for the lesson.



67

www.viu.es

Provide opportunities to

practice with support.

Students had the option to work in selected pairs as they search

for answers to the science questions.

During guided practice and independent practice portions of

each lesson, the teacher provides supports by checking and

prompting.

Offer flexible opportunities for

demonstrating skill.

The design of this lesson allows students varied approaches

throughout the lesson. Students may select their best or

preferred type of working situation and means for responding.

Offer choices of content and

tools.

The teacher organized the lesson at multiple points for choice of

tools:

choice of resource materials,

choice of access (text, digital, audio), and

choice of response style.

Offer adjustable levels of

challen e.g

The teacher offers multiple texts, representing a range of

difficulty levels, and different means to access these texts. This

helps to ensure that researching the answers to science questions

is appropriately challenging for each student. For example, if

decoding were challenging, the student could use a simpler text

and/or access the information via audio or digital read-aloud.

Offer choices of learning contexts Throughout the lesson the teacher has organized several choices

that help diversify the available learning contexts:

students can select from a variety of methods

to respond to the science questions (written, scribed, recorded),

students can opt to work independently or with a partner during

the assignment completion portion of the lesson, and

students can select the “right book” based on difficulty and/or

interest

4.5. Conclusion

Differentiated instruction, although somewhat still developing in educational settings, has

received significant recognition. When combined with the practices and principles of UDL,

differentiated instruction can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately

challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. Although educators are continually

challenged by the ever-changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices


6ETCS

www.viu.es

68

continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. And along with them grows the

promise of differentiated instruction and UDL in educational practices.

What differenciated intruction theory means for teachers

Teachers DO

� Provide several learning options, or different paths to learning, which help students

take in information and make sense of concepts and skills.

� Provide appropriate levels of challenge for all students, including those who lag

behind, those who are advanced, and those right in the middle.

Teachers DON'T

� Develop a separate lesson plan for each student in a classroom.

� Water down" the curriculum for some students.

Laying the Foundation for Differentiated Instruction.

Differentiated instruction does not happen by accident. It requires planning, commitment, and

acknowledgment of the fact that diverse abilities, experiences, and interests have a tremendous

impact on student learning. If you are considering using differentiated instruction in your classroom,

the three steps below provide a place to start.

1. Get to know your students.

� Identify the level at which individual students are working in your subject area.

Standardized test scores and other information found in student records can help

determine this information.

� Administer a learning style inventory to determine how your students best learn.

An instrument can be obtained through the guidance department at your school.

� Determine student interests. On a regular basis, ask students to identify topics that

interest them and activities that occupy their non-school time.

2. Identify areas of your curriculum that could be adapted

� Study the instructional goals and objectives for your subject established by your

state's department of education. Identify the major concepts, principles, and skills

students should learn.

� Choose one or two broad concepts or skills that lend themselves to being taught at

different degrees of complexity.

� Brainstorm ideas for activities, tasks, and assessments that address a specific

concept or skill. Ideas should cover a range of learning preferences, abilities, and

interests.

3. Examine your role as teacher in the differentiated classroom.



69

www.viu.es

� Brainstorm ways to vary your instructional delivery methods. Target auditory,

visual, and kinaesthetic learners in your approaches.

� Develop a general plan for facilitating time, space, and materials in your classroom.

On any given day, not all students will be working on the same assignment at the

same time. You must have a plan for student access to necessary materials, where

individuals or groups will work, and how much time can be allotted to specific

tasks.

� Identify alternative methods of assessing student performance and understanding.

Assessment results should increase teacher understanding of students' abilities,

interests, and needs, and should be incorporated into future planning.

Regarding the proposed question, we have witnessed that TESOL in theory like other fields and

disciplines has been affected by the theories of the postmodernists and the field is no exception;

beyond methods, focus on styles and strategies, multiple intelligences, chaos/complexity theory,

and critical theory, all are witnesses to the aforementioned claims that TESOL is also in the period

of postmodernism.

the idea of “the best” should be jettisoned, holding seminars to pinpoint the features of “the best”

teachers should be banned, the concept of “World Englishes” - American and British English as “the

best” types of English- should be discarded, native speaker should not be the only yardstick

anymore, local decisions should be made, the idea of the product-based education should be

undermined, the notion of the process-based education should be underlined and finally, critical

pedagogy and participatory education should be mainstreamed

Postmodern TEFL theory presents English as a lingua franca with regional variations – a global

language in which there are no native speakers, no standard pronunciations or grammars, and no

target culture. ‘Learning to learn’ is being seen as a lifelong process, in which language is used as a

means of learning language, and the mass media has successfully colonized the profession,

bringing its global messages of financial accountability, consumerism, and the ‘image’ as reality.

In this situation, TEFL as a profession cannot make any modernist claims to be progressive, unified

or universal in its approaches or practices, though it is a postmodern contradiction and

‘doubleness’ that various establishments and schools of thought (e.g. the “peace as a global

language” movement) continue in this endeavor, and that postmodern approaches include both

neo-liberal and neo-conservative views on education reform.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

70



71

www.viu.es

Unit 5

Communicative competence and communicative

language teaching

To analyze the concept of Communicative Competence and its implications in Language Teaching.

5.1. Aspects of communicative competence

Communicative competence is a concept introduced by Dell Hymes and discussed and redefined

by many authors. Hymes' original idea was that speakers of a language have to have more than

grammatical competence in order to be able communicate effectively in a language; they also

need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their

purposes.

