169 gt sequestration cp so2 da

8/14/2019 169 GT Sequestration CP SO2 DA

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Warming CounterplanDDI 2008 TurnsteinValerie

Sequestration Counterplan/SO2 DA

COUNTERPLAN/SO2 DA 1NC ...........................................................................................................................3

................................................................................................................................................................................. 3

**CARBON SEQUESTRATION COUNTERPLAN** .....................................................................................4

Sequestration is tight 4 reasons .........................................................................................................................5

Offsets fossil fuel emissions ...................................................................................................................................6

Solves climate change stores 90% of emissions ................................................................................................7

Solves climate change ............................................................................................................................................8

Solves climate change/productivity ......................................................................................................................9

Solves climate change 100s of years ...............................................................................................................10

Solves better than nuke/wind/solar .....................................................................................................................11TIMEFRAME tech ready now ........................................................................................................................12

Storage feasible ....................................................................................................................................................13

Storage feasible: aquifers = best option .............................................................................................................14

Storage feasible: aquifers = longterm ................................................................................................................15

Storage feasible: works for 1,000 years .............................................................................................................16

Ocean = best place for storage ............................................................................................................................17

Oceans = best place for storage ...........................................................................................................................18

Deep lakes minimize leakage ...............................................................................................................................19

A2: no tech Norway proves ..............................................................................................................................20

A2: no experience with tech ................................................................................................................................21

A2: CO2 screws the ocean ...................................................................................................................................22

A2: leakages irrevocably suck (pH levels) .........................................................................................................23

A2: ocean injections kill deep-sea ecosystems ...................................................................................................24

A2: ocean injections leakage/eco disasters ...................................................................................................25**SO2 DA** .........................................................................................................................................................26

UX: SO2 emissions low now ................................................................................................................................27

UX: SO2 emissions down 70% ...........................................................................................................................28

UX: emissions decreasing now ............................................................................................................................29

Link: Military .......................................................................................................................................................30

Link: Military .......................................................................................................................................................31

Link: Cap and Trade ...........................................................................................................................................32

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Link: hydrogen .....................................................................................................................................................33

SO2 cooling ......................................................................................................................................................34SO2 cooling ......................................................................................................................................................35SO2 cooling ......................................................................................................................................................36SO2 cooling ......................................................................................................................................................37SO2 dimming ...................................................................................................................................................38SO2 dimming ...................................................................................................................................................39A2: SO2 causes acid rain ....................................................................................................................................40

A2: SO2 hurts plants ...........................................................................................................................................41

**AFF COUNTERPLAN ANSWERS** ...........................................................................................................42

Accident asphyxiation ....................................................................................................................................43Accident kills marine life .....................................................................................................................................44

pH changes destruction of deep-sea ecosystems ..........................................................................................45Sequestration sucks 4 reasons ..........................................................................................................................46

Tech not developed ...............................................................................................................................................47

**AFF SO2 DA ANSWERS** ............................................................................................................................48

SO2 causes acid rain ............................................................................................................................................49

SO2 causes acid rain ............................................................................................................................................50

Acid rain bad ........................................................................................................................................................51

Dimming bad causes drought ..........................................................................................................................52

Dimming bad causes drought ..........................................................................................................................53

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COUNTERPLAN/SO2 DA 1NC

Observation 1 Counterplan Text: The United States federal governmentshould mandate the extraction of carbon dioxide from factory emissionsthrough carbon capture and storage. The United States federal governmentshould mandate the disposal of the removed carbon dioxide into the ocean.

Observation 2 the counterplan competes via the net benefit

a. The plan drastically decreases SO2 emissions

Seth Dunn, 7/2k. Micropower: The Next Electrical Era. WORLDWAT C H A P E R151.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf.

Micropowers carbon-saving benefits could be sizable. Studies indicate that the United States could cut power plant carbonemissions by half or more by meeting new demand with microturbines, renewable energy, and fuel cells. In the developingworld, where half of new power generation over the next 20 years is projected to be built, comprising some $1.7 trillion incapital investments, power sector carbon emissions are projected to triple under a business-as-usual scenario. RANDCorporation reports suggest that widescale adoption of distributed power could help lower this trajectory byas much as 42percent. These steps would also cut emissions of sulfur oxides by as much as 72 percent and nitrogen oxides by up to 46percent, while lowering electricity prices by as much as 5 percent.81

b. SO2 solves warming its atmospheric particles reflect harmful solarradiation back into space

NASA, NO DATE, Volcanoes and Global Cooling, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center,

http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/earthsci/volcano.htm

Volcanic eruptions are thought to be responsible for the global cooling that has been observed for a few years after a

major eruption. The amount and global extent of the cooling depend on the force of the eruption and, possibly, its latitude.When large masses of gases from the eruption reach the stratosphere, they can produce a large, widespread cooling effect. As aprime example, the effects of Mount Pinatubo, which erupted in June 1991, may have lasted a few years, serving to offsettemporarily the predicted greenhouse effect.As volcanoes erupt, they blast huge clouds into the atmosphere. These clouds are made up ofparticles and gases, includingsulfur dioxide. Millions of tons of sulfur dioxide gas can reach the stratosphere from a major volcano. There, the sulfur dioxideconverts to tiny persistent sulfuric acid (sulfate) particles, referred to as aerosols. These sulfate particles reflect energycoming from the sun, thereby preventing the sun's rays from heating the Earth.

Global cooling often has been linked with major volcanic eruptions. The year 1816 often has been referred to as "the yearwithout a summer." It was a time of significant weather-related disruptions in New England and in Western Europe with killingsummer frosts in the United States and Canada. These strange phenomena were attributed to a major eruption of the Tamboravolcano in 1815 in Indonesia. The volcano threw sulfur dioxide gas into the stratosphere, and the aerosol layer that formed led tobrilliant sunsets seen around the world for several years.

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http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.


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**CARBON SEQUESTRATION COUNTERPLAN**

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Sequestration is tight 4 reasons

Sequestration restores degraded soils, enhances biomass production, purifies

water, and offsets fossil fuel emissions

Rattan Lal, School of Natural Resources at the College of Food, Agriculture and Environmental Science and Director of the CarbonManagement and Sequestration Center, Nov 2004, Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change, Carbon Management andSequestration Center, Geoderma, Volume 123, Issues 1-2, pgs 1-22,http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V67-4C5PVX0-1&_user=4257664&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000022698&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4257664&md5=96872213ffeafb81a441dd8c7eeed737

The increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 by 31% since 1750 from fossil fuel combustion and land use changenecessitates identification of strategies for mitigating the threat of the attendant global warming. Since the industrial revolution,global emissions of carbon (C) are estimated at 27030 Pg (Pg=petagram=1015 G=1 billion ton) due to fossil fuel combustion

and 13655 Pg due to land use change and soil cultivation. Emissions due to land use change include those by deforestation,biomass burning, conversion of natural to agricultural ecosystems, drainage of wetlands and soil cultivation. Depletion of soilorganic C (SOC) pool have contributed 7812 Pg of C to the atmosphere. Some cultivated soils have lost one-half to two-thirdsof the original SOC pool with a cumulative loss of 3040 Mg C/ha (Mg=megagram=106 G=1 ton). The depletion of soil C isaccentuated by soil degradation and exacerbated by land misuse and soil mismanagement. Thus, adoption of a restorative landuse and recommended management practices (RMPs) on agricultural soils can reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO2while having positive impacts on food security, agro-industries, water quality and the environment. A considerable part of thedepleted SOC pool can be restored through conversion of marginal lands into restorative land uses, adoption of conservationtillage with cover crops and crop residue mulch, nutrient cycling including the use of compost and manure, and other systems ofsustainable management of soil and water resources. Measured rates of soil C sequestration through adoption of RMPs rangefrom 50 to 1000 kg/ha/year. The global potential of SOC sequestration through these practices is 0.90.3 Pg C/year, whichmay offset one-fourth to one-third of the annual increase in atmospheric CO2 estimated at 3.3 Pg C/year. The cumulative

potential of soil C sequestration over 2550 years is 3060 Pg. The soil C sequestration is a truly winwin strategy. It

restores degraded soils, enhances biomass production, purifies surface and ground waters, and reduces the rate of

enrichment of atmospheric CO2 by offsetting emissions due to fossil fuel.

