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University of Nevada, Reno

Early Adolescent Language A Content Analysis of Child Development and

Educational Psychology Textbooks

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree o f Doctor of Philosophy in

Curriculum and Instruction

By

Bobbin Kyte Cave

Dr. Martha Combs/Dissertation Advisor

August, 2002


UMI Number. 3068510

UMI*UMI Microform 3068510

Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against

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L \ I \ I RSI I YO I \ I \ A I ) . \

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THE GRADUATE SCHOOL

We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by

BOBBIN KYTE CAVE

entitled

Early Adolescent Language: A Content Analysis of Child Development And Educational Psychology Textbooks

be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Y

Martha jCombs, Ed. D.. Advisor

tU<iAAiTammy Abematny, Ph. D Committee

/ nmber

etting, Ph. D., Committee Member

SteveQ Harlow, Ph. D., Committee Member

Ann Tyler, Ph. Qk, At-Large Member

Marsha H. Read, Ph. D., Associate Dean, Graduate School

August, 2001


Abstract

Research suggests that teachers’ knowledge of language impacts their

expectations of and interactions with early adolescents. Teacher candidates are first

introduced to early adolescent development, including language development,

through courses in child development and or educational psychology. Leading child

development and educational psychology textbooks were examined for all

components of language, the quality and quantity o f information, and the theoretical

perspectives o f the authors, as they were relevant to early adolescents (ages 10-14).

None of the 13 textbooks examined completely described early adolescent language,

neither development nor acquisition. In general, child development textbooks

contained more information about language and were more complete than educational

psychology textbooks. The strongest textbooks emphasized acquisition of language

and were written from a social- environmental perspective.


Acknowledgements

Many people have helped and supported me in the completion of this

dissertation. First, my husband Marcellus (Marc) Cave encouraged me when there were

disappointments, picked up the slack and created the time for me to work on the

dissertation. His love and caring are unmatched. Without his support this paper would

not have been started or finished.

It was my parents Lydiane and Bob Kyte who gave me a love of learning,

showed me how to find to look under rocks to find creatures and in books to find

another point of view. For their steadfast interest and support of my activities I am

grateful.

My thanks go to my chair, Martha Combs who guided me when I was lost,

discussed issues when I needed clarification, asked questions when I needed to see that I

already knew the answers but was not putting them into writing, and stood by me even

when I said the wrong thing. Her faith in me never faltered. Her dedication to her

students to become the best teachers that they can be is seldom matched by other

faculty.

Finally, I thank the students that I have taught for teaching me, for opening my

eyes to their needs, their wants, and their hopes. It was their difficulties with language

that was the inspiration for this study.

To the readers of this dissertation, please feel free to use the research on early

adolescent language found in Chapter 2. I charge you to spread the word that early

adolescents are still learning language and they do not understand everything adults say

or write.