The communicative competence is the group of knowledge, capacities and attitudes needed for

the reception, interpretation and production of discourse, through the different channels, and that

facilitates and promotes interpersonal relationships, the integral education of the individual and


6ETCS

www.viu.es

72

mobility. The communicative competence includes the following components: the linguistic, the

sociolinguistic and the pragmatic components. Each of these components includes mainly

knowledge, skills and “know to do.

Linguistic aspects

� Phonology and orthography

� Grammar

� Vocabulary

� Discourse (textual)

Pragmatic aspects

� Functions

� Variations

� Interactional skills

� Cultural framework

Introduction

The linguistics aspects of communicative competence are those that have to do with achieving an

internalized functional knowledge of the elements and structures of the language.

Linguistic competence

The linguistic competence refers to the mastery of the code, it includes the knowledge and the

lexical, phonetic and syntactic skills, and any other dimensions of language as a system,

independently form the sociolinguistic value of its varieties and the pragmatic functions of its

productions.

Phonological Competence

Phonological competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive meaningful

sounds of a language, including:

� consonants

� vowels

� tone patterns

� intonation patterns

� rhythm patterns

� stress patterns

� any other suprasegmental features that carry meaning



73

www.viu.es

Related to phonological competence is orthographic competence, or the ability to decipher and

write the writing system of a language.

Example

In Korean there are three kinds of velar stops: aspirated, fortis and lenis. It is important to be able to

distinguish these sounds, because there are a number of different words that are pronounced the

same, except for the difference in these stops. It is also important to be able to pronounce these

consonants correctly so that Korean speakers can tell which word the language learner means

Grammatical Competence

Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive grammatical

structures of a language and to use them effectively in communication

Examples

Learners of French need to learn to understand the different time references of sets of words such

as je partais, je parte, je parterai, and to be able to make appropriate time reference when speaking

or writing.

Lexical Competence

Lexical competence is the ability to recognize and use words in a language in the way that

speakers of the language use them. Lexical competence includes understanding the different

relationships among families of words and the common collocations of words

Example

Learners learning English need to be able to recognize the concept of chair and what makes it

different from a stool, a sofa, or a bench. They also need to know that a chair is a piece of furniture,

and that there are various kinds of chairs, including easy chairs, deck chairs, office chairs, rocking

chairs and so on. They also need to understand how chair is now used in an extended sense for

what used to be termed a chairman, especially when referring to a woman, as in Julie Wright is the

chair of the committee.

Discourde competence

Discourse competence is used to refer to two related, but distinct abilities. Textual discourse

competence refers to the ability to understand and construct monologues or written texts of

different genres, such as narratives, procedural texts, expository texts, persuasive (hortatory) texts,

descriptions and others. These discourse genres have different characteristics, but in each genre

there are some elements that help make the text coherent, and other elements which are used to

make important points distinctive or prominent

Learning a language involves learning how to relate these different types of discourse in such a

way that hearers or readers can understand what is going on and see what is important. Likewise it

involves being able to relate information in a way that is coherent to the readers and hearers.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

74

Many authors use the term discourse to refer to conversational interaction, so that discourse

competence could also refer to the ability to participate effectively in conversations. In the

Language Learning Bookshelf conversational interaction is considered a part of interactional

competence.

Example

Once upon a time there was an old woman named Mother Hubbard, who had a dearly-loved dog

named Bowser. Mother Hubbard was very poor and didn't always have enough food for herself and

her pet. One day Bowser came running up and barked hopefully to show his mistress how hungry

he was. Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor doggie a bone, because she felt

sorry for him. But when she got to the cupboard it was bare, and so poor Bowser went hungry

This story starts with the phrase Once upon a time, which tells us that it is a fairy tale. The first

paragraph goes on to introduce the two characters: Mother Hubbard and Bowser. It also tells us the

background information we need to know about Mother Hubbard. Even though this is such a short

story we need to keep track of the two participants and the props: the cupboard and the bone.

Note the words used to refer to Mother Hubbard: an old woman, herself, his mistress, she and

those used to refer to Bowser: a dearly-loved dog, her pet, her poor doggie, him, poor BowserThe

second paragraph starts with the words One day, which introduce an event we expect to be

important. (In fact, it is the only episode in our story!) This episode has three main events:

� Bowser ran up and barked hopefully

� Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard

The cupboard was bare

There is also some further information in subordinate clauses, which are linked to the main clauses

by words that show the relationship between them:

� to show his mistress how hungry he was tells us the purpose for which Bowser

barked.

� because she felt sorry for him tells us the reason why Mother Hubbard went to the

cupboard.

� to get her poor doggie a bone tells us the purpose of going to the cupboard. and

so poor Bowser went hungry tells us the result of the cupboard being bare.

The words But when she got there introduce the climax of the story: She expected the bone to be

there, but it wasn't so poor Bowser went hungry. So even in a short story such as this, we can

identify cohesive and prominence elements in an English narrative text. Children learn intuitively as

they are learning English, but adult learners may be helped by conscious attention to such

elements

Pragmatic aspects of communicative competence

University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational Training

www.viu.es

The pragmatic competence is related to the functional use of the linguistic resources (production

of linguistic functions, speech acts, mastery of presuppositions and implici

of communicative exchanges.

The pragmatic competence includes the discursive competence that refers to the mastery of the

rules for the elaboration of discourse. It is concerned with coherence, cohesion, text organization,

etc.

Bearing all this in mind, if we consider that the sociolinguistic, discursive, encyclopedic and

strategic competences are integrated in the pragmatic competence we may say that:

� Functional competence

� Sociolinguistic competence

� Interactional competence

� Cultural competence

The pragmatic aspects of communicative competence are those that have to do with how

language is used in communication situations to achieve the speaker's purposes

Functional Competence

unctional competence refers to the ability to accomplish communication purposes in a language.