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Offsets fossil fuel emissions

Sequestration offsets fossil fuel emissions

Rattan Lal, School of Natural Resources at the College of Food, Agriculture and Environmental Science and Director of the CarbonManagement and Sequestration Center, Nov 2004, Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change, Carbon Management andSequestration Center, Geoderma, Volume 123, Issues 1-2, pgs 1-22,http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V67-4C5PVX0-1&_user=4257664&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000022698&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4257664&md5=96872213ffeafb81a441dd8c7eeed737

The term soil C sequestration implies removal of atmospheric CO2 by plants and storage of fixed C as soil organic matter.The strategy is to increase SOC density in the soil, improve depth distribution of SOC and stabilize SOC by encapsulating itwithin stable micro-aggregates so that C is protected from microbial processes or as recalcitrant C with long turnover time. Inthis context, managing agroecosystems is an important strategy for SOC/terrestrial sequestration. Agriculture is defined as ananthropogenic manipulation of C through uptake, fixation, emission and transfer of C among different pools. Thus, land usechange, along with adoption of RMPs, can be an important instrument of SOC sequestration (Post and Kwon, 2000). Whereasland misuse and soil mismanagement have caused depletion of SOC with an attendant emission of CO2 and other

GHGs into the atmosphere, there is a strong case that enhancing SOC pool could substantially offset fossil fuel

emissions (Kauppi et al., 2001). However, the SOC sink capacity depends on the antecedent level of SOM, climate, profilecharacteristics and management.

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Solves climate change stores 90% of emissions

Simply reducing fossil fuel usage fails carbon capture has the potential toreduce plant carbon emissions by 90%

The Standford News, 2007, Researchers Examine Carbon Capture And Storage To Combat Global Warming, Lexis

While solar power and hybrid cars have become popular symbols of green technology, Stanford researchers are exploringanother path for cutting emissions of carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas that causes global warming. Carbon captureand storage, also called carbon sequestration, traps carbon dioxide after it is produced and injects it underground.The gas never enters the atmosphere. The practice could transform heavy carbon spewers, such as coal power plants, intorelatively clean machines with regard to global warming."The notion is that the sooner we wean ourselves off fossil fuels, the sooner we'll be able to tackle the climate problem," saidSally Benson, executive director of the Global Climate and Energy Project (GCEP) and professor of energy resourcesengineering. "But the idea that we can take fossil fuels out of the mix very quickly is unrealistic. We're reliant on fossil

fuels, and a good pathway is to find ways to use them that don't create a problem for the climate."Carbon capture has the potential to reduce more than 90 percent of an individual plant's carbon emissions, said LynnOrr, director of GCEP and professor of energy resources engineering. Stationary facilities that burn fossil fuels-such as powerplants or cement factories-would be candidates for the technology, he said.Capturing carbon dioxide from small, mobile sources, such as cars, would be more difficult, Orr said. But with power plantscomprising 40 percent of the world's fossil fuel-derived carbon emissions, he added, the potential for reductions issignificant.

Not only can a lot of carbon dioxide be captured, but the Earth's capacity to store it is also vast, he added.Estimates of worldwide storage capacity range from 2 trillion to 10 trillion tons of carbon dioxide, according to theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its report on carbon capture and storage. Global emissions in 2004totaled 27 billion tons, according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration.If all human-induced emissions were sequestered, enough capacity would exist to accommodate more than 100 years'

worth of emissions, according to Benson, coordinating lead author of the IPCC chapter on underground geological storage.

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Solves climate change

Sequestration increases agronomic production, enhances water quality,reduces sedimentation, and solves global warming

Rattan Lal, School of Natural Resources at the College of Food, Agriculture and Environmental Science and Director of the CarbonManagement and Sequestration Center, Nov 2004, Soil carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change, Carbon Management andSequestration Center, Geoderma, Volume 123, Issues 1-2, pgs 1-22

There are some estimates of the historic loss of C from geologic and terrestrial pools and transfer to the atmospheric pool.From 1850 to 1998, 27030 Pg of C were emitted from fossil fuel burning and cement production (Marland et al., 1999 andIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2000). Of this, 17610 Pg C were absorbed by the atmosphere (Etheridge et al.,1996 and Keeling and Whorf, 1999), and the remainder by the ocean and the terrestrial sinks. During the same period,emissions from land use change are estimated at 13655 Pg C (Houghton, 1995 and Houghton, 1999).There are two components of estimated emissions of 13655 Pg C from land use change: decomposition of vegetation

and mineralization/oxidation of humus or SOC. There are no systematic estimates of the historic loss of SOC uponconversion from natural to managed ecosystems. Jenny (1980) observed that among the causes held responsible for CO2

enrichment, highest ranks are accorded to the continuing burning of fossil fuels and the cutting of forests. The contributions ofsoil organic matter appear underestimated. The historic SOC loss has been estimated at 40 Pg by Houghton (1999), 55 Pg byIPCC (1996) and Schimel (1995), 500 Pg by Wallace (1994), 537 Pg by Buringh (1984) and 6090 Pg by Lal (1999). Until the1950s, more C was emitted into the atmosphere from the land use change and soil cultivation than from fossil fuel combustion.Whereas the exact magnitude of the historic loss of SOC may be debatable, it is important to realize that the process of SOCdepletion can be reversed. Further, improvements in quality and quantity of the SOC pool can increase

biomass/agronomic production, enhance water quality, reduce sedimentation of reservoirs and waterways, and mitigate

risks of global warming.

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Solves climate change 100s of years

Deep aquifers solve they have the capacity to hold CO2 for centuries

Robert Socolow, BA in physics from Harvard, PhD in Theoretical High Energy Physics from Harvard, published author, co-principal investigator of Princeton Universitys Carbon Mitigation Initiative, Sept. 1997, Fuels Decarbonization and CarbonSequestration: Report of a Workshop, Princeton University,http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/research/Integration/Papers/decarbonization.pdf

A plausible technological approach is beginning to emerge for the successful human management of carbon on a global scaleindefinitelywithout requiring, a priori, the sacrifice of the energy value of oil, gas, and coal. Using the vast quantities ofcarbon in fossil fuels in new ways could significantly reduce the rate of increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in theatmosphere. Implementing this safer fossil concept will require the traditional industries of oil, gas, and coal to assume a leadrole. Effective partnerships will require the involvement of industry, government, academia, national laboratories, and non-governmental organizations. The core idea is to separate the energy function from the carbon content of fossil fuels. Fuelswould be decarbonized and used efficiently. The removed carbon would be deliberately sequestered, that is, disposedof at a high concentration in such a way that the carbon does not reach the atmosphere for centuries or longer. Climate

concerns would be directly addressed. For example, natural gas could be steam reformed into hydrogen and carbondioxide. The hydrogen could provide the fuel for fuel cells and combustion systems where hydrogen has a comparativeadvantage as a fuel. The carbon dioxide could be pumped into saline aquifers a kilometer or more below ground or into thedeep ocean. The sequestration capacity in the deep ocean and in deep aquifers appears to be adequate for at least severalcenturies of carbon disposal, although in both cases there are important unresolved questions related to integrity of storage,the interaction of deep and surface waters, accident hazard, and direct environmental impact. Earlier studies have explored thesequestration of carbon dioxide produced at point sources, especially power plants. This report expands the objective to includethe sequestration of carbon dioxide that would ordinarily be produced at dispersed sites, as a result of combustion in vehicleengines and at industrial and commercial facilities. Such a broad use of fossil fuels in ways compatible with thesequestration of their carbon could permit a significant fraction of the carbon in the fossil fuels used over the next

several centuries not to be emitted directly to the atmosphere.

