161 myanmar e-library chittagonian bengalis 'rohingya'-by-khin-maung-saw

Islamization of Burma Through Chittagonian Bengalis as

“Rohingya Refugees“

BY KHIN MAUNG SAW

Islamization of Burma Saw September 2011

Prologue

When we were young, our elderly people told us a fable about an Arab and an ungrateful camel. The fable is as follows:

The Camel's Nose In The Tent

One cold night, as an Arab sat in his tent, a camel gently thrust his nose under the flap and looked in. "Master," he said, "let me put my nose in your tent. It's cold and stormy out here." "By all means," said the Arab, "and welcome" as he turned over and went to sleep.

A little later the Arab awoke to find that the camel had not only put his nose in the tent but his head and neck also. The camel, who had been turning his head from side to side, said, "I will take but little more room if I place my forelegs within the tent. It is difficult standing out here." "Yes, you may put your forelegs within," said the Arab, moving a little to make room, for the tent was small.

Finally, the camel said, "May I not stand wholly inside? I keep the tent open by standing as I do." "Yes, yes," said the Arab. "Come wholly inside. Perhaps it will be better for both of us." So the camel crowded in. The Arab with difficulty in the crowded quarters again went to sleep. When he woke up the next time, he was outside in the cold and the camel had the tent to himself.

Another version of this story

One day an Arab and his camel were crossing the desert. Night came and the temperature became colder. The Arab put up his tent and tied the camel to it. The Arab went to sleep.

The temperature became slightly colder and the camel asked the Arab if he (camel) could just put his nose in the tent to warm up. The Arab agreed that the camel could just put his nose in, because the tent was small and there was no room for 2. So the camel's nose became warm and after a while the temperature went down even more.

The camel asked the Arab again, if he (camel) could just put his fore legs in because they were very cold. The Arab reluctantly agreed that the camel could only put his fore legs in and no more. So the camel moved in his fore legs and they became warm. After sometime the camel asked the Arab again that he had to put in his hind legs or else he won't be able to make the journey the next morning with frozen legs. So the Arab agreed and once the camel moved his hind legs in, there was no more room in the tent for the Arab and the Arab was kicked out.

Maybe, this fable is the predicted warning for the Arakanese (Rakhaings) against the Chittagonian Bengalis, „the Guest who want to kick out the Host from his own House“!


1. The Arakan Land or Rakhaing Pree

1.1. Burmese Invasion and Lose of Sovereignty

Arakan (Rakhaing Pree) used to be a separate kingdom until the Burmese king Bodaw U Waing annexed Arakan (Rakhaing Pree) into the Burmese Empire in 1784. The Burmese king’s main reason in invading Arakan was to snatch the Holy Maha Muni Image and to claim that Burma and not Arakan is the centre of Buddhism. Maha Muni Image is a colossal image cast in bronze and inlaid with gold. Hence, this statue became the envy of almost all of the kings of Burma. Whenever they expanded their empire, they tried to rob this holy image. The attempts of Burmese kings Anawrahta, Tabin Shwe Htee and Bayint Naung of the First and the Second Burmese Empires respectively failed but Bodaw U Waing of their Third Empire succeeded. The Burmese Chronicles were cunning enough by writing that it was their king’s duty to liberate Arakan from the incompetent rulers because he considered Arakan and the Arakanese as same kin. Their king too was using very polite Buddhist terms that the Holy Image accepted his ‘invitation’ through his son, the crown prince then, to come and stay in the better temple in Burma and left Arakan.

1.2. Abolition of the Arakanese Kingdom

After conquering Arakan, the Arakanese Kingdom was abolished forever, the Arakanese (Rakhaings/Rakhines) in Arakan were tortured. The Burmese used the Arakanese prisoners of war, about thirty thousand including the last King of Arakan Maha Thamada, as slave labour for the transport of the Colossal Statue across the mountain range and for other slave works. These prisoners of war were used in the reconstruction of Meikhtila Lake, the building of the Mingun Pagoda, and the aborted war against Siam. Most Arakanese sent to Siam for the invasion died in that war. The Burmese interest in Arakan was more or less to bring in Buddhists Reforms to the Monks similar to Burma as directly ordered by their king rather than the development of Arakan. Hence, the Burmese viceroy’s1 and the governors’2 main duties were to restore and rebuild the ruins of Buddhists temples, monasteries and ponds; as well as the forced re-ordination of senior Arakanese monks under the junior Burmese monks. The monks who did not follow the orders were defrocked. For those works they needed slave or forced labourers again and they became very cruel to the natives. About 50,000 Rakhaings/Rakhines fled to British occupied Bengal.

Finally, U Than De and U Tun Zan (U Tuan Zan) who ‘had invited’ the Burmese invasion 3, 1 In fact, he was the “Myowun” of Dhanyawaddy appointed by the Burmese king. Myowun is the ruler of a town or a province on behalf of the king, hence, equivalent to a governor or a viceroy. The meaning of viceroy given by the Oxford Dictionary is: “A person governing as the deputy of a sovereign”. The meaning given by the Webster Dictionary is: “The governor of a country or province who rules as a representative of his king or sovereign”. Dr. A. Judson too, translated Myowun of Rangoon as ‘The Viceroy of Rangoon”. Since Dr. Judson was an American, that means a native speaker of the English language, I took the liberty of using his translation though the meaning of viceroy as well as governor general given in modern English-Burmese Dictionaries is Burc\KMK¥op\ . This term is a later development. Maurice Collis, on the other hand, used the term ‘the Burmese Governor of Arakan’. The meaning of governor given in modern English-Burmese Dictionaries is Burc\KM .2 The deputies of the “Myowun” of Dhanyawaddy stationed in Rambree Island (Rambree Wun), Thandwe (Thandwe Wun) and Manaung Island (Man aung Wun).3 Some Arakanese, headed by U Htun Zan (U Htuan Zan) and U Thande went to Ava to request the Burmese king to liberate Mrauk U from the incompetent King Maha Thamada of Arakan. It cannot be ruled out that it was a conflict between the Arakanese from the North and those from the South because Maha Thamada and


became fed up with the Burmese rulers and revolted against them. The armed Arakanese (Rakhaings/Rakhines) tried to invade Arakan from Bengal but their attempts failed and the Burmese army marched into British territories to crush them. There were a lot of border conflicts between the British and the Burmese and these were the main reasons for the first Anglo-Burmese war, which broke out in 1824 and led to the fall of the Burmese Empire.

1.3. Three Anglo-Burmese Wars

The first Anglo-Burmese war broke out in 1824 and according to the Yandabo treaty signed in 1826 Burma had to accept an agreement giving up her influences in Assam and Manipur and had to agree to surrender the Arakan (Rakhine) and Tenassarim (Taninthayi) provinces to the British. After the second Anglo-Burmese war which broke out without any declaration of war in 1852 and ended without a peace treaty, the British declared one-sidedly that Lower Burma below the latitude line crossing the town Thayet became British territory. The last war in November 1885 also broke out without any declaration of war, but the British captured King Thibaw, the last king of the Konbaung Dynasty and Queen Suphaya Latt. They banished both to exile at Ratanagiri near Bombay and proclaimed that entire Burma would become a British Colony starting from January the 1st,1886.4As some parts of Burma (Arakan and Tenassarim) became part of British India since 1826 people from the Subcontinent could come to Burma freely and unconditionally and some were brought by the British for many reasons.

In this paper, the present author intends to write on Bengali Immigration Waves to Arakan, the attempts and their intentions to Islamize Arakan in three chapters: (1) during the Colonial Era starting from 1826 to 1947 (2) during the Post Independent Era 1948 – 70 (3) after the Bangladesh Liberation War 1970 to the present day.

2. Indian immigration Waves

2.1. The Birth of Immigration Waves

As mentioned earlier, some parts of Burma (Arakan and Tenassarim) became part of British India since 1826 and people from the Subcontinent could come to Burma freely and unconditionally and some were brought by the British for many reasons. In comparison, the volume of Indian immigration before the middle of the nineteenth century, though continuous, was never on a very large scale compared to what it came to be from 1852 onwards. A new chapter in the history of Indian immigration into Burma began after the British annexation of Lower Burma after the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852), and the whole of Burma after the Third War in 1886.

his predecessor were not from Mrauk U but from Rambree Island.

4 The last king of Burma, King Thibaw, was taken to India. He died in Ratana Giri near Bombay. His eldest daughter became pregnant by his Indian butler and she became a concubine of this butler. King Thibaw died of a broken heart. Apart from that, the British brought hundreds of thousands of Indians to Burma and some of those Indians behaved as if Burma were their Sub-colony and looked down upon Burmese. Till now, there are still some social and racial tensions between the Burmese and the descendants of those Indians. Many people believe, King Thibaw and the Burmese nowadays had to reap the consequences of the past misdeeds of their ancestors, on what they did to the kingdoms of Mons, Ayuddiya and Arakan.


The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 marked a turning point in the economic and administrative history of Burma. The British government wanted to export Burmese rice and they extended the rice fields in Lower Burma. As they needed peasants and coolies they imported a lot of Indians. The biggest attraction for the Indians to come and seek their fortune in Burma was the fact that salaries and wages there were much higher than in India. Hence, thousands of Indian labourers, especially from Madras, Bengal and Punjab, began to enter Burma.

There were five types of Indian immigrants: (1) Permanent settlers; (2) Long-term settlers, who came to seek their fortune in the then most prosperous country in Southeast Asia, but for retired life they preferred to stay in India rather than in Burma; (3) Seasonal workers who came for a fixed short period; (4) Government servants and traders who wanted to earn and save money so that they and their offspring could settle permanently in Burma as rich people; and (5) People brought by the British for various reasons .

2.2. Immigration Waves during the Colonial Era (1826- 1947)

2.2.1. Bengali settlers after the British annexation of Arakan in 1826

2.2.1.1. Who destroyed Arakan more? The Burmese or the British?

Many Arakanese blamed the Burmese for their mismanagements and cruelties after their occupation for about 40 years. It is true that Burmese rulers and soldiers were so cruel like savages, however, the present author, on the other hand, wants to state that the destruction of the Arakanese society by the British, wittingly or unwittingly, was worse than what the Burmese had done.

No one can deny that Burmese rulers and soldiers totally ignored the fact that they and the Arakanese share the same language and religion but committed barbaric war crimes. However, in any case they did not have enough brains and guts like the British to sow the poisonous seeds on Arakanese soil!! Arakan has very fertile soil with sufficient rain falls, hence, British wanted to expand rice fields in Arakan. Arakan was very under-populated at that time. Therefore, the British brought tens of thousands of Chittagonian Bengali Muslims into Arakan. The Arakanese (Rakhaings) have to bear the burdens of these aliens until today. These aliens tried and are still trying to Islamize Arakan (if not the whole of Burma) by all means.

Apart from that, the British destroyed the whole society, tradition and culture of the Arakanese by opening pubs to sell alcoholic beverages and also opium halls which were traditionally forbidden by the Buddhist monarchs of Arakan and also by their successors, Burmese authorities, who were Buddhists, too5.

Here I would like to point out the following evidence. Writing in 1869, one assistant commissioner reported: “Full one half of the male population between the ages of 17 and 35 are opium eaters and/or smokers, and full one half of these principally exist on the earnings of the other portion of the population not by gifts but by thefts.” He concluded as: “The natural result of this state of thing is that the population must degenerate year by year, and eventually become useless to themselves and the world around them. The

5 As a result, nowadays in Burma, it is well known that most Arakanese consume alcoholic beverages more than any other ethnic minority groups of Burma.


people who were honest, hard working and the truthful people when the British took the place, are now so far as the opium eaters and smokers especially are concerned, the very opposite of their fathers ...”6

2.2.1.2. Early Immigrants

Because of the above-mentioned reasons and since Arakan has direct land border with Bengal, particularly with Chittagong District, many Chittagonian Bengalis were brought into Arakan as cheap labourers, peasants and coolies by the British. Here I would like to cite Jacques Leider7 who wrote: “The major interest of the East India Company in Arakan lay in the extension of rice cultivation in the Kaladan and Lemro Valleys. This plan succeeded because the scores of Bengal Muslim labourers who had been imported from Chittagong in the middle of the nineteenth century, Akyab, the new capital, had indeed become a major port of export of rice for Europe”.

Some Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to Arakan to construct a railway track between the two towns, Butheedaung and Maungdaw. The construction project (1916-18) was in fact in operation before the whole business was brought down by a devastating cyclone8 , but those Chittagonian Bengalis never returned back to Bengal. According to the report of the Directorate of Health (1930-31), about 40000 Chittagonian Bengalis came to Maungdaw annually to work in that area, however, it was not recorded how many of them returned to Bengal.

Here I would like to cite R.B. Smart, the deputy assistant commissioner of Akyab: “Since 1879, immigration has taken place on a much larger scale, and the descendants of the slaves are resident for the most part in the Kyauktaw and Myohaung (Mrauk-U) townships. Maungdaw Township has been overrun by Chittagonian immigrants. Butheedaung is not far behind and new arrivals will be found in almost every part of the district.

Those Bengali settlers in Arakan were noted by British for their administrative purposes either as Hindus or as Muslims according to their religion. Muslim settlers outnumbered the Hindu settlers.

The Census Reports of Akyab (Sittwe) District for 1871, 1901, and 1911 is as follows:9

Races 1871 1901 1911Mahomedan 58255 154887 178647Burmese 4632 35751 92185Arakanese 171612 230649 209432Shan 334 80 59Hill Tribes 38577 35489 34020Others 606 1355 1146Total 276691 481666 529943

6 Report on the Progress Made in the Arakan Division from 1826 to 1869 (Rangoon: Government Stationery, 1870, pp 11, 47.7 Jacques P. Leider, Forging Buddhist Credentials as a Tool of Legitimacy and Ethnic Identity: A Study of Arakan’s Subjection in Nineteenth-Century Burma, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51, 2008, p.4248Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York 2004, p.58. U Tha Hla's father U Maung Pein was the Station Master of Maungdaw Railway Station then.9 Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District, p. 86


This table shows very clearly that Chittagonian Bengalis were 21.05% of the total population in 1871, became 32.1% in 1901 and increased to 33.71% in 1911. Their population growth was 272% within 30 years because of huge immigration waves.

The Arakanese were 62% and the Mountain Tribes were 13.9% of the total population in 1871, that means the ‘Bhummi Putras’ of Arakan were almost 76% and the majority. In 1901 the Arakanese were 47.89% and the Mountain Tribes were only 7.37%, hence both ‘Bhummi Putras’ together became 55.26% only, but still a slight majority. However, in 1911 Arakanese became 39.5% of the total population and the Mountain Tribes remained only 6.42% and the ‘Bhummi Putras’ were only 45.92% of the total population, hence they became minorities in their native land already.

In this way, Arakan was a colonie d'exploitation to the British, but to the Chittagonian Bengalis, Arakan became a colonie de peuplement. The very similar thing happened in Assam for Tea Plantations.10

2.2.2. Relations between Settlers and the Natives

These settlers are called "Khawtaw Kalas" or Sittagaung Kala (Chittagaung Kula), in short only Kala (Kula) in both Burmese and Arakanese.

Some settlers learnt Arakanese and Burmese; hence, some of them were assimilated in the native society. However, these Chittagonian Bengalis differ from the Arakanese in their features, complexion and religion as well as in some customs which their religion directs; in writing they use Burmese but among themselves employ colloquially the language of their ancestors, either Urdu or Bengali. They never named themselves ‘Rohingyas’ but ‘Arakan Muslims’. Since they were assimilated in the native society, Burmese as well as Arakanese (Rakhaings) did not call them Khawtaw Kala any more, but used the term Muslims, just to differentiate them from the natives who are Buddhists. The Kamans and Myaydus too are Muslims but they were already assimilated in the native society. When one hears the name Kaman or Myaydu, one knows automatically that they are Muslims.

Unfortunately, however, many latter settlers never tried to assimilate in the native society and therefore they were and are never welcomed by the natives, neither by the Burmese nor by the Arakanese society. Nor could they join even in the society of "Muslims of Arakan", the "Kamans" and the "Myay Dus".

2.2.2.1. Their First Attempt at Islamization

In 1937, Burma was separated from British India and became a Crown Colony. Some Islamists from Northern Arakan went to India in 1940 and met leaders of the Muslim League. They requested that the Muslim League should demand the British Government

10 See and compare REPORT ON ILLEGAL MIGRATION INTO ASSAM SUBMITTED TO THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA BY THE GOVERNOR OF ASSAM, 8 November 1998, in Chapter II where it was written: “The British developed the tea industry in Assam. They imported labour from Bihar and other provinces to work in the tea gardens. The Assamese people living mostly in Upper Assam and cultivating one crop per year were not interested in working as labour neither in the tea gardens nor in increasing or expanding land cultivation to meet the additional requirement of food for the large labour population employed in the tea gardens. Therefore, the British encouraged Bengali Muslim peasants from present Bangladesh to move into Lower Assam for putting virgin land under cultivation. This set in motion a movement pattern which despite changed conditions, has been continuing to this day”.


for the incorporation of Butheedaung and Maungdaw townships into British India, however, their attempt failed. The Muslim League of India could do nothing. Due to the Diarchy Reforms of Burma in 1923, Arakan was put into 'Burma Proper' and not even under the 'Frontier Areas' by the British. Except in the very early Colonial years from 1826 to 1852, Arakan neither belonged to Bengal nor did the British tried to join Arakan with India. Arakan was always under the administration of British-Burma, although Burma too was under the Umbrella of the British Indian Empire until 1937.

That's why I wonder where and from which informant Ms. Stephanie Hering got the following information: “Ab 1937 wurde Arakan zunächst als zu Indien gehörig geführt, kurz darauf aber aus verwaltungstechnischen Gründen Burma wegen der schwierigen geographischen Lage wiederangegliedert:“11 (From 1937 Arakan at the beginning was joined to India , however, because of the technical administrative reasons and also because of geographical incoveniences, it was rejoined to Burma:).

This kind of misinformation were and are spread out by the Islamists and many Westerners, without doing proper researches but rely only on hear-say stories, were and are trapped by them. These kind of unscholarly writings favour the position of Islamists and these wrong or misleading information is often quoted and disseminated by subsequent authors, leading to a situation whereby it eventually acquires the status of being true and correct. There is a saying: “A lie repeated over and over again becomes indistinguishable from the truth”.

2.2.2.2. Racial Riots with Bloodbaths

Unfortunately, many Chittagonian settlers never tried to assimilate into the native society and therefore they were and are never welcomed by the natives, neither by the Burmese nor by the Arakanese society. Nor could they join even in the society of "Muslims of Arakan", the "Kamans" and the "Myay Dus". Hence, Burmese and Arakanese (Rakhaings) called them either Khawtaw Kala or Sittagaung Kala (Chittagaung Kula), in short only Kala (Kula).

Racial tensions reached the peak when the British Civil Administration collapsed in Arakan in 1942 because of the Second World War. There was blood bath of racial riots. Khawtaw Kalas were helped by the Muslim deserters of the British Indian Army. All 195 Rakhaing villages in Butheedaung and Maungdaw area were wiped out. They vandalized, raped and slew. Many Arakanese including the Deputy Commissioner of that area U Oo Kyaw Khaing, who was on a mission to defuse the communal conflict, were killed. Many Rakhaings had to take refuge inside the Border Town Tet Chaung also well known as Maungdaw. These Khawtaw Kalas wanted to commit ethnic cleansing of the Rakhaings living in that town. The town was blockaded, besieged and attacked by Khawtaw Kalas together with the deserters. An Arakanese Judge called U Aung Tha Kyaw sent a type of S.O.S message to Captain Taylor of the British Army stationed at the other border town Teknaf, the yonder side of the Naaf River in British East Bengal. Though both towns were

11Hering, Stephanie, Rohingyas in Bangladesch. Anmerkungen zur Flüchtlingshilfe, 2000 von http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/tdrc/teaching/lehrforschungen/hering.pdf.


British Colonies, Teknaf was under the administration of British India and Maungdaw was under the administration of British Burma. Due to this bureaucracy, Captain Taylor could not cross the border without permission from the British Administration in India. However, the Judge U Aung Tha Kyaw could persuade Captain Taylor successfully by asking him to come over to the yonder side of the river to take charge of the government treasury which was being evacuated to India. Before Captain Taylor and his company, mainly recruited by well disciplined Karens and Gurkhas, could enter Maungdaw, they had to crush the Muslim renegades and Khawtaw Kalas. In this way captain Taylor could take care of British government treasury and the judge U Aung Tha Kyaw could save a few thousand lives of the Rakhaings.

The Rakhaing in Butheedaung were not as lucky as their compatriots in Maungdaw. They had to flee from the attacks of the Khawtaw Kalas and the Muslim deserters. They embarked a ship to sail to the yonder side, however, unfortunately, their ship capsized because of overweight and many died.12

However, till now, Islamists, Rohingyarists and their lobbyists are writing a fake history by accusing the Rakhaings (Arakanese) being responsible for ‘Ethnic Cleansing of Rohingyas’. The facts that there were 41,414 Arakanese (Rakhaings) in Maung Daw in 1941, but, based on the census of 1956, the total population of Arakanese (Rakhaings) reduced to 5,808. On the other hand, the Chittagonian Bengali population in 1941 was 124452 and increased to 187792 in 1956. This is proof as to who did the ethnic cleansing.

At that time in 1942, there were about 1 Million Arakanese only but there were about 20 Million Chittagonian Bengalis. As a simple logic, who could have done the ethnic cleansing?

More than 5,000 Arakanese (Rakhaings) had been relocated to Dinajpur by British Government, during the riots in 1942. U Tha Hla, the former Deputy Chief of the Burmese UN Mission in New York at the late 70’s was one of the ‘refugees’ then 13. U Sein Tun Aung also mentioned to the audience during the ‘Arakanese Religion and History Seminar’ in London, 9th August 2009, how his grandparents, land owners, were killed by their own workers, Chittagonian Bengalis.

3. Immigration Waves during the Post Independent Era (1948 – 1970)

3.1 Immigration Waves after the Second World War

The British Administration restarted in Arakan on 1st January 1945. All Bengalis who went back to Bengal during the war came back to Arakan. They brought many new settlers with them. However, the Arakanese ‘refugees’ in Dinajpur were allowed to return to their homeland only in the month of December 1945. When they came back to their native villages, they could not reintegrate to their original places due to illegal occupation of their 12 See also: Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York 2004, pp 70-7113 Ibid


land by the Chittagonian Bengali Muslims, especially in the villages at the southern side of Maungdaw. Similarly it happened also in Butheedaung. Those Arakanese were compelled to leave their villages because their lands were taken by the Chittagonian Bengalis during their absence. Because of their immigration waves many Arakanese left their villages in Northern Arakan and moved southwards.

3.2. Evolution of the word ‘Rohingya’

3.2.1. The name ‘Rohingya’ in Arakanese History

The fact that there has never been a "Rohingya" ethnic group either in Arakan or in Burma is quite evident. There is no such name as "Rohingya" in all history books and chronicles written by Burmese, Bengalis, Arakanese, British, Dutch and Portuguese.

1. There is no such name as "Rohingya" in the Census of India, 1921 (Burma) compiled by G. G. Grantham, I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations Burma, or in the Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District (1924) compiled by R. B. Smart.

2. Even in Hobson-Jobson. "A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive" published by British Colonial Officers of British East India Company, Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell (First Published 1886) the word "Rohingya" was not mentioned. Since this book was published by the Bengal Chamber Edition, Calcutta, India, and is an indispensable dictionary for those who want to study the history of India during the last 300 years and its impact on the East and West, it should be considered as a standard literature.

3. The well known author and scholar, Maurice Collis, who wrote many articles and books about Arakan, also never mentioned the word "Rohingya".

4. None of the British Colonial Officers' contributions about Burma and India mentioned that word "Rohingya", however, they mentioned about 'Zerabadi' the Indo-Burmese Hybrids or "Burmese Muslims", the Muslims in Shwebo and Yamethin Districts in Burma Proper, "Myay Du Muslims", "Kaman Muslims" and Bengali Muslim Settlers of Arakan.

5. In the book „The History of Modern Burma, J. F. Cady, 1965, neither mentioned the name ‘Rohingya‘ nor the Arakanese Muslims.

3.2.2 British contributions about Muslims in Burma

Akyab District Gazetteer 1906 showed the population of the principle races, tribes and castes as follows:14

Indigenous Races:

Arakanese (239649), Burmese (35751), Kamis (11595), Mros (10074), Chins (9415) Daingnets (3412), Chaungthas (247) and Thets (232).

Non-indigenous Races:

14 Akyab District Gazetteer, 1906, Volume B


British (209), Eurasians (158), Chinese (439), Shaikhs (152074)15, Saiyards (1254)16, Pathans (126), Zairbadis (108) 0ther Musulman (1325), Sudras (6016), Kayasths (2888), Uriyas (625), Brahmans (398), Chatris (377), Dhobis (263), Waddars (233), Nats (226), Barua Maghs (165), Chetties (164), Doms (143), Malas (142), Marabans (125), Banias (114) and other Hindu Castes (2104).

The present author searched for the ethnic group called ‘Rohingyas’ in all history books, literature, encyclopaedias and other publications published before 1953 written by foreign scholars. That name was not in any books. None of the British Colonial Officers recorded the name 'Rohingya, neither in the Indian Subcontinent nor in Burma. To be honest, people of Burma had never heard of the word "Rohingya" until the late 1950's.