There are a number of different kinds of purposes for which people commonly use language

Example

Greeting people is one purpose for which we use language. What we actuall

be Good morning, Hi, How ya doin, or Yo, depending on who we are and who we are talking to.

Interactional Competence

Interactional competence involves knowing and using the mostly

various communication situations within a given speech community and culture. It includes,

among other things, knowing how to initiate and manage conversation

with other people. It also includes knowing what sorts of body language, eye contact, and

proximity to other people are appropriate, and acting accordingly

Examples

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE




of linguistic functions, speech acts, mastery of presuppositions and implicit language) in situations



aring all this in mind, if we consider that the sociolinguistic, discursive, encyclopedic and


Functional competence

Sociolinguistic competence

Interactional competence

Cultural competence



competence refers to the ability to accomplish communication purposes in a language.


Greeting people is one purpose for which we use language. What we actually say in English could


Interactional competence involves knowing and using the mostly-unwritten rules for interaction in


among other things, knowing how to initiate and manage conversations and negotiate meaning


proximity to other people are appropriate, and acting accordingly

PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE

COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE

and Language Teaching


75


t language) in situations



aring all this in mind, if we consider that the sociolinguistic, discursive, encyclopedic and




competence refers to the ability to accomplish communication purposes in a language.


y say in English could


unwritten rules for interaction in


s and negotiate meaning


COMMUNICATIVE

COMPETENCE


6ETCS

www.viu.es

76

A conversation with a checker at the check-out line in a grocery store in the US or England

shouldn't be very personal or protracted, as the purpose of the conversation is mainly a business

transaction and it would be considered inappropriate to make the people further back in the

queue wait while a customer and the checker have a social conversation. Other cultures have

different rules of interaction in a market transaction.

Cultural competence is the ability to understand behavior from the standpoint of the members of a

culture and and to behave in a way that would be understood by the members of the culture in the

intended way. Cultural competence therefore involves understanding all aspects of a culture, but

particularly the social structure, the values and beliefs of the people, and the way things are

assumed to be done.

Sociocultural competence

Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to interpret the social meaning of the choice of linguistic

varieties and to use language with the appropriate social meaning for the communication

situation. Sociolinguistics is a very broad discipline and the term sociolinguistic competence could

be used much more broadly than it is here, where we have restricted its use to refer to the

recognition and use of appropriate varieties of language.

The sociolinguistic competence refers to the socio cultural conditions in the use of the language; it

refers to a person’s capacity to properly produce and understand linguistic expressions in different

contexts of use, in which there are variables depending on the relationship of interlocutors, the

communicative intentions in this particular situation and the rules and conventions of interaction

that regulate it.

The sociolinguistic competence is guided by the rules of social use that regulate the

communicative interaction (channel, formal/informal character, specific/general,

objective/subjective, purpose of the interaction...)

The sociolinguistic component – sensitive to social conventions (courtesy rules, the rules that

govern the relationships among generations, sexes, classes and social groups, the linguistic

codification of some fundamental rituals to the functioning of a community) – affects any linguistic

communication among representatives of different cultures, even though the participants are not

usually aware of the influence.

Some authors consider other competences such as the encyclopedic competence (cultural

competence and knowledge of the world that assure the communicative flow), the strategic

competence (application of verbal and non verbal capacities to solve the deficiencies of the other

competences and assure the effectiveness in the communication; it includes aspects such as

empathy or the capacity to put oneself into the others’ place or capacity to connect easily with the

others).



77

www.viu.es

Examples

When greeting someone in a very formal situation an American might say, Hello, how are you? or

Nice to see you again, but if he were meeting a friend in an informal situation it would be much

more appropriate to say Hi, or Hey, whatcha been doing?

Cultural competence

Cultural competence is the ability to understand behavior from the standpoint of the members of a

culture and and to behave in a way that would be understood by the members of the culture in the

intended way. Cultural competence therefore involves understanding all aspects of a culture, but

particularly the social structure, the values and beliefs of the people, and the way things are

assumed to be done.

Examples

It is impossible to speak Korean or Japanese correctly without understanding the social structure of

the respective societies, because that structure is reflected in the endings of words and the terms

of address and reference that must be used when speaking to or about other people

5.2. Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign

languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a

language. It is also referred to as “communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages”

or simply the “communicative approach”.

Relationship with other methods and approaches

Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as an

extension or development of the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language learning, a

more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.

The audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language

proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to

behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of

instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis

on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of

incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.

In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through

short dialogues. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations (for example, in

the language lab) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical

structures in these dialogs.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

78

Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help

students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam Chomsky argued

"Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves

innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great

abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and organize language

instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most

effective way to teach second and foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still

prevalent in many text books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual

methods point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most

notably pronunciation.

The notional-functional syllabus

A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a

method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not

in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of “notions”

and “functions.” In this model, a “notion” is a particular context in which people communicate, and

a “function” is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the “notion” or

context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features

of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like

introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notional-

functional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping

students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.

Overview of CLT

As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping

students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning

language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather

than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation.

This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners

have developed their communicative competence which can loosely be defined as their ability to

apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate

proficiency to communicate.

CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method

with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general

principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunan’s (1991) five

features of CLT:

1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target

language.

2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.

3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but

also on the Learning Management process.



79

www.viu.es

4. An enhancement of the learner’s own personal experiences as important

contributing elements to classroom learning.

5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside

the classroom.

These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the

needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in

their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching

practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is

deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes

the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluency-

based activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students

practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation

focused activities.