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Solves better than nuke/wind/solar

Sequestration technology is better than a transition to nuke, wind or solar

energy

Klaus S. Lackner, 6/13/03, Climate Change: A Guide to CO2 Sequestration, Vol 300, no 5626, pg 1677-1678,http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/300/5626/1677

Cost predictions for sequestration are uncertain, but $30 per ton of CO2 (equivalent to $13 per barrel of oil or 25 per gallonof gas) appears achievable in the long term. Initially, niche markets (for example, in enhanced oil recovery) would keepdisposal costs low, with capture at retrofitted power plants dominating costs. Over time, new power plant designs couldreduce capture costs, but the costs of disposal would rise as cheap sites fill up and demands on permanence and safetytighten. Some applications--for example, in vehicles and airplanes--could accommodate the higher price of CO2 capturefrom air, eliminating CO2 transport and opening up remote disposal sites.Today's urgent need for substantive CO2 emission reductions could be satisfied more cheaply by available

sequestration technology than by an immediate transition to nuclear, wind or solar energy. Further development of

sequestration would assure plentiful, low-cost energy for the century, giving better alternatives ample time to mature.

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TIMEFRAME tech ready now

Solvency is immediate sequestration infrastructure is established now

Jet Fuel Intelligence,2007, US Lawmakers Craft Policies To Spur Alternative Energy Lexis

With the Democratic-controlled Congress granting high priority to mitigating climate change and reducing oil dependence,alternative energy policies are gaining momentum. Since a move to alternative energy from traditional fuels like oil and gaswould help alleviate climate change, Reicher said a price on carbon dioxide emissions would send a message to investors toseek out cleaner technologies. "If you want to leverage private-sector investments, you need federal policies to stimulate cleantechnologies," said Reicher . Montana Governor Brian Schweitzer, for one, wants to keep tapping the abundant coal in hisstate and at the same time address climate change through carbon sequestration. "Coal won't be a future unless there iscarbon sequestration," he said. Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) is ready right now for full-scale deployment,asserted Robert Socolow , a professor at Princeton University . BP's Carson refinery, which is expected to gasify 4,500 tons perday of petcoke , is the best evidence for the readiness of CCS for full-scale deployment, he said. More importantly, thecaptured carbon can be used for enhanced oil recovery, said Socolow , calling for policies to make the oil and gas industry andthe coal industry work together. Further, Socolow suggested that coal-to-liquids (CTL) facilities that are increasingly gainingsupport in Congress should not be given tax credits unless they deploy CCS. He said policies supportive of CCS have tosupplement a cap-and-trade policy to reduce carbon dioxide and other climate change-causing greenhouse gas emissions.

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Storage feasible: aquifers = best option

Sequestration is the most climate-responsive option aquifers have thecapacity to contain millennia-worth of CO2


It would be preferable for the carbon in a fuel not to become a waste stream at all after the fuel is used, but rather to find asecond use with economic value. New uses of carbon dioxide in the fossil fuel industries may augment its current role inenhanced oil recovery, while also providing for its sequestration. Discoveries in chemistry and bioprocessing could lead toproductive uses of carbon dioxide or carbon to produce chemicals, materials, or even food constituents, and some of these uses

may also be compatible with sequestration. The quantity of carbon in the carbon dioxide produced by fossil fuel combustion,however, is currently many times larger than the quantity of carbon used in all industrial processes and products (a list thatincludes asphalt, plastics, solvents, and thousands of other intermediate and final goods). Thus, at least in the near future, onlya small fraction of the fossil-fuel carbon used to provide energy can be used again. For the rest, direct sequestration seems tobe the most climate-responsive option. The concept of fuels decarbonization and carbon sequestration has taken on newplausibility for two reasons: (1) hydrogen fuel cells are developing rapidly and could become one of the principal energyconversion devices of the 21st century; and (2) estimates of the storage capacity available underground for thesequestration of carbon dioxide have been revised upward, based on new geological insights. Both the ocean and deep

saline aquifers appear to have the capacity to contain centuries, if not millennia, ofcarbon dioxide released to the

environment by fossil fuels used at current rates, although leakage rates, accident hazards, and environmental impacts areamong the many unresolved issues at this time. Fuels decarbonization with carbon sequestration is just one of severalcomplementary approaches to reducing the rate of increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Other approaches includeefficiency improvements, fuel switching, carbon-free renewable and nuclear energy sources, biomass energy, and biologicalsequestration of carbon dioxide. There is an evident need for a coordinated global research and development effort withinwhich all will receive increased attention.

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Storage feasible: aquifers = longterm

Aquifers are hella big and are the best long-term option


Deep aquifers may be the largest long-term underground sequestration option. (Deep is defined to be deeper than 800meters, or 2500 feet, the depth at which carbon dioxide in hydrostatic equilibrium reaches its critical pressure; at its criticalpoint the density of carbon dioxide is about half the density of water.) Such aquifers are saline, and usually they arehydraulically separated from the shallower sweet water aquifers and surface water supplies used by people. Deep aquifersare widely distributed below both the continents and the ocean floor. Their potential sequestration capacity may be

thousands of gigatons of carbon, corresponding to as much as a thousand years of carbon production from fossil fuels at

current rates of use. The sequestration capacity available in deep aquifers is many times larger if carbon dioxide can besequestered in large horizontal reservoirs instead of being limited to reservoirs that are analogous to the structural orstratigraphic traps in which oil and gas are found. The judgment that many of the worlds abundant large horizontal reservoirswill confine carbon dioxide is based on the expectation that the carbon dioxide will dissolve into the surrounding formationwater before migrating more than a few kilometers toward the basin margins. The idea that large horizontal reservoirs willprovide secure sequestration is relatively new; it has led to an increase in confidence that long-term sequestration of asignificant fraction of the next several centuries of carbon dioxide production from human activity may be feasible.

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Storage feasible: works for 1,000 years

Aquifers can hold 2,000 years of CO2 emissions for up to 1,000 years


The worlds oceans represent the largest potential sink for anthropogenic carbon dioxide. They already contain about 40,000gigatons (billions of metric tons) of carbon, largely as bicarbonate and carbonate ions. Estimates of ultimate sequestrationcapacity in the worlds oceans can be derived by choosing a nominal allowable change in the average acidity of all ocean

water: such estimates are in the range of 1,000-10,000 gigatons of carbon, the equivalent of 200 to 2,000 years of current

carbon emissions from fossil fuels. If the injected carbon dioxide can be incorporated in the general oceanic deep water

circulation, a residence time of up to 1,000 years can be anticipated. The surface layer of the ocean (roughly, the first 100meters) contains some water that has come up from a great depth after being below the surface for centuries. In pre- industrialtimes, the upwelling carbon dioxide brought the same amount of carbon dioxide into the surface ocean as the downwellingcarbon dioxide removed, with no net flow between the atmosphere and the ocean. As a result of the buildup of carbon dioxidein the atmosphere over, roughly, the past century, these flows are no longer in balance. Instead, there is a net flow of carbondioxide from the atmosphere to the upper layer of the ocean, currently at a rate of about 2 gigatons of carbon per year. Theocean will eventually absorb roughly 90% of present-day atmospheric emissions. Thus, discharging carbon dioxide directlyinto the ocean would accelerate a slow natural process by which anthropogenic carbon dioxide already enters the oceanindirectly. The best injection option in the near-term appears to be dissolution at depths between 1,000 and 1,500 meters (3,000to 5,000 feet) by pipeline or towed pipe. For the longer-term, however, very deep injection may be desirable. Laboratorymeasurements reveal that the density of carbon dioxide exceeds the density of seawater beginning at a depth of 3,500 meters(2.2 miles). Carbon dioxide placed on the ocean bottom at that depth or greater may form a relatively immobile lake.