A Chitagonian Bengali living in Northern Arakan called Mr. Abdul Gaffar17 started using that name in Guardian Daily Newspaper in 1951. In the Chittagonian Dialect of Bengali Language, the Rakhaing Land is called 'Rohan' and the Rakhaing People or Arakanese are called 'Rohangya (Rohan = Rakhaing, Gya = man). Since the word is of Bengali origin, some of the Muslim secessionists like Mr. Abdul Gaffar used the name to identify themselves to be the natives of Arakan and named themselves as ‘Rohingya’ by 'hijacking' the name of the real natives of Arakan (Rakhaings) in Bengali language!! Mr. Abdul Gaffar 'invented' the 'Rohingya History' too. Within a few days. U Paw Zan refuted all of his claims in the same newspaper.

3.2.2.1. Francis Buchanan's 'Rooingas' and 'Rossawns'

Dr. Francis Buchanan18, a Scottsman working as a surgeon at the British East India Company, was the one and only person who mentioned the names ‘Rooingas’ and ‘Rossawns’ in his book, the closest name to ‘Rohingya’ as a linguistic survey. However he described those people as both Hindus and Muslims and their languages as dialects of Bengali. Further more, Francis Buchanan wrote very clearly that they are called Kala or Strangers or Foreigners by the real natives of Arakan, i.e. Arakanese or Rakhaings (Francis Buchanan 1801).

I will cite Buchanan: “I shall now add three dialects, spoken in the Burman Empire, but evidently derived from the language of the Hindu nation. The first is that spoken by the Mohammedans, who have long settled in Arakan, and who call themselves Rooinga , or natives of Arakan. The second dialect is that spoken by the Hindus of Arakan. I procured it

15 Since the Shaikhs were the biggest non-Indigenous group with the population of 152074, it is to be presumed that they were the biggest Muslim Sect of the Chittagonian Bengali Settlers. The closest term to Shaikhs given in Hobson-Jobson page 827 is: Shikaree, Shekarry: "Shecarries are generally Hindoos of low caste, who gain their livelihood entirely by catching birds, hares and all sort of animals".Since many low caste Hindus in East Bengal had converted into Islam they might be called in the same name as before. It is to be presumed that since they were brought to Burma, particularly to Arakan for menial works, they were still called in that name.

16 Saiyyads: The closest term given in Hobson-Jobson page 886 is: Syud, Ar. Saiyid, ‘a lord’, the designation in India of those who claim to be the descendants of Mohammed. But the usage of Saiyid and Sharif varies in different parts of Mahomedan Asia.

17 Abdul Gaffar, “The Sudeten Muslims,” The Guardian Daily, 20 August 1951. 18 Buchanan, Francis, A comparative vocabulary of some of the languages spoken in the Burmese Empire. In: Asiatick Researchers or Transactions of the Society instituted in Bengal for inquiring into the History and Antiquities, the Arts, Sciences and Literature of Asia. V: 219-240, 1801.


from a Brahmen and his attendants, who had been brought to Amarapura by the king’s eldest son, on his return from the conquest of Arakan. They call themselves Rossawn, and, for what reason I do not know, wanted to persuade me that theirs was the common language of Arakan. Both these tribes, by the real natives of Arakan, are called Kulaw Yakain, or stranger Arakan.”

I would like to give the following explanation why British Colonial Officers never recorded these so-called 'Rooingas and Rosswans':

Dr. Franscis Buchanan wrote very clearly that he met those people in Amarapura (ie. the capital of the Burmese Empire then) and NOT in Arakan. They were taken to Burma as slaves or prisoners. All historical records and chronicles unanimously stated that the Burmese Crown Prince had taken about 30000 Arakanese and some of their slaves as forced labours to Burma. It is very clear that Arakanese (Rakhaings) became slaves of Burmese and these Bengali slaves of the Arakanese became automatically "the Slaves of the Slaves". The population of these 'Slaves of the Slaves' might be very few. Later, most probably these 'Slaves of the Slaves' were assimilated and engulfed into the Muslims and Hindus living in Upper Burma, who were the subjects of the Burmese king. That's why these names disappeared when British annexed Upper Burma in 1885. Apart from that Dr. Buchanan stated very clearly that they were Strangers in Arakan and NOT Natives!

If these groups who called themselves as 'Rooingas' and 'Rossawns' were still in Arakan until 1826 or after that, these names might have been mentioned by the British Colonial Officers in their administrative and research papers!

British officers in Bengal recorded that, after the downfall of the Arakanese kingdom many Arakanese, some Hindus and Muslims crossed the border and seeked asylum on British soil. They neither mentioned 'Rooingas' nor 'Rossawns'!

In contrast, even Buchanan wrote in his other book19: „Puran Bisungri was an officer of the Police Station of Ramoo what is called Panwah by the Arakanese. He was a Hindu, born in Arakan and fled the country after Burmese invasion of 1784”.

“Puran says that, in one day soon after the conquest of Arakan the Burmans put 40,000 men to Death: that wherever they found a pretty Woman, they took her after killing the husband; and the young Girls they took without any consideration of their parents, and thus deprived these poor people of the property, by which in Eastern India the aged most commonly support their infirmities. Puran seems to be terribly afraid, that the Government of Bengal will be forced to give up to the Burmans all the refugees from Arakan”.

3.2.2.2. Why did they name themselves 'Rooingas and Rossawns?

In Burma, there are two big ethnic communities of alien origin, namely of the Chinese and of the people from the Subcontinent (British India) who are named 'Tayoke' and 'Kala' respectively by the Burmese. In these two communities, though 'Tayoke' are assimilated into the Burmese and Buddhist community easier and faster, they are still happy to be called 'Tayoke', rather than 'Bama', just to keep their ethnic identity. However, 'Kala',

19Buchanan, Francis. Francis Buchanan in Southeast Bengal (1798): His Journey to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Noakhali and Comilla. Dhaka: Dhaka University Press., 1992


regardless of their faith either Hindus or Muslims, are lesser assimilated into the Burmese and Buddhist community. Despite of that fact, they want to call themselves as 'Bama' or 'Mon' or 'Shan' or 'Karen' etc. etc. due to the area where they reside rather than their ethnic identity 'Kala'! It happens most probably because of the term 'Kala'! 'Kala' means black or dark in Indic languages like Hindi, Urdu, Bengali etc. etc.

In any case, the term 'Kala' do not have derogatory meaning in Burmese because the etymology of the word Kala (written Kula) can be traced back from the Pali word Kula meaning "noble race" (this is a short form of Kula Putta which means "son of the noble race"). The word was used for the Indians (People from the subcontinent) by the early Buddhist people of Burma (Mons, Burmese, Arakanese, Karens and Shans etc.) because Lord Buddha himself was an Indian.

Although the word Kala has a harmless meaning, the people from the subcontinent do not like to be called Kala. They feel insulted because the word Kala means "coloured" or "blackie" in their Indic languages such as Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. In particular, Indians, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis living in Burma often complain to foreigners, especially to non-Burmese Burma Scholars that they feel discriminated by the people of Burma, especially by the Bamas (the Burmese), the Rakhines (the Arakanese), Shan and the Mons, calling them Kala ( meaning "blackie" in their own interpretation). Such a misinterpretation was never intended by the people of Burma (the Burmese, Mons, Karens, Shans and Arakanese (Rakhines) etc.), in fact, on reflection some people from Northern India and Pakistan are much fairer in complexion than some people of Burma, especially some Mons, Burmese and Arakanese (Rakhines)!!

For the above-mentioned reason, almost all of the 'Kala' in Burma name themselves either 'Bama' or Karen or Shan or Mon etc. etc. regardless of whether they are assimilated into the native society or not!. In the light of this explanation, as a parallel case, it is very easy to conclude why those two groups met by Dr. Francis Buchanan named themselves 'Rooinga' and 'Rossawn' although they were called 'Kalaw Yakain' (Kala Yakain or Aliens in Rakhaing Land) by the real natives of Arakan (ie. Arakanese or Rakhaings). It is clear that these two groups interviewed by Buchanan too did not want to be named 'Kala' regardless of whether they were assimilated into the native society or not! In Bengali language, the country Arakan is called either 'Rohan' or 'Rosan' and the people, that means the real natives of that land, the Arakanese or the Rakhaings, are called 'Rohanja' or 'Rosawnga' due to the dialects (most probably Roo-in and Rosssawn; Rooinga and Rossawnga in Buchanan's ears!). As mentioned earlier, ‘Rohingya’ is a name used by the Bengalis to denote a Rakhine – a Buddhist Rakhine or an Arakanese. In other words, 'Rohingya' and 'Magh' are the synonyms in Bengali and it gives the meaning Arakanese or Rakhaingthar. I have to conclude, these two groups 'hijacked' or 'kidnapped' the name of the real natives of Arakan (Rakhaings) in Bengali language!!

4. Separatist Movement

4.1. Second Attempt at Islamization, Bengali immigrants’ Plan to form an Islamic State ‘Arakanistan’

As mentioned earlier, after the war the Chittagonian Bengalis came back, bringing with them new settlers. After Burma became independent these settlers wanted to turn Northern Arakan into an autonomous Muslim state called ‘Arakanistan’. "Some members


of the 'Juniyatu Olamai' religious association went to Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of Butheedaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung townships into East Pakistan". The Burmese leader then, General Aung San, gave his clear position to Mohamad Ali Jinnah that he would not tolerate, if Pakistan would interfere in Burmese affairs20. The very similar incident had happened in Assam when British India was separated into two dominions called India and Pakistan.21 After his aborted attempt of incorporation of Assam into East Pakistan, Jinnah had learnt a good lesson and did not interfere directly. However, some of the Chittagonian Bengalis went underground and called themselves "Mujahid" rebels fighting U Nu's government.

4.1.1. Islamists Mujahids' connection with Pakistan (East):

The main objective of the rebellion was to absorb the western frontier of Burma into East Pakistan. The Mujahids carried Pakistani Flag and their slogan was: “Pakistan Zindabad, Allah Mujahid” (Long Live Vitorious Pakistan under the Guidance of Allah)! Whenever Burma Armed forces chased them, they retreated to their bases on the other side of the border.

Here I would like to cite “The Hindustan Standard Newspaper, May 18, 1949” where it was written on the Mujahids: “A dangerous aspect of this fighting is its international aspect: the Moslem insurgents have been carrying the Pakistani flag, and many of them clamor for the incorporation of this end of Arakan with Pakistan. It was suspected that they drew arms from across the border; the Government, however, is now satisfied that their rifles and ammunition are old stocks, left behind by the Japanese and British…. The great majority of Arakan Moslems are said to be really Pakistanis from Chittagong, even if they have been settled here for a generation. Out of the 130,000 here, 80,000 are still Pakistani citizens.”

The leader of the "Mujahids rebels was Mir Cassim, an uneducated fisherman. It was only an illusion of an uneducated man like Cassim who wanted to turn a traditionally Buddhist land like Arakan into a Muslim state. As a result, in the 1950's these rebels were totally crushed by the Burma Armed Forces. Some surrendered while some fled to East Pakistan. Cassim fled to East Pakistan and he was shot dead in Cox Bazaar by an unknown person in 1966.

4.1.2. Demanding undeserved Rights While U Nu's government had lots of trouble both in politics as well as in armed confrontation with all possible kinds of rebels, the Chittagonian Bengalis wanted to squeeze the neck of the Burmese Government. 90% of the population of Burma are

20In May 1947 U Rashid, a Muslim member of AFPFL and a close friend of Gen. Aung San and U Nu, sermoned the Indo-Pakistani Muslim community in Rangoon, how they should behave properly and accordingly due to the Constutution of the Union of Burma in the future.21 See and compare REPORT ON ILLEGAL MIGRATION INTO ASSAM SUBMITTED TO THE PRESIDENT OF INDIA BY THE GOVERNOR OF ASSAM, 8 November 1998, in Chapter II where it was written: “When the demand for Partition was raised, it was visualized that Pakistan would comprise Muslim majority provinces in the West and Bang-e-Islam comprising Bengal and Assam, in the East. Mr. Moinul Haque Chowdhary the Private Secretary of Jinnah, who after independence became a Minister in Assam and later at Delhi, told Jinnah that he would "present Assam to him on a silver platter". Jinnah confidently declared at Guwahati that Assam was in his pocket. The Cabinet Mission Plan placed Assam in Group C with Bengal. Both the Congress High Command and the Muslim League accepted the grouping plan but Lokapriya Gopinath Borodoloi vehemently opposed it. He was supported by Mahatma Gandhi. The grouping plan was foiled and Assam was saved from becoming a part of Pakistan”.


Buddhists. There are 4% Christians from all sects and 4 % Muslims too from all sects. However, the Islamists in Northern Arakan held a meeting in Alethankyaw Village in Maungdaw Township in June 1951 and they sent the following undeserved demands to the central government:22

− To establish immediately a free Muslim State in the status of condominium, for the Muslim Minority in Northern Arakan, separated from the Buddhist Arkanese (Rakhaing) Majority of the South, with its own defence force, police, and security unit;

− To extend Rights so as to share with the Rakhaings (Arakanese) on a 50:50 basis in representation and management of the defence of Arakan (Rakhaing State) as well as in the administration of Sittwe (Akyab), the metropolis and the port city, which would be divided into the Muslims and Rakhaings zones, priority being given to the Muslims co-administrator holding higher rank over the alternate Arakanese (Rakhaing) counterpart in rotation of the term of office;

− To accord the Muslim state the same status as extended to the Chins, the Kachins, the Shans, and the Karen State, with the right of proportionate representation on the constituent assembly and Upper Chamber of legislature;

− To appoint a Muslim representative from Northern Arakan as the Muslim Affairs Minister in the Government of the Union of Burma;

− To guarantee fair and adequate representation of the Muslims in the Civil Service, Judiciary, and Armed Forces of the Union of Burma;

− To provide complete freedom and equality in the field of religion, culture, communal education, and economy;

− To protect Muslim properties and businesses, and to compensate in case of destruction;

− To promote the welfare of the Muslim Community;− To establish quasi courts, each to be presided over by grand mufti (a judge who

interprets Islamic Laws), with the power to decide cases concerning the social and personal life of the Muslim according to the laws and principles of the Holy Sharia;

− To accord rights to form a statutory Muslim Council ( Majlis Islamia), with the approval of the Muslim conference, for the management of the religious, social, educational, and culutural affairs, and also the administration of the Muslim Institutions in order to promote welfare of the Muslims in the Union of Burma according to the Islamic Laws;

− To establish, with the financial aid of the Government of the Union of Burma, Islamic schools and colleges whose medium of teaching being Arabic ( the canonical tongue of Islam);

− To facilitate teaching of Urdu, Arabic, and Diniyat (Islamic religious instructions) in all the public schools throughout the country where the Muslim students represent the considerable number;

− To further extend and develop the Urdu schools;− To give complete freedom to the Muslims to found and run their own educational,

religious, and culutural institutions;− To make Urdu the medium of instruction for the Muslims in the primary and

secondary schools;− To refrain from imposing other languages on the Muslims against their will or to the

detriment of the Muslim culture and integrity;

22See and compare: Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York 2004, pp 73-74


Furthermore, they sent an oral 'Request' to the Government of the Union of Burma through two Muslim Ministers in the Cabinet, U Rashid and U Latiff;

1. Pork and pork products should not be sold in Burmese markets because there are shops owned by Muslims in the markets;

2. Pork and pork products should be sold only in special shops in separate areas;3. Pork and pork products must be wrapped properly so that these cannot be seen by

Muslims;

Which kind of government of a non-Muslim country on the earth could tolerate such kinds of undeserved demands? Of course, their one-sided demands were turned down by the Burmese government on the spot.

4.2. Superstitious U Nu

U Nu was a very religious but also a very superstitious man. He was a Saturday-born son. There is a saying in Burma that Saturday-born rulers cannot rule more than 7 years. The last king of Burma, King Thibaw, was a Saturday-born son and he was captured by the British after 7 years in throne. Gen. Aung San too was a Saturday-born son. He escaped from Burma in 1940, became military leader of the Thirty Comrades and in 1947 he was assassinated, so again 7 years. U Nu became Premier in 1947, so in 1954 he was already 7 years in power. Just to change something in his horoscope, he often let his deputy U Ba Swe work as acting prime minister whenever he was on leave or on tours. Sometimes, he declared that he would resign from the post of prime minister and remained only as the AFPFL Party Chairman.

Thakin Kodaw Hmaing was the teacher of almost all Thakins and all people in Burma considered him as the ‘Guru of all Gurus’. Most of the cabinet ministers as well as rebel leaders were his former students. In one occasion, Thakin Kodaw Hmaing said openly that he was already very old and he wanted to see peace in Burma before he would die. U Ba Swe, however, had a sharp tongue. In one public speech he insulted Thakin Kodaw Hmaing that the old man should meditate in his last days before dying, rather than involving in politics. The anger of the populace turned against the AFPFL and their popularity went down. The winning of election in 1956 was endangered.

In the mean time in March 1956, 7th Grade pupils demonstrated against the government because the examination was cancelled. In the riots a pupil called Harry Tan from St. Paul’s High School was shot dead by the police. U Nu became chaotic just before the election and declared that all pupils would be promoted without any examination. 4.3. Expecting Muslims’ votes

AFPFL lost face towards many Burmese because of U Ba Swe’s rude attitude towards his former teacher. As they cannot expect too much from the majority Buddhists, they have to make friends with Muslims.

In the 1952 elections, the Arakanese voted against the ruling AFPFL Party and they voted for the "Arakanese National Union Party" which was the allied party of the opposition. The Government of U Nu allowed the Bengali Muslim leaders to stand for election, as a


punishment for the Rakhaings (Arakanese). In fact, U Nu, U Ba Swe and the AFPFL government started destroying the destiny of the Rakhaings and selling the future of Arakan to the hands of the Bengali settlers. The then Prime Minister U Nu and his deputy U Ba Swe also wanted to please their two Muslim ministers, Mr. Rashid and Mr. Latiff, alias U Khin Maung Latt, who expected support from the Bengali settlers. Minister of Judicial Affairs, U Latiff alias23 U Khin Maung Latt went to Arakan for election campaign. Later about one hundred and fifty thousand Chittagong Bengalis24, regardless of they or their ancestors had lived in the Arakan Division of Burma before the Second World War or not, became Burmese citizens. As a result, the Party of the Arakani Muslims, the allied party of the AFPFL won all four constituencies in Northern Arakan. Then, Mr. Abu Bawshaw became MP in Bootheetaung Constituency, Mr. Sultan Mahmud and Mr. Abdul Gaffer in Maungdaw and Mr. Abul Kai in Rathedaung. Their rival candidates U San Tun Aung, an Arakanese (Rakhaing) and even a "Kaman" Muslim advocate called U Po Khine lost in the elections because they could not speak Bengali language Chittagonian dialect.

Since that time, the word "Rohingyas" occasionally appeared in some Burmese Newspapers. Premier U Nu and his deputy U Ba Swe occasionally used this term in their speeches. It cannot be ruled out that U Nu and U Ba Swe wanted to please those voters for their party as well as their two Muslim ministers. The Muslim Minister U Rashid was a strong supporter of U Nu and the other Muslim Minister Mr. Latiff alias U Khin Maung Latt was a protégé of U Ba Swe and U Kyaw Nyein, the other Deputy Prime Minister. Since the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime Minister started using the term ‘Rohingya’ others too started using this term. Even the famous history professor, Prof. G. C. Luce started using the term "Rohingyas" in his lectures for the Bengali settlers living in Northern Arakan, although he has had never mentioned this terminology in his lectures in the pre-war days, and also in his books published before 1955.

4.4. Political Turmoil in Burma:

After winning the election in 1956 U Nu declared that he would resign from the post of prime minister and remained only as the AFPFL Party Chairman. U Ba Swe became Prime minister for 6 months. U Nu, after staying as party chairman for 6 months, thought it was the best time for him to come back as prime minister because he was already ‘removed’ from his post after 7 years in power. Apart from that he had noticed that AFPFL was splitting and some ‘rebellious’ cliques inside the AFPFL wanted him to be removed from duties. Then, he came back into politics as prime minister of Burma again. However, he could not prevent the splitting of the ruling party. The Anti-Fascist Peoples' Freedom League (AFPFL) split into two factions, the Clean AFPFL headed by U Nu and the Stable AFPFL led by U Ba Swe. U Ba Swe's fraction (the Stable) was supported by the majority of the AFPFL members of parliament (i.e. the ruling party). Seeing his danger by a vote of no-confidence by his own party members and former comrades, U Nu promised to grant States for the Arakanese and the Mons, and he also promised to the "Arakan Muslims" leaders that he won't forget their gratitude if they could help him during that political crisis. U Nu’s fraction tried to organize the former First Lady of Burma, a Shan Duchess Maha Devi Sao Hearn Kham, however, she declared that she wanted to be neutral.

On 9th June 1958, U Nu's fraction narrowly escaped the vote of no-confidence submitted

23 Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York 2004, p.7524 According to BSPP and Burma Military sources there were three hundred thousand illegal immigrants who gained Burmese Citizenship.


by U Ba Swe's fraction in the Burmese Lower House because the "Arakanese National Union Party", the party of the Mons and "Arakan Muslims" MPs together with the MPs of the main opposition party then, the leftist National United Front (NUF) party, voted for U Nu's fraction. On the other hand, the ones who earlier had declared to be neutral, the former First Lady of Burma, a Shan Duchess Maha Devi Sao Hearn Kham and a leftist National United Front (NUF) party MP from the Myinmu constituency, U Pe Tin, voted for U Ba Swe’s fraction. After that U Pe Tin was disowned or ‘excommunicated’ by the leftist NUF Party. Maha Devi Sao Hearn Kham became very popular in U Ba Swe's fraction (the Stable), however, she was given the nick-name ‘Suphaya Latt25 of the Shan State’ by the followers of Thakin Tin, the second man of U Nu’s fraction.

There was political turmoil in Burma under U Nu and he was totally trapped in his own promises which he could not solve easily. It became the ‘Golden opportunity’ for the Usurper General Ne Win and his army ‘to make hay while the sun shines’ and took the ‘Lion’s Share’ to become the ‘Ruling Class’ in Burma. First time from October 1958 to March 1960 they ruled the country as ‘The Care Taker Government’ and later ´carried out the Army coup détat on 2nd March 1962. The Burmese Army ruled the country even after the Post-Ne Win’s Era till nowadays. 4.5. Mistakes unwittingly made by Burmese leaders

As mentioned earlier, U Nu and U Ba Swe, without thinking about the real meaning of that term, occasionally used the term 'Rohingya' for the Chittagonian Bengali Muslims. At the surrendering ceremony of the Mujahid Rebels in 1960, Vice Chief of Staff (Army) then, Brigadier General Aung Gyi accidently used the term 'Rohingya' although his boss General Ne Win, despite of the fact that his favourite Chef Raju was a Bengali Muslim, considered that term as a taboo. Nowadays, Rohingyarist took advantage on those events and abused U Nu, U Ba Swe and Brigadier Aung Gyi's words as if those leaders recognized them as an ethnic group of Burma.

4.6. 'Rohingya Language in Burma Broadcasting Service

When the Burma Broadcasting Service BBS was established, Burma was still under the umbrella of the British Indian Empire. At that time, English was the official language and Hindustani was the lingua franca of the subcontinent. Burmese is lingua franca in Burma and Karens were the second largest ethnic group in Burma next to Burmese26. That's why four languages namely Burmese, Karen, English and Hindustani programs were broadcasted. When Burma became an independent nation in 1948 the government still allowed to broadcast these four languages, however, the situation had been changed. Only Burmese and Karen had become the National Languages but English and Hindustani automatically became Foreign Languages. Burmese became official language as well as

25 Suphaya Latt was the last queen of Burma, well known to have a sharp tongue and very dominant in the Court of Mandalay. Her husband, King Thibaw, was only a henpecked husband. Thakin Tin and followers wanted to say indirectly that the Lord of Ywangmwe Sao Shwe Thaik, the former President of Burma too was under the thumb of his wife!

26Nowadays, the Karens are the third largest (if not the second largest claimed by themselves) ethnic group in Burma while the Burmese are the largest. But the ratio between the Burmese (Burman) and the Karens is approximately 8:1. The last census of Burma stated that the total population of Burma is nearly 55 millions and among them about 40 millions are Burman (Burmese) and about 5 millions Karens live in Burma.


lingua franca! In 1960, after winning the election, U Nu wanted to show his gratefulness to Chittagonian Bengali voters and allowed them to broadcast their language as 'Rohingya' after English and Hindustani programs, that means their language too was a foreign language. However, Rohingayrists nowadays abused that fact with their own interpretation and claimed that U Nu allowed them to broadcast their language under the National Languages Programs and therefore they were de facto recognized by U Nu as an ethnic group of Burma. If it was the case, similarly to 'Rohingyar', English and Hindustani languages too have a right to claim that they were national languages of Burma!!

When General Ne Win came to power, he allowed only the English language to be broadcasted from BBS as a foreign language. Both Hindustani and 'Rohingyar' programs were abolished, but the national language programs increased. Shan, Kachin, Chin, Kayah, Mon and Arakanese (Rakhaing) language programs were introduced in addition to Burmese and Karen. Only then, the real national languages program came into being. These programs did not exist under the U Nu Era. Hence, it is no longer to be discussed whether the so-called Rohingya language was recognized by U Nu as a national language or not!

5. Immigration Waves after 1970

5.1. Never Ending Bengali Immigration Waves

Illegal Bengali immigration waves increased whenever there was a natural catastrophe, wars and any shortage in Former East Pakistan, later Bangladesh. The following table is the evidence.