In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the Dogme

language teaching movement, who proposed that published materials can stifle the

communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to

focus on real conversations about real subjects so that communication is the engine of learning.

This communication may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to further

communication.

Classroom activities used in CLT

Example activities

� Role play

� Interviews

� Information gap

� Games

� Language exchange

� Surveys

� Pair work

� Learning by teaching

However, not all courses that utilize the communicative language approach will restrict their

activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or

prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.

5.3. Glossary of linguistic terms

Linguistic; Referring to the study or ways of language and the use of words to create meaning.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

80

Accent refers solely to the way words are pronounced, e.g. in the south of England, it is normal to

pronounce the word path as p-ar-th, but in the Midlands and the North, the phoneme 'a' is

articulated as a short vowel and pronounced as in, 'cat'. The accent known as 'Received

Pronunciation' is considered as a prestige accent and is one frequently heard on television and

radio news bulletins, for example.

Dialect refers to choices of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation made by people in different

geographical regions or social contexts. The dialect known as 'Standard English' is generally

considered to be a prestige dialect and is the choice of many teachers, business people,

newsreaders, etc.

Orthography

Orthography is the term used in linguistics used to refer to the way that words are spelled

Phonetics/Phonology

Phonetics is the study of the way people physical produce and perceive the different sounds we

use to create speech. These sounds are called phonemes and are created by the various 'organs of

speech' in the body, including the tongue, the soft and hard palate, lips, pharynx, etc. Phonetics,

unlike phonology, is not concerned in any way with the meaning connected to these sounds.

Phonology is the study of the way speech sounds are structured and how these are combined to

create meaning in words, phrases and sentences. Phonology can be considered an aspect of

grammar and, just as there are grammar 'rules' that apply to the syntax of a sentence and the

morphology of words, there are phonological rules, too.

Even in very early childhood, children are said to be able to produce (i.e. they can articulate) the full

range of sounds needed to create all of the words used in any world language, yet as language

acquisition progresses, those phonemes that do not apply to their mother tongue become

forgotten. This is so much so that in later life, if a second language is then attempted, the

pronunciation of non-English phonemes needs to be re-learned - this time at a wholly conscious

level, as opposed to the ability to pronounce each English phoneme without any conscious

thought. Even 'non-words' such as 'erm', 'uh?', etc. use English phonemes.

An important part of phonology is the study of those sounds that form distinct units within a

language. The smallest unit of sound that can, in itself, alter the meaning of a word is called a

phoneme. Although there are 26 letters in the English alphabet, it's interesting to note that there

are around 44 phonemes in the dialect called Standard English. This means that letters cannot

represent phonemes as such and so other symbols are used. Each phoneme is given a symbol so

that the accurate pronunciation of any English word can be represented in writing. Here is the

(American) English phonetic alphabet - version of the International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA:



81

www.viu.es

The extra sounds we have above the number of letters we have available in part explains the

complexities of English spelling (see orthography). Consider the word might, in which there are

three phonemes m-ight-t (represented as m/ai/t using the Phonetic Alphabet), changing just a

single phoneme can completely change the meaning of this word, e.g. mate, m-a-te (represented

as m/ei/t phonetically).

Some of the extra sounds are there because we use phonemes that are called diphthongs. If the

tongue has to move significantly to make a vowel sound, the result is a diphthong; it sounds like a

rapid blend of two vowel sounds. The letter 'i' in the word 'kite' is a diphthong - it is a rapidly made

blend of an 'a' and an 'i' sound. The movement of sound from the 'a' to the 'i' is called a glide.

Phonology also covers the study of important sound features such as rhythm, pitch, tone, melody,

stress and intonation. These phonological features of language are aspects of prosody - they are

referred to as the prosodic or suprasegmental features of language.

Pragmatics is an aspect of how language generates meaning - and as such, it falls under the

'umbrella' of semantics, which is the study of meaning. Semantics is often, simplistically, said to be

the the study of surface 'sentence meaning' and pragmatics to be the study of the deeper, inferred

'social force' of language.

The clearest way we can communicate our ideas and thoughts is through language. To achieve

this, the ideas and thoughts we want to communicate become 'encoded' either

PHONOLOGICALLY (by the sound of spoken words) or GRAPHICALLY (through marks on a


6ETCS

www.viu.es

82

handwritten or printed page). When this meaning is conveyed semantically, the encoded meaning

- the words, phrases and sentences we create - can be easily DE-coded without particular thought

of the context. Sometimes, however, a deeper, inferred meaning is also encoded within language,

and this creates a pragmatic force within the text. Thus, pragmatics operates whenever we write or

say one thing semantically but MEAN to infer extra force to our text or utterance.

� Pragmatics is an absolutely key aspect of any A-level textual analysis as it is so very

revealing of important linguistic aspects.

� If you ignore the pragmatic force of language in your analyses, you will lose many

marks.

An example will make this clearer. If you think about the phrase, 'Give him one!', the meaning this

contains will very much depend upon the social situation in which it is used. It is the noun 'one'

that, in certain social situations, will carry different levels of force: it is a pragmatically loaded word,

where its precise meaning can only be inferred by the context of the language use.

� Pragmatic meanings can be inferred in this way because, owing to the context of

the language use, we are able to 'read into' a word the extra meaning -

the utterance's pragmatic force - conferred on it by the way it is used within a

particular social situation.

Pragmatics can allow language to be used in interesting and social ways: knowing that your

listener or reader shares certain knowledge with you allows your conversation to be more personal,

lively or less extended. It also allows you to use words and give them inferred elements such as

power aspects, because your listener is aware of your social standing, for example. Similarly,

language can act in ideological ways to reinforce a society's values - again, pragmatically. At

another level, language users can rely on pragmatics to help them cut down on the number of

words needed to make meaning clear - and hence contributes to a more lively style.