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Ocean = best place for storage

The ocean is a safe place to store CO2 it already contains CO2, meaninginjections wont change the carbon concentration drastically

Howard Herzog, MA and PhD in Chemical Engineering from MIT and program manager for the Carbon Sequestration Initiative, andDan Golomb, PhD from Hebrew University in Jerusalem and Professor at University of Massachusetts Lowell in air pollution andcontrol, 2004, Carbon Capture and Storage from Fossil Fuel Use, Encyclopedia of Energy, Vol 1,http://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/enclyclopedia_of_energy_article.pdf

By far, the ocean represents the largest potential sink for anthropogenic CO2. It already contains an estimated 40,000

GtC (billion metric tons of carbon) compared with only 750 GtC in the atmosphere and 2200 GtC in the terrestrial

biosphere. Apart from the surface layer, deep ocean water is unsaturated with respect to CO2. It is estimated that if all

the anthropogenic CO2 that would double the atmospheric concentration were injected into the deep ocean, it would

change the ocean carbon concentration by less than 2%, and lower its pH by less than 0.15 units. Furthermore, the

deep waters of the ocean are not hermetically separated from the atmosphere. Eventually, on a time scale of 1000 years,

over 80% of todays anthropogenic emissions of CO2 will be transferred to the ocean. Discharging CO2 directly to theocean would accelerate this ongoing but slow natural process and would reduce both peak atmospheric CO2

concentrations and their rate of increase. In order to understand ocean storage of CO2, some properties of CO2 andseawater need to be elucidated. For efficiency and economics of transport, CO2 would be discharged in its liquid phase. Ifdischarged above about 500 m depth, that is at a hydrostatic pressure less than 50 atm, liquid CO2 would immediately flashinto a vapor, and bubble up back into the atmosphere. Between 500 and about 3000 m, liquid CO2 is less dense than seawater,therefore it would ascend by buoyancy. It has been shown by hydrodynamic modeling that if liquid CO2 were released in thesedepths through a diffuser such that the bulk liquid breaks up into droplets less than about 1 cm in diameter, the ascendingdroplets would completely dissolve before rising 100 m. Because of the higher compressibility of CO2 compared to seawater,below about 3000 m liquid CO2 becomes denser than seawater, and if released there, would descend to greater depths. Whenliquid CO2 is in contact with water at temperatures less than 10oC and pressures greater than 44.4 atm, a solid hydrate isformed in which a CO2 molecule occupies the center of a cage surrounded by water molecules. For droplets injected intoseawater, only a thin film of hydrate forms around the droplets.

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Oceans = best place for storage

Oceans are the bestest places for CO2 storage they have an unlimitedcapacity to absorb carbon, creating conditions that would support a stable

lake

Soren Anderson, department of Economics at the University of Michigan, and Richard Newell, Energy and Natural ResourcesDivision in the District of Columbia, 6/8/04, Prospects for Carbon Capture and Storage Technologies, Annual Review ofEnvironment and Resources, Vol 29, pg 109-142,http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.energy.29.082703.145619

Oceans have by far the largest potential capacity for storage of captured CO2. They already contain some 40,000 GtC of

carbon, mainly as stable carbonate ions, and have a virtually unlimited capacity to absorb even more (14). Natural ocean

uptake of CO2 is a slow process that works over millennia to balance atmospheric and oceanic concentrations.Anthropogenic emissions of carbon have upset this balance, and there is currently an estimated net flow of 2 GtC per year fromthe atmosphere to ocean surface waters, which are eventually transferred to the deeper ocean. Indeed, roughly 90% of present-day emissions will eventually end up in the ocean, but we know little about the effect on marine organisms and ecosystems

(14).Direct injection of captured CO2 into the ocean would greatly accelerate the process, bypassing the potentially damagingatmospheric concentrations of CO2 but generating certain new risks. As with natural absorption, direct injection of CO2 increasesthe acidity of the oceanbut at a rate that may not give marine organisms time to adapt. By applying what they deem anacceptable increase in average ocean-water acidity, scientists have estimated the storage capacity of the ocean at roughly 1000 to10,000 GtC (14). If 100% of global carbon emissions were captured and stored in the ocean, this would imply roughly 200 to2000 years of emissions storage at the current global emissions rate of 6.1 GtC per year. Storage times of up to 500 years for twothirds of the CO2 may be possible, provided it is injected initially at depths of 1000 meters or more (15, 73).There are several potential methods for ensuring that injected CO2 reaches these depths (12, 15, 74). The most practical near-term option appears to be injection at depths of 1000 to 1500 meters by a pipeline or towed pipeline, which would create arising stream of CO2 that would be absorbed into surrounding waters. Alternatively, a carefully controlled shallow release ofdense seawater and absorbed CO2 would sink to the deeper ocean, especially if aided by a natural sinking currentwhere saltyMediterranean enters the Atlantic Ocean. Other experiments show that CO2 exceeds the density of seawater at 3000 meters and

deeper (29).If CO2 is injected at these depths, it would, in theory, sink to the ocean floor to form a stable, isolated lake. Finally, solidCO2, or dry ice, is 1.5 times as dense as surface-level seawater and blocks of it could be dropped into the ocean and sink todepths sufficient for long-term storage (12, 15, 29). Unfortunately, refrigeration and compression of CO2 are quite costly.

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Deep lakes minimize leakage

CO2 lakes minimize risk of leakage into the atmosphere


There are two primary methods under serious consideration for injecting CO2 into the ocean. One involves dissolution ofCO2 at mid-depths (1500-3000 m) by injecting it from a bottom mounted pipe from shore or from a pipe towed by a movingCO2 tanker. The other is to inject CO2 below 3000 m, where it will form a "deep lake". Benefits of the dissolution methodare that it relies on commercially available technology and the resulting plumes can be made to have high dilution to minimizeany local environmental impacts due to increased CO2 concentration or reduced pH. The concept of a CO2 lake is based ona desire to minimize leakage to the atmosphere. Research is also looking at an alternate option of injecting the CO2 in theform of bicarbonate ions in solution. For example, seawater could be brought into contact with flue gases in a reactor vessel ata power plant, and that CO2-rich water could be brought into contact with crushed carbonate minerals, which would thendissolve and form bicarbonate ions. Advantages of this scheme are that only shallow injection is required (>200 m) and no pHchanges will result. Drawbacks are the need for large amounts of water and carbonate minerals.

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A2: no tech Norway proves

Sequestration works Norway proves


Within the past year a carbon dioxide sequestration project was begun whose sole purpose is to prevent carbon dioxide fromreaching the atmosphere. Statoil, the largest Norwegian oil company, is separating carbon dioxide originally present inthe natural gas produced at Sleipner West, a gas reservoir in Norwegian waters in the North Sea, and is reinjecting the

carbon dioxide into a nearby reservoir, about 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) below the sea floor. In this first-of-a-kinddemonstration, Statoil is adapting existing technology and learning how to lower costs. Statoil is conducting this project inresponse to a decision by the government of Norway to extend its carbon dioxide emissions tax to emissions associated with oiland gas production. The tax is $55 per metric ton of carbon dioxide, the equivalent of $200 per metric ton of carbon. Alsoimposed as a portion of the tax on gasoline, Norways tax is equivalent to about 50 cents per U.S. gallon. (Throughout thisreport, we report numerical results in multiple units; see the Technical Appendix for unit conversions and definitions.) B. Attodays scale of deployment in industry, fuel decarbonization and carbon sequestration are well matched; they might becombined effectively in pilot programs.The steam reformers being built for oil refineries and chemical plants today are, at thesame time, both large providers of hydrogen and large point sources of carbon dioxide. Quantitatively, the magnitudes of thepoint sources of carbon dioxide associated with todays large hydrogen production units are well matched to the magnitudes ofcarbon dioxide managed by todays sequestration technology. Consider the following calculation. The typical hydrogenproduction capacity of the large steam methane reformers currently being built is 1 billion Nm3 per year (100 million standardcubic feet per day). Assuming that, measured by volume, three times as much hydrogen as carbon dioxide is produced (anapproximately energy-based balanced reactionsee technical appendix , the same plant is a source of 600,000 metric tons ofcarbon dioxide per year (30 million cubic feet of carbon dioxide per day). By comparison the carbon dioxide point sourcearising from natural gas production at Norways Sleipner West field, and now being sequestered, is 1 million metric

tons of carbon dioxide per year. Thus, the two carbon dioxide point sources are of comparable size. Of course, one cannotconclude from this calculation alone that carbon dioxide capture from centralized hydrogen production is a viable idea, even

when the distance between a current fuel decarbonization site and a potential carbon sequestration site is small. But one canconclude that at least one relevant sequestration technology is already at hand. It would seem worth exploring whether

some of the carbon dioxide point sources associated with industrial-scale hydrogen production at ammonia plants and

oil refineries could be the targets of pilot experiments designed to co-optimize hydrogen production and carbon

sequestration.