The population in the Arakanese town called Tet Chaung, now known as Maungdaw:

Year Arakanese Bengali Total Remark1921 22679 68035 907141931 34700 104408 139108 Burma gazetteer1941 41484 124452 1659361956 5808 187792 1936001973 11908 211394 223302 (Akyab District of ACB)1976 13379 212070 2254491981 14328 249571 2638991986 19139 264507 283646

This table shows very clearly that Arakanese population in 1941 was 41484 and in 1956 the population decreased to 5808 only. In 1941 the Arakanese were 25% of the total population, however in 1956 they became only 3% of the total population. In contrast, the Bengali population in 1941 was 124452 but increased to 187792 in 1956.

It happened due to the following facts:

(a) Many Arakanese were killed by the Bengali Muslims during the racial riots in 1941-42. It proved who committed 'ethnic cleansing'.

(b) As mentioned before, when the British Administration restarted in Arakan on 1st

January 1945, all Bengalis who went back to Bengal during the war came back to Arakan together with many new settlers. However, the Arakanese ‘refugees’ in


Dinajpur were allowed to return to their homeland only in the month of December 1945 and they could not reintegrate to their original places due to the illegal occupation of their land by the Chittagonian Bengali Muslims.

(c) Those Arakanese were compelled to leave their villages because their lands were taken by the Chittagonian Bengalis during their absence. Because of these Chittagonian Bengali immigration waves many Arakanese left their villages in Northern Arakan and moved southwards.

5.2. East Pakistani war refugees

In 1970 the Independence War in East Pakistan broke out. At that time there were about one and a half million to two million "war refugees" in Arakan Division of Burma. In the mean time, there were more than ten million "war refugees" on Indian soil. India was open and immediately called International Organizations such as ICRC, FAO, WFP and UNHCR and others for help.

On the other hand, the Revolutionary Council of Burma headed by Ne Win was too much afraid of International Organizations coming inside Burma. They wanted to stay as an isolated state and they wanted to deal "under the table" with the newly formed Bangladeshi Government. They recognized Bangladesh immediately and because of that there were tensions between Pakistan and Burma. Ne Win had to send a special envoy to explain the situation.

If the then Burmese Government was wise and open like India, the international organisations might have accepted these war refugees since then as "East Pakistani or Bangladeshi Refugees inside Burma", and not the other way round like now. In fact, most of the people who claim to be the ‘Rohingya People’ nowadays crossed the border and settled down inside Burma in 1970 during the Bangladesh Liberation War and later.

At that time the living conditions inside Burma were much better than that of East Pakistan, later Bangladesh. Hence, although Sheik Mujibur Rahman, the then Prime Minister of Bangladesh willingly accepted all of the war refugees coming back to his country, many of them crossed the border back into Burma and settled down in Northern Arakan illegally. Then, they were helped by the former settlers who already became Burmese citizens since U Nu’s Era. Then, the population growth of ‘Rohingyas’ inside Burma became a miracle.

In 1976, the present author witnessed in Sittwe many Bengalis living on the roads and could speak only very few Arakanese/Burmese words such as: “Please give me some food! Please give me some work!” etc. etc.

5.3. The first ‘aborted’ Naga Min (King Dragon) Operation in 1978

In the year 1978 the Burma Socialist Program Party (BSPP) government made "routine immigrant check" with the Naga Min (King Dragon) Operation at the whole Arakan, especially at the Bangladesh border. Most people fled to Bangladesh claiming that they were "Rohingyas" and the issue of military abuses of the Burmese Army was raised. This was denied by the Burmese government and declared these people were new settlers coming from overpopulated Bangladesh because of a cyclone which hit the neighbouring country recently, which was vehemently rejected by Bangladesh. The Bangladeshi


government requested the UN and some powers like China and U.S.A. for help. In fact, the BSPP government should have called International Organizations immediately and given shelters for those cyclone refugees and issued them temporary settling certificates as foreigners. Instead of that, Ne Win's Regime (BSPP at that time) unwisely started the Naga Min (King Dragon) Operation and chased out those Bangladeshi Settlers who named themselves ‘Rohingyas’.

Unfortunately for the Burmese government but fortunately for the "Rohingyas", many of these "refugees" had Burmese identity cards. However, it was found out later that some of the Burmese identity cards were faked ones printed in Bangladesh, and some of them though genuine were issued illegally due to the corruption of Burmese immigration officers in the Arakan (Rakhine State). Their salaries were too low, so, they took bribes and issued those people identity cards. Some powers like United States of America and China pressured the BSPP government of Burma.27

The BSPP government, after its difficulties in internal problems, such as riots during former UN Secretary General U Thant's funeral and the semi-annual demonstrations of workers and students since 1974, wanted to avoid creating an international problem. Those "Rohingyas" were allowed to return after a bilateral agreement between the Burmese and Bangladeshi governments. These people were accepted to come back to Burma from 1st

August 1978 to January 5, 1979. But the number of returnees was about 30000 more than the official "refugees" declared by the Bangladeshi authorities. Some claimed to be from a village either in Butheedaung or Maung Daw area, however, they could not show the place where they used to stay nor did they knew how to go back to their ‘native villages’. In fact, they were the new settlers from Bangladesh. The following table shows the details:28

27 The founder of Bangladesh, Sheik Mujibur Rahman was very close to the East Bloc and therefore USA and China were not so happy with him. In 1975 there was an Army Coup in Bangladesh and Mujibur Rahman was killed. The new military leader Gen. Zia Rahman was close to China and USA. In 1977, Bangladeshi Military Attaché in Rangoon, Col. Amin was accused of helping anti-government groups, he was declared persona non grata and had to leave Burma. In the mean time Sino-Burmese Relation was not good because of the Chinese backed Communists at their border. Five Burma Air Force dive bombers were shot down by the Chinese at the border.

In a sub-editorial (Parbattya oncholay oshanti sristir janok marhum rashtrapati ziaur rahman) published in the daily Sangbad from Dhaka, Fakir Abdur Razzak, a renowned journalist and columnist, said that the late president Ziaur Rahman was an agent of Pakistan’s ISI. During pre-independence (before 1971) period, Ziaur received training as a junior officer in the Pakistani military intelligence department, ISI, and earned fame as a smart officer. He earned a special ‘selection’ of the ISI during the 1971 liberation war of Bangladesh. Because of his dubious role that raised many questions during the liberation struggle, General M A G Osmani removed him from the command of a sector, the article added.

After the assassination of Shaikh Mujibur Rahman, with all members of his family, he reinstated the banned Islamist organization Jamat-e-Islami and rehabilitated big anti-liberation war elements in his cabinet, which only shows his deeper connection with Pakistan. Working as an agent of ISI, imitating Pakistan in his administrative moves, statecraft and policies only proves that the late Zia took every step to transform the independent Bangladesh into a mini Pakistan, it said.28 Report on the conditions and sufferings of the Arakanese in Maung Daw, Published by: Arakanese Security Association, Maung Daw, Arakan (Rakhine State) dated 9 October 1988 (in Burmese language), p.4.


The truth is, this aborted Naga Min (King Dragon) Operation put ‘the Rohingya Issue’ to the attention of the international community. Because of that many foreign media were trapped by ‘the tragic history of the Rohingyas’.

5.4. The Second ‘aborted’ Naga Min (King Dragon) Operation29 in 1991

In 1991, a deadly cyclone hit Bangladesh and many people crossed the border. As usual, the new Military Junta of Burma called SLORC too did not want international observers inside Burma, but stupidly started the ‘aborted’ Second Naga Min Operation in 1991. Consequently, the issue of military abuses against the "Rohingyas" in Arakan was raised and it was vehemently rejected by the Burmese Junta.

This time, the international pressure was even harsher than in 1978, the First Naga Min Operation, because the reputation of the then Military Junta called SLORC was worse than the reputation of Ne Win’s regime. This time the propaganda of the ‘Rohingyas’ were more effective than in 1978 because they got support from the rich Muslim countries and some international media. The SLORC had to accept ‘the Rohingyas’ repatriated back to Burma and as usual more people than they chased out.

5.5. Human trafficking

5.5.1. Bangladeshi Illegal immigrants in other Southeast Asians Countries

The latest news revealed that even in Thailand and Islamic countries of Southeast Asia, Malaysia and Indonesia, whenever they checked the strangers looked different from their natives in features and complexions are found to be Bangladeshis, although these three countries do not have borders with Bangladesh. Sometimes these settlers claimed to be "Burmese Muslims, however, since these people could not speak a single word Burmese but asking for a Bengali interpreter and they don't look like Burmese who have very similar features and complexion like Thais, Indonesian and Malays, these illegal settlers were arrested and deported back to Bangladesh.

It is human nature for the people of a poor country to seek their fortune in a more prosperous country. Nowadays, there are about two million Burmese and other ethnic minorities working in Thailand and Malaysia either as legal or illegal immigrant workers. Many Mexicans entered into USA illegally, African Boat People wanted to enter one of the soils of EU, many Afghans, Chinese and Subcontinent people were taken by human traffickers as illegal immigrants to Western Europe, USA, Canada and Australia.

Bangladesh is a poor country and very overpopulated. Malaysia is the nearest rich Muslim country. Hence, no wonder, most of the poor Bangladeshis wanted to go to Malaysia to seek their luck. If they said the truth that they were from Bangladesh, they would be

29 This operation was officially named as Pyi Thar Yar Operation and also known as Hintha Plan


Dist. Of Maung Daw No of family No. of family

Male Female TotalOutgoing 12496 unknown unknown 79823Incoming 17674 54935 54732 109667

considered only as illegal immigrants and turned back. Since ‘Rohingyas’ speak the same language and have the same culture as the Chittagonian Bengalis, it is ‘the golden opportunity’ for them to ‘make hay while the sun shines’ and claimed to be ‘Rohingyas’ as they were taught by either the Islamists or the human traffickers.

6. Islamists Rohingyas

6.1. Armed Wings of Rohingyas

The following are the Rohingya Armed Wings

1. RSO (Rohingya Solidarity Organization);2. ARIF (Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front);3. RPF (Rohingya Patriotic Front);4. RLO (Rohingya Laberation Organization);5. IMA (Itihadul Mozahadin of Arakan).

6.1.2. Rohingya-Taliban Connections

Most of the ‘Rohingyas’ were and are the supporters of Pakistan and some Bangladeshi sources claimed that Rohingyas have connection with the terrorist group such as Taliban of Afghanistan. Here I would like to cite William Gomes30, who wrote: “In 1990s, 70,000 to 120,000 Muslim youth trained to fight in Asia, Africa, and in Middle East in different Al-Qaeda and Taliban camps in Afghanistan. Al-Qaeda highly trained a notable number of Islamic groups and indoctrinated them with the mission of "Jihad" that influx all over the world the message of fear and violence.

Arakan Rohingya Nationalist Organization (ARNO) and Rohingya Solidarity Organisation (RSO) were among the groups who were trained in Afghanistan camps and were and are active in Myanmar and Bangladesh“.

Dr. Rohan Gunaratna31 also wrote: „ In Southeast Asia, al Qaeda’s leaders also did the same. Hambali was al Qaeda’s point man, convened the Rabitatul Mujahidin meeting, which was partly participated by representatives from MILF and ASG in the Philippines, Laskar Jundullah from Indonesia, JI, and Jemaah Salafia.

Also, JI leaders from Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, Singapore and the Philippines participated in that meeting. Other than that, we saw representatives from the RSO and the ARNO from Myanmar, participating in that meeting.”

Salah Uddin Shoaib Choudhury32 too reported: “In January 2001, Bangladesh clamped down on Rohingya activists and offices in Chittagong and Cox's Bazar. Hundreds were rounded up, and the local press was full of reports of their alleged involvement in gun- and drug-running. Local Rohingya leaders vehemently deny such accusations, and refute claims that they are connected with Islamic fundamentalist groups in and outside 30 William Gomes, Rohingyas trained in different Al-Qaeda and Taliban camps in Afghanistan, http://www.asiantribune.com/?q=node/16449 31 Dr. Rohan Gunaratna, Al Qaeda’s Network in Southeast Asia, p. 32 Salah Uddin Shoaib Choudhury, Rise of Islamist extremism in Bangladesh, http://www.globalpolitician.com/24508-bangladesh,


http://www.globalpolitician.com/24508-bangladesh

Bangladesh: "These are pure fabrications to discredit us," said Nurul Islam, president of the Arakan Rohingya National Organization, a moderate Rohingya group active in the border areas. Another Rohingya spokesman blamed local Bangladeshi gangs with high-level connections for the violence, smuggling and lawlessness in the area. The paramilitary Bangladesh Rifles have also been accused of involvement in smuggling activities around Cox's Bazar.

There is little doubt that extremist groups have taken advantage of the disenfranchised Rohingyas, including recruiting them as cannon fodder for Al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. In an interview with the Karachi-based newspaper, Ummat on 28 September 2001, Bin Laden said: "There are areas in all parts of the world where strong Jihadist forces are present, from Indonesia to Algeria, from Kabul to Chechnya, from Bosnia to Sudan, and from Myanmar to Kashmir." He was most probably referring to a small group of Rohingyas on the Bangladesh-Myamnar border.”

Bertil Lintner33 also wrote: “Many of the Rohingya recruits were given the most dangerous tasks in the battlefield, clearing mines and portering. According to Asian intelligence sources, Rohingya recruits were paid 30,000 Bangladeshi taka ($525) on joining and then 10,000 taka ($175) per month. The families of recruits killed in action were offered 100,000 taka ($1,750). Recruits were taken mostly via Nepal to Pakistan, where they were trained and sent on further to military camps in Afghanistan. It is not known how many people from this part of Bangladesh — Rohingyas and others — fought in Afghanistan, but the number is believed to be quite substantial. Others went to Kashmir and even Chechnya to join forces with Islamist militants there.

In an interview with the CNN in December 2001, American ‘Taliban’ fighter, John Walker Lindh, related that the Al Qaeda-directed ansar (companions of the Prophet) brigades, to which he had belonged in Afghanistan, were divided along linguistic lines: "Bengali, Pakistani (Urdu) and Arabic," which suggests that the Bengali-speaking component — Bangladeshi and Rohingya — must have been significant. In early 2002, Afghanistan’s Foreign Minister, Dr. Abdullah, told a Western journalist that "we have captured one Malaysian and one or two supporters from Burma.

6. 2. Formation of ARNO (Arakan Rohingya National Organistion)34

Muslim Terrorist-Insurrection groups such as the Rohingya Solidarity Organization (RSO), Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF) and Hak Kavt group combined and established the Rohingya National Council (RNC) on 28 October, 1998. The RNC was then reorganized as the Arakan Rohingya National Council (ARNC). The Rohingya Liberation Army (RLA) was also formed by combining all the armed insurgents of the groups. The Arakan Rohingya National Organization was formed to organize all the different Rohingya insurgents into one group under pressure from Muslim groups outside Burma. 6.2.1. Organization of ARNO

33 Bertil Lintner, Religious Extremism and Nationalism in Bangladesh, The paper was presented in an international workshop on Religion and Security in South Asia at the Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies in Honolulu, Hawaii. August 19-22, 2002.34 See details in: http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2002/10/02RANGOON1310.html


The headquarters of ARNO was opened at No. (30 Ju-ma-khar street, Ju-ma-khar ward, Chittagong in Bangladesh. Their camps are based at Zai-Lar-Saw-Ri HQ camp--map reference (PG-2916), Daw-Maw-Sri camp--map reference (P6-0537) and Kyar-Laung-Taik camp--map reference (PG-2026). ARNO group had an estimated strength of about 200 insurgents, of whom about 170 are equipped with a variety of arms. A Central Committee of ARNO is organized as follows: (a) Chairman (b) Military Commander (c) Secretary (d) Asst Secretary (Chittagong Office-in-Charge) (e) Central Committee Member (Asst Military-in-Charge) (f) do (g) Central Committee Member (h) do (i) do (j) Foreign Liaison-in-Charge (k) Foreign Fund Raiser (l) Representative for Malaysia (m) Cox's Bazaar District Organizer (n) Finance Officer (o) Liaison Officer (p) Advisor (q) Camp Commander (Zai-La-Saw-Ri Camp) (r) Deputy Camp Commander (s) Camp Commander (Daw-Maw-Sri Camp) (t) Camp Commander (Kya-Long-Taik Camp)

6.2.1.1. Meeting of Five Members of ARNO with Taliban leader Osama Bin Laden35

Five members of ARNO attended a high-ranking officers' course with Al Qaeda representatives on 15 May, 2000 and arrived back in Bangladesh on 22 June. During the course, they discussed matters relating to political and military affairs, arms and ammunition, and financing with Osama Bin Laden. Mohamed Arju Taida and Mohamed Rau-Sheik Ar-Mar Darsi from the Taliban were present with them at the meeting. Ninety members of ARNO were selected to attend a guerrilla warfare course, a variety of explosives courses and heavy-weapons courses held in Libya and Afghanistan in August, 2001. Thirteen out of these selected members participated in the explosives and heavy-weapons training. 6.2.1.2. Arrival of Two Taliban at ARNO Headquarters36

Al Ha-Saud and Al Ja-hid, two members of the Taliban group, arrived at ARNO's headquarters in Zai-La-Saw-Ri Camp on 2 November, 2001 from the Rohingya Solidarity Organization's (RSO) Kann-Grat-Chaung camp. They met with Nur Islam (Chairman), ZaFaur-Ahmed (Secretary) and Fayos Ahmed (acting Chief-of-Staff Army), ARNO, and discussed the reorganization of RSO and ARNO. It was learned that ARNO/RSO and Taliban groups planned to hold a meeting on 15 November, 2001. Nur Islam, Chairman of

35 Ibid36 Ibid


ARNO, also declared that the Arakan Rohingya Islamic Front (ARIF) and the Rohingya Solidarity Organization (RSO) had agreed to reorganize as integrated members of ARNO. However, Mullah Dil-Mar from RSO did not agree with this re-organization and resigned with his entourage of insurgents.

6.2.1.3. ARNO connections with Islamist Terrorists in U.S.A37

According to Fayos Ahmed, ARNO Military-in-Charge, Salem Ulah, had contacts with Al-Qaeda and some members of ARNO forces were arrested when they were sent to join the Taliban in Afghanistan and attacked the Americans. These ARNO forces were sent to Afghanistan along with Rohingya groups in Karachi, Pakistan. Rohingya groups are in many countries like Pakistan, India, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, UAE, Palestine and Australia. Chairman Nurul Islam has received an American visa and departed for Saudi Arabia from Bangladesh, with an intent to reside in Saudi Arabia for a short period and then depart for the United States. Fayos Ahmed, during his short stay in Thailand, met with Dr. Allen from NCGUB Foreign Affairs Department, David Htaw from KNU and David Smile from Burma Lawyer Council (BLC). He went to Thailand as an editor of a news media and returned to Bangladesh on 12 September. 6.2.1.4. Investigation of Members of Rohingya Jihad Caught in Singapore:38 Hanbali and Baasyia are leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)-organized Rabitatul Mujahideen group which was involved in the whole region as a Muslim organization. Through contacts with Muslim groups in the region, active cooperation was achieved in matters of training, weapons-buying, financing, exchange of information and terrorist military operations. The other organizations which cooperated were Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM), two organizations in Southern Thailand and Rakhine and Rohingya terrorist-insurgents in Myanmar. ARNO has established a contact with Al-Qaeda and five Central Committee members of ARNO paid a visit to Afghanistan in April, 2001. Besides, ARNO has also cooperated with Republic of Islam Aceh (RIA) and Egyptian Jammah Jihad Mesir (JJM). It is believed that there exists a small community of Rohingya's in Patuwat, Malaysia.

6.3. 'Rohingyas' in Jammu and Kashmir

Narinjara News agency reported on 8th September 2011: „According to local refugee sources, many refugees in the Burmese refugee camps located at Cox's Bazaar in Bangladesh are leaving for Jammu Kashmir, a Muslim state in Western India, near the Pakistani border, in order to pursue better living standards“.

But the real reason is: Jammu and Kashmir the places to link them up with terrorist groups. Of course, it will be „in order to pursue better living standards“ because they will get good salaries!!

7. Analysis:

7.1. Who immigrate to where

If we compare Burma and Bangladesh by means of population density, we will see that

37 Ibid38 Ibid


Bangladesh has one of the highest in the world while Burma has a very low one. 39 Natural catastrophes, like storms, cyclones and floods hit Bangladesh every year, but rarely Burma. Soil fertility in the Rakhine State is much better than that of Bangladesh. Burma was a very rich country compared to East Pakistan (later Bangladesh). Even now, although Burma has become a poor country, the way of life in Burma is much easier than that in Bangladesh. Besides, Burma has more space, so logically who immigrates where does not need to be explained.

Here I would like to cite Milton W. Meyer40 who wrote: “A common boundary existed with East Pakistan, and with a Muslim minority in adjoining Arakan, there was some illegal immigration from the over populated neighbour”.

Every time illegal immigrants were checked, many of the new Bengali settlers were arrested because the only language they could speak was Chittagonian Bengali! Almost all of them had to learn the Burmese language in the jails because they could not speak Burmese as well as any other language of Burma, although Burmese language is the official language of Burma as well as the Lingua Franca or ‘the Language of Communication’ between one ethnic minority groups to the other group. Since the border of Burma was neither properly controlled nor well guarded with barbed wires and walls, nobody can say when they came over to Burma or since when they have lived there. Both "Rohingyas" problems, 1978 and 1991, came about a few months after a cyclone hit Bangladesh. Bangladesh's population explosion cannot be controlled by their government anymore. Even India, the world's largest democracy, whose people are of the same historical and racial background as those people from Bangladesh, raised barbed wires along their borders with Bangladesh to prevent illegal immigration towards their side.41

Nowadays, there are about 15 millions illegal immigrants from Bangladesh living in neighboring Indian States. The Governor of Assam wrote an official letter to the President of India about that problem42.

Apart from that, the border between Bangladesh and Burma is not a border between two countries instead it is the border between two regions as well as the border between Indo-Aryan and Mongoloid stocks, both of whom are totally different either in language and culture or in race and religion. So, no wonder, the one who do not look like natives of Burma and especially who cannot speak either Burmese or the indigenous minority language of that area, instead speaking only Bengali Chittagong Dialect will be accused as illegal immigrants or new settlers from Bangladesh because the early settlers, though they too, are Chittagonian Bengalis but could speak Burmese and Arakanese already.

Unfortunately, international media spread out the news only about the poor 'Rohingya Refugees' neither wanted by Burma nor Bangladesh. The real fact that most of them were 39Bangladesh has a population density of 969 per square kilometre. The growth rate of population in that country is 2.2 per cent and its population is growing at the rate of 2.8 million per year. Each year nearly one third of Bangladesh gets inundated by floods, displacing 19 million people. 70 million people constituting 60 per cent of the population live below the poverty line. The per capita income in Bangladesh is 170 dollars per year (1998).40 Milton W. Meyer, Southeast Asia (A Brief History), A Littlefield, Adams & Co., New Jersey, 1966, P. 12141 Only in 2009 Burmese authorities started to guard the border with barbed wires, which Bangladesh vehemently protested. In fact, the Bangladeshi Government should be happy and welcome this, if these people were REAL ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS FROM BURMA!42 Report On Illegal Migration to Assam Submitted to the President of India by the Governor of Assam, 8th November, 1998


illegal immigrants was not reported.

This happens only because the military government of Burma has a very bad image and reputation either in the internal or international politics, and is named Pariah State by some Western Countries; the Islamists, the Rohingyarists and their lobbyists know very well that many Western Nations as well as UN could and would not believe the statement of the Burmese Government even if the Burmese Government was in the correct side!

The human rights abuses of Burmese armed forces against the poor 'Rohingyas' were preferred to be reported. Brutalaties and human right abuses of Burmese armed forces were and are well known in all areas of Burma, including against their own clergy, the Buddhists monks!!

In any case, I would like to emphasize that human rights violations, military abuses and brutal crimes committed against the "Rohingyas" by the various Burmese Military Juntas must be strongly condemned, although the "Rohingyas" are illegal immigrants.

7.2. Illusions of some fanatic Muslims

In the1970's, after they were given a "Rosy Picture" by Gaddafi of Libya, some fanatic Muslims from the overpopulated Subcontinent and Muslim fundamentalists in Southeast Asia dreamed of a Muslim-dominated Southeast Asian Coast. They noticed that the whole of Southeast Asian Coasts except the Burmese Coastal Lines are populated with Muslim majority. Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia are Muslim countries. The Island of Mindanao of the Catholic dominated country, the Philippines, has many Muslims. Even the Kra Peninsula of the Buddhist country, Thailand, has Muslim majority. So, they wanted to use the following methods:43

7.2.1. Change the religion of the natives through marriage to a Muslim

In the late 1970's until 1980's there were lots of slogans and campaigns made by fanatic Muslims groups in Burma that Muslim men to marry Buddhist women, especially either influential women or the daughters of "Big Shots" with special rewards offered to those who could do so. The Muslim youth called Hlwan Moe, a pop singer, who courted and married the daughter of U Maung Maung Kha, the then Prime Minister of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma, was rewarded with a lot of money, however, named as "Wedding Present" by some Muslims. Almost everybody in Burma knew that story.