Here are a few examples that require more than a semantic analysis to reveal the intended

meaning of the text's words and phrases, but where the pragmatic meaning is perfectly clear:

� 'BABY SALE - GOING CHEAP' (poster seen in shop window - but no babies are for

sale).

� 'QUICK! FIRE!' (and you know you must run).

� 'PASS THE SALT' (and you know it's not an order).

� 'ARE YOU GOING INTO TOWN?' (and you know it's a request for the person to come

with you).

� 'HE'S GOT A KNIFE!' (and you don't ask how sharp it is)

� 'I PROMISE TO BE GOOD.' (and you don't expect a repeat of the bad deed).

� 'THE PRESENT KING OF ENGLAND IS BALD.' (said on TV, yet you can work out what

is meant even though we have a queen).

� 'ANOTHER PINT...?' (and you know you've already had one).



83

www.viu.es

� 'I SAID, 'NOW!'' (and you know when).

� 'GOSH - IT'S COLD IN HERE!' (and someone shuts the door or window).

An important area of pragmatics is in the study of language and power. The implicit understanding

of a power relationship between, say, two speakers, is often indicated by the meanings implied by

the language used. This meaning can be very context dependent

Register; when context results in a commonly recognisable style to be produced, the resulting style

is called a register (e.g. an informal register, a medical register, a scientific register). Context can be

an effective way to categorise texts.

Purpose. Purpose is the reason why a text was created. This may be, for example, to entertain,

explain, instruct, persuade or inform. The purpose of a text is its writer or speakers controlling idea:

the message they wish the text to leave with the reader or listener. When you consider a texts

purpose, you need to recognise how the writer has chosen stylistic devices to bring about a

particular series of effects on the reader. One of the most common purposes is to persuade and it

can be one of the most difficult to determine because professional writers are experts at making

persuasion appear to be information: quite a different thing (as wartime propaganda has shown).

Audience is also a way to categorise texts.

Context is always an important aspect to consider whenever you analyse a text. Context refers to

those particular elements of the situation within which the text is created AND interpreted that in

some way or another affect it (for example, the effects of time, place, ideology, social hierarchies,

relationships, etc.).

Importantly, language has two potentially important contextual aspects: the context in which it

was created and that in which it was interpreted. For example, a letter from a manager to one of his

staff will be affected by context such as the situation itself, the power relationship that exists

between the manager and the worker, the historical conditions and so on. Another example, when

you speak to your parents or when you speak to a friend on the phone you will see that context

naturally affects the linguistic choices - the style - of the discourse in important ways. Also see

register.

Semantics; Semantics is the study of word and phrase meaning (but also see pragmatics). In the

new exam specifications for A-level English Language (from 2008-9), it has been combined with

lexis.

Writers often play with semantics to create interesting stylistic effects or to create a style suited to a

particular context or audience. For example, a simplified semantic level would be chosen to suit a

younger audience, and so on. When examining a text at the level of its lexis and semantics, it's

important to look out for uses of, for example, irony, simile, semantic fields (see below) metaphor

or hyperbole (called figurative language).

� An important area of semantics is in the use of idioms or idiomatic language.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

84

Lexis

Lexis means the vocabulary of a language as opposed to other aspects such as the grammar of the

text. Lexis is clearly an important aspect of creating a suitable style or register (i.e. when choosing

language and language features to suit a particular genre, context, audience and purpose).

Lexis and semantics are very close and often used interchangeably.

Lexical cohesion occurs when words have an affinity for each other as in collocation.

Style; Style is the result of the choices a writer (or speaker) makes regarding aspects of language,

language features and structure with regard to creating a text or discourse that will suit a particular

genre, context, audience and purpose. Three key aspects of style that are often worthy of comment

are a text's degree of formality or informality, its use of standard or non-standard grammar and its

discourse structure. Some skilled writers also develop distinctive, individual aspects of style, which

may also be called a 'voice' - akin to a person's spoken idiolect.

Discourse / discourse analysis ; When we use language, what we are doing is trying to express

thoughts and ideas that are in our head to a someone else. Sometimes this will be to a known

person, sometimes to an unknown audience. Conversation is the obvious example of the former,

media texts of the latter.

We are very sophisticated communicators (and of course use more than just language!). This makes

discourse a massively subtle, sophisticated and complex area of study, in fact. But, even a basic

understanding of it can help push your marks up to the highest bands. Aspects of communication

that affect the discourse include genre, context, audience and purpose ('G-CAP'). All of these, and

especially the first three, will act as a 'constraint' on what we say or write. Context is an especially

important aspect of discourse analysis as the social and hierarchical aspects of life often bring all

kinds of pragmatic meanings into the discourse.

A discourse occurs whenever we put thought into language. This could be for a whole range of

reasons - we might be in a conversation, writing a novel, producing a piece of homework, holing

someone to ransom, texting a friend... all kinds of reasons. The result of this 'conversion' of thought

and ideas into language is the production of a discourse between the parties involved. And these

discourses can ne productively analysed as an analysis at the level of discourse will reveal many

interesting and subtle areas of language use.

Discourse, therefore, is no more than language - a kind of 'text' - but considered as a part of the

original context of its use. When considering discourse, therefore, you need to consider all of the

important aspects of context that affected either its creation, its reception or its interpretation. And

remember that discourses or spoken - planned, spontaneous, to a known audience, an unknown

audience, historical, etc..