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A2: no experience with tech

Extraction and storage technology is 60 years old its efficient, and theresno risk of accidents


Many view CCS as a promising third alternative to relying solely on increasing energy efficiency and switching to less carbon-intensive energy sources. Carbon capture technologies themselves are not new. Specialized chemical solvents weredeveloped more than 60 years ago to remove CO2 from impure natural gas. These solvents are still in use. Severalindustries, such as food-processing and power plants, use the same or similar solvents to recover CO2 from their flue gases.Finally, a variety of alternative methods are used to separate CO2 from gas mixtures during the production of hydrogen forpetroleum refining, ammonia production, and other industries (28). Although capture technologies are considered relativelymature, some believe that substantial technical improvements and cost reductions could be realized if applied on a large scale

(15).Oil producers have significant experience with some carbon storage technologies. As prices rose in the late 1970s and early1980s, U.S. producers found it profitable to extract oil from previously depleted fields by means of enhanced oil recovery(EOR) methods. These methods involve injecting liquefied CO2 to repressurize the field, which facilitates the extraction ofadditional oil but can also store the injected CO2. Falling energy prices caused these particular capture operations to shut down,but the use of EOR methods continues. It accounts for 9 million (metric) tons of carbon (MtC), about 80% of the CO2 used byU.S. industry every year (14, 29). Most injected CO2 is currently extracted from natural formations, however, and does notrepresent a net reduction in emissions.Worldwide, the only known industrial operation engaged in CCS for the explicit purpose of avoiding carbon emissions isStatoil's natural gas mining operation off the shore of Norway. Rather than pay Norway's hefty carbon emissions tax of $140/tCin 2000 (20), Statoil has been compressing and injecting the captured CO2 into an aquifer below the ocean floor since 1996, ata cost of approximately $55/tC (30). The project incurred an incremental investment cost of $80 million dollars, with an annualtax savings of $55 million dollars. Scientific monitoring of the site indicates that the aquifer is indeed holding the injectedCO2, though continuing observation will provide a better indication of storage stability (31).Although CCS technologies are currently not widely used as a way to avoid carbon emissions, we have already seen that it istechnically feasible to capture CO2 from flue gases and store it in geologic formations. In this review, we examineopportunities for applying CCS technologies on a much larger scale, considering issues of cost and timing. We also describeremaining environmental uncertainties and risks, particularly in the section on transportation and storage.

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A2: CO2 screws the ocean

Released liquid CO2 droplets would dissolve in ocean water before they werereleased into atmosphere


By far, the ocean represents the largest potential sink for anthropogenic CO2. It already contains an estimated 40,000 GtC(billion metric tons of carbon) compared with only 750 GtC in the atmosphere and 2200 GtC in the terrestrial biosphere. Apartfrom the surface layer, deep ocean water is unsaturated with respect to CO2. It is estimated that if all the anthropogenic CO2that would double the atmospheric concentration were injected into the deep ocean, it would change the ocean carbonconcentration by less than 2%, and lower its pH by less than 0.15 units. Furthermore, the deep waters of the ocean are nothermetically separated from the atmosphere. Eventually, on a time scale of 1000 years, over 80% of todays anthropogenicemissions of CO2 will be transferred to the ocean. Discharging CO2 directly to the ocean would accelerate this ongoing but

slow natural process and would reduce both peak atmospheric CO2 concentrations and their rate of increase. In order tounderstand ocean storage of CO2, some properties of CO2 and seawater need to be elucidated. For efficiency and economicsof transport, CO2 would be discharged in its liquid phase. If discharged above about 500 m depth, that is at a hydrostaticpressure less than 50 atm, liquid CO2 would immediately flash into a vapor, and bubble up back into the atmosphere. Between500 and about 3000 m, liquid CO2 is less dense than seawater, therefore it would ascend by buoyancy. It has been shown byhydrodynamic modeling that if liquid CO2 were released in these depths through a diffuser such that the bulk liquid

breaks up into droplets less than about 1 cm in diameter, the ascending droplets would completely dissolve before rising

100 m. Because of the higher compressibility of CO2 compared to seawater, below about 3000 m liquid CO2 becomes denserthan seawater, and if released there, would descend to greater depths. When liquid CO2 is in contact with water attemperatures less than 10oC and pressures greater than 44.4 atm, a solid hydrate is formed in which a CO2 molecule occupiesthe center of a cage surrounded by water molecules. For droplets injected into seawater, only a thin film of hydrate formsaround the droplets.

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A2: leakages irrevocably suck (pH levels)

No risk of fluctuations in pH levels dispersal of CO2 injections means marineorganisms wont be exposed to lethal conditions


Discharging CO2 into the deep ocean appears to elicit significant opposition, especially by some environmental groups.Often, discharging CO2 is equated with dumping toxic materials into the ocean, ignoring that CO2 is not toxic, that dissolvedcarbon dioxide and carbonates are natural ingredients of seawater, and as stated before, atmospheric CO2 will eventuallypenetrate into deep water anyway. This is not to say that seawater would not be acidified by injecting CO2. The magnitude ofthe impact on marine organisms depends on the extent of pH change and the duration of exposure. This impact can be

mitigated by the method of CO2 injection, e.g. dispersing the injected CO2 by an array of diffusers, or adding

pulverized limestone to the injected CO in order to buffer the carbonic acid.

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A2: ocean injections kill deep-sea ecosystems

Ocean acidity is inevitable dispersal of injected CO2 avoids catastrophic

consequences for sea life


Despite the large potential capacity, the negative environmental effects of ocean storage are the most uncertain of the storageoptions and seem likely to be the highest. The primary issue would be the increased acidity of the ocean, with potential effectssuch as corrosion of organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletal structures. One should keep in mind, however, thatthe ocean will eventually absorb about 90% of present-day atmospheric emissions anyway, also leading to increased

acidity. But direct injection would also lead to more rapid and localized effects. If injected CO2 is sufficiently dispersed, as

could occur from a deeply towed pipeline, then mortality of marine organisms could, in principle, be largely avoided.

The high concentrations of CO2 needed for shallow-water injection could lead to significant increases in acidity over severalkilometers (12) and could have serious adverse impacts on marine organisms. For most methods, however, acidity would

increase primarily at depths of 1000 meters or greater, with potentially less serious environmental effects if the CO2 remains in

the deep ocean where there is a lower abundance of marine organisms. Nonetheless, Siebel & Walsh (75) find evidence that

deep-sea organisms are highly sensitive to even modest pH changes, indicating that small perturbations in CO2 or pH may have

important consequences for the ecology of the deep sea and for the global biogeochemical cycles dependent on deep-seaecosystems.