7.2.2. Transfer of people from overpopulated Muslim countries Since Bangladesh is too over populated some of its citizens should be transferred to under-populated non-Muslim countries such as Burma, so that Muslims will be everywhere. However, Irrawaddy Delta Coast and Tenessarim Coast of Burma can be reached only by sea route from Bangladesh and it would be difficult. Thus, the transfer of people from Bangladesh to under-populated Arakan by land route, just to cross the uncontrolled border, so that it would become a Muslim majority state, and later to declare the area as a separate state of Arakanistan or Arakandesh. If the declaration and separation can not be done easily, the religious war "Jihad" should be declared if

43 See also:, Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, pp. 65-80


necessary, financial and military aid from all Muslim countries should be requested. It can not be ruled out that some Muslim countries can easily be persuaded. Here I like to cite Bertil Lintner, Chronology of The Events, in du, Sonderbeilage, Heft 11, 1993, where it was written: “Prince Khaled Sultan Abdul Aziz, commander of the Saudi contingent in the 1991 Gulf War, visited Dhaka, Bangladesh, in Mid-April 1992 and recommended a Desert Storm-like action against Burma; "just what [the UN] did to liberate Kuwait".

7.3. Are Islamists a threat to the Union of Myanmar?

Definitely sure they are. It is already proven that they are terrorists. One should remember the following Islamists' attacks: On the World Trade Center in New York and also the attack on US Defence Ministry 'Pentagon' on 9th September 2001, on London tube station on 7th July 2005, on Spanish Train in Madrid, on tourists on Bali Island in Indonesia, Moscow Theatre, Mumbai (Bombay) Hotel, Dehli Highcourt on 7 th September 2011 etc. etc. After these events, the Westerners became serious on Islamists.

Especially for the country like Burma where the government had a very bad reputation and image, and named Pariah State by some Western Countries; the Islamists know very well that many Western Nations as well as UN could and would not believe the statement of the Burmese Government even if the Burmese Government was in the correct side! Hence, they have a big advantage and they would dare to do all for Islamization.

On 13th May 1988, seizing the opportunity arising from the unstable situation in the country due to the political disturbances starting from the bloodshed demonstrations of the students since March, a sea of about 50000 (fifty thousand) Chittagonian Bengalis, some of them came from the other side of the border, converged upon Maungdaw from all sides around town coming on foot and shouted: „Kill all Rakhaings! Your land will be our own due to Allah's will“!44

However, the Islamists diverted the story later and boasted that the 'Rohingyas' were the first people demonstrated against BSPP government and were brutally killed by the army, even earlier than students in Rangoon on 8th August 1988!!

On 20th March 2011, both Irrawaddy and Narinjara News Agencies reported that Burmese authorities had arrested about 80 Taliban suspects together with arms and explosives at the border town Maungdaw. In June this year 12 of them were sentenced from 3 to 8 years imprisonment. It is very mild imprisonment in Burma because student leaders and political prisoners were sentenced 20 years to 90 years imprisonment by the Burmese Regime!

The present author, on the other hand, believes the Islamists would use another method of Islamization in Burma, namely “Engulfing of a lesser ethnic group by a more populated group” rather than terrorist attacks, taking advantage on living conditions in Burma.

Before Ne Win came to power until 1962, Burma was one of Asia’s rich and very prosperous countries. Unfortunately, after 26 years of his rule, Burma became one of the poorest countries in the world and had to ask for the Least Developed Countries (LDC)

44 See also Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York, 2004 p.80


Status in the United Nations and it was granted in 1987 which led the nation wide anti-govenment demonstrations with bloodbaths and the eventual downfall of BSPP government. As mentioned before, since 1988, the Burmese Military Junta had very bad image and reputations. Burma was regarded as the second most corrupt country on the earth by Transparency International. The Burmese Military has one of the highest number of Child-Soldiers.

Although Burmese government restricted the movement of these so-called 'Rohingyas' on paper because of corruption in all levels, they could go everywhere in Burma. Sometimes, army convoys were their carrier to Chinese, Laotian and Thai borders. Taking advantage on the economic situation of the Burmese and other ethnic minorities, many of these 'Rohingya Muslim men' took poor women from Burmese and other ethnic minorities as their wives. According to Islamic tradition those women and their offsprings must become Muslims. For that reason, Islamists received financial support from rich Muslim countries. Since a Muslim man can marry up to four wives officially, this method should be the fastest and safest for Islamization of a non-Muslim country.

That will be the biggest danger for Burma's and Buddhists' future!!

Muslim Sharia Law dictated the Muslim community to convert all 'infidels', i.e., all who supported any other religions except Islam. A Muslim who converts to another religion can be punishable with a death penalty. There was and is no Muslim ruler who undertook or undertakes to promote Buddhism or Christianity or any other religion. The Crusade Wars had proven this in history. In 2000, the Talibans of Afghanistan destroyed two 2000 years old gigantic Buddha Statues despite of protests from the whole world. They could not keep those statues even as historical monuments. For them, those statues were the “Idols of the Infidels”!

8. The Policy of 'Make Hay While The Sun Shines'

The truth is all sides, the 'Rohingyarists', the Burmese Junta, the Bangladesh Government and some Muslim Groups inside Bangladesh, wanted to take advantage of this 'Rohingya' Problem.

8. 1. The 'Rohingyarists' (both inside and outside Burma)

The 'Rohingyarists' wanted to use political turmoil in Burma as well as the bad reputation and image of the Burmese Military Junta as their Golden Opportunity and wanted and still want to turn the traditional Buddhist Land of Arakan into an Islam-majority State by bringing hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of Chittagonian Bengali Muslims as 'Rohingyas'. When these Chittagonian Bengalis are inside Burma, they automatically named themselves 'Rohingyas'. With the help of local Muslims, they can bribe the corrupt authorities to get temporary residential permit and later they can try to go anywhere in Burma. The Islamists, Rohingyarists and their lobbyists are financed by rich Muslim countries for that.

On one hand, the Rohingyarists claim that they, the 'Rohingyas', are the Second Largest Ethnic Group (next to Rakhaings) in the Rakhine State of Burma (Arakan), on the other hand, if one counts their lists of refugees abroad, the population of 'Rohingyas' abroad will outnumber the Arakanese (Rakhaings)!! It is a real contradiction and it proves that they


want to bring or 'import' Chittagonian Bengalis to Burma as 'Rohingyas'.

Apart from that, they are now trying to invent a new definition as 'All Muslims in Burma are called Rohingyas' because earlier they had only 'Arakan Rohingya Organization' but nowadays they already had established 'Burma Rohingya Organizations' in many countries which had proven their aim is to Islamize the whole of Burma.

8.2. The Burmese Military Junta:

The Military Regime wanted to use the dishonest claims of the 'Rohingyas' as the 'Threat of Islamists' to the whole nation and wanted to make 'face lift up' of their reputation. They succeeded to a certain extent. Many Buddhists in Burma noticed that almost all of the 'Rohingyas' were the illegal immigrants from Bangladesh who crossed the border for various reasons and if Burma was forced to accept them as citizens, it would be the great danger for their nation, race and the Buddhist Religion in the future. That's why many opposition groups, except some extremists who followed the saying 'the enemy of my foe is my friend', did not and do not give any comments on this 'Rohingya' issue45.

The Ethnic National Council (ENC) formed in 'the liberated areas' too does not recognize the so-called Rohingyas as an ethnic group of Burma despite of strong lobbying by the Euro-Burma Bureau for 'Rohingyas'.

On 16th July 2011, Burma Ethnic Nationalties Cultural Event (BENC) was successfully held. No 'Rohingyas' were invited!

It is proven that, not only the Rakhaings (Arakanese) but also other ethnic nationals of Burma do not consider the so-called Rohingya as their compatriots.

8.3. The Bangladeshi Government and some Islamists inside Bangladesh

The Bangladeshi Government would profit in any case. They cannot control the population explosion of the country anymore and wanted to 'export' their people into neighboring countries. As mentioned before, there are about 15 million illegal Bangladeshi immigrants in India and the Governor of Assam wrote an official letter to Indian President.46

45The NLD in Burma never gave their position about the "Rohingyas", so does the National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma headed by Dr. Sein Win. The present author and Dr. Sein Win were classmates in the St. John's Diocesan Boys' High School then, and graduated together from the University of Rangoon. Again, in the late 60's, we were together in Germany for further studies. So, we are good friends and could discuss this problem openly. Dr. Sein Win personally shares the present author's view, however, he admitted that as the 'Prime Minister of the NCGUB' he could not make any statements which will favour the SLORC's position. On the other hand, the late Kyemon U Thaung, famous through his pen-name Aung Bala, a well known opposition in exile, told the present author that though he belonged to the opposition he could not support the "Rohingya Movement" because most of the "Rohingyas" were real illegal immigrants and supporting their movement would be the biggest danger for the nation, the religion and all indigenous ethnic groups of Burma. 46 The Governor of the Indian State of Assam reported in 1998: “There is no evidence of Bangladesh authorities organising the movement of population but they certainly have made no attempt to prevent it and indeed, may be welcoming it, to ease their problem of bursting population. Thus, there is now even an attempt to cover up this movement. Prime Minister Sheikh Haseena has recently asserted that no Bangladeshi is illegally living in India.


Although they knew that the majority of the 'Rohingyas' were in fact Chittagonian Bengalis from Bangladesh, they insisted that these people were not Bangladeshis but they came from Burma as refugees to Bangladesh. In that way they can get money and helps from international aid agencies and organizations. Apart from that they can solve the population explosion partially by transferring some of their people into neighboring counties.

However, in 1975 the Bangladeshi ambassador in Burma, K.N. Kaiser, admitted to the then British ambassador to Burma, Mr. T. J. O’Brien that there were still about five hundred thousand illegal Bangladeshi immigrants inside Burma. That report can be seen in British Archives in London. Dr. Aye Chan, a Rakhaing working as a professor at the Kanda University in Japan wrote an article on that case.

For Islamists inside Bangladesh, they could get Lion's Share by using 'Rohingya Problem' because they can get petrol dollars from Arab Islamists for Islamization of Burma as well as they could do Human Trafficking of poor Bangladeshis as 'Rohingya Refugees from Burma', who either wanted to seek jobs in well-paid countries or who wanted to settle in a rich country!

9. Conclusion

„Rohingya Refugees“ Problem is not a common refugees problem as known to international media. It is much deeper in the political sense. It is an undercover Project of the Islamization of Arakan at first and then step by step of the whole of Burma by the Islamists and Rohingyarists. Under the 'Mask' of the 'Poor Rohingya Refugees' there is a Crooked Smile' of Islamists.

This kind of Projects started since Burma was separated from the British Indian Empire in 1937 and enlarged after Burma regained her Independence. Some extremist Islamists wanted to ‘export’ millions of Chittagonian Bengalis as ‘Rohingyas’ to Arakan and in this way they could turn the traditional Buddhist land of Arakan and then later the whole of Burma into an Islamic state. These Rohingyarists invented a fake history and they hired lobbyist and propagandists.

They can use 'Make Hay While The sun Shines Policy' especially for the country like Burma where the government had a very bad reputation and image, and named Pariah State by some Western Countries; because many Western Nations as well as UN could not and would not believe the statement of the Burmese Government even if the Burmese Government was in the correct side!

Hence, many misinformation were and are spread out by the Rohingyarists and many Westerners, without doing proper researches but rely only on hear-say stories, were and are trapped by them. These kind of unscholarly writings favour the position of Islamists and these wrong or misleading information is often quoted and disseminated by subsequent authors, leading to a situation whereby it eventually acquires the status of being true and correct.

The Islamists and Rohingyarists have enough money supported by rich Islamic Nations for Islamization of non-Islamic countries. They don't need to find a scholar, instead they can even buy some lobbyists and propagandists for them cheaply. That's why their propaganda can be more effective than the true statements of the poor Rakhaings who


cannot hire propagandists.

Again, I would like to emphasize that human rights violations, military abuses and brutal crimes committed against the "Rohingyas" by the various Burmese Military Juntas must be strongly condemned, whoever the "Rohingyas" are.

In the mean time, I would like to appeal to Human Rights Lobbyists to please consider also the Human Rights of the Arakanese (Rakhaings)! Is that not the Violation of Human Rights that firstly, the Name of their Ethnic Group and Country was already hijacked by the Islamists and now secondly, the Intruders are now trying to rob their nativeland with “the Mask of the Refugee!


Epilogue

It took a lot of courage for this woman to speak, what she had to say for the world to hear. The retribution could be phenomenal, but at least she was willing to take a stand on her and Australia 's beliefs.

Prime Minister Julia Gillard said: Australia Muslims who want to live under Islamic Sharia law, were told on Wednesday to get out of Australia, as the government targeted radicals in a bid to head off potential terror attacks.

Separately, Gillard angered some Australian Muslims on Wednesday by saying she supported spy agencies monitoring the nation's mosques.

Quote: 'IMMIGRANTS, NOT AUSTRALIANS, MUST ADAPT.. Take It Or Leave It.

I am tired of this nation worrying about whether we are offending some individual or their culture. Since the terrorist attacks on Bali, we have experienced a surge in patriotism by the majority of Australians. '

'This culture has been developed over two centuries of struggles, trials and victories by millions of men and women who have sought freedom'. 'We speak mainly ENGLISH, not Spanish, Lebanese, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Russian, or any other language. Therefore, if you wish to become part of our society. Learn the language!'

'Most Australians believe in God. This is not some Christian, right wing, political push, but a fact, because Christian men and women, on Christian principles, founded this nation, and this is clearly documented. It is certainly appropriate to display it on the walls of our schools. If God offends you, then I suggest you consider another part of the world as your new home, because God is part of our culture.'

'We will accept your beliefs, and will not question why. All we ask is that you accept ours, and live in harmony and peaceful enjoyment with us.'

'This is OUR COUNTRY, OUR LAND, and OUR LIFESTYLE, and we will allow you every opportunity to enjoy all this. But once you are done complaining, whining, and griping


Julia Gillard Photo by NZPA

http://www.odt.co.nz/files/story/2011/02/julia_gillard_photo_by_nzpa_4d4f72d660.jpg

about Our Flag, Our Pledge, Our Christian beliefs, or Our Way of Life, I highly encourage you take advantage of one other great Australian freedom, 'THE RIGHT TO LEAVE'.' 'If you aren't happy here then LEAVE. We didn't force you to come here. You asked to be here. So accept the country YOU accepted.'


GLOSSARY

Arakan The land in the West Coast of Burma known to the West. It is also called Rakhaing Pree or Yakhaing Pyay.

Arakanese The natives of Arakan or Rakhaing Pree as known to the West, who are Buddhists and ethnically Mongoloid. However, The Rakhaings (Arakanese) traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the "Sakya Sakis" the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came.

Burma A country in Southeast Asia and a member of ASEAN. Same as Myanmar.

Burman A Burmese. The people of the most dominant ethnic group in Burma/Myanmar, who are Buddhists and ethnically Mongoloid. The Burmese/Burman too traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the "Sakya Sakis" the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came.

Burmese 1. Same as Burman. 2. The people and the language of the most dominant ethnic group in Burma/Myanmar; it is also known as Bama/Myanmar in the native tradition.

Rakhaing Pree Same as Arakan. It is called Rohan or Rosan in Bengali Chittagong dialect

Rakhaing An Arakanese. Named as Magh or Mogg or Mugg and also Rohangya by the Bengalis.

Rohingyas The self-proclaimed name of Chittagonian Bengali Muslims in Northern Arakan . No historical background on that name. In the Chittagonian Dialect of Bengali Language, the Rakhaing Land or Arakan is called

'Rohan' and the Rakhaing People or Arakanese are called 'Rohangya (Rohan = Rakhaing (Arakan), Gya = man). Since the word is of Bengali origin, some of the Muslim secessionists used the name to identify themselves as if they were natives of Arakan and named themselves as ‘Rohingya’ by 'hijacking' the name of the real natives of Arakan (Rakhaings) in Bengali language!!

Rohingyarists Islamists, Lobbyists and Propagandists of the Rohingya Movement who want to Islamize Arakan first, then the whole of Burma.


Bibliography:

1. U Pho Kyar, A Brief Modern History of Burma (in Burmese).2. U Ba Than, Burmese History (in Burmese). 3. Major Ba Shin, ‘The History of the Union of Burma’ (in Burmese).4. U Aung Tha Oo, A Short History of Arakan (in Burmese), Mya Yadana Press,

Rangoon, 1954.5. Phayre, Arthur, History of Burma, London, 1883.6. Cady, John F., A History of Modern Burma. 3rd edition. Ithaca: Cornell University

Press, 1965.7. Smart, R.B., Burma gazetteer: Akyab District, Volume (A), Government Press,

Rangoon, 1917.8. Harvey, G.E., Outline Of Burmese History, Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London,

1947. 9. Yule, H. Col. and Burrell, A. C., Hobson-Jobson, Rupa & Co., Calcutta, 1990.10. Maurice Collis, The Land of the Great Image, Faber & Faber Ltd.11. Buchanan, Francis, A comparative vocabulary of some of the languages spoken

in the Burmese Empire. In: Asiatick Researchers or Transactions of the Society instituted in Bengal for inquiring into the History and Antiquities, the Arts, Sciences and Literature of Asia. V: 219-240, 1801.

12. Buchanan, Francis. Francis Buchanan in Southeast Bengal (1798): His Journey to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Noakhali and Comilla, Dhaka University Press, Dhaka, 1992.

13. Aye Chan, ‘Who are the Rohingyas’?14. Jacques P. Leider, Forging Buddhist Credentials as a Tool of Legitimacy and Ethnic

Identity: A Study of Arakan’s Subjection in Nineteenth-Century Burma, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51, 2008

15. Aye Chan, ‘The Development of a Muslim Enclave in Arakan (Rakhine) State of Burma (Myanmar)’.

16. Report on the conditions and sufferings of the Arakanese in Maung Daw, Published by: Arakanese Security Association, Maung Daw, Arakan (Rakhine State) dated 9 October 1988 (in Burmese language).

17. Jacques P. Leider, “Arakan around 1830 - Social Distress and Political Instability in the Early British Period”.

18. Maung Tha Hla, Rohingya Hoax, Buddhist Rakhaing Association, New York, 200919. Pamela Gutman, ‘Between India and Southeast Asia- Arakan, Burma's Forgotten

Kingdom’.20. Khin Maung Saw, ‘Burmese Responses to the Indian Immigration Waves during

the Colonial Era’, Berlin, 1994.21. Khin Maung Saw, ‘On the Evolution of Rohingya Problems in Rakhine State of

Burma’, Berlin 1993.22. Maung Tha Hla, The Rakhaing, New York, 2004.23. Khin Maung Saw, ‘Who are the Rohingyas, the Origin of the name’, Berlin 1993.24. B.R. Pearn, The Indians in Burma, Rangoon, 193725. Desai, W.S., India and Burma, Calcutta, 1954 26. Ton That Tien, India and Burma, in: India and South East Asia 1947-1960, Geneva,

196327. REPORT ON ILLEGAL MIGRATION INTO ASSAM, SUBMITTED TO THE

PRESIDENT OF INDIA BY THE GOVERNOR OF ASSAM, 8 November 199828. Aye Kyaw, The Rohingya and the Rakhaing, America Burma Institute, New York,


The paper is written in response to a conference on the Rohingya and the democratic movement of Myanmar, July 16, 2007 held in Tokyo.

29. Milton W. Meyer, Southeast Asia (A Brief History), A Littlefield, Adams & Co., New Jersey, 1966

30. U Thaung, ‘A Journalist, a General and an Army in Burma’, White Lotus Co. Ltd.; Bangkok, 1995

31. Guardian U Sein Win, The Split Story (in Burmese), ca. 198932. Maung Win Shein, Economic, Social and Political Changes in Burma (1886-1940),

Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, 1987.33. William Gomes, Rohingyas trained in different Al-Qaeda and Taliban camps in

Afghanistan, Asia Tribune, 01. 04. 2004. 34. Bertil Lintner, Religious Extremism and Nationalism in Bangladesh, The paper was

presented in an international workshop on Religion and Security in South Asia at the Asia Pacific Center for Security Studies in Honolulu, Hawaii. August 19-22, 2002.

35. Salah Uddin Shoaib Choudhury, Rise of Islamist extremism in Bangladesh, http://www.globalpolitician.com/24508-bangladesh, 4/14/2008

36. http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2002/10/02RANGOON1310.html


http://www.globalpolitician.com/24508-bangladesh

Appendix

Photos

Border fence destroyed at the Bangladeshi side


A Scene of an Arakanese Town

Buddha Statues In Afghanistan destroyed by the Talibans

Taller Buddha in 1963 and in 2008 after destruction


Smaller Buddha in 1977

Site of the smaller statue in 2005 after it was destroyed


U Khin Maung Saw, The Origin of the Name "Rohingya" 1

The "Rohingyas", Who Are They? The Origin of the Name "Rohingya"

U Khin Maung Saw

Berlin

1. Introduction In the year 1991 the name "Rohingyas" often appeared in newspapers.

According to "Free Press" journalists and the "free-wheeling" so-called journalists and self proclaimed "Burma Specialists", the "Rohingyas" are the descendants of Arabic Seafarers and the real natives of Arakan (the Rakhine State of Burma) and they are now expelled by the present military government of Burma known as the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) because the "Rohingyas" are Muslims and the Buddhist dominated nation (Burma) discriminates against Muslims.1 In the meantime the "Rohingyas", in their desire to establish themselves, not only by inventing fabricated and fanciful histories such as that the Kingdom of Mrauk U in Arakan was established by them and all kings in that dynasty were Muslims but they also attack all people who do not support their movement and dishonest claims.2 The present author, as a born Arakanese (Rakhine), is therefore obligated to write the true story of the so-called "Rohingyas" and wrote a paper with the title "On the evolution of Muslim problems in Rakhine state". In that paper I pointed out that most of the statements of the so-called "Rohingyas" and their supporting "journalists" are wrong.

The name "Rohingya" is neither a Burmese nor a Bengali word. Whenever I asked a Burmese or an Arakanese (Rakhine) I got the answer "We don't know, it is not our word. Ask the Kalas 3 , may be it is their word." Whenever I asked an Indian or a Bengali they answered me back that they had never heard of that word and it might be either a Burmese or an Arakanese word. So I have tried to trace it in all literature and encyclopaedias but all in vain. Even a well known author and scholar, Maurice Collis4 , who wrote many articles and books about Arakan, never mentioned the word "Rohingya". Also none of the British Colonial Officers' contributions about Burma and India mentioned that word "Rohingya".

In fact that there has never been a "Rohingya" race in Burma is quite evident.

There is no such name as "Rohingya" in the Census of India, 1921 (Burma) compiled by G.G. Granthan, I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations Burma, or in the Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District compiled by R.B. Smart. Since these were written

2 U Khin Maung Saw, The Origin of the Name "Rohingya"

for administrative purposes, needless to say they were objective.

2. From "Mujahids" to "Rohingyas" I have consulted with scholars and historians including Muslims but nobody

knows the meaning nor the origin of the word "Rohingya". The only thing they could tell me was that there were a lot of rebels in Burma in 1949. One of the rebel groups was a fanatic Muslim group lead by Mir Cassim. They named themselves "Mujahids". Most of the "soldiers" in this "Mujahid Army" and their families were former illegal immigrants living in the Arakan Division of the Union of Burma who wanted to turn northern Arakan into a separate Muslim State of "Arakanistan" and planned to join East Pakistan.

Some members of the "Jumiyatu Olamai" religious association went to Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of the Butheedaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung townships into Pakistan.5

U Nu's government offered a reward of 20,000 Kyats to those who could bring Cassim dead or alive. But this reward did not succeed. Anyway it was only an illusion of an uneducated man like Cassim to turn traditionally Buddhist land like Arakan into a Muslim state.6 As a result those "Mujahids" were totally crushed by the Burma Armed Forces in the 1950's. Cassim fled to East Pakistan and in the year 1966 he was shot dead by an unknown person in Cox's Bazar7, the border town. These surrendered "Mujahid" rebels named themselves "Rohingyas".

During his campaign for the 1960 elections U Nu promised to grant statehood to Arakanese (Rakhines) and Mons respectively. After he won the elections and became prime minister again the movement for the formation of Arakan State and Mon State came into being. Meanwhile Bengali Muslim leaders also started an anti-Arakan State movement and asked for the same status as the Arakanese (Rakhines). When their demands were turned down on the grounds that they were not an indigenous race, some educated Bengali Muslims began to fabricate the historical facts to prove that they were indigenous Arakanese Muslims.8 Some stories presented by their instant historians are ridiculous. For example they say that their Arab ancestors became settled in Arakan after a shipwreck near the Ramree Island (rm\;®b´kÁn\;) off the Arakan coast in the eighth century.9

Maurice Collis, however, wrote in his paper "Arakan's Place in the

Civilization of the Bay" that "Bengal was absorbed into this Polity [i.e., Islam] in A.D. 1203. But it was its extreme eastern limit. It never passed into Indo-China; and its influence from its arrival in 1203 till 1430 was negligible upon Arakan.10


3. The Different Versions of the Origin of "Rohingya" There are some stories about the origin of "Rohingya", which I cannot accept

because those stories are like tales, but some writers used those stories in their publications. I consider those stories as fabricated and fanciful histories and their explanation of the word "Rohingya" as forced Burmanisation.

Here I will tell the readers the different versions of the origin of the word "Rohingya" and properly analyse whether that version meets historical facts.