Thus, everyday language, technical language, business language, children's language, cookery-

book language, newspaper language... any and all kinds of language, can all be considered at the

level of discourse. All texts will contain within them some discernible aspects of their user's



85

www.viu.es

personal, cultural, social and historical situation. Discourse analysis comments on these contextual

aspects.

� Commenting on the social circumstances of a text means taking account of aspects

of its . Social and cultural context

When analysing a text, it can be fascinating (and gain many extra marks because of its subtlety) to

dig deeper than the surface meaning of the words to try to reveal interesting contextual aspects of

the text's users. To make this clearer, you can imagine that our own society is far more liberal-

minded than, say, the society of a century ago. This aspect will show up in the texts written in these

periods through a variety of aspects including word choice and grammar. Similarly, aspects of

social hierarchy and social power always manifest themselves within texts. Imagine a conversation

between a patient and a doctor, for example - again, discourse analysis seeks to reveal this.

We can, somewhat artificially perhaps, but useful, 'lump together' certain discourses and see that

they contain broadly similar elements because of the context, for example, in which they occur.

Thus the idea of a 'discourse community' or discourse communities can be used, similar to the idea

of a 'register'. Young people, to take an example, tend to use language that shares many similar

features, and they can be called a 'discourse community'. In this instance, this is similar to the idea

of sociolect, also - but not all discourse communities share a sociolect.

An important part of discourse analysis is to determine what are called the orders of discourse. In

any discourse, it is clear that speakers or readers are rarely 'on equal terms'. Usually there is a

hierarchy of power or a power relationship involved, wherein one participant - through language

choices - can 'position' the other participant in a less powerful position. An analysis of men and

women in conversation has revealed many ways in which apparently innocent uses of language

create a power relationship between the participants.

Disccourse structure can be a useful part of discourse analysis and is generally rewarded highly in

your exams. Analysing a text at the level of its discourse structure sets out to reveal the various

methods used, effects created and purposes intended by the language user to create a coherent

and unified stretch of language. A text aimed at a child, for example, will have a much more

obvious structure with clear 'linguistic signposts' to guide the child through it. If you compare such

a text with, say, a broadsheet newspaper article, you will immediately notice that the means of

linking ideas in the latter will be far more complex, sophisticated and subtle. Discourse structure,

therefore, is one of the elements of style: those choices a language user makes to suit context,

genre, audience and purpose.

Idiomatic language refers to many words or phrases that are a familiar and everyday feature of our

language. Idioms are a part of the comfortable, conversational style of language we use daily - but

to a foreigner, idioms are difficult to understand because their meaning is very different from the

literal meaning of the words that make them up, e.g. 'He wants his pound of flesh.' 'You scratch my

back, I'll scratch yours' 'That's real cool' 'No way, José', 'He's a pain in the neck!', etc. Each of these

are idioms - or idiomatic phrases. You will notice that idioms always exist as fixed collocations

which do not work if the phrase order is altered at all. For example, we cannot really say, 'He

scratched my back and I scratched


6ETCS

www.viu.es

86

Morphology / morpheme; The suffix "morph-" is to do with shape, and morphology concerns the

form and shape of words. It is an important aspect of grammar (along with syntax); morphology is

the study of the way words are formed. The smallest part of a word that can exist alone or which

can change a word's meaning or function is called a morpheme (e.g. un-, happy, -ness).

A bound morpheme is an affix, i.e. usually a prefix or a suffix, e.g. un-, -tion. These are 'bound' called

because they must be attached to another morpheme to create a word. Morphemes that can exist

alone as a complete word are called free morphemes, e.g. happy. Grammar is the set of rules that

tells how words can be put into a sequence and a form that allows their meaning to become

unambiguous in a sentence. The order of words in a phrase, clause or sentence is called its syntax

and the form of words is called morphology (for example, to show plural we add the morpheme s,

to Syntax (syntactic how possession, we add the morpheme 's).

Syntax is the most important aspect of English grammar. It refers to the way words are put

together in a group to create meaning as phrases, clauses or as a sentence. Studying the syntax of a

sentence involves investigating the structure and relationships of its words.

Standard syntax refers to the syntax of a particular dialect of English called Standard English - this is

the syntax you will read in most written texts and hear from teachers in lessons, newsreaders and in

any other more formal context. Non-standard syntax is a normal part of much spoken English and

is common in regional dialects.

Cohesion, (cohere / coherent / coherence)

Many patterns of words exhibit a quality known as cohesion. This means that they form coherent

units. Phrases are an important coherent grammatical unit. Words that cohere are cohesive: they

appear to act not as individual words but as a single unit, e.g. 'inside out', 'at three o'clock', 'the

awful creature', 'has been eating', 'in a traditional manner'. These examples of coherent groups are

all phrases, but clauses, sentences and discourses are also, if they are to be effective in

communicating ideas and facts, coherent.

At the level of discourse, the reader or listener also needs to be able to link the different sentences

and paragraphs (or stanzas in a poem, etc) in a logical way. This is achieved by many linguistic

means including, graphology, semantics, pragmatics, narrative structure, tone, lists, pronouns,

proper nouns, repetition of either logical or similar ideas, use of synonyms, and so on. The analysis

of the cohesive qualities (i.e. the coherence) of a text is the analysis of discourse structure.

Accent refers solely to the way words are pronounced, e.g. in the south of England, it is normal to

pronounce the word path as p-ar-th, but in the Midlands and the North, the phoneme 'a' is

articulated as a short vowel and pronounced as in, 'cat'. The accent known as 'Received

Pronunciation' is considered as a prestige accent and is one frequently heard on television and

radio news bulletins, for example.

Dialect refers to choices of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation made by people in different

geographical regions or social contexts. The dialect known as 'Standard English' is generally

considered to be a prestige dialect and is the choice of many teachers, business people,

newsreaders, etc.