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http://popref2%28%27b12%27%29/http://popref2%28%27b75%27%29/http://popref2%28%27b12%27%29/http://popref2%28%27b75%27%29/


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A2: ocean injections leakage/eco disasters

Risk of leakage is small CO2 would dissolve in ocean water


Although depleted oil and gas reservoirs represent the best near-term storage option, deep aquifers may represent a betteroption in the longer term, as shown in Table 3. Deep aquifers, whose locations are mapped in Figure 1, are generally bettermatched to sources of emissions than oil and gas reservoirs, implying lower transport costs. Whereas the specific properties ofoil and gas reservoirs are better understood, the potential U.S. storage capacity of aquifers is much larger, ranging from 1 GtCto 150 GtC (68) and providing storage for up to 100 years of emissions. Estimated costs are about $5/tC to $45/tC stored, witha base case estimate of about $10/tC (64).Although there is uncertainty regarding the environmental effects of CO2 storage in aquifers, most studies suggest that

adverse effects can be mitigated by choosing suitable locations (69). Suitable aquifers will have an impermeable cap,prohibiting the release of injected CO2, and high permeability and porosity below, allowing large quantities of injected

CO2 to be distributed uniformly (15). Most such aquifers are saline and separated geologically from shallower

freshwater aquifers and surface water supplies used by humans. Theoretically, there is the potential for leakage intogroundwater drinking supplies, but the risk is small. Several states have in fact permitted the limited storage of variousliquid and gaseous wastes in deep aquifers. Injected CO2 would likely displace formation water at first but would eventuallydissolve into pore fluids. Under ideal circumstances, chemical reactions between absorbed CO2 and surrounding rock wouldlead to the formation of highly stable carbonates, which may result in longer storage times (52).

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**SO2 DA**

West Coast Love 26


27/53


UX: SO2 emissions low now

SO2 emissions low now the Clean Air Act imposed strict regulations

A. Denny Ellerman, Sloan School of Management and Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research at the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, and Juan-Pablo Montero, Department of Industrial Engineering, Catholic University of Chile, Santiago,Chile and Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2/26/98, The DecliningTrend in Sulfur Dioxide Emissions: Implications for Allowance Prices,http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJ6-45J59WG-J&_user=4257664&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000022698&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=4257664&md5=b847aaf63469e3285c39e115bccbd46f

The low price of allowances has been a frequently noted feature of the implementation of Title IV ofthe Clean Air ActAmendments of 1990.2 This legislation imposed a 50% reduction ofacid rain precursor emissions, primarily sulfur dioxideby what is the largest public policy experiment in the use of fully tradable emission permits.3 These permits, calledallowances, convey the right to emit 1 ton of SO in the year of issuance or any subsequent year. Early estimates ofallowance prices ranged from $250 to 400.4 Some early bilateral allowance trades were reported at prices within this range;however, the first annual auction, in March 1993, cleared at a price of $131. At the time, this price was viewed as too low, butsubsequent auctions and the development of a sizeable private market for allowances continue to indicate an early Phase I priceat or below this figure.5, 6 This paper contributes to the ongoing discussion and growing literature on the reasons for lowallowance prices.7 In particular, we draw attention to the decline in SO emissions prior to 1995, the year in which Title IVbecame effective. When2 Title IV was enacted in 1990, SO emissions were not expected to fall, particularly2 with rising coaluse. An unanticipated decline in SO emissions would have2 implications for allowance prices: they would be lower because thereduction in SO emissions imposed by Title IV is less than had been expected. The effectively2 constrained and economicallymeaningful reduction in emissions is to be measured from what would have occurred absent the cap, not from some earlier yearnor from earlier forecasts of expected emissions. If earlier estimates of counterfactual emissions erred on the high side, actualcosts would be lower than predicted and vice versa. In this paper, we conclude that SO emissions have declined mostly for2reasons unrelated to Title IV. As a result, the emission constraint imposed by Title IV is less binding, and the marginal cost ofcompliance, as well as the price of allowances, can be expected to be lower than had been initially predicted.

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UX: SO2 emissions down 70%

SO2 emissions on the decline China decreased its emissions by 70% in the

past 9 years

Beijing 2008, 7/20/08, Beijing minus 2 million cars, The Official Website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games,http://en.beijing2008.cn/news/olympiccities/beijing/n214464457.shtml

(BEIJING, July 20) 246 "blue sky" days were reported in 2007 in Beijing, an increase of over one and a half fold over thenumber of "blue sky" days in 1998, reported Xinhua.Since Beijing declared its intention of hosting the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 1998, the city's residents have seenmarked improvement in their daily lives. Thanks to measures regarding environmental protection, such as the one that wentinto effect on July 20, limiting the number of cars on the roads, Beijingers are breathing fresher air and seeing clearer skies.Starting on Sunday, motor vehicles in Beijing will be restricted from being on the roads on days that they are not pre-approvedfor, according to their license plate numbers, following Olympic regulations. This, along with other regulations already in placein the capital city, means a decrease of about 2 million motor vehicles on the roads every day. The emissions from motor

vehicles in Beijing are blamed as one of the major sources of the city's pollution.Experts estimate that during the Games, these restrictions can decrease motor vehicle pollution by 63%, or 118,000 tons offloating pollutants.Since 1998, Beijing has invested 1.4 billion yuan to control pollution in the city, concentrating on limiting the

contamination coming from coal production, motor vehicles, and factories.

Comparing data between 1998 and 2007, sulfur dioxide has decreased by 69.8%, carbon monoxide by 39.4% and nitrogendioxide by 10.8%.

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UX: emissions decreasing now

SO2 emissions decreasing now power plants are reducing emissions by one-third

Associated Press, 7/13/08, 1 power plant to add, another to lower pollution, http://www.dailypress.com/news/local/virginia/dp-va-appalachian-emiss0713jul13,0,3719715.story

ABINGDON, Va. - A coal-fired power plant under construction in Wise County will add to southwest Virginia's air pollution, but anexisting generating station nearby will reduce some of its emissions.The process for approving air permits for the $1.8 billion Dominion Virginia Power plant resulted in a discovery that AppalachianPower's Clinch River plant could exceed its permitted sulfur dioxide emissions.Under a consent order between the utility and the state Department of Environmental Quality, Appalachian will reduce its emissionsby about one-third, company spokesman John Shepelwich said Friday."We haven't ever been in noncompliance, Shepelwich said, but "under the worst case, we could exceed the standards."Appalachian has a current limit of 28,000 tons per year of sulfur dioxide, but the consent order issued last month will cut the

maximum to about 19,000 tons at the Russell County plant. The company plans to achieve that limit by Jan. 1.

Dominion's 585-megawatt Virginia City Hybrid Energy Center will be allowed to emit just over 600 tons of sulfur dioxide a year,meaning a net decrease in emissions of that pollutant allowed in the region.Appalachian's plant will achieve the reduction by burning more low-sulfur coal, Shepelwich said. A mixer will be installed at the 50-year-old plant to monitor and blend the types of coal burned to achieve the lower sulfur level.In addition, the consent order calls for four monitors to be placed in the area to monitor the sulfur dioxide emissions. If they reach acertain level, Shepelwich said, the plant will cut back on generation of electricity at the 705-megawatt plant.The limit on sulfur dioxide exceeds one requirement of a nearly $80 million settlement reached last fall between Appalachian's parent,American Electric Power, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. That agreement requires the Clinch River plant to reducesulfur dioxide emissions to 21,700 tons a year by Jan. 1, 2010, then to 16,300 by Jan. 1, 2015.Under that settlement, Appalachian also is required to cut nitrogen dioxide emissions at the plant. Sulfur dioxide and nitrogendioxide contribute to acid rain.

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Link: Military

A transition to commercial fuel cells would cut US emissions, including sulfuroxides, by 72% - this is their 1AC evidence

Seth Dunn, 7/2k. Micropower: The Next Electrical Era. WORLDWAT C H A P E R151.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf.