The first version stated that the name "Rohingya" was derived from the

Burmese word r∑aehac\;kk¥a; (Arakanese pronunciation Rwahaung ga kyar) meaning Tiger from the old village. According to that statement the "Rohingyas" were good warriors in their native land and settled in Arakan after the shipwreck and served as mercenaries and that's why they were called "Tigers from the old village."11 The story teller has a remarkable fantasy but I have to consider his version as baseless and forced Burmanisation because of the four following points: 1. The Muslim mercenaries, who served in the Kingdom of Mrauk U are called

"Kamans" meaning Archers12 and their descendants still live peacefully in Arakan (the Rakhine State of the Union of Myanmar) with Buddhist Burmese and Arakanese.

2. There is a very famous proverb in the Burmese language as well as in Arakanese dialect eqK¥c\t́.k¥a;etae®pac\;ty\ (they gyin de kyar taw pyaun de) which can be roughly translated into "the tiger who is sick of life goes to the strange forest." Normally tigers know their own forest very well so they can hunt there properly and easily protect themselves from enemies but if they start living in a new forest which is strange to them they cannot hunt well and protect themselves properly and finally they will be killed by their enemies. So when we consider the case of the "Rohingyas" and using the Burmese term "tiger from the old village" (which means coming to a new village) and in the light of the proverb mentioned above it would mean that they are seeking their own death. How funny!!

3. Burmese generally use the word ehac\; (Haung) meaning used or old, but in the Arakanese (Rakhine) dialect the word Siu; (Hsoe) is often substituted for ehac\; (Haung). For example the old/used/second hand clothes in Burmese is ATv\ehac\; or Aehac\;Tv\ (Ahaunghte) but in Arakanese dialect it is called ASiu;Tv\ (Ahsoehte).

4. In all Arakanese and Burmese chronicles as well as in history books written by foreigners there was no such word as r∑aehac\;kk¥a; (Rwahaung ga kyar) mercenaries. So this version contradicts history and linguistics.


The true story of r∑aehac\;kk¥a; (Rwahaung ga kyar)is as follows: After the Second World War most of the Arakanese (Rakhines) left their

villages near Arakan-East Pakistan border because of the immigration wave of the new Bengali settlers. Those villages were called r∑aehac\; (Rwahaung in Arakanese pronunciation), meaning old village, by the Burmese authorities. In Chittagong dialect of the Bengali language the word "payaja" means villager, Since these new Bengali settlers understood neither Burmese nor Arakanese whenever they were asked in their dialect "Kum payaja", which can be roughly translated as "which villager are you?", they answered back either "Rwahaung payaja" (I am a Rwahaung villager.) or "Rwahaung gaja" (I came from Rwahaung.) in the Chittagong dialect of the Bengali language.

Therefore, they were given a nick name R∑aehac\;gg¥akula;(Rwahaung gaja kala) which can be roughly translated as "the so-called Rwahaung gaja Kalas". Later this word diviated in colloquial to the nearest Burmese word R∑aehac\;kk¥a;kula;"Rwahaung ga Kyar Kalas" meaning "the Kalas called tigers from old village", used especially by children as a joke.

This colloquial pronunciation was misused by the educated Bengali Muslims in the 1950's to create the fabricated and fanciful history of R∑aehac\;kk¥a; (Rwahaung ga Kyar) mercenaries by changing the time to 12 centuries ahead. An educated Bengali Muslim with Burmese name Ba Tha played the role of a "Historian" as well as a "Time Machine" in this version.13

The second version is also very similar to the first version. It states that the

word "Rohingya" is the corrupted derivation of the Burmese word Rui;wn\;v ˙a (Arakanese pronunciation Ro wan hnya) meaning the whole race who was favoured and received mercy (from the king). This version also has a fabricated story. According to that "tale" after the shipwreck the Arab seafarers served as Muslim mercenaries in the court of Arakan and they were favored by the king of Arakan because they were honest, (but the king's name was not mentioned in that "story"). So the king gave them the name Riu;wn\;v ˙a (Ro wan hnya) the short form of Riu;qa;®p^;mimiAqiuk\Awn\;N˙c\.entt\jv ˙atatt\qOm¥a; (Ro thar pri mimi athaik a wan hnint ne tat rwe hnyar tar tatthu myar) which can be roughly translated into "the people who are honest, kind and live in their own society".14 There is no historical evidence for this "Arabian Nights" tale, so I have to consider this story as a created one and nonsense.

The third version stated that there was once a Muslim prince called

Mohammed Rahin who had to take refuge in Arakan during the Mrauk U dynasty. Mohammed Rahin and his followers were defeated by his father, the Mogul emperor in a "Palace Revolution". The Arakanese king granted them asylum and their


descendants were called rhc\k¥(Rahingya) meaning descendants of Rahin. Therefore the term "Rohingya" is the corrupted word from "Rahingya".15

Let us analyse this statement whether it matches history. According to history, Prince Shah Shuja, the younger brother of Mogul Emperor Aurang Zebe, after he lost his attempt to get the Mogul throne, came as a refugee to Arakan in the year 1660 A.D. The Arakanese king, Sanda Thudhamma, welcomed him, his family and their followers, granted them political asylum at the beginning, but later King Sanda Thudhamma wanted to take one of the daughters of Shah Shuja as his wife.16 Of course like every king of Arakan King Sanda Thudhamma was Buddhist and he had other queens. Shah Shuja felt insulted, refused the royal orders and answered rudely that his daughter should better die than marry an infidel.17 King Sanda Thudhamma became very angry and ordered all of the Mogul refugees to be killed. This was the main cause of the war between Arakan and the Moguls which broke out in 1666 A.D. As a result Chittagong district was annexed by the Moguls and never again belonged to Arakan any more. It was the beginning of the fall of the Mrauk U Dynasty.

So the third version of the "Rohingya story" contradicts history in the following: 1. The name of the Mogul Prince was Sha Shuja and NOT Rahin. 2. The "Palace Revolution" was against his brother and NOT against his father. 3. All of the Moguls were killed by King Sanda Thudhamma and that's why they

could not have left any descendants. 4. Even if they could have left some descendants they should be Moguls with fair

colouring and speak another language than a Bengali Chittagong dialect. Unfortunately however the one who called themselves "Rohingyas" and proclaimed themselves to be the descendants of the Moguls have a dark complexion like Bengalis and they can speak only one language which is a Bengali Chittagong dialect.

The fourth version stated that there was a Sultanate called Roang which was

feudatory to the Kingdom of Mrauk U. The Sultan sent his son Shah Ali and one thousand followers to the court of Mrauk U to study the Arakanese language, literature and culture. After finishing their studies they settled in Arakan. Their descendants were called RuMAim\k¥ (Roang ane gya) meaning the descendants of Roang.18 This version has some historical basis although it deviates in some facts from history. The legendary prince Shah Ali really existed. Arakanese chronicles and literature like Dvwt̂Aer;eta\puM (Dhanyawaddy Ayaydawpon)19 and mhapvaek¥a\ elYak\TuM; (Maha Pyinyagyaw Hlyaukhton)20 supported that there was a Muslim Sultanate called RuMpq̂®pv\ (Roang Muslim Land) and the Sultan had such high respect for the Arakanese king, Min Phalaung, and minister,


Maha Pyinyagyaw, that he had to send his son Shah Ali and one thousand followers to the court of Arakan to study the Mranmar (Myanmar in Burmese pronunciation) language, literature and culture, but these sources never stated that they settled in Arakan. So they can not have left any descendants in Arakan. Assuming they had settled in Arakan Prince Shah Ali and his followers, who had studied at the court of Mrauk U the Arakanese (Burmese) language, literature and culture, there is no doubt that their descendants staying more than three centuries in Arakan must have spoken at least the Arakanese dialect of the Burmese language fluently and known Arakanese or Burmese culture and traditions.

There are some Muslims in the Shwebo district in Upper Burma known as "Burmese Muslims." These Muslims are the descendants of the Indian mercenaries serving under Burmese kings as cannoners and cavalries. Now they are assimilated into the Burmese society. Most of these Muslims know the Burmese language, literature and Buddhist traditions much better than some Burmese Buddhists. There are also some Roman Catholics known as Brc\g¥̂ (Bayinji) in Shwebo district. They are the descendants of Portuguese captured in the town of Syriam (Tanyin) near Rangoon (Yangon) at the beginning of the 17th century. Only in names, religion and complexion do they differ from the natives, yet they know the Burmese language and traditions very well.

Now let us consider the case of the "Rohingyas" who claim to be the descendants of the "Burmanized" prince, Shah Ali, and his followers. If we ask them questions like "Do you speak Arakanese or Burmese?" The Answer is "No." "Do you know Arakanese/ Burmese traditions or culture?" "No sir", will be the answer. If one asks again "Why, how come?" The answer will be "Because we are the Rohingyas sir, we know only our language." Which language is theirs? Of course the Bengali language Chittagong dialect!! So how can they be the descendants of the prince they have mentioned.

The fifth version stated that in the seventh century A.D., after the shipwreck

near Ramree Island (rm\;®b´kÁn\;) some Arab seafarers were brought to the court of Mrauk U by the Arakanese coastal guards. His majesty, the Arakanese king, whose name was not mentioned in this story, asked them "You poor men, where do you come from? ... Whose subject are you?" The seamen, who did not understand the Arakanese dialect of the Burmese language, thought that the king ordered them to be killed, and shouted in their language "Ronja" meaning "Mercy please". The king thought that the seamen answered him and said "Oh, they are the people from Ronja. Let them stay in my kingdom as my subjects." Since that time they and their descendants were called "Ronja People". The word "Rohingya is therefore a derivation of "Ronja - /Ro-n-ja/ - Rohinja - Rohingya".21 Let us analyse this version whether it matches history:


1. In the 7th century A.D., the kingdom of Mrauk U was not yet established and

Arakan was ruled by the kings of Dhanyawaddy Dynasty (Dvwt̂eKt\). 2. There is no historical evidence of Muslim settlement in Dhanyawaddy Dynasty

and the old city site can be seen near the small town Kyauktaw. There is not a single piece of evidence of Arabic culture or Islamic faith there. The only non-Buddhist evidence found there are the Hindu deities.

3. This story was never heard before 1960. So, I have to consider this story as a created one.

Although all of the stories about the origin of the name "Rohingya" came up

with negative result, I did not give up my research and kept on tracing. During the "Burma Seminar" sponsored by the "Burma Project, Berlin" in April 1993 I got a chance to discuss with different people, such as Burmese nationalists, oppositions, government sympathizers, ethnic minorities and Muslims. Nobody could give me a better answer than the stories mentioned above. Only veteran journalist Kyemon U Thaung22 gave me the hint to the solution. According to U Thaung in the 1950's he was a reporter at the famous "Bamakhit" (Burmese Era) newspaper and he remembered that the name "Rohingya" was created by the "Red Flag" Communists for the "Mujahid" rebels. At that time the "Mujahids" and the "Red Flag" Communists were "Allied Forces" fighting against U Nu's government and the "Mujahids" wanted to get a new name which had some connection with history so that they could claim Burmese citizenship and the "Red Flag" Communists invented the name "Rohingyas". But U Thaung admitted he did not know the meaning at that time and until now. He believes that nobody knows the meaning and the origin.

U Thaung requested me personally to trace out the meaning which will be useful for future history and he also admitted that although he belongs to the opposition in exile he cannot support the "Rohingya Movement" because most of the "Rohingyas" are real illegal immigrants and supporting their movement will be the biggest danger for the nation, religion and race of the entire Burmese people.

Since U Thaung gave me the hint I got an idea. It is very possible that the name "Rohingya" was invented by the "Red Flag" Communists because they were experts in creating new names and nicknames. They gave a nickname to U Nu's government mqats\KuArc\;®pot́.cNuAsui;r (Mathar takhu ayinpyude Nga Nu asoya) meaning "the Nga23Nu's government who took advantage of the funeral (of General Aung San and assasinated Leaders)". As far as I know the late "Red Flag" leader Thakhin Soe24 read a lot of books and created new names. Some of them came out as nonsense. For example once he translated "Dialectical Materialism" in Burmese as ANup!ielamRup\wåd (Anupati loma rupa wada) which looks like a


derivated Pali word but when one carefully traces through the Pali language and grammar it is found to be a wrong translation.

Finally I got a hypothesis for the root of the name "Rohingyas". Thakhin Soe

and the "Red Flag" leader in Arakan, Kyaw Zan Hrwee25 (ek¥a\zMRW^;) who was Arakanese (Rakhine) might have come across the term RuM®pv\ (Roang Pree) and most possibly created the Hybrid English word "Roangians" meaning the people of Roang. Naturally the "Mujahids" who wanted to get a new name, which had some connections with the history of Arakan, to identify themselves as the descendants of the country, which once belonged or was feudatory to Arakan, were very glad about that name and might have accepted it immediately and willingly. Since the word "Roangians" can also be pronounced "Ro-an-gians" the "Mujahids" pronounced that word with their Bengali accent "Rohingyas". The word "Rohingya" is therefore a derivation of "Roangians - /Ro-an-gians/ - /Ro-han-gians/ - Rohingyas". Since this word is only a word created in the jungle it is no wonder that any written documents cannot be found till now and may not be found also in the future.

The so-called "Rohingyas" nowadays are real illegal immigrants26 and most of them are illiterates, know nothing about history but have only heard about the name "Rohingyas" and they claim themselves to be "Rohingyas". Some Muslims in Burma and Bangladesh helping them also don't know the origin and created the fabricated and fanciful stories mentioned above. The people backing the so-called "Rohingya Movement" are fanatic Muslims and some Muslim countries27, who do not know the reality but help them because of Muslim solidarity and brotherhood.

For the part of "Free Press" journalists and the "free-wheeling" so-called journalists I don't want to blame them because most of them are only writers and not scholars or historical researchers. They don't know the real history instead they know only one point; that the present government in Burma is a military dictatorship and violating a lot of human rights, which cannot be ruled out. So from the very beginning they are antagonistic towards the SLORC and whatever the SLORC does is wrong for them and in the meantime they are trapped by the "Rohingyas" with their "tragic tales", so they support the so-called "History of Rohingyas" without checking the facts.

4. Conclusion

In conclusion I would like to point out the main facts of this paper:

1. The name "Rohingya" is neither a historical name nor the name of an ethnic minority in Burma.


2. There was and there is no ethnic minority called "Rohingyas" in Burma. 3. "Burmese Muslims", "Arakanese Muslims" and the so-called "Rohingyas" are

NOT the same. "Burmese Muslims" and "Arakanese Muslims", all together about 4% of the population of Burma, can be called the "ethnic Muslims of Burma" but NOT the so-called "Rohingyas".

4. The "Rohingya" problem is not a conflict between Buddhists and Muslims. 5. The word "Rohingyas" was most probably invented by the "Red Flag"

Communists to satisfy the desire of "Mujahid Rebels" in the 1950's. 6. The word "Rohingyas" is most probably a derivation of Hybrid English word

"Roangians" meaning the people of the land "Roang" (RuMpq̂®pv\) 7. At least 80% of the so-called "Rohingyas" nowadays are illegal immigrants or

new settlers coming from Bangladesh because of natural catastrophes, hunger and other reasons.

8. The Rohingya issue cannot be compared with the Karen, the Kachin, the Shan and ethnic problems in Burma basically because the "Rohingyas" do not fall under the same category of ethnic minorities. Most of them are illegal immigrants from over-populated Bangladesh.

9. Although I am neither a supporter nor a sympathizer of the SLORC, I know that my articles about the "Rohingyas" favour SLORC's position unfortunately. Some people might suspect me to be but anyway if we really analyse the "Rohingyas" problem whether we like it or not we have to admit that the issue of the SLORC is correct at least in one point that the so-called "Rohingyas" are real illegal immigrants.

10. Although the so-called "Rohingyas" are real illegal immigrants human rights violations committed against them by the SLORC should be condemned if their statement about military abuses were correct.

11. In the same time the so-called "Rohingyas" should change their tactics. Instead of trying to get undeserved opportunity and inventing fabricated and fanciful histories they should be honest. They should only request for residential permit in Burma as foreigners. Only after that they should try to get Burmese citizenship step by step following legal procedures.


Notes: 1See Bertil Lintner, Chronology of the Events. In: du, Sonderbeilage, Heft 11, 1993; and compare also with Martin Smith, Burma's Muslim Borderland: Sold Down the River. In: CS Quarterly, 13(4), p. 28. 2Rohingya Journal. (in Burmese), vol. 1, no. 1, Nov. 1992, pp. 17-29. 3The word "Kala" is a Burmese or an Arakanese term used for foreigners coming from the west, particularly for the people from the Subcontinent. 4Compare with Maurice Collis in collaboration with San Shwe Bu, Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay. In: Journal of Burma Research Society, vol. XXIII, p. 488; compare also with Maurice Collis, The Land of the Great Image. 5Khin Gyi Pyaw, Who are the Mujahids in Arakan. In: Rakhine Tazaung Magazine, 1959-60, p. 99. 6See Abdul Mabud Khan, The Liberation Struggle in Arakan (1948-1982). In: Bangladesh today, May 16 - June 15, 1984. 7The real name of the border town "Cox's Bazar" was "Phalaung Zay" meaning Portuguese Market. When the town was occupied by the British they changed the name into Cox's Bazar to honour the British envoy Captain Cox. 8See U Kyaw Zan Tha, Background Paper on the Rohingya Problem. Rangoon, 1991. 9Maung Than Lwin, Rakhine Kala or Ro Wan Nya People. (in Burmese) In: Myawaddy Magazine, July, 1960. See and compare with Ba Tha, Rowengyas in Arakan (in English). In: Guardian Magazine, May 1960. 10See Maurice Collis in collaboration with San Shwe Bu, Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay. In: Journal of Burma Research Society, vol. XXIII, p. 493. 11Proposal of the "Rohingya People" to the Constitution Commission, Rangoon, 1972. 12U Wun, University Burmese Dictionary, vol. 1., p. 8., Government of the Union of Burma Press, 1952. 13On the 15th February 1990 Bonpauk Tha Kyaw, a well known veteran Arakanese politician, wrote an open letter, "The Threat of Rohingyas; the Danger for the Union of Burma", to the Chairman of the SLORC. This 'letter' had more than 150 pages and he sent a copy each to the chairmen of all big parties in Burma such as National League for Democracy and the National Unity Party. In that letter he also mentioned about the similar fabricated and fanciful stories of "Rohingyas" and the role of that educated Bengali Muslim M. A. Tahir, who was known through his pseudonym Burmese Name Ba Tha. See and compare with Ba Tha, Rowengyas in Arakan (in English). Guardian Magazine, May 1960. 14See and compare with Maung Than Lwin, Rakhine Kala or Ro Wan Nya People. (in Burmese), In: Myawaddy Magazine, July, 1960. 15Unpublished story fabricated by the educated Bengali Muslims in Arakan during anti-Arakan State movement, 1960. 16U Khaing Saw Htwan, A New History of Rakhaing (Arakan). (in Burmese), pp. 68-69. 17Compare with Tekkatho Nandameik, The Arakanese Queen. In: Ngwe Taryi Magazine, no. 119, Rangoon, May, 1970. It was only a translation of George Calderon's play with the same title. The original story was written by Ravindranath Tagore. Tekkatho Nandameik admitted that Tagore's version did not match history. He pointed out that Tagore's story ended up with the marriage of the Arakanese king and the Muslim princess and not in tragedy as in written history. According to Tekkatho Nandameik the name of the Arakanese king was Nga Kutha alias Narapatigri, which is not true. Nga Kutha alias Narapatigri ruled Arakan from 1638 to 1645; but Sanda Thudhamma ruled Arakan from 1652 to 1684. So Sanda Thudhamma was the king who ordered the Moguls to be killed. Since Narapatigri alias Nga Kutha was known to be the most notorious king in the Mrauk U Dynasty it is possible that Tekkatho Nandameik was confused. 18Unpublished story presented by some educated Bengali Muslims during anti-Arakan State movement, 1960. 19Rakhine Saradaw, Dhanyawaddy Ayaydawpon. In: Myanmar Minmya Ayaydawpon, Nantha press, Rangoon, 1967, p. 75. 20U Zaw Win (Publisher), Maha Pyinyagyaw Hlyaukton. Hanthawaddy press, Rangoon, 1964, p. 51. 21Proposal of the "Rohingya People" to the Constitution Commission, Rangoon, 1972. See and compare with Ba Tha, Rowengyas in Arakan. In: Guardian Magazine, May, 1960. Also see and compare with Bonpauk Tha Kyaw, The Threat of ‘Rohingyas’; the Danger for the Union of Burma. (in Burmese). Open letter to the Chairman of the SLORC. Sittwe, Feb. 15th, 1990. 22U Thaung is a famous journalist and author well known under his pseudonym name Aung Bala. He was owner, publisher and chief editor of the then most modern newspaper in Burmese language, "The Kyemon (Mirror) Daily" until the newspaper was nationalized. He was arrested and detained for 4 years without any trial and released in 1967. Now he lives in Florida, U.S.A. as an exiled opposition. 23Nga is a term used by rulers preceding the name of male subjects or subordinates in the olden days, but nowadays it is put in front of Burmese and Arakanese male names if one wants to dishonour that person.


24Thakhin Soe was the chairman of the "Red Flag" Communists Party (Followers of Trotsky). He was the political leader of the Burmese resistance against the Japanese in 1945, the military leader was Gen. Aung San. Thakhin Soe wrote and translated many books. He went underground after Burmese Independence, was captured in 1970. He was sentenced to death but later released by general amnesty in 1980. He died of old age in 1989. 25Kyaw Zan Rwhee, (ek¥a\zMRW^;), born Rakhine (Arakanese), leader of the "Red Flag" Communists in Arakan, captured in 1966. 26U Kyaw Min Shwe, Rakhines and Rohingyas, In: Asiaweek, February 5, 1992. 27Bertil Lintner, Chronology of the Events. In: du, Sonderbeilage, Heft 11, 1993. According to that report Prince Khaled Sultan Abdul Aziz, commander of the Saudi contingent in 1991 Gulf War, visited Dakha, Bangladesh, in Mid-April 1992 and recommended a Desert Storm-like action against Burma - "just what [the UN] did to liberate Kuwait."

1 Response to Press Release of the ‘Rohingyas, Saw 2009

Response to the Press Release of the ‘Rohingyas’

By Khin Maung Saw, Berlin, Germany

I. Introduction:

After reading the press release of the ‘Rohingyas’ (see the other attachment), as a Rakhaing I am

obliged to write the real Arakanese History during the Mrauk U Dynasty. Apart from that, I like to give

some responses to that press release:

First of all, in any case, the racial remarks of the Burmese Consul General in Hong Kong

must be condemned, whoever these 'Rohingyas' are.

In the mean time a new article appeared in Irrawaddy on 16th Feb. 09, mentioning that those ‘Boat

People’ sailed from Bangladesh and not from Arakan as the media informed. They were caned by the

sailors who took them to Thailand (See the attachment, migrants ---). Now it appears that these

‘Boat People’ have something to do with human trafficking. They are rather illegal immigrants seeking

better fortune in more prosperous countries, the so-called “economic refugees” and NOT the political

refugees of an ethnic minority group who were tortured and discriminated in their ‘Mother Land’.

Here I would like to suggest all media, Burmese Oppositions, including Irrawaddy, Burma Digest and

other newspapers or journals should study the Arakanese History as well as the reports of the British

Colonial Officers of the then British India (i.e. including Burma as a part of British Indian Empire)

because they were neither Burmese, Arakanese nor the people of the Subcontinent but British, that

means they were neutral persons and most of their contributions were for administrative purposes

and/or for scholarly researches, needless to say they were objective.

In this paper, the present author will scrutinize all available authentic historical and etymological facts

and answer the statements in their press release scholarly without any prejudice by using compare

and contrast method.

II. Responses to the press release:

In their Press release, the 'Rohingyas' claimed that Muslims were in Arakan since the10th Century:

1. Maurice Collis, however, wrote in his paper Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay: "Bengal was absorbed into this polity [that is, Islam] in 1203 A.D. But it was its extreme eastern limit. It

never passed into Indo-China; and its influence from its arrival in 1203 till1430 was negligible

upon Arakan".

2. In the 10th century A.D., even the biggest country in Southeast Asia with the world's largest Muslim population, Indonesia, was under the Sri Vijaya Empire, which was a Hindu-Buddhist

Empire.

3. In the tenth century A.D. Arakan was ruled by the Buddhist kings of the Dhanyawaddy Dynasty and that old city site can still be seen near the small town Kyauk Taw. There is not a single

evidence of Arabic culture or Islam faith there. The only non-Buddhist evidence found there are

the Hindu deities.


4. If their claims that their forefathers lived in Arakan since the10th Century AD are true, there is no doubt that their descendants who stayed in Arakan at least ten centuries might have spoken

Burmese/Arakanese fluently and known native traditions and cultures like the "Burmese Muslims"

in Shwebo District, "Myay Du Muslims" in Thandwe District and "Kaman Muslims" in Arakan. Even

the Arakanese (Rakhaings) living in the Chittagong Hill Tracts nowadays, where Bengali plays the

role of the official language, can still speak, read and write Burmese. Unfortunately, however, the

people who are now calling themselves "Rohingyas" do not know any Arakanese/Burmese

language and culture. The only language they speak is Bengali Chittagong dialect and the only

culture they know is Bengali Culture of Chittagong Area.

III. Was Arakan A Muslim State?

Arakan was and is not a Muslim state. All Arakanese (Rakhaings) were and are devout Buddhists.