87

www.viu.es

ESP; Refers to English for Specific Purposes, such as technical terms related to medicine, law or

business academic vocabulary.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

88



89

www.viu.es

References and Websites

Unit 1

CLIL COMPENDIUM

www.clilcompendium.com

COUNCIL OF EUROPE, LANGUAGE POLICY DIVISION LEAFLET

www.coe.int/lang

ISTE. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION

www.iste.org

METIRI 21ST SKILLS

www.metiri.com

Unit 2

DEMETRIOU, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span

developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.

DEMETRIOU, A., SHAYER, M., & EFKLIDES, A. (1992). Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and

applications to education. London: Routledge.

CHOMSKY, N. (1959). A review of B.F. Skinner’s verbal behavior. Cited in J.A. Fodor. and J.J.KATZ. (1968). The Structure of

Language. Englewood Cliffs. Prentice Hall.

VAN PATTEN B, WILLIAMS J. Theory in Second Language Acquisition.

VYGOTSKY’S PHILOSOPHY: Constructivism and its criticisms examined Liu & Matthews, International Education Journal,

2005, 6(3), 386-399.

http://lingtechguistics.wordpress.com

Unit 3

CUMMINS, J. (2002): Lenguaje, poder y pedagogía, Morata/MECD, Madrid.

CHAMOT, A. U. (1981): Applications of second language acquisition research to the bilingual classroom, NCBE,

Washington.

FABBRO, F. (1999): The neurolinguistics of bilingualism: An introduction. Psychology Press, Hove.

GREGG, K. (1984): “Krashen’s Monitor and Occam’s Razor”, Applied Linguistics, 5 (2).


6ETCS

www.viu.es

90

LIGHLTBOWN, P. - SPADA, N. (1999): How Languages are Leamed, University Press: Oxford.

KRASHEN, S. (1982): Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon, Oxford.

KRASHEN, S. (1985): “The input hypothesis: issues and implications”, Longman, London.

VYGOTSKY, L. S. (1979): El desarrollo de los procesos psicológicos superiores, Grijalbo, Barcelona.

CLARK, R. (1974). ‘Performing without competence’. Journal of Child Language 1.pp 1-10.

COOK, V. (1991). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London. Arnold.

CORDER, S.P. (1967). ‘ The significance of learners’ errors’. International Review of Applied Linguistics 5/4. pp 161-170.

CORDER, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

SELINKER, L. (EDS). COULTER, K. (1968). ‘Linguistic error analysis of the spoken English of two native Russians’.

Unpublished thesis. Cited in Selinker, L. (1992). Rediscovering Interlanguage. New York. Longman.

DAVIES, A., CRIPER, C. AND HOWATT, A.P.R. (1984). Interlanguage. (eds). Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.

DULAY, H. AND BURT, M. (1974). ‘Natural sequences in child second language acquisition’. Language Learning 24 pp 37-

53.

DULAY, H., BURT, M. AND KRASHEN, S. (1982). Language Two. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

FRIES, C.C. (1945). Teaching and Learning English -As a Foreign Language. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan Press.

GASS, S. AND ARD, J. (1980). ‘L2 data, their relevance for language universals’TESOL Quarterly 14 pp 443-452.

GASS, S. AND SELINKER, L. (1983). Language Transfer in Language Learning. (eds). Rowley, Mass. Newbury House.

GASS, S. (1984). ‘Language transfer and language universals’. Language Learning 34/2 pp 115-131.

HAWKINS, J (1983). Word Order Universals. New York. Academic Press.

HYLTENSTAM, K. (1997). ‘Implicational patterns in interlanguage syntax variation’. Language Learning 27/2 pp 383-411.

KEAN, M.L. (1986). ‘Core issues in transfer’. In Kellerman, E and Sharwood Smith, M (eds) KEENAN, E. AND COMRIE, B.

(1977). ‘Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar’. Linguistic Inquiry 8 pp 63-99.

SMITH, M. (EDS) KRASHEN, S.D (1981) Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Oxford. Pergamon

Press.

LADO, R. (1957). Linguistics Across Cultures. Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan

Press.

MIESEL, J. (1980). ‘Strategies of second language acquisition: more than one kind of simplification’. In Davies, A., Criper, C.

and Howatt, A.P.R. (eds). 1984).

RICHARDS, J.C. (1971). ‘A non-contrastive approach to error analysis’ English Language Teaching 25 pp 204-219.

RINGBOM, H (1978). ‘The influence of the mother tongue on the translation of lexical items’. Cited in Kellerman, E. ‘The

empirical evidence for the influence of the L1 in INTERLANGUAGE’ (1984). In Davies, A., Criper, C. and Howatt, A.P.R. (eds).

RUTHERFORD, W. (1983). ‘Description and explanation in interlanguage syntax’. In Davies, A., Criper, C. and Howatt, A.P.R.

(eds). (1984).

SCHACHTER, J. (1974). ‘An error in error analysis’. Language Learning 24 pp 205-214.



91

www.viu.es

SELINKER, L. (1966). ‘A psycholinguistic study of language transfer’. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Cited in Selinker, L.

(1992). Rediscovering Interlanguage. New York. Longman.

SELINKER, L. (1972). ‘Interlanguage’. IRAL 10/3 pp 209-231.

SELINKER, L (1992). Rediscovering Interlanguage. New York. Longman.