Micropowers carbon-saving benefits could be sizable. Studies indicate that the United States could cut power plant carbonemissions by half or more by meeting new demand with microturbines, renewable energy, and fuel cells. In the developingworld, where half of new power generation over the next 20 years is projected to be built, comprising some $1.7 trillion incapital investments, power sector carbon emissions are projected to triple under a business-as-usual scenario. RANDCorporation reports suggest that widescale adoption of distributed power could help lower this trajectory byas much as 42percent. These steps would also cut emissions of sulfur oxides by as much as 72 percent and nitrogen oxides by up to 46percent, while lowering electricity prices by as much as 5 percent.81

West Coast Love 30
http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/EWP151.pdf%3C/span%3E.


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Link: Cap and Trade

Cap and trade programs mandate decreased SO2 emissions

MarkPeters, staff writer for the Wall Street Journal, 7/11/08, Court Strikes Down Emission Rule, In Blow to Bush Administration,Wall Street Journal,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121581135469946937.html?mod=googlenews_wsj

The EPA program faced opposition from states and the power industry, challenging in federal court the regulations finalized in2005. Their concerns ranged from the costs of compliance to the speed at which the rules addressed pollution carried by windsacross state lines.The court decision had an immediate effect on environmental markets established more than a decade ago to reduce acid rain.The EPA rule aimed to make additional improvements in air quality through an existing cap-and-trade system

established for sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.Prices dropped sharply in response to the ruling, with sulfur dioxide allowance prices trading as low as $102.50 apiece Fridayafter closing around $300 on Thursday, according to Evolution Markets, an advisory and brokerage for coal and environmentalmarkets."Supply and demand shifted with the stroke of pen here," said Peter Zaborowsky, a managing director at Evolution Markets.The EPA rule was to combat the movement of particulate matter from power plants in the Midwest to the East Coast by

tightening the cap on sulfur dioxide emissions and establishing a new cap on emissions of nitrogen oxides. The ruleswould have required power plants, starting in 2010, to use two allowances instead of one to emit a ton of sulfur dioxide, nearlycutting the supply of allowances in half, Zaborowsky said.The ruling went in favor of the power industry, with Duke Energy Co. (DUK) and other utilities saying the EPA regulationswould have increased costs because allowances would have been allocated unfairly. At the same time, states applauded theruling, saying the decision eliminated an EPA program that failed to adequately address the issue of air pollution.

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http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121581135469946937.html?mod=googlenews_wsjhttp://online.wsj.com/article/SB121581135469946937.html?mod=googlenews_wsjhttp://online.wsj.com/article/SB121581135469946937.html?mod=googlenews_wsj


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Link: hydrogen

A hydrogen economy would eliminate SO2 emissions

United States Department of Energy, February 2002, A National Vision of Americas Transition to a Hydrogen Economy to 2030and beyond,http://books.google.com/books?id=DJpz2yleougC&pg=PA257&lpg=PA257&dq=%22The+combustion+of+fossil+fuels+accounts+for+the+majority%22&source=web&ots=_ipV5QUC_h&sig=wUbkwUvHZCQhlUb3VUbbGFQ9CLY&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result

The combustion of fossil fuels accounts for the majority of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions released into theatmosphere. Although international efforts to address global climate change have not yet resulted in policies that all nationshave accepted, there is growing recognition that steps to reduce greenhouse gases are needed, and many countries are adoptingpolicies to accomplish that end. Energy and transportation companies, many of which have multi-national operations, areactively evaluating alternative sources of energy. Hydrogen can play an important role in a low-carbon global economy, asits only byproduct is water. With the capture and sequestration of carbon from fossil fuels, hydrogen is one path for coal, oil,and natural gas to remain viable energy resources, should strong constraints on carbon emissions be required. Hydrogenproduced from renewable resources or nuclear energy results in no net carbon emissions.

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SO2 coolingSulfur dioxide causes cooling it absorbs sunlight and reflects radiation backinto space volcanic eruption at Pinatubo proves

Chris Mooney, senior correspondent for The American Prospect and published author focusing on science in politics, 6/23/08, Can aMillion Tons of Sulfur Dioxide Combat Climate Change?, Wired Magazine, http://www.wired.com/science/planetearth/magazine/16-07/ff_geoengineering?currentPage=all

The stratospheric sulfate experiment has already had its proof of concept courtesy of planet Earth. On June 15, 1991, MountPinatubo, which for months had been rumbling, belching, and terrorizing the main Philippine island of Luzon, finally blew itstop in an explosion so powerful that it carried 500 feet of the mountain's peak along with it. It was the second-largest volcaniceruption of the 20th century, 10 times the size of the Mount Saint Helens explosion in 1980 and the first of its scale to occurwith modern scientific technologies in place especially satellites to measure the global environmental and climatic effect.Pinatubo's eruption didn't just unleash huge mud slides and lava flows; it also fired an ash stream 22 miles into the air,injecting 20 million tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. Over the following months, a massive haze gradually

dispersed across the globe. Meanwhile, the sulfur dioxide component underwent chemical reactions to form a

particulate known as sulfate aerosol (in essence, droplets of water and sulfuric acid), which absorbs sunlight andreflects some of it back into space.

The climatic effect of this volcanic eruption was rapid, dramatic, and planetary in scale. In a year, the global average

temperature declined by half a degree Celsius, and researchers observed less summer melt atop the Greenland ice sheet.

Of course, that got scientists thinking. Not only could we mimic volcanoes by seeding the stratosphere with extra sulfur, but ifwe were really clever, we could design particles to do an even better job at scattering sunlight. University of Calgary climatescientist and geoengineering expert David Keith has suggested that we might ultimately find a particle that can be placed stillhigher up in the atmosphere, in the region called the mesosphere, above the ozone layer, where it would cause fewer problems.The evidence from Pinatubo showed that such an intervention will definitely cool the planet. Furthermore, it would

work quickly and wouldn't alter the atmosphere permanently: Depending upon the starting elevation, stratospheric sulfateaerosol will stay in the atmosphere for only a year or two. (Though this could also be seen as a drawback: If you cool the planetartificially by injecting sulfur and then stop suddenly, things warm back up more quickly than before.)The next question, of course, is how to get the particles up there. Various proposals have suggested using artillery, balloons,

suspended hoses, military jets, or even converted 747s. Then there is the question of where to deposit the sulfur. There aredifferent elevations to consider, as well as planetary location. A number of scientists, most recently Wood and Caldeira in a yet-unpublished paper, propose dispensing the gas over the Arctic after all, that's where global warming is felt most powerfullyand where cooler temperatures would help restore sea ice and stabilize Greenland.

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SO2 cooling

Aerosols promote cooling by increasing cloud absorption, allowing them to

reflect solar radiation away from Earth

William Cotton, Professor of Atmospheric Science at Colorado State University, Human Impacts on Weather And Climate, 4/9/07,Cambridge Press, 2nd edition, http://icecap.us/docs/change/aerosols.pdf

Clouds, we have seen, are good reflectors of solar radiation and therefore contribute significantly to the net albedo of the