The history of the Holy Maha Muni Image was and is a proof. Maha Muni Image, a colossal image cast

in bronze and inlaid with gold, became the envy of almost all Burmese kings. Whenever they

expanded their empire, they tried to rob this holy image. Starting from Anawratha (11th Century AD)

to Bodaw U Waing (18th Century AD), most Burmese kings tried to snatch this statue. The Burmese

Royal Armies looted this colossal image from the Arakan City or Mrauk U after the Burmese conquest

of the Rakhaing Kingdom in the late 18th Century. They used the Arakanese prisoners of war, about

thirty thousand including the last King of Arakan, Maha Thamada, as slave labour to carry that

colossal image across the mountain range and for other slavery works like the reconstruction of

Meikhila Lake, the aborted war against Siam etc. etc. Till now some Arakanese, especially from

Sittwe and Mro Haung call the Burmese as "Robbers and Thugs of the Holy Image, Maha Muni", 'Phaya

Thukho, Phaya Damya'.

Arakan was well known to be "the Land of Pagodas and Temples". There is a famous Arakanese

verse: Thazun pan Khaing ta mraing mraing Rakhaing Phara paung", which was nicely translated into

English verse by Maung Tha Hla as: "The Thazun (a type of orchid) sprigs in sheer clusters, Sum the

total of the pharas grandeur". According to this verse, there were 6352755 Pharas (Buddha Statues)

in Arakan.

Maurice Collis described the situation of Buddhism in the year 1630 during the reign of Min Hayi (Man

Hari) alias Thiri Thudhamma (Sri Suddhamma) who bore the Muslim Title Salem Shah the Second. In

his book The Land of the Great Image in page 168 where it was written: "The Buddha had died in 543

B.C. Altogether 2173 years had elapsed since then, and for that immense period the image of the

Founder of the Religion had remained on Sirigutta, the oldest, most mysterious, the most holy object

in the world. The relics detailed to the disciples on Selagiri had all been found and enshrined. Arakan

was a sacred country; it was the heart of Buddhism; and he (King Thiri Thudhamma) as its king, was

the most notable Buddhist ruler in existence. Grave indeed was his responsibility. He had not only to

maintain the state as the homeland of the Arakanese race, but as the one place on earth where an

authentic shape of the Tathagata was preserved, a possession of greater potency then the most

precious relics".

A. The Mrauk-U Dynasty

In the year A.D 1404 the king of Arakan was Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) and the capital city was

Longkyet (Longkrat). He liked the very beautiful wife of a minister and requested that minister, his

wife to be presented to the king and in exchange the minister would receive two pretty maids of

honour. When the minister refused, the king offered to give four maids of honour as an exchange, but

all in vain. Hence, the king took the minister’s wife by force. Committing adultery with a married lady


is always a big scandal for a Buddhist, especially for a king. The husband of that lady and her brother

went to Ava, the Burmese capital, and requested Min Gaung (Man Gaung), the Burmese king, that he

should overthrow the disgraced Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) of Arakan. The Burmese kings of the

Ava Empire, especially for King Min Gaung (Man Gaung), automatically considered Arakan as their

vassal state because Arakan was feudatory to the Pagan Empire of the Burmese, and apart from that

Min Gaung was a war-like king. During the reign of his father King Swa Saw Ke, the young prince Min

Gaung personally did lead the Burmese invasion armies to Pegu, the Mon kingdom ruled by King

Razadiriz.

So, in the year 1406, Min Gaung (Man Gaung), the king of the Burmese, sent his warrior son Min Ye

Kyaw Zwa (Man Ree Kyaw Zwa) with a big army. Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the king of Arakan

fled the kingdom and took refuge in Gaur, the capital of the Sultanate of Bengal. In this way Min Saw

Mun (Man Saw Muan) became the last king of the Longkyet (Longkrat) Dynasty and was given a nick

name by later historians as "the King who took refuge in the Land of Kalas (Indians)".

The Burmese let their viceroy, a son in law of the Burmese king Min Gaung, rule Arakan. The

Arakanese king's younger brother Min Kayi (Man Kari), "Duke of Thandwe", the crown prince then,

went to Pegu, the Mon capital, and requested the Mons, archrival of the Burmese, for help. With the

help of Razadiriz (Raja di Raja), king of the Mons, he liberated Longkrat, killed the Burmese viceroy.

He also sent Min Gaung’s daughter to Pegu as a gift to the Mon king. He could rule Arakan on behalf

of his brother, but only for a short period. The second Burmese invasion in A.D 1408 headed by Min

Ye Kyaw Zwa (Man Ree Kyaw Zwa) followed. This time the Burmese armies invaded Longkrat,

Thandwe and the Kingdom of the Mons simultaneously. The Mon armies in Arakan had to go back to

defend their own kingdom. The Arakanese king’s younger brother Min Khayi (Man Khari), the prince

regent then, had to take refuge by the Mons while his elder brother took refuge by the Sultan of Gaur.

Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) stayed in Gaur for more than 22 years. With the help of the Sultan of

Bengal he regained his throne in A.D 1430, and built the new capital of Mrauk U, while the Burmese

were very busy having wars against the Mons.

To show his gratitude to the Sultan he asked what he could do. The Sultan persuaded him to be

converted into Islam but he refused; however, he promised the Sultan that the Arakanese kings would

bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles.

The warrior Burmese prince Min Ye Kyaw Zwa (Man Ree Kyaw Zwa) was seriously wounded in a battle

against the Mons and died later. Min Saw Mun’s (Min Saw Muan) younger brother and throne

successor Min Kayi (Man Kari) met his Burmese counterpart then, Narapati Gyi (Narapati Gri) of Ava

at the border between two kingdoms and signed a friendship treaty with the Burmese.

B. Buddhists kings with Pseudonym Muslim Titles:

The 'Rohingyas' claimed that Arakan was ruled by the Muslim kings from 1430 for about 100 years.

In fact, the Kingdom of Mrauk U was not established by the 'Rohingyas'. All kings of the Mrauk U

dynasty were Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles because, as mentioned above, Min

Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City wanted to show his gratitude to the Sultan

of Gaur who helped him to regain the Arakanese throne in 1430. Hence, he promised the Sultan that

the Arakanese kings would bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles. But in fact, all of the Arakanese kings were

donors of many temples in Mrauk U as well as in the other parts of Arakan. They did make coins, one

side with Burmese/Arakanese scripts and the other side with Persian (NOT Bengali).


For example: Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City with the assumed

Muslim Title 'Suleiman Shah' built seven Buddhists temples in Mrauk U. One of them was Laymyetna

Phaya (Leemyatna Phara) in Mrauk U (now Mrohaung). His successor and younger brother Min Khayi

(Man Khari), who had an assumed Muslim Title 'Ali Khan', erected the Nyidaw Zedi, which can be

roughly translated as 'The Pagoda built by the Younger Brother'. His son and successor King Ba Saw

Phru alias Kaliman Shah constructed four Buddhists temples including the Maha Bodi Shwegu Pagoda.

His son Dan Ugga alias Daluya, who bore the Muslim Title Moguh Shah, was the donor of Thongyaik

Tasu Temple (meaning the temple of Thirty One Buddhas). His successor Min Yan Aung (Man Ran

Aung) alias Narui Shah founded the Htupayon Pagoda. Min Bin (Man Ban) had an assumed Muslim

Title of Zabauk Shah; and was the donor of seven temples including Shit Thaung Phaya (Shite Thaung

Phara) or the Temple of Eighty Thousand Buddha Statues. Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) alias

Secudah Shah was the donor of six temples including Htukkan Thein, his son Min Yaza Gyi (Man Raza

Gri) with the Muslim Title Salem Shah donated Phaya Paw (Phara Paw) Pagoda and Pakhan Thein in

Mrauk U and also Shwe Kyaung Pyin Monastery in Thandwe. Min Khamaung, who subjoined the

Muslim Title Hussein Shah constructed Yatanapon (Ratanabon) and Yatana Pyethet (Ratana Prethat)

Pagodas and his son Thri Thudhamma (meaning the Protector of Buddhist Religion) alias Salem Shah

the Second, erected the Sekkya Manaung (Sakkya Manaung) Pagoda.

Muslim Sharia Law dictated the Muslim community to convert all 'infidels', i.e., all who supported any

other religions except Islam. A Muslim who converts to another religion can be punishable with a

death penalty. If those kings of the Mrauk U Dynasty were Muslims, they would have been

condemned to death by the Mullahs for breach of the Islamic faith.

There was and is no Muslim ruler who undertook or undertakes to promote Buddhism or Christianity or

any other religion. The Crusade Wars had proven this in history. In 2000, the Talibans of Afghanistan

destroyed two 2000 years old gigantic Buddha Statues despite of the protests from the whole world.

They could not keep those statues even as historical monuments. For them, those statues were the

“Idols of the Infidels”!

See also: Jacques Leider, “Those Buddhist Kings with Muslim Titles”, Scholars Column,

www.rakhapura.com.

Taking assumed Muslim Titles or a Muslim name did not and does not mean that that person must be

a Muslim. Even President Obama of USA, a Christian, has a second name Hussein. One of the famous

singers of the Burmese Classical Songs during the late Colonial Era and in the early 50’s bore the

name U Ali, but he was a Buddhist. Many people of Burma took and still have some Christian names

though they were and are devoted Buddhists. The late Daw Khin May Than, wife of the late Dictator

General Ne Win bore the Christian name Kitty Ba Than. A son of the first President of the Union of

Burma, Sao Shwe Thaik, a Shan and a devout Buddhist had the name Eugene Thaik. Even the Prime

Minister of the NCGUB, Dr. Sein Win, was called John Ba Win until 1959 in the then St. John’s

Diocesan Boys’ School, Rangoon, though he is a Buddhist and his parents were devout Buddhists. His

former classmate, the present author too has also a Christian name Peter Saw Maung, though I am a

Buddhist and my parents were Buddhists.

There are many reasons for bearing a foreign name. It may be because of friendship, in some cases

just for courtesy and sometimes just to show respect for that society. All members of ‘the Thirty

Comrades’ had Japanese Pseudonyms. For example: Omoda (Aung san), Tani (Let Ya), Tagazuki (Ne

Win). Most of the Burma Scholars of Foreign Origin have Burmese names. For Example: U Hla Thein

(Prof. John Okell, London), Daw Khin Khin Chaw (Prof. Anna Allot, London), U Ba Tin (Prof. Vadim


Kasevitch, Russia), Daw Hnin Si (Dr. Annemarie Esche, Germany), Daw Than Than Win (Dr. Uta

Gaertner, Germany).

IV. British contributions about Muslims in Burma:

I searched for the ethnic group ‘Rohingyas’ in all history books, literature, encyclopaedias and other

publications published before 1953 and written by foreign scholars. Unfortunately, I did not find any.

None of the British Colonial Officers recorded the name 'Rohingya, neither in the Indian Subcontinent

nor in Burma.

To be honest, I had never heard of the word "Rohingya" until the late 1950's.

1. "The fact that there has never been a "Rohingya" ethnic group in Burma is quite evident. There is

no such name as "Rohingya" in the Census of India, 1921 (Burma) compiled by G. G. Grantham,

I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations Burma, or in the Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District

(1924) compiled by R. B. Smart.

2. Even in Hobson-Jobson. "A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred

Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive" published by British Colonial Officers

of British East India Company, Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell (First Published 1886) the word

"Rohingya" was not mentioned. Since this book was published by the Bengal Chamber Edition,

Calcutta, India, and is an indispensable dictionary for those who want to study the history of India

during the last 300 years and its impact on the East and West, it should be considered as a

standard literature.

3. The well known author and scholar, Maurice Collis, who wrote many articles and books about

Arakan, also never mentioned the word "Rohingya".

4. None of the British Colonial Officers' contributions about Burma and India mentioned that word

"Rohingya", however, they mentioned about 'Zerabadi' the Indo-Burmese Hybrids or "Burmese

Muslims", the Muslims in Shwebo and Yamethin Districts in Burma Proper, "Myay Du Muslims",

"Kaman Muslims" and Bengali Muslim Settlers of Arakan.

A. Kaman Muslims

Some Muslim settlement began only after Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) regained the throne of

Arakan in 1430 with the help of the Sultan of Gaur. There were some Muslim troops in Mrauk U to

protect Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) from the Burmese invasion. About two hundred years later,

some followers of Mogul Prince Shah Shuja, who took refuge by the Arakanese king Sanda

Thuddhama, joined the descendants of these soldiers. These groups of mercenaries were Afghans,

Persians and Moguls. They were called "Kamans", meaning archers in Persian language. Their

descendants still live in the Rakhine State, particularly in Akyab (Sittwe) District and Rambree Island.

Now they are assimilated into the Arakanese society. Only in religion and complexion do they differ

from the Arakanese (Rakhaing/Rakhine), they know the Arakanese language, literature and Buddhist

traditions very well. Most of them have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely used their Muslim

names.

B. Myay Du Muslims

There are some Muslims living in Thandwe District. These Muslims are called "Myay Du". They are

the descendants of the former "Pagoda Slaves". When King Min Bin (Man Ban) alias Min Bargyi (Man


Bargri) reoccupied the Chittagong District in A.D. 1533, he brought back some Bengalis as prisoners

of war and let them work as menial workers at Andaw, Nandaw and Sandaw Pagodas in Thandwe.

Since they had to do menial works and were not free people anymore, they were called "Pagoda

Slaves". In the year 1624, these Bengali "Pagoda Slaves" supported the 'Palace revolution' lead by

the 'Duke of Thandwe' and the crown prince then, Min Khamaung, against his own father King Raza

Gri. After the aborted revolution against the Arakanese king these 'Bengali Pagoda Slaves' and their

families, all together about four thousand people, escaped to the Burmese kingdom of Ava to take

refuge. The Burmese king accepted them as his subjects, gave them their freedom by royal orders

declaring that they were no longer "Pagoda Slaves", and let them settle in the small town Myay Du.

That's why they were known as "Myay Du Muslims". These "Myay Du Muslims", generation by

generation, served in the Burmese Royal Army. When Bodaw Phaya's armies invaded Arakan in1784,

the descendants of these "Myay Du Muslims" came together with the Burmese Army at Thandwe front.

When the Burmese occupied Arakan they let the "Myay Dus" resettle in Thandwe and nearby villages.

Since these people had lived about 150 years in Upper Burma, these "Myay Dus" were assimilated into

Burmese society. Although their descendants live in Thandwe District, they speak Burmese central

dialect instead of Arakanese Thandwe Dialect. Only in complexion and faith do they differ from the

Arakanese and Burmese, yet they know the Burmese language, culture and traditions very well.

Officially, they have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely use their Muslim names in public. See

also: Tydd, W.D., Burma Gazetteer, Sandoway District, Vol.A, Rangoon, 1926.

C. Bengali settlers after the British annexation of Arakan in 1826:

Since Arakan has a direct land border with East Bengal many Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to

Arakan by the British as cheap labourers. These latter settlers are called "Khawtaw Kalas" in both

Burmese and Arakanese.

Some settlers learnt Arakanese and Burmese; hence, some of them were assimilated in the native

society. However, these Chittagonian Bengalis differ from the Arakanese in their features, complexion

and religion as well as in some customs which their religion directs; in writing they use Burmese but

among themselves employ colloquially the language of their ancestors, either Urdu or Bengali. They

never named themselves ‘Rohingyas’ but ‘Arakan Muslims’. Since they were assimilated in the native

society, Burmese as well as Arakanese (Rakhaings) did not call them Khawtaw Kala any more, but

used the term Muslims, just to differentiate them from the natives who are Buddhists, Kamans and

Myaydus. Though Kamans and Myaydus are Muslims they were already assimilated in the native

society. When one hears the name Kaman or Myaydu, one knows automatically that they are

Muslims.

Unfortunately, however, many latter settlers never tried to assimilate into the native society and

therefore they were and are never welcomed by the natives, neither by the Burmese nor by the

Arakanese society. Nor could they join even in the society of "Indigenous Muslims of Arakan", the

"Kamans" and the "Myay Dus". That was the main reason why racial riots happened often during the

whole colonial era and also in post-colonial era, especially in Northern Arakan. Burmese and

Arakanese (Rakhaings) called them either Khawtaw Kala or Sittagaung Kala.

D. Mujahid Rebels

After Burma had regained her independence, these settlers wanted to turn northern Arakan into an

autonomous Muslim state. "Some members of the 'Juniyatu Olamai' religious association went to

Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of Butheedaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung

townships into East Pakistan. Some of them went underground and called themselves "Mujahid"


rebels. The leader of the "Mujahids rebels was Mir Cassim, an uneducated fisherman. It was only an

illusion of an uneducated man like Cassim who wanted to turn a traditionally Buddhist land like Arakan

into a Muslim state". As a result, in the 1950's these rebels were totally crushed by the Burma Armed

Forces. Some surrendered while some fled to East Pakistan. Cassim fled to East Pakistan and he was

shot dead in Cox Bazaar by an unknown person in 1966.

Both surrendered Mujahid and Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called Khawtaw Kala or Kala

which according to their own interpretation supposed to be derogatory because ‘Kala’ means ‘dark’ or

‘Coloured’ or ‘Blackie’ in the languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Bengali . In fact, the literal pronunciation

of the Burmese as well as Arakanese word ‘Kala’ is ‘Kula’ and also written as ‘Kula’. This term was

derived from the Pali or Sanskrit word ‘Kula Puttra’ meaning ‘the son of a noble race’ because Lord

Buddha himself was an Indian. Both Po and Sagaw Karen word for Indian is ‘Kula’ and the Thai word

for Indian is ’Kal’. Hence, it is not derogatory instead it is ‘a word of courtesy’!

Anyway, Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called ‘Kala’. As a result, they settled for the

name "Rohingya". In the late 1950"s, the demand for the statehood of the Rakhaings (Arakanese)

and the Mons was at the peak. The Bengalis who started calling themselves "Rohingyas" asked for the

same status as the Arakanese (Rakhaings). When their demands were turned down by the Burmese

government on the grounds that they were not an indigenous race of Arakan, some educated Bengali

Muslims like M. A. Tahir, well known through his Burmese name Ba Tha, Maung Than Lwin and some

Bengali Muslim students from the University of Rangoon began to fabricate historical facts to prove

that they were "Indigenous Arakanese Muslims" and started to fabricate stories that they and their

ancestors belonged to Arakan historically.

V. Evolution of the word ‘Rohingya’

There are many stories fabricated by educated Bengali Muslims to prove that their ancestors were the

indigenous ethnic minorities of Arakan but all of them are baseless.

The real etymology of the term ‘Rohingya can be traced as follows:

After the Second World War when British Administration restarted in Burma, all Bengalis who went

back to Bengal during the war came back to Arakan. They brought many new settlers with them.

Because of their immigration waves many Arakanese left their villages in Northern Arakan and moved

southwards. These villages were named "Old or Deserted Villages", Ywa-Haun in Burmese (Rwa-Haun

or Ra-haun in Arakanese pronunciation). The villagers of Ywa-Haun were called Ywa-Haun-Tha in

Burmese (Ra-Haun-Tha in Arakanese pronunciation). Those Bengali new settlers could not pronounce

'Ra-Haun' as well as Ra-Haun-Tha properly and called with their Bengali accent "Ro-han" and the “Ro-

han-za”, respectively. Later it deviated to ‘Ro-han-ja’ and then ‘Ro-hin-gya’.

A. Political way out of the AFPFL

U Nu’s government had a lot of political problems in the 50’s. The political wing of the Rakhaings

supported the oppositions. Just to punish the Rakhaings, U Nu and his deputy then U Ba Swe

promised to grant the Ra-Haung-Tha, all together more than one hundred thousand people, Burmese

citizenship. After that, with these newly granted Burmese citizens’ votes some educated Bengali

Muslims such as Mr. Sultan Mahmud, Mr. Abu Bawshaw, Mr. Abu Kai and Mr. Abdul Gahfar became

MPs of U Nu’s party from all constituencies of the frontier districts in 1956 elections. These four

Muslim Members of Parliament neither named themselves nor their followers ‘Rohingyas’ at that time,

instead they called themselves ‘Arakan Muslims’.


U Nu and U Ba Swe started using the term ‘Rohingya’. Since the Prime Minister and the Deputy Prime

Minister started using the term ‘Rohingya’ others too started using this term. Even the famous history

professor, Prof. G. C. Luce started using the term "Rohingyas" in his lectures for the Bengali settlers

living in Northern Arakan, although he has had never mentioned this terminology in his lectures in the

pre-war days, and also in his books published before 1955.

There were two Muslim ministers in the AFPFL government. U Rashid was very close to U Nu and U

Latiff alias U Khin Maung Latt was a protégé of U Ba Swe and U Kyaw Nyein, the First and the Second

Deputy Prime Ministers. Hence, the AFPFL government wanted to grant Burmese citizenship to more

Bengali settlers, if they fell under the category of ‘Yaw-haun-Tha’ (Ra-Haun-Tha).

Since that time, all Chittagonian Bengalis, whether their ancestors had lived in Arakan before the

Second World War or not, if they wanted to get Burmese citizenship they used the term "Rohanja"or

‘Rohingya’, which according to their pronunciation meaning Villagers of Rwa-Haun or ‘Ra-Haun-Tha’.

The surrendered "Mujahids" too adopted that name to prove that they were the villagers of "Rahaung"

(Rohan in their pronunciation), that means they had lived there since before or after the second world

war so that they could claim Burmese citizenship.

B. Premier Nu’s ‘Pendulum Tactics’ to remain in Power:

U Nu and U Ba Swe might have planned to accept the name "Rohingyas" for the Chittagonian Bengalis

who became Burmese citizens eventually with the hope that these people will vote for their party,

however, they were afraid to accept them as an indigenous race of Burma.

Before all these could happen, however, the ruling party, the Anti-Fascist Peoples' Freedom League

(AFPFL) split into two factions, the Clean AFPFL headed by U Nu and the Stable AFPFL lead by U Ba

Swe. U Ba Swe's fraction (the Stable) was supported by the majority of the AFPFL members of

parliament (i.e. the ruling party). Seeing his danger by vote of no-confidence by his former

comrades, U Nu promised to grant States for the Arakanese and the Mons, and he also promised to

the "Arakan Muslims" leaders that he won't forget their gratitude if they could help him during that

political crisis. In June 1958, U Nu's fraction narrowly escaped the vote of no-confidence submitted by

U Ba Swe's fraction in the Burmese Lower House because the "Arakanese National Union Party", the

party of the Mons and "Arakan Muslims" MPs together with the MPs of the main opposition party then,

the leftist National United Front (NUF) party, voted for U Nu's fraction.

U Nu showed his gratitude by appointing his supporters as ministers in his new coalition government.

Two NUF MPs called U Thein Pe Myint and Dr. E Maung, one Arakanese MP U Hla Tun Phru, one Mon

MP U Mon Pho Cho and one "Arakan Muslim" MP Mr. Sultan Mahmud became ministers in this cabinet.

Here, U Mon Pho Cho and U Hla Tun Phru were named Minister for Mon and Arakanese Affairs

respectively apart from their other posts as the minister of their other ministries. Mr. Sultan Mahmud,

on the other hand, was only the replacement for the other Muslim minister U Latiff alias U Khin Maung

Latt who sided with the Stable Fraction of the AFPFL and voted against U Nu. Mr. Sultan Mahmud

wanted to make hay while the sun shines, expected to get the lion’s share and requested U Nu to

name him “the Minister for Arakan Muslim Affairs”. His request was turned down by U Nu on the

grounds that the “Arakan Muslims” were in fact Chittagonian Bengalis; hence, their ancestors were

settlers only and were never of the indigenous race of Arakan.

On 31st July 1958 U Nu offered an amnesty to all insurgents who would surrender themselves. Some

Mujahids surrendered. They and other Bengali settlers ask for citizenship. However, this government


did not last long to grant them citizenship. The government was in power for three months and

seventeen days only.

In September 1958, the three leading officers from the Burma Army, namely Brigadier Tin Pe, Colonel

Aung Gyi and Colonel Maung Maung went to Premier Nu's resident and demanded to transfer power

officially to the military or otherwise they could not prevent the military coup planned by other

officers. In the mean time Brigadier Aung Shwe (now chairman of the opposition NLD Party, the party

of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi), the then commander of the Southern Command ordered some of his

troops to occupy the Mingaladon International Airport and Insein Town, both of them are only ten

miles away from Rangoon City Centre. Prime Minister U Nu had no other choice, but to surrender

power to a Caretaker Government headed by General Ne Win constitutionally through the parliament

just to prevent the army coup dé tat. The Caretaker Government ruled Burma until March 1960. The

multi-party election was held in February 1960 in which U Nu's party won with landslide majority.

C. The first attempt of Bengali Muslims for the acceptance as an indigenous ethnic

group

Those Bengali leaders tried again to have their group accepted as "Indigenous Muslims" or as an

"indigenous ethnic group" of Burma as well as many people to be granted citizenship again. This time

they generally used the name "The Arakan Muslims", however, occasionally they also used the name

"Rohingyas" as an attempt to prove” that they are an “indigenous ethnic group” of Arakan.

Unfortunately, the population of the "Rohingyas" given by them was much higher than the registered

"Surrendered Mujahids" and the former villagers of Rwa Haung or Ra-Haun-Tha. The government

answered that citizenship will be considered only for the people who were eligible, that means the

former villagers of Rwa Haung, the former "Mujahids" and their descendants but not for the latter

settlers. Their demand for an "indigenous ethnic group" was turned down again on the ground that

Chittagonian Bengalis were never of the indigenous race of Arakan and they and their ancestors were

settlers only, and therefore they could be considered in the same category as the Indians, the

Pakistanis and the Chinese immigrants. Then their "History Professors" like Ba Tha and Maung Than

Lwin began to fabricate the "Histories" as mentioned earlier.