Key terms

L1 -Native or first language

L2 -Target or second language

L3 -A third or other learned language

FLA -First language acquisition

SLA -Second language acquisition

FLL -First language learner

SLL -Second language learner

IL -Interlanguage

CA -Contrastive analysis

EA -Error analysis

SOV -Subject-Object-Verb language

SVO -Subject-Verb-Object language

CLI -Cross Linguistic Influence

Unit 4

DOLAN, R. P., & HALL, T. E., (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Implications for large-scale assessment. IDA

Perspectives, 27(4), 22-25.

PETTIG, K. L., (2000). On the road to differentiated. Education Leadership, 8, 1, 14-18.

PISHA, B., & COYNE, P., (2001). Smart from the start: the promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and Special

Education, 22(4), 197-203.

PISHGHADAM, REZA, ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN POSTMODERN ERA. TELL, VOL. 2, NO. 7, 2008.

REIS. S. M., KAPLAN, S. N, TOMLINSON, C. A., WESTBERT, K. L, CALLAHAN, C. M., & COOPER, C. R., (1998). How the brain

learns, A response: Equal does not mean identical. Educational Leadership, 56, 3.

ROSE, D. (2001). Universal Design for Learning: Deriving guiding principles from networks that learn. Journal of Special

Education Technology, 16(2), 66-67.

ROSE, D., & DOLAN, R. P., (2000). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor’s Column. Journal of Special Education

Technology, 15(4), 47-51.


6ETCS

www.viu.es

92

ROSE, D., & MEYER, A., (2000A). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43.

ROSE, D., & MEYER, A., (2000B). Universal Design for Learning: Associate Editor Column. Journal of Special Education

Technology, 15(1), 67-70.

ROSE, D., & MEYER, A., (2002). Teaching Every Student in the Digital Age: Universal Design for Learning. Alexandria, VA:

ASCD.

ROSE, D., SETHURAMAN, S., & MEO, G., (2000). Universal Design for Learning. Journal of Special Education Technology,

15(2), 26-60.

TOMLINSON, C. A., (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms. (2nd Ed.) Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

TOMLINSON, C. A., & ALLAN, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

GUILD, P. B., AND GARGER, S. (1998). WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION? MARCHING TO DIFFERENT DRUMMERS,

2ND ED. (ASCD, P.2).

http://www.ascd.org/

THE ACCESS CENTER

http://www.k8accesscenter.org/

CAST. UDL TOOLKITS: PLANNING FOR ALL LEARNERS (PAL). (N.D.). RETRIEVED AUGUST 19, 2003, FROM

http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/toolkits/tk_introduction.cfm?tk_id=21

TOMLINSON, C. A., (2000). DIFFERENTIATION OF INSTRUCTION IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES. ERIC DIGEST. ERIC_NO:

ED443572.

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED443572

.TOMLINSON, C. A., (1995). DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS IN THE MIXED-ABILITY MIDDLE

SCHOOL CLASSROOM. ERIC DIGEST E536.

http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED389141

TOMLINSON, C. A., & ALLAN, S. D., (2000). LEADERSHIP FOR DIFFERENTIATING SCHOOLS AND CLASSROOMS.

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.


WEB ARTICLE: MAPPING A ROUTE TOWARD DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION.


CAROL ANN TOMLINSON, AN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, FOUNDATIONS

AND POLICY AT THE CURRY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA PROVIDES AN

ARTICLE ENTITLED: MAPPING A ROUTE TOWARD DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION. EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, 57(1).

WILLIS, S. & MANN, L., (2000). DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION: FINDING MANAGEABLE WAYS TO MEET INDIVIDUAL

NEEDS (EXCERPT). CURRICULUM UPDATE.


THE ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (ASCD) WEB SITE




93

www.viu.es

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP RESEARCH LINK


HOLLOWAY, J. H., (2000). PREPARING TEACHERS FOR DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION. EDUCATIONAL

LEADERSHIP, 58(1).

http://web.uvic.ca/~jdurkin/edd401/Differentiated.html

WEB SITE: FOR TEACHERS, ADMINISTRATORS, AND HIGHER EDUCATION

www.teach-nology.com/litined/dif_instruction/

CAST. TEACHING EVERY STUDENT.(N.D). RETRIEVED SEPTEMBER 15, 2003, FROM

http://www.cast.org/teachingeverystudent/.

Unit 5

ATSUKO,OHNO, Communicative Competence and Communicative Language Teaching (pdf.) retrieved 9/9/2010.

BAX, S (2003) the end of clt: a context approach to language teaching elt j 2003 57: 278-287.

LUKE, MEDDINGS (2004-03-26). "THROW AWAY YOUR TEXTBOOKS". THE GUARDIAN.

http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2004/mar/26/tefl.lukemeddings Retrieved 2009-03-10.

SWAN, MICHAEL (1985) in the English Language Teaching Journal 39(1):2-12, and 1985 39(2):76-87.

HARMER, J. (2003) POPULAR CULTURE, METHODS, AND CONTEXT ELT J

Linguist terms:http://www.englishbiz.co.uk/grammar/main_files/definitionsa-m.htm

www.viu.es

Acknowledgements

Consultant


Design and Multimedia Contents

Department

Coordinator

Ms. Mercedes Romero Rodrigo

Designers

Ms. Carmina Gabarda López

Mr. Jorge García Meneu

Ms. Cristina Ruiz Jiménez

Ms. Sara Segovia Martínez

Acknowledgements

Design and Multimedia Contents

Department

Coordinator

Mercedes Romero Rodrigo

esigners

Carmina Gabarda López

Jorge García Meneu

Cristina Ruiz Jiménez

Sara Segovia Martínez

All rights reserved VIU - 2015 ©.

17msec_omartinez

Documents

english language teaching

language learning dimensions

foreign language discipline

language acquisition

form teaching

language education policies

learning theory

teaching ldl