Earth system. We thus ask, how might aerosol particles originating through anthropogenic activity influence the radiativeproperties ofclouds and thereby affect climate? First of all, there are indications that in urban areas aerosols make clouds dirty'andthereby decrease the albedo of the cloud aerosol layerand increase the absorptance of the clouds Kondrat'yev et al., 1981.This effect appears to be quite localized; being restricted to over and immediately downwind of major urban areas, particularlycities emitting large quantities of black soot particles. Kondrat'yev et al.\ noted that the water samples collected from the cloudsthey sampled were actually dark in color. A potentially more important impact of aerosol on clouds and climate is that they canserve as a source of cloud condensation nuclei CCN and thereby alter the concentration of cloud droplets. Twomey 1974 first

pointed out that increasing pollution results in greater CCN concentrations and greater numbers of cloud droplets, which,in turn, increase the reflectance of clouds. Subsequently, Twomey 1977 showed that this effectwas most influential for opticallythin clouds; clouds having shallow depths or littlecolumn integrated liquid water content. Optically thicker clouds, he argued, arealready very bright, and are therefore susceptible to increased absorption by the presence of dirty aerosol. In Twomey's words:``it an increase in global pollution could, at the same time, make thin clouds brighter and thick clouds darker, the crossover inbehavioroccurring at a cloud thickness which depends on the ratio of absorption to the cube root of drop nucleus concentration.The sign of the net global effect, warming or cooling,therefore involves both the distribution of cloud thickness and the

relative magnitude ofthe rate of increase of cloud-nucleating particles vis-a-vis particulate absorption.}"Subsequently,Twomey et al. 1984 presented observational and theoretical evidence indicating that the absorption effect of aerosols is small andthe enhanced albedo effect plays a dominate role on global climate. They argued that the enhanced cloud albedo has a magnitudecomparable to that of greenhouse warming see Chapter 11 and acts to coolthe atmosphere. Kaufman et al.1991 concluded thatalthough coal and oil emit 120 times as many CO2 molecules as SO2 molecules, each SO2 molecule is 50-1100 times as effectivein cooling the atmosphere than each CO2 molecule is in warming it. This is by virtue of the SO2 molecules' contribution to CCN

production and enhanced cloud albedo.Twomey suggests that if the CCN concentration in the cleaner parts of the atmosphere,such as the oceanic regions, were raised to continental atmospheric values, about 10%more energy would be reflected to space byrelatively thin cloud layers. He also points out that an increase in cloud reflectivity by 10% is of greater consequence than asimilar increase in global cloudiness. This is because while an increase in cloudiness reduces the incoming solar radiation, it alsoreduces the outgoing infrared radiation. Thus both cooling and heating effects occur when global cloudiness increases. Incontrast, an increase in cloud reflectance due to enhanced CCN concentration does not appreciably affect infrared radiation butdoes reflect more incoming solar radiation which results in a net cooling effect.

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http://icecap.us/docs/change/aerosols.pdfhttp://icecap.us/docs/change/aerosols.pdf


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SO2 coolingSO2 causes cooling it converts into sulfuric acid particles that reflect thesuns rays and prevent them from heating the Earth

NASA, NO DATE, Volcanoes and Global Cooling, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center,http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/gsfc/service/gallery/fact_sheets/earthsci/volcano.htm

Volcanic eruptions are thought to be responsible for the global cooling that has been observed for a few years after a

major eruption. The amount and global extent of the cooling depend on the force of the eruption and, possibly, its latitude.When large masses of gases from the eruption reach the stratosphere, they can produce a large, widespread cooling effect. As aprime example, the effects of Mount Pinatubo, which erupted in June 1991, may have lasted a few years, serving to offsettemporarily the predicted greenhouse effect.As volcanoes erupt, they blast huge clouds into the atmosphere. These clouds are made up ofparticles and gases, includingsulfur dioxide. Millions of tons of sulfur dioxide gas can reach the stratosphere from a major volcano. There, the sulfur dioxideconverts to tiny persistent sulfuric acid (sulfate) particles, referred to as aerosols. These sulfate particles reflect energycoming from the sun, thereby preventing the sun's rays from heating the Earth.

Global cooling often has been linked with major volcanic eruptions. The year 1816 often has been referred to as "the yearwithout a summer." It was a time of significant weather-related disruptions in New England and in Western Europe with killingsummer frosts in the United States and Canada. These strange phenomena were attributed to a major eruption of the Tamboravolcano in 1815 in Indonesia. The volcano threw sulfur dioxide gas into the stratosphere, and the aerosol layer that formed led tobrilliant sunsets seen around the world for several years.

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SO2 cooling

Aerosols counteract at least 75% of CO2 effects

WorldNetDaily.com, 6-10-03,http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=32992

It turns out there's a silver lining to the cloud of smog that drapes large cities around the world, as an international team of

atmospheric scientists conclude pollution protects the planet from "global warming." The revelation, reported by NewScientist, came out of a workshop in Dahlem, Berlin, earlier this month that was attended by the likes of Nobel laureate PaulCrutzen and Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin, the former chairman of the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on

Climate Change, or IPCC. "It looks like the warming today may be only about a quarter of what we would have got withoutaerosols," Crutzen told New Scientist. "You could say the cooling has done us a big favor." The IPCC and other proponents ofglobal warming believe the past century of human economic activities especially the burning of fossil fuels such as oil and coal have vastly increased the amount of carbon dioxide, which traps heat in the Earth's atmosphere. Proponents say this acceleration ofthe "greenhouse effect," has caused an estimated increase in the Earth's temperature of 0.6 degrees Celsius. Using computermodels, the IPCC predicts this global warming could amount to an increase in the earth's average temperature by as much as 10.4

degrees over the next century. The panel has warned the long term consequences of this warming range from warmer winters andhotter summers to the melting of the polar icecaps and a rise in mean sea level that will inundate coastal cities and causedevastating droughts, floods, violent storms and spark outbreaks of cholera and malaria. According to New Scientist, IPCCscientists have long suspected aerosols, particles from burning rainforests, crop waste and fossil fuels that block sunlight

counteract the warming effect of carbon dioxide emissions by about 25 percent. Now the news out of the Berlin workshop is

the aerosols thwart 75 percent of the warming effect. That would mean they prevented the planet from becoming almost

two degrees warmer than it is now. Scientists examined direct measurements of the cooling effect of aerosols reported in theMay issue of Science by Theodore Anderson of the University of Washington in Seattle. Earlier calculations only had beeninferred from "missing" global warming predicted by climate models.

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http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=32992http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=32992http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=32992


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SO2 dimmingSO2 condensation enhances the planetary albedo, cooling the planet

American Meteorogical Society, 7/13/92, Model Simulations of the Competing Climatic Effects of SO2 and CO2,http://ams.allenpress.com/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1175%2F1520-0442(1993)006%3C1241%3AMSOTCC%3E2.0.CO%3B2&ct=1

Sulfur dioxide-derived cloud condensation nuclei are expected to enhance the planetary albedo, thereby cooling the

planet. This effect might counteract the global warming expected from enhanced greenhouse gases. A detailed treatment ofthe relationship between fossil fuel burning and the SO2 effect on cloud albedo is implemented in a two-dimensional model forassessing the climate impact. Although there are large gaps in our knowledge of the atmospheric sources and sinks of sulfateaerosol, it is possible to reach some general conclusions. Using a conservative approach, results show that the cooling inducedby the SO2 emission can presently counteract 50% of the CO2 greenhouse warming. Since 1980, a strong warming trendhas been predicted by the model, 0.15C, during the 19801990 period alone. The model predicts that by the year 2060 the SO2cooling reduces climate warming by 0.5C or 25% for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) business as usual(BAU) scenario and 0.2C or 20% for scenario D (for a slow pace of fossil fuel burning). The hypothesis is examined that the

different responses between the Northern Hemisphere (NH) and the Southern Hemisphere (SH) can be used to validate thepresence of the SO2-induced cooling. Despite the fact that most of the SO2-induced cooling takes place in the NorthernHemispheric continents, the model-predicted difference in the temperature response between the NH and the SH of 0.2C in1980 is expected to remain about the same at least until 2060. This result is a combined effect of the much faster response of thecontinents than the oceans and of the larger forcing due to CO2 than due to the SO2. The climatic response to a complete filteringof SO2 from the emission products in order to reduce acid rain is also examined. The result is a warming surge of 0.4C in thefirst few years after the elimination of the SO2 emission.

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SO2 dimming

Aerosols create more, reflective cloud cover

Dr. David M. Chapman, May 2006, Honorary Associate, School of Geosciences, University of Sydney. Global Warming, are wehiding behind a smokescreen

169 gt sequestration cp so2 da

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