The name "Rohingya" disappeared during the Caretaker Government. It reappeared in April 1960

when U Nu was re-elected as Prime Minister. U Nu, just to please the Arakan Muslim MPs and their

followers who supported him in the election, allowed broadcasting in the "Rohingya" language in the

Burma Broadcasting Station (BBS) under the Foreign Languages Programme in addition to English and

Hindustani, but never allowed it in the National Languages Programme. In fact, the "Rohingya"

language is a Bengali Chittagong dialect.

To regain back his power, U Nu had promised many things before the election which later became

contradictory to each other. For example he promised to declare Buddhism as the State Religion

without considering the fact that there are two Christian majority states in Burma, namely the Kachin

and the Chin States, where at least 60% of the population are Christians. The Karen (Kayin) state,

however, was and is not a Christian majority state. Only 30% of the Karens in Burma are Christians.

At least 35 % of Karens are Buddhist and the rest are nature worshippers. When the MPs discussed in

parliament to declare Buddhism as the state religion, his own party members of the Kachin and Chin

States as well as his good friend the Muslim Minister U Rashid protested and voted against it,

however, the majority of the MPs voted for it and Buddhism became state religion. After that many

riots started between Buddhists and Muslims and also it was the ‘Birth of the Kachin rebellion K.I.A

(the Kachin Independence Army)’.


He promised to grant statehood to the Rakhaings and Mons, in the mean time he wanted to grant

citizenship to many illegal Bengali Muslim immigrants with the name ‘Rohingya’, just to console his

Muslim minister and MPs.

In the mean time the Shans and the Kayahs, due to their rights signed in the Panlong Conference in

1947, demanded to make some amendments in the constitution so that the States in the Union of

Burma have more autonomy, have equal rights and become federal states.

There was political turmoil in Burma and U Nu was totally trapped in his own promises which he could

not solve easily. It became the ‘Golden opportunity’ for the Usurper General Ne Win ‘to make hay

while the sun shines’ and took the ‘Lion’s Share’ and ´carried out the Army coup de tat on 2nd March

1962.

At the beginning all foreign media were trapped by Ne Win. Many British and American sources wrote

Ne Win’s coup dé tat was necessary because the country was in a political dilemma.

When U Nu's government was overthrown by General Ne Win through a military coup in March 1962,

the constitution was suspended. Buddhism was no more state religion, the name "Rohingya"

disappeared from the Burmese political scene again. Hindustani and "Rohingya" broadcasts ended.

In 1972 the name "Rohingya" reappeared inside Burma, when the Revolutionary Council Government

formed a commission called the Constitution Commission and this Commission requested citizens for

suggestions. The "Rohingyas" took the opportunity and responded immediately by sending

suggestions and proposals to grant them the rights of ethnic minorities and requested for an

autonomous Muslim State in northern Arakan. They presented those "stories" and "created history"

again. Their demands were turned down again on the ground that they and their ancestors were

neither "Indigenous Muslims" nor Indigenous ethnic group of Arakan nor Burma. Some of their

leaders went to Former East Pakistan and established the "Arakan Rohingya Liberation Front" under

the slogan of "Rohingya National Liberation" on 15 July 1972. This "front" has very few members, not

more than two hundred. They got a few help from fanatic Muslims and some rich Muslim countries

but neither from the Pakistani nor Bangladeshi governments directly. After that nobody heard the

name "Rohingya" again until 1978 after the first aborted ‘Naga Min Operation’. Then, the name

‘Rohingya’ reappeared in 1991, after the second aborted ‘Naga Min’ Operation.

D. ‘Rohingya’ population growth

The population growth of the ‘Rohingyas’ is really a miracle.

Since the word "Rohan" is neither Arakanese nor Bengali word, but only the Bengali pronunciation of

Ywa-Haun (Ra-Haun), today nobody can guess what this word means unless one knows the back

ground of this word.

Most of the "Rohingyas" nowadays are no more the descendants of the ‘Ra-haun-Tha’ and the

surrendered Mujahid Rebels, instead real illegal immigrants coming from Bangladesh for various

reasons, settled down inside Burma in 1970 during the Bangladesh Liberation War and later.

Their population growth is a miracle and always happens after a cyclone hits Bangladesh. Most of

them are illiterates, know nothing about history but have only heard the name "Rohingyas" and claim

to be. Some Muslims in Burma and Bangladesh helping them also don't know the origin of this word

and created fanciful stories. They even misinterpreted the word "Rohan" as the whole Arakan and


wrote in their journals that "Rohan" means "Arakan" in Arabic; they were the founders of Arakan and

so forth.

VI. Are the following Racial Statements or Comparing and Contrasting two groups of

peoples?

Time has changed and the ideas and thinking of people has changed. The terms once considered as

‘normal’ has become ‘politically incorrect’ and terms once considered derogatory can be normal

nowadays. Now I would like to cite the following statements written by some British writers

comparing the peoples of Burma and the peoples of the Subcontinent (India, Pakistan and

Bangladesh). What kind of comments can we give nowadays? Are they racial statements or

comparing and contrasting two groups of peoples?

1. The Report of the Joint Select Committee on the Government of India Bill. 1919, III. Clause 41: where it was written that "after hearing evidence the Committee have not advised that Burma

should be included within the scheme. They do not doubt but that the Burmese have deserved

and should receive a Constitution analogous to that provided in this Bill for their Indian fellow-

subjects. But Burma is only by accident part of the responsibility of the Governor General of

India. The Burmese are as distinct from the Indians in race and language as they are

from the British".

Please note that, here the British used the term 'the Burmese', which according to their definition,

represents all peoples of Burma including Arakanese. They did not use the term 'the Burman',

which according to their definition, represents only the majority ethnic group, the Bamas.

2. The Report of the Indian Statutory Commission vol. II London, 1930, vol. II § 224: In 1927, The Indian Statutory Commission, popularly known as the "Simon Commission", was appointed under

the chairmanship of Sir John Simon. This Commission gave its opinion that "we hold that the first

step towards the attainment of full responsible government in Burma is the separation of Burma

from the rest of British India....We would add that Burma's political connection with India is wholly

arbitrary and unnatural. It was established by the British rulers of India by force of arms and

being maintained for the sake of administrative convenience. It is not an association of two

peoples having natural affinity tending towards union ... there is nothing common between

the two peoples.

3. Captain Symes who was sent by the Viceroy of India on Embassy to the court of Bodawphaya in 1795 wrote: "The general disposition or temperament of the Burmese is strikingly in

contrast with that of the natives of India from whom they are separated only by a

narrow range of mountains. The physical difference between these nations is also very

great. The Burmese are lively, inquisitive, active, grace, hot-tempered and impatient. The

unworthy passion of jealousy, which makes most nations of the East hide their women within the

walls of a harem and surround them with guards, seems to have no place in the minds of this

extraordinary and more liberal people. Burmese wives and daughters are not concealed from the

sight of men, and are allowed to mix as freely with the latter as in Europe. ------- Women in the

Burman country are not only good housewives, but also manage the more important commercial

affairs of their husbands and attend to their outdoor business matters. They are extremely

industrious and are said to be good mothers and faithful wives."

VII. Analysis of the ‘Rohingya Problem’


A. Why some writers were trapped by "Rohingyas":

If one carefully scrutinizes all available authentic historical and etymological facts it comes out clearly

that there was no ethnic group called "Rohingya" in Arakan as well as in Burma, and it is only an

invented name in the late 1950's. Arakan was and is not a Muslim state. The Kingdom of Mrauk U

was not established by the ‘Rohingyas’ as they claimed. All kings of the Mrauk U dynasty were

Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles but all of them were donors of many temples in

Mrauk U as well as in other parts of Arakan.

Even though, some of the international journalists favoured the dishonest claims of the ‘Rohingyas’.

Why?

The answer is very clear. Most of them are only writers and neither etymological scholars nor

historical researchers. They don't know the real history of Arakan as well as the history of Burma,

however, they made their conclusions based only on many correct points; that the present

government in Burma (SLORC earlier and SPDC later) is a military dictatorship, did not surrender the

power to the party who won in the election in 1990, put the opposition leader Daw Aung San Suu Kyi

under house arrest for no reason, discriminating other ethnic minorities of Burma and violating a lot of

human rights. The news about the military abuses against the ‘Rohingyas’ was also more or less true.

Hence, they concluded that all claims of the ‘Rohingyas’ to be the truth.

B. Bad Image of the various Burmese Military Governments since 1962

The various Burmese Military Governments of Burma since 1962 have and never had a good

reputation and image, neither in the internal nor in the international media. They are well known for

never respecting human rights. To maintain their power, the various military authorities in Burma

used and still use tanks and machine guns to brutally crush down any anti-government demonstration

of the majority population and students even those demonstrations organized, led and participated in

by Buddhists monks.

On this basis the international media neither trusted the SLORC/SPDC nor the various Burmese

Military Juntas, even if sometimes, though very rarely, the statement of the junta could be true.

Therefore, it is no wonder; some of the writers unwittingly supported the "Rohingyas" and their

claims. Some Muslims backing them were also trapped, when they issued their "fantastic historical

claims".

C. Who immigrate to where:

If we compare Burma and Bangladesh by means of population density, we will see that Bangladesh

has one of the highest in the world while Burma has a very low one. Natural catastrophes, like

storms, cyclones and floods hit Bangladesh every year, but rarely Burma. Soil fertility in the Rakhine

State is much better than that of Bangladesh. Burma was a very rich country compared to East

Pakistan (later Bangladesh). Even now, although Burma has become a poor country, the way of life in

Burma is much easier than that in Bangladesh. Besides, Burma has more space, so logically who

immigrates where does not need to be explained.

During East Pakistan's struggle for independence from West Pakistan to establish a new nation which

is now Bangladesh, many war refugees ran to Arakan (the Rakhine State of Burma). It was the main

reason why Burma immediately recognised the new nation, disregarding the anger and objections of


Pakistan. As usual, however, the then military government of Burma (The Revolutionary Council

headed by Gen. Ne Win) did not like any UN observers, particularly from the UNHCR, coming to

Burma. So, they did not report anything about the refugees, preferring a solution through bilateral

agreements. Some refugees returned to Bangladesh as a result, but eventually they went back to the

Rakhine State of Burma (Arakan). Many of them were arrested as illegal immigrants. Almost all of

them had to learn the Burmese language in the jails because they could not speak Burmese as well as

any other language of Burma, although Burmese language is the official language of Burma as well as

the ‘Lingua Franca’ or ‘the Language of Communication’ between one ethnic minority group to the

other group. The only language they could speak was Chittagonian Bengali!

Since the border of Burma was neither properly controlled nor well guarded with barbed wires and

walls, nobody can say when they came over to Burma or since when they have lived there. Had they

invited UN observers during the time of the civil war in East Pakistan, this problem would not have

evolved.

Both "Rohingyas" problems, 1978 and 1991, came about a few months after a cyclone hit Bangladesh.

Even India, the world's largest democracy, whose people are of the same historical and racial

background as those people from Bangladesh, raised barbed wires along their borders with

Bangladesh to prevent illegal immigration towards their side.

In the case of the ‘Boat People’, it is human nature for the people of a poor country to seek their

fortune in a more prosperous country. Nowadays, there are about two million Burmese and other

ethnic minorities working in Thailand and Malaysia either as legal or illegal immigrant workers.

Many Mexicans entered into USA illegally, African Boat People wanted to enter one of the soils of EU,

many Afghans, Chinese and Subcontinent people were taken by human traffickers as illegal

immigrants to Western Europe, USA, Canada and Australia.

Bangladesh is a poor country and very overpopulated. Malaysia is the nearest rich Muslim country.

Hence, no wonder, most of the poor Bangladeshis wanted to go to Malaysia to seek their luck. If they

said the truth that they were from Bangladesh, they would be considered only as illegal immigrants

and turned back. Since ‘Rohingyas’ speak the same language and have the same culture as the

Chittagonian Bengalis, it is ‘the golden opportunity’ for them to ‘make hay while the sun shines’ and

claimed to be ‘Rohingyas’ as they were taught by the human traffickers.

Similarly, some asylum seekers in Germany coming with Burmese Passports, claimed to be from the

Shan State of Burma, however, they could neither speak Shan nor Burmese, the only language they

could speak was Chinese! Later, it appeared that they came from China, bought fake Burmese

passports and asked for asylum. This happens only because the military government of Burma has a

very bad image which many people from contiguous countries can take advantage of.

D. ‘Rohingyas’ for Burmese Citizenship:

Some liberal foreign journalist, Burma Scholars, politicians and writers argued that the "Rohingyas",

even if most of them were the descendants of illegal immigrants and many war refugees of the East

Pakistan Independence War in 1970, deserve to have the right to be naturalized as citizens of Burma

since they have lived inside Burmese territory for more than ten years.

To that suggestion, the present author personally have no objection as long as the ‘Rohingyas’ want to

live peacefully side by side with the Buddhists Rakhaings who are the natives of Arakan and ‘Bummi

Puttras’ of that region and as long as ‘Rohingyas’ do not make dishonest claims and want to turn the


traditional Buddhist land into a Muslim state. I don’t know what the majority of Rakhaings would say.

I don’t represent any organisation and therefore I cannot speak for them, but can only suggest. I

hope it may also be possible that many Rakhaings would share my view. However, it will not be easy

under this present government. The present Military Junta is well known as hard liners, very

xenophobic and too ethno-centric. It may be easier to do this under a democratically elected

government through “give and take” policy.

In any case, one should not forget the fact that every sovereign nation has their own immigration and

naturalization laws which others should respect, for example Malaysia has the ‘Bummi Puttra’ law. We

should not forget the fact that Burma is not an immigrant land. In spite of that, in the past, in 1950's

U Nu was so generous and had granted about 150000 (one hundred and fifty thousand) illegal

immigrants of East Pakistan Burmese citizenship and the rest were tolerated to stay in Burma without

any identity or as foreigners.

Even "the most democratic country on the earth", the United States of America" do not grant

citizenship automatically to many offspring of the Mexicans who were born inside the U.S.A., because

their parents came illegally to the U.S.A., and lived there as illegal immigrants. They usually live in

California, Arizona and Texas, and everybody knows that these territories historically belonged to

Mexico.

It is also a similar problem for the People of the Subcontinent, Sri Lanka and the West Indies who

reside in The United Kingdom, "the Mother of Democracy” although these people belong to the "British

Common Wealth". Many of them demonstrated in the U.K. with the slogan "We are here because you

were there!"

So do many Turks in Germany. Some of them came to Germany as ‘Guest Workers’ invited by the

then West-German Government in the 1950’s. Some of them live there more than 40 years and their

children were born in Germany, however, these children won’t be granted German citizenship

automatically, unless or otherwise they apply for that and go through some legal procedures.

Here, the present author likes to point out a very similar situation. There are two Muslim-dominated

districts in Berlin, namely Kreuzberg and Neukoelln Districts. Assuming, the Turks had asked for the

rights of ‘Indigenous Muslims of Germany’, their Autonomous Region and issued fabricated histories

such as they had established the above mentioned two districts because Muslims lived in Berlin since

the time of German Emperors because Ottoman Empire and German Empire (Deutsche Reich) were

Military Allies and so on, how would the German populace react?

E. Liberal groups of "Rohingyas", their approaches and responses:

Some liberal groups of "Rohingyas" have changed their tactics. They admitted that the term

"Rohingya" was not a historical name instead it is an invented name in the 1950's. However, they

wished that the new or the invented name "Rohingya" should be accepted because the name of an

ethnic group can be changed if that group wishes. They argued that the ethnic group who used to be

called "Talaings" by the Burmese in the Burmese chronicles are now called ‘Mons’ due to their request,

and also an ethnic group called "Shan-Tayok" (Tai-Chinese) are now renamed as "Ko-kant".

Therefore, Chittagonian Bengali Muslims could be accepted as "Rohingyas", a new indigenous ethnic

group in Burma.

They tried to make emergency courses for these ‘Rohingyas’ to learn written and spoken Burmese

which is the official and language of communication in the Union of Burma, to enable their people to


communicate with other Burmese citizens and assimilate with other peoples of Burma, because till

now almost all ‘Rohingyas’ can speak only their mother tongue which is the Bengali Chittagong

Dialect. Apart from that, many of them are illiterates.

For that issue, not only the Military Government, but also many people of Burma, especially the

Buddhists, particularly the Rakhaings, on the other hand, counter-argued that the "Rohingyas" do not

fall in the same category as the Mons and the Ko-kants because they were and are not an indigenous

ethnic group of Burma like the Mons and the Ko-kants. Mon is the historical ethnic group of Burma.

They came to Burma even earlier than the Burmese, had the civilization and established Mon

Kingdoms in the place called Lower Burma nowadays. Burmese adapted Theravada Buddhism as well

as scripts from the Mons. The names Mon and Talaing were parallel used since the Pagan Dynasty.

Hence, if they do not like to be called Talaings but only Mon, it is their wish and it must be accepted.

Ko-kants People are named due to the region where they live. However, ‘Rohingya’ is neither the

name of the region of their origin nor a historical name.

‘Rohingya’ people were new settlers and therefore their descendants can be considered to be citizens

but not as an indigenous ethnic group. This is very similar to the "Bhummi Puttra" (literally, "Son of

the Motherland", here it means indigenous ethnic group) Law in Malaysia.

Hence, according to them, the name "Rohingya" could be accepted as an ethnic group now living in

Burma like Chinese, Indian, Pakistanis and Bangladeshis, but neither as a historical ethnic group nor

can be recognized as an indigenous ethnic group of Burma.

Hence, the solution to the ‘Rohingya’ problem may be easy to say, however, difficult to manage. Both

sides have to compromise, otherwise it will be a political dead-end.

VII. Conclusion:

If one carefully scrutinizes all available authentic historical and etymological facts it comes out clearly

that there was no ethnic group called "Rohingya" in Arakan as well as in Burma, and it is only an

invented name in the 1950's. All claims of the "Rohingyas" are baseless and found out to be incorrect.

Boat People came direct from Bangladesh and not from Arakan. They were caned by the human

traffickers. Just to get asylum in an ASEAN country they have to fabricate some tragic stories and had

to claim to be ‘Rohingyas’.

In any case, I have to be very careful to present this article in a very neutral way so that the paper

does not read either as an attack on "Rohingyas" or as a polemical piece aimed at "Rohingyas", nor be

seen as a racial writing. The biggest worry for me is: This article might be misinterpreted as an

indirect support for the position of the very brutal Burmese Military Junta.

Here, I sincerely suggest to the "Rohingyas" to change their tactics. Instead of attacking all people

who do not support their dishonest claims they should attack the Burmese Military Junta only. In the

mean time they should learn to speak, read and write Burmese, especially the Rakhaing Dialect, and

make friends with other ethnic groups of Burma, particularly with the Rakhaings who are the natives

and majority of that state. Instead of demanding for the rights of an indigenous ethnic minority of

Arakan by inventing fabricated and fanciful histories and trying to turn the traditional Buddhist land of

Arakan into a Muslim state, they should be honest and just request to be granted the right to

permanent residential status and then the right to be naturalized citizens of Burma step by step to

which the Arakanese people (Rakhaings) will have no objection.


Khin Maung Saw

Former Lecturer in Burma Studies, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.

Former ‘Scholar in Residence’, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA.

Religions in Arakan U Khin Maung Saw 8/9/2009

Paper presented at the Arakanese History and Religion Seminar, London, August 2009

1. Introduction:

Among the 7 Union States of Burma the Rakhine State or the Arakan is the immediate neighbour of the Subcontinent. There might have been some contacts between Arakan and the Subcontinent since the first dynasty of the Arakanese. Buddhism and the Pali language used in Buddhist Canons came very early to the Mons, Arakan and Pyus, much earlier than the emigration of the Burmese in the country which is now Burma. Pyu, Mon and Burmese/Arakanese scripts were based on the South Indian scripts.

The Rakhaings (Arakanese) traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the "Sakya Sakis" the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came1. Most historians and anthropologists, however, say that they belong to the Tibeto-Burmese groups.

The Arakanese (Rakhaing/Rakhine) believe that their ancestors had to chase out the demon-like beings (most probably Negrito tribes) before they established their first kingdom. After that the people had to be very united to repel the invasions of the tribes they chased out. That's why they named themselves Rakkhita People. The Pali word Rakkhita means „the one who protects his own race. And therefore their country was called „Rakkhita Mandala' and later deviated to 'Rakkhita Mandaing' and then to 'Rakkha Mandaing'. The word "Arakan" is therefore a derivation of "Rakkha Mandaing - Rakhaing" - "Arakhaing" - "Arakan".

There is another hypothesis: The Sanskrit word rakshasa, Pali rakkhaso can be translated as “the demon of water” or “an ogre-like being living in water”. That's why the etymology of Arakan can be traced as a Sanskrit or Pali words A-Rakkha Desa (The Land which is now free from the Demons). The word "Arakan" is therefore a derivation of "A-Rakkha Desa - A-Rakkhan" - "Arakan". Sir Arthur Phayre as well as Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell's "Hobson-Jobson" A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886) supported this version too2.

2. Religions in Arakan:

2.1. Hinduism:

There is no doubt that the early kingdoms of Arakan were Hindu states. Some Hindu deities were found in ancient cities. However, Hinduism might have been replaced by Buddhism when the kings and people became Buddhists.

2.2. Buddhism:

According to the legend of the Maha Muni Image, Arakan was already a Buddhist Kingdom during the time of Lord Buddha because Lord Buddha visited Arakan due to the invitation of King Sanda Thuriya (Chandra Suriya). U San Shwe Bu3, on the other hand, wrote that King Sanda Thuriya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D, six hundred years after the Pari Nibanna of Lord Buddha. Contrast to the legend he stated that the statue was casted in the 2nd century AD.

In any case, it is safe to say that Arakan became a Buddhist Land at the beginning of Anno Domini, if not earlier. Since that time Arakan remains a Buddhist land till now and all Arakanese or

Rakhaings are devout Buddhists. Nowadays, population ratio between Arakanese and Burmese may be 1:10, however if one compares the number of Buddhist temples, monasteries, monks and nuns the ratio is only 1:4. It is proven how religious Arakanese or Rakhaings were and are.

Arakan was well known to be “the Land of Pagodas and Temples”. There is a famous Arakanese verse: Thazun pan Khaing ta mraing mraing Rakhaing Phara paung”, which was nicely translated into English verse by U Tha Hla as: “The Thazun (a type of orchid) sprigs in sheer clusters, Sum the total of the pharas grandeur”. According to this verse, there were 6352755 Pharas (Buddha Statues) in Arakan.

Maurice Collis described the situation of Buddhism in the year 1630 during the reign of Min Hayi (Man Hari) alias Thiri Thudhamma (Sri Sudhamma). In his book The Land of the Great Image, in page 168 where it was written: "The Buddha had died in 543 B.C. Altogether 2173 years had elapsed since then, and for that immense period the image of the Founder of the Religion had remained on Sirigutta, the oldest, most mysterious, the most holy object in the world. The relics detailed to the disciples on Selagiri had all been found and enshrined. Arakan was a sacred country; it was the heart of Buddhism; and he (King Thiri Thudhamma) as its king, was the most notable Buddhist ruler in existence. Grave indeed was his responsibility. He had not only to maintain the state as the homeland of the Arakanese race, but as the one place on earth where an authentic shape of the Tathagata was preserved, a possession of greater potency than the most precious relics".

2.2.1 Buddhists kings with Pseudonym Muslim Titles:

All kings of the Mrauk U dynasty, the last dynasty in Arakan, were Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles because, Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City wanted to show his gratitude to the Sultan of Gaur who helped him regain the Arakanese throne in 1430. Hence, he promised the Sultan that the Arakanese kings would bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles. But in fact, all of the Arakanese kings were donors of many temples in Mrauk U as well as in the other parts of Arakan. They did make coins, one side with Burmese/Arakanese scripts and the other side with Persian (NOT Bengali).

For example: Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City with the assumed Muslim Title 'Suleiman Shah' built seven Buddhists temples in Mrauk U. One of them was Laymyetna Phaya (Leemyatna Phara) in Mrauk U (now Mrohaung). His successor and younger brother Min Khayi (Man Khari), who had an assumed Muslim Title 'Ali Khan', erected the Nyidaw Zedi (Satee), which can be roughly translated as 'The Pagoda built by the Younger Brother'. His son and successor King Ba Saw Phru alias Kaliman Shah constructed four Buddhists temples including the Maha Bodi Shwegu Pagoda. His son Dan Ugga alias Daluya, who bore the Muslim Title Moguh Shah, was the donor of Thongyaik Tasu Temple (meaning the temple of Thirty One Buddhas). His successor Min Yan Aung (Man Ran Aung) alias Narui Shah founded the Htupayon Pagoda. Min Bin (Man Ban) had an assumed Muslim Title of Zabauk Shah; was the donor of seven temples including Shit Thaung Phaya (Shite Thaung Phara) or the Temple of Eighty Thousand Buddha Statues. Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) alias Secudah Shah was the donor of six temples including Htukkan Thein, his son Min Yaza Gyi (Man Raza Gri) with the Muslim Title Salem Shah donated Phaya Paw (Phara Paw) Pagoda and Pakhan Thein in Mrauk U and also Shwe Kyaung Pyin Monastery in Thandwe. Min Khamaung, who subjoined the Muslim Title Hussein Shah constructed Yatanapon (Ratanabon) and Yatana Pyethet (Ratana Prethat) Pagodas and his son Thri Thudhamma (meaning the Protector of Buddhist Religion) alias Salem Shah the Second, erected the Sekkya Manaung (Sakkya Manaung) Pagoda.

The Burmese invasion in 1784, led by the Burmese Crown Prince then, was to snatch the Holy Maha Muni Image, the national Symbol of Arakan. Nowadays this colossal image can be seen near Mandalay and the statue is called in colloquial Burmese Phayagyi (Paragri), which is the direct translation of Pali Word Maha Muni. During the British Era this temple was translated as 'Arakan Pagoda'.

2.3. Christianity:

Many Portuguese mercenaries served under Arakanese kings since 16th Century A.D4. Later, the Dutch mercenaries did the same job. So, there is no doubt that there must have been some Christians in Arakan, but almost all of them were foreigners with very few Arakanese who converted into Christianity through marriage. According to Maurice Collis and U San Shwe Bu5, in 1610 Arakanese King Razagri had appointed his younger son, Min Mangri, Viceroy of Chittagong. This prince was not in good terms with his elder brother and the crown prince then Min Khamaung, the Viceroy of Thandwe. Min Khamaung was a rebellious Prince towards his father, hence the king wanted to replace the position of the crown prince from his elder son to the younger son. However, Min Mangri made friendship with the Portuguese pirate-king Gonsalves Tibau of Sandwip Island. The marriage of Min Mangri's daughter with Tibau's son was agreed and she had to convert into Catholicism. Min Mangri had three children, two daughters and a son. In the year 1610 his son was four years old.

When King Razagri heard of this marriage and realized that this younger son was now allied with the ruffian who had treacherously seized his fleet, in 1612 Razagri sent an army under the Crown Prince Min Khamaung. Min Khamaung took this duty willingly, because his own right to become the future king was threatened. In the battle Min Mangri was shot dead and finally Gonsalves Tibau surrendered. The King of Arakan, decided to pardon Gonsalves Tibau and invited him to contrive some way of saving the young prince and his sister, who were his own grand children.

Meanwhile Min Khamaung had entered Chittagong without opposition and after attending his brother's funeral immediately called for his nephew and niece. When they were not forthcoming, he suspected Tibau, but it was not until afterwards that he learnt they had escaped to the Moghul Empire. Foiled in this, he finished his business and returned to Mrauk-U, where later in the year he succeeded his father when his father died. Later these two children of Min Mangri were baptized by the Catholic priests. This son of Min Mangri afterwards became known as Dom Martin, a Catholic and the first Arakanese who went to Europe.

2.3.1 The term ‘Phalaung’:

Phalaung is the Arakanese term for the Portuguese. It is a corrupted word from Persian Farangi or Firingi, i.e. a Frank, meaning European. This term for European is very old in Asia. Till now, in Thailand all Whites are called "Phalang". The Burmese used to call Portuguese as Ba-yin-gi (Barangi), a corruption of Farangi. However, a modern Burmese meaning of Ba-yin-gi is for Roman Catholic Christians.

This Arakanese king, Min Phalaung's real name was Chit Hnaung (Shite Hnaung) meaning the latest beloved (son). He was the youngest son of Min Bargyi (Man Bargri) and was born on that day when Arakanese armed forces destroyed the Portuguese fleet and conquered the Portuguese Fort of Dianga. That's why his father named him Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) which can be roughly translated as "King or Ruler of the Portuguese". Here, I would like to cite Maurice Collis, “The appeal of the Portuguese”: "We (the Portuguese) have come to assure His Majesty that the

Portuguese of Dianga are His Majesty‟s devoted humble servants, as they have ever been in the

past, having served him and his father and grandfather of the glorious memory, not only by harrying the Mogul in Bengal, but fighting his enemy, the king of Pegu. If God grants me the fortune of being

admitted to the royal presence, my endeavour will be to convince His Majesty of my nation‟s

continued desire to serve him". 6

The first chapel, however, was built only after 1630 A.D., because the Catholic Missionary of Augustinian Order, Father Sebastien Manrique arrived Arakan from Goa in 1630 and asked permission to build a chapel from the Arakanese king. King Thri Thudhamma was so kind by not only allowing the Portuguese priest to build a chapel near the royal palace, but also he lent him money. In the opening ceremony of the church the Arakanese king lent him golden flower vases decorated with various jewels. Father Manrique recorded this in his memoirs by praising King Thri Thudhamma that the Buddhist king was so generous and helped him what even monarchs of other Christian sects would not have done although they share the same god and follow the principles of Jesus Christ.7

Father Manrique also recorded that though Arakan had a common border with India, particularly with Bengal, there was nothing common between Arakanese and Bengalis or Indians regarding race, features, language, religion, characters, mentality, culture, traditions and civilization. He also recorded that he had never seen a single Arakanese (Rakhaing) who became a Muslim.

Here, I would like to cite some words of Father Manrique: "The city of Arracan according to general opinion must have contained one hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants, excluding foreign merchants. There were also a great number of foreign merchants, as there were many ships trading with this port from Bangala, Masulipatan, Tenasserim, Martaban, Achen und Jacatra. There were other foreigners also, some being merchants and some soldiers, the latter being enlisted on salaries; these soldiers were Portuguese, Pegus (i.e. Mons) Burmese and Mogors (Moguhls) in nationality. Besides these, there were many Christians of Japanese, Bengali and other nationalities".8

2.4. Islam

2.4.1 Muslim Settlements in Arakan:

2.4.1.1. Pre Colonial Era:

Arakan has a common border with Bengal, so there is no doubt that there must have been some Muslim settlers in Arakan even before the Mrauk U Dynasty was established, however, their number could be negligible and apart from that they were not Arakanese (Rakhaings) instead they were some foreigners.9. Some Muslims claimed that Muslim settlements in Arakan date back to the 9th century A.D". This statement is wrong and baseless, because even in Bengal the Muslim settlements began much later, and in Chittagong not until the 14th century. In the ninth century A.D., even the biggest country in Southeast Asia with the world's largest Muslim population, Indonesia, was under the Sri Vijaya Empire, which was a Hindu-Buddhist Empire. Maurice Collis wrote very clearly: "Bengal was absorbed into this polity, [that is, Islam] in 1203 A.D. But it was its extreme eastern limit. It never passed into Indo-China; and its influence from its arrival in 1203 till 1430 was negligible upon Arakan"10.

2.4.1.2. Kaman Muslims:

The real Muslim settlement began only after Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) regained the throne of Arakan with the help of the Sultan of Gaur. There were some Muslim troops in Mrauk U to protect Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) from the Burmese invasion. About two hundred years later, some followers of Mogul Prince Shah Shuja joined the descendants of these soldiers. These groups of mercenaries were Afghans and Moguls. They were called "Kamans", meaning archers in Persian language. Their descendants still live in the Rakhine State, particularly in Akyab (Sittwe) District and Rambree Island. Now they are assimilated into the Arakanese society. Only in religion and complexion do they differ from the Arakanese (Rakhaing), they know the Arakanese language, literature and Buddhist traditions very well. Most of them have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely used their Muslim names.

2.4.1.3. Myay Du Muslims:

There are some Muslims living in Thandwe District. These Muslims are called "Myay Du". They are the descendants of the former "Pagoda Slaves".11 When King Min Bin (Man Ban) alias Min Bargyi (Man Bargri) reoccupied the Chittagong District in A.D. 1533, he brought back some Bengalis as prisoners of war and let them work as menial workers at Andaw, Nandaw and Sandaw Pagodas in Thandwe. Since they had to do menial works and were not free people anymore, they were called "Pagoda Slaves". In the year 1624, these Bengali "Pagoda Slaves" supported the 'Palace revolution' of the 'Viceroy of Thandwe' against his own father, the Arakanese king. After the aborted revolution against the Arakanese king these 'Bengali Pagoda Slaves' and their families, all together about four thousand people, escaped to Ava to take refuge. The Burmese king accepted them as his subjects,

gave them their freedom by royal orders declaring that they were no longer "Pagoda Slaves", and let them settle in the small town Myay Du. That's why they were known as "Myay Du Muslims". These "Myay Du Muslims", generation by generation, served in the Burmese Royal Army. When Bodaw U Waing's armies invaded Arakan in1784, the descendants of these "Myay Du Muslims" came together with the Burmese Army at Thandwe front. When the Burmese occupied Arakan they let the "Myay Dus" resettle in Thandwe and nearby villages. Since these people had lived about 150 years in Upper Burma, these "Myay Dus" were assimilated into Burmese society. Although their descendants live in Thandwe District, they speak Burmese central dialect instead of Arakanese Thandwe Dialect. Only in complexion and name (in some cases only) do they differ from the Arakanese and Burmese, yet they know the Burmese language, culture and traditions very well. Officially, they have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely use their Muslim names in public.

Since the "Kamans", the descendants of Afghan archers started living in Arakan since 1430 and their population increased in 1660 when Sha Shuja followers joined them, and the "Myay Dus" the descendants of Bengali "Pagoda Slaves" started living in Arakan since 1533 they may be called "the Indigenous Muslims of Arakan". For centuries to now, these "Indigenous Muslims of Arakan" lived and live peacefully with Burmese and Arakanese (Rakhaings), who are Buddhists. Even in the country-wide racial riots between Buddhists and Muslims starting from Rangoon in 1938, there was not a single riot in Thandwe12.

2.4.1.4. The Colonial Era:

2.4.1.4.1 Early Bengali Muslim Settlers:

Only after the British annexed Burma and placed under the umbrella of the British Indian Empire did a lot of Bengalis, especially from Chittagong, came to settle in Arakan, particularly in the north. After the First Anglo-Burmese War which broke out in 1824 and ended in 1826, some parts of Burma were annexed by the British. These areas became part of British India since 1826. Hence, since 1826 people from the Subcontinent were able to come to Burma freely, unconditionally and some were brought by the British for various reasons. However, the volume of Indian immigration before the middle of the nineteenth century, though continuous, was never on a very large scale compared to what it came to be from 1852 onwards. A new chapter in the history of Indian immigration into Burma began after the British annexation of Lower Burma after the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852), and the whole of Burma after the Third War in 1886. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 marked a turning point in the economic and administrative history of British-Burma. The British government wanted to export Burmese rice and they extended the rice fields in Arakan, Tenassarim and Lower Burma, and they also wanted to construct railway lines. As they needed peasants and coolies they imported tens of thousands of Indians.

There were five types of Indian immigrants: (1) Permanent settlers; (2) Long-term settlers, who came to seek their fortune in the then most prosperous country in Southeast Asia, but for retired life they preferred to stay in India rather than in Burma; (3) Seasonal workers who came for a fixed short period; (4) Government servants and traders who wanted to earn and save money so that they and their offspring could settle permanently in Burma as rich people; and (5) People brought by the British for various reasons.

Because of that the famous archaeologist in Burma Prof. E. Forschhammer had predicted that generally Burma, particularly Arakan would become the 'Palestine of the Far East'13

2.4.1.4.2. Bengali Settlers during the Colonial Era

Arakan has very fertile soil with sufficient rain falls, hence, British wanted to expand rice fields in Arakan. Since the country was under-populated and has a direct land border with Bengal, particularly with Chittagong District, many Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to Arakan as cheap labourers, peasants and coolies. Some Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to Arakan to construct a railway track between the two towns, Butheedaung and Maungdaw. The construction project (1916-

18) stopped without finishing the railway line, but those Chittagonian Bengalis never returned back to Bengal.

These latter Bengali settlers are called "Khawtaw Kalas" in both Burmese and Arakanese. Some settlers learnt Arakanese and Burmese; hence, some of them were assimilated into the native society. However, these Chittagonian Bengalis differ from the Arakanese in their features, complexion and religion as well as in some customs which their religion directs; in writing they use Burmese but among themselves employ colloquially the language of their ancestors, either Urdu or Bengali. They never named themselves 'Rohingyas' but 'Arakan Muslims'. Since they were assimilated in the native society, Burmese as well as Arakanese (Rakhaings) did not call them Khawtaw Kala any more, but used the term Muslims, just to differentiate them from the natives who are Buddhists. Though Kamans and Myaydus are Muslims they were already assimilated in the native society. When one hears the name Kaman or Myaydu, one knows automatically that they are Muslims.

Unfortunately, however, many latter settlers never tried to assimilate into the native society and therefore they were and are never welcomed by the natives, neither by the Burmese nor by the Arakanese society. Nor could they join even in the society of "Indigenous Muslims of Arakan", the "Kamans" and the "Myay Dus". That was the main reason why racial riots happened often during the whole colonial era and also in post-colonial era, especially in Northern Arakan.

3. After Burmese Independence:

3.1. Bengali Settlers’ Plan to split Arakan:

After Burma regained her independence Bengali settlers wanted to turn northern Arakan into an autonomous Muslim state. "Some members of the 'Juniyatu Olamai' religious association went to Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of Butheedaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung townships into East Pakistan"14.

The Arakanese (Rakhaings) could not tolerate it, and there was bloodshed because of riots between the Arakanese and the Bengali settlers. Eventually some of these settlers went back to East Pakistan but some of them went underground and called themselves "Mujahid" rebels fighting U Nu's government while the rest of them remained in their villages. With the help of educated Bengalis from Arakan and Rangoon they demanded for Burmese citizenship.

3.2. Mujahid Rebels:

The leader of the "Mujahids rebels was Mir Cassim, an uneducated fisherman. It was only an illusion of an uneducated man like Cassim who wanted to turn a traditionally Buddhist land like Arakan, which is full of temples, monasteries, monks and nuns, into a Muslim state. As a result, in the 1950's these rebels were totally crushed. Some surrendered while some fled to East Pakistan. Cassim fled to East Pakistan and he was shot dead in Cox Bazaar by an unknown person in 1966.

Both surrendered Mujahid and Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called Khawtaw Kala or Kala which according to their own interpretation supposed to be derogatory because 'Kala' means 'dark' or 'Coloured' or 'Blackie' in the languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Bengali . In fact, the literal pronunciation of the Burmese as well as Arakanese word 'Kala' is 'Kula' and also written as 'Kula'. This term was derived from the Pali or Sanskrit word 'Kula Puttra' meaning 'the son of a noble race' because Lord Buddha himself was an Indian. Both Po and Sagaw Karen word for Indian is 'Kula' and the Thai word for Indian is 'Kal'. Hence, it is not derogatory instead it is 'a word of courtesy'!

Anyway, Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called 'Kala'. As a result, they settled for the name "Rohingya". In the late 1950"s, the demand for the statehood of the Rakhaings (Arakanese)

and the Mons was at the peak. The Bengalis who started calling themselves "Rohingyas" asked for the same status as the Arakanese (Rakhaings). When their demands were turned down by the Burmese government on the grounds that they were not an indigenous race of Arakan, some educated Bengali Muslims like M. A. Tahir, well known through his Burmese name Ba Tha, Maung Than Lwin and some Bengali Muslim students from the University of Rangoon began to fabricate historical facts to prove that they were "Indigenous Arakanese Muslims" and started to fabricate stories that they and their ancestors belonged to Arakan historically.

3.3. Evolution of the word ‘Rohingya’:

3.3.1. The possible etymology of the term ‘Rohingya’:

There are many stories fabricated by educated Bengali Muslims to prove that their ancestors were the indigenous ethnic minorities of Arakan but all of them are baseless. However, the possible etymology of the term 'Rohingya' can be traced as follows:

3.3.2. Corruption of Arakanese word ‘Rahauntha’:

After the Second World War when British Administration restarted in Burma, all Bengalis who went back to Bengal during the war came back to Arakan. They brought many new settlers with them. Because of their immigration waves many Arakanese left their villages in Northern Arakan and moved southwards. These villages were named "Old or Deserted or abandoned Villages", Ywa-Haun in Burmese (Rwa-Haun or Ra-haun in Arakanese pronunciation). The villagers of Ywa-Haun were called Ywa-Haun-Tha in Burmese (Ra-Haun-Tha in Arakanese pronunciation). Those Bengali new settlers could not pronounce 'Ra-Haun' as well as Ra-Haun-Tha properly and called with their Bengali accent "Ro-han" and the “Ro-han-za”, respectively. Later it deviated to 'Ro-han-ja' and then 'Ro-hin-gya'.

3.3.3. The statement of Arakanese (Rakhaings) in Bangladesh or Anauktha

According to them, in the Bengali Chittagonian dialect the term „Rohingya‟ referred to the people of

inland Rakhaing Buddhists. These Rakhaings of the West stated clearly that it is a name used by the Bengalis to denote a Rakhine – a Buddhist Rakhine. Since the word is of Bengali origin, some of the Muslim secessionist groups used the name to identify themselves to be the natives of Arakan and named themselves as 'Rohingya'.

3.3.4 The name ‘Rohingya’ in Arakanese History:

3.3.5. British contributions about Muslims in Burma:

I searched for the ethnic group 'Rohingyas' in all history books, literature, encyclopaedias and other publications published before 1953 written by foreign scholars. Unfortunately, I did not find any. None of the British Colonial Officers recorded the name 'Rohingya, neither in the Indian Subcontinent nor in Burma. To be honest, I had never heard of the word "Rohingya" until the late 1950's.

1. "The fact that there has never been a "Rohingya" ethnic group in Burma is quite evident. There is no such name as "Rohingya" in the Census of India, 1921 (Burma) compiled by G. G. Grantham, I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations Burma, or in the Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District (1924) compiled by R. B. Smart.

2. Even in Hobson-Jobson. "A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive" published by British Colonial Officers of British East India Company, Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell (First Published 1886) the

word "Rohingya" was not mentioned. Since this book was published by the Bengal Chamber Edition, Calcutta, India, and is an indispensable dictionary for those who want to study the history of India during the last 300 years and its impact on the East and West, it should be considered as a standard literature.

3. The well known author and scholar, Maurice Collis, who wrote many articles and books about Arakan, also never mentioned the word "Rohingya".

4. None of the British Colonial Officers' contributions about Burma and India mentioned that word "Rohingya", however, they mentioned about 'Zerabadi' the Indo-Burmese Hybrids or "Burmese Muslims", the Muslims in Shwebo and Yamethin Districts in Burma Proper, "Myay Du Muslims", "Kaman Muslims" and Bengali Muslim Settlers of Arakan.

5. In the book 'The History of Modern Burma, by J. F. Cady, 1965, he neither mentioned the name 'Rohingya' nor the Arakanese Muslims.

6. Indeed, Francis Buchanan15, a Scottish Doctor working with British East India Company, who accompanied the British envoys to the Court of Ava, the Capital of the then Burmese Empire, was one and the only person mentioned in an Article the names 'Rooingas' and 'Rossawns', the closest name to 'Rohingya' as a linguistic survey through the Provinces of Chittagong and Tiperah, however, he described those people as both Hindus and Muslims and their languages as dialects of Bengali. In any case, he wrote very clearly that they are called Kala or Strangers or Foreigners by the real natives of Arakan, i.e. Arakanese or Rakhaings (Francis Buchanan 1801).

I would like to cite his writing:

'I shall now add three dialects, spoken in the Burma Empire, but evidently derived from the language of the Hindu nation. The first is that spoken by the Mohammedans, who have long settled in Arakan, and who call themselves Rooinga , or natives of Arakan. The second dialect is that spoken by the Hindus of Arakan. I procured it from a Brahmen and his attendants, who had been brought to Amarapura by the king's eldest son, on his return from the conquest of Arakan. They call themselves Rossawn, and, for what reason I do not know, wanted to persuade me that theirs was the common language of Arakan. Both these tribes, by the real natives of Arakan, are called Kulaw Yakain, or stranger Arakan.

The last dialect of the Hindustanee which I shall mention, is that of a people called, by the Burmas, Aykobat, many of them are slaves at Amarapura. By one of them I was informed, that they had called themselves Banga ; that formerly they had kings of their own ; but that, in his father's time, their kingdom had been overturned by the king of Munnypura, who carried away a great part of the inhabitants to his residence. When that was taken last by the Burmas, which was about fifteen years ago, this man was one of the many captives who were brought to Ava.

He said also, that Banga was seven days' journey south-west from Munnypura: it must, therefore, be on the frontiers of Bengal, and may, perhaps, be the country called in our maps Cashar.'

For that version I like to give the following explanation:

Since Alaungphaya (Alaungphara) reestablished the Burmese empire, he and his successors invaded and annexed almost all neighbouring kingdoms including Siam, Langxiam, Assam, Manipur, Mon and Rakhaing etc.etc.

In Arakanese chronicles and literature like Dhanyawadi Ayaydawpon and Maha Pyinyagyaw Hlyaukhton it was written that there was a Muslim Sultanate or emirate called Roang Muslim Land (Roang/Roong Pree) which was feudatory to the king of Arakan.

It is very possible that the dukedom or emirate in Bangala (Bengal) called Roang/Roong was annexed into Manipur and some Bengalis from Roang/Roong were taken as slaves to Manipur. When Manipur became a feudatory state of the Burmese empire these slaves were either given as

tribute to the Ava Empire or taken by the Burmese as slaves. However, I cannot trace any single Burmese word which can be close to 'Aykobat' mentioned by Buchanan! In Colloquial Burmese,

there is a word called 'Khaing-bat' or rarely 'A-khaing-bat‟ which can be translated literally as

„he/she who has to serve all people', so a servant!

In any case, there was and is no connection between those Rooingas mentioned by Buchanan and the Rohingyas nowadays, otherwise, British Administrators in Bengal and Arakan had mentioned about them. The British records clearly mentioned about Bengali Hindus and Bengali Muslims in the Indian State of Bengal. That's why West Bengal (Hindu majority) belonged to India and East Bengal (Muslim majority) went to Pakistan when British India was divided into two Dominions, namely India and Pakistan in 1947.

Bengali Settlers in Arakan were recorded as Mohamedans and Hindus by the British.

Conclusion:

I have presented this essay in the spirit of “cetana” meaning "good will or good intention" for the sake of some people who want to know the real history of Arakan and her people.

I want to emphasize that all Muslims in Burma are not called 'Rohingyas', not even all Muslims in Arakan were and are called 'Rohingyas'.

In any case, I have to be very careful to present this article in a very neutral way so that the paper does not read either as an attack on "Rohingyas" or as a polemical piece aimed at "Rohingyas", nor be seen as a racial writing. The biggest worry for me is: This article might be misinterpreted as an indirect support for the position of the very brutal Burmese Military Junta.

In the meantime, I would also like to suggest sincerely to the "Rohingyas" to change their tactics. They should learn to speak, read and write Burmese, especially the Rakhaing Dialect, and make friends with other ethnic groups of Burma, particularly with the Rakhaings who are the natives and majority of that state. Instead of demanding for the rights of an indigenous ethnic minority of Arakan by inventing fabricated and fanciful histories and trying to turn the traditional Buddhist land of Arakan into a Muslim state, they should be honest and just request to be granted the right to permanent residential status and then the right to become naturalized citizens of Burma step by step to which the Arakanese people (Rakhaings) will have no objection.

At the end, I would like to emphasize again that human rights violations, military abuses and brutal crimes committed against the "Rohingyas" by the various Burmese Military Juntas must be strongly condemned, whoever the "Rohingyas" are.

References

1 U Aung Tha Oo, A Short History of Arakan (in Burmese), Mya Yadana Press, Rangoon, 1955, p. 8. 2 Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell: "Hobson-Jobson" A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases; and of Kindred Terms. Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886,The Edition I use: Calcutta, 1990). P. 34 3 San Shwe Bu, J.B.R.S Vol. 6, Part-3. 1916

4 The Arakanese term for soap is „Thabon‟ which is the corruption of Portuguese or French

„Savon‟. The Burmese used to have more contacts with Dutch ships. Burmese term for soap is

„Saapya‟, most probably a corruption of one of the Low German Dialects (Plattdeutsch) because

some Germans from Northern Germany used to work as sailors on Dutch ships then. In High German (Hochdeutsch) Soap is 'Seife' (pronounced Sei Fa). In one of the Low German Dialects (Plattdeutsch) it is Safra. Most probably Burmese adapted that word Safra, then varied to Sapra and then corrupted to Saapya. 5 M. S. Collis in collaboration with U San Shwe Bu, Dom Martin 1606 -1643, The first Burman to visit Europe 6 Maurice Collis, The Land of the Great Image, p. 153 7 U Aung Tha Oo, A Short History of Arakan (in Burmese), Mya Yadana Press, Rangoon, 1955, p.99 Religion in Arakan, Saw, 2009 Page 7 8 Myo Min, Old Burma, p. 38 9 See and compare with Maurice Collis in collaboration with San Shwe Bu, "Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay" in Journal of Burma Research Society, Vol. XXIII, p. 493. 10 M. Collis, "Arakan's Place in the Civilization of the Bay", XXIII, p. 493. 11 Tydd, W.D., Burma Gazetteer, Sandoway District, Vol. A, Rangoon, 1962 12 U Aung Thein (Publisher), Biography of Rector U Kyaw Yin (in Burmese), Pyi Daw Tha Press Rangoon, 1967, p. 187. 13 Forchhammer, Emil. 1892. Papers on Subjects Relating to the Archaeology of Burma: A Report on the History of Arakan. Rangoon: Government Press. 14 Khin Gyi Pyaw, "Who are the Mujahids in Arakan", in: Rakhine Tazaung Magazine, 1959 -60, p. 99. 15 Buchanan, Francis. 1992. Francis Buchanan in Southeast Bengal (1798): His Journey to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Noakhali and Comilla. Dhaka: Dhaka University Press.

161 myanmar e-library chittagonian bengalis 'rohingya'-by-khin-maung-saw

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