lii

Table o f Contents

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION I

Early Adolescent Language I

The Teacher’s Role in Language Development 2

Language and Thinking 2

Oral Language 3

Literacy 4

Language as a Social and Cultural Activity 5

Teacher’s Responsibility 6

Textbooks and Courses 7

Why Look at Early Adolescent Language 8

Research Questions 9

Definitions 10

Summary 17

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 18

Introduction 18

What is Language? 18

Language in the Educational Community 19

The Basis o f Language 20

Components o f Language 20

Language in Grammar 21

Language in Literacy 21

Language in Social Skills 22


iv

Preliminary Theoretical Considerations 24

The Intimate Theory of Language 24

Acquired Theories o f Language 25

Social or Communicative Theory of Language 26

The Cognitive Theory o f Language 26

Language of the Early Adolescent 27

Social Dialects 30

Academic Dialects 31

Peer Dialect 32

Development in the Component Areas of Language 33

Pragmatics 33

Conversation 36

Slang 36

Similes and Metaphors 37

Idioms 37

Ambiguity and Sarcasm 38

Persuasion and Negotiation 39

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 39

Discourse 44

Storytelling 46

Proverbs 47

Communicative Competence 47

Semantics 49


V

Concept Formation 49

Semantic Feature Theory 50

Functional Core Theory 52

Associative Complex Theory 52

Prototypic Complex Theory 53

Meanings 54

Multiple Meanings 54

Metaphorical Meanings 55

Lexicology 55

Size and Increase in Vocabulary 55

Written Language 56

Morphology 57

Morphological Analysis 57

Syntax 58

Clauses 61

Conjunctions 63

Lexical Cohesion 63

Grammar 64

Phonology 65

Articulation Phonetics 69

Acoustic Phonetics 69

Auditory Phonetics 70

Summary of Components 71


VI

Theories of Language as They May Affect a Textbook Author 73

Textbooks as a Source of Teacher Knowledge 75

Trade Book Publishers 76

Professional and Academic Book Publishers 76

University Presses 76

Textbook Publishers 76

Teacher Education Courses 77

Child Development Courses 77

Educational Psychology Courses 77

Summary 78

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 79

Introduction 79

Method 79

Textbooks Used in Analysis 80

Identifying Textbooks 80

A Non-Random Sample 81

Identification of Areas That Were Compared (Coding Categories) 81

Components 81

Research Question I. I What Components of Early Adolescent

Language Are Discussed in the Textbook 81

Description o f Language 82

Research Question I .2 How Was Language Described? 82

Length of Selections 82


Research Question 1.3 What Were the Depths (Lengths) of the

Selections? 82

Quality o f the Selections 83

Research Question 2. With What Quality is Adolescent

Language Discussed in the Textbook? 83

Theoretical Perspectives 83

Research Question 3. Does the Textbook Present Content

Related to Language from a Particular Theoretical

Framework? 83

Procedures 83

Procedures for Selecting Sample Textbooks 83

Identifying Publishers 84

Identifying by Sales Volume 85

Limiting Authorship 87

Poll of Professors 88

Coding Procedures 89

Identification of Selections or Passages in Textbooks 89

Coding Criteria for Sub-Components 93

Pragmatics 93

Semantics 94

Syntax 94

Lexicology 95

Morphology 95


V1U

Phonology 95

Criteria for Selecting the Quantity of Language Coverage 95

Criteria for Identifying the Way Textbooks Described Early

Adolescent Language 101

Criteria for Selecting the Quality of the Selections 102

Criteria for Selecting the Author’s Theoretical Perspective 104

How Was Coding Applied? 105

Passages Selected 105

Mixed Selections 106

Summary o f Data Selection 106

Analysis 107

Reliability 107

Summary 112

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA AND FINDINGS 116

Research Questions 116

Coding the Data 116

Passages Selected 116

Components 117

The Way Language Was Described 117

Quality of Language 118

Theoretical Framework 119

Child Development—Schickedanz 120

Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 120


IX

Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 120

Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 122

Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 123

Semantics—Concepts (T1) 124

Semantics—Meanings (T2) 124

Syntax—Clauses (SI) 126

Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 126

Syntax—Grammar (S3) 127

Lexico logy—Vocabulary S ize (L I) 129

Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 130

Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 132

Phonology—Voice (01) 132

Phono logy—Inflection (02) 13 2

Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 133

Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 133

Summary of Selctions by Schickedanz et al. 134

Child Development—Meece 137


Pragmatics—Conversation (U I) 137



Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 141



X

Syntax—Clauses (Si) 143



Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 146



Phonology—Voice ( 0 1) 146

Phonology—Inflection (02) 147



Summary of Selections by Meece 147

Child Development—Berk 151

Research Question I : Sub-Components Addressed 151





Semantics—Meanings (T2) 15 5





Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text (L2) 160


x i


Phonology—Voice (O l) 160


Research Question 2: Quality o f Language Selection 161


Summary o f Selections by Berk 161

Child Development—Santrock 164





Semantics—Concepts (T I) 167





Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (L I) 170



Phonology—Voice (O I) 173





x i i

Summary of Selections by Santrock 173

Child Development—Bee 178






Semantics— Meanings (T2) 184











Summary o f Selections by Bee 185

Child Development—Leffancois 189

Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed 189

Pragmatics—C onversational) 189



x i i i














Summary o f Selections by Lefrancois 195

Educational Psychology—Ormrod 198


Pragmatics—C onversational) 198








xiv


Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (L I) 207



Phonology—Voice (O I) 210




Summary o f Selections by Ormrod 210

Educational Psychology—Eggen 213





Semantics—C oncepts (T I) 217





Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (L1) 219





XV




Summary o f Selections by Ormrod 222



Pragmatics—C onversation (UI) 213















Summary of Selections by Eggen 222

Educational Psychology—Elliott 225


XVI







Syntax—Clauses (S1) 230










Summary o f Selections by Elliott 232

Educational Psychology—Sternberg 235


Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 23 5





x v i i












Summary o f Selections by Sternberg 246

Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 248


Pragmatics—Conversation (Ul) 248



Semantics—Concepts (TI) 251







xviii







Summary o f Selections by Woolfolk 257

Educational Psychology—Snowman 260





Semantics—Concepts (T l) 265








Phonology—Voice (OI) 267




xix


Summary o f Selections by Snowman and Biehler 269

Educational Psychology—Slavin 271

Research Question I : Sub-Components Addressed 271

Pragmatics—Conversation (U I) 271















Summary of Selections by Slavin 280

Comparison of Textbooks within Child Development 282

Comparison o f Textbooks within Educational Psychology 284


Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology

Textbooks 286

Chapter Summary 291

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS,

SUGGESTIONS 292

Introduction 292


Research Question 1: Sub-Components o f Early Adolescent Language

292

Pragmatics (U l, U2, U3) 292

Semantics (T l, T2) 293

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M),

and Phonology (OI, 02) 294

Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 296


Conclusions 297



298





XXI

and Phonology (O l, 02) 300

Research Question 2: Quality o f Language Selections 301


Conclusions 302


Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language

302







Conclusions 306


Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language

307

Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 307

Semantics (T 1, T2) 309






XXII

Conclusions 311



312


Semantics (TI, T2) 314


and Phonology (01 ,0 2 ) 314



Conclusions 316

Child Development—Bee 317

Research Question I: Sub-Components o f Early Adolescent Language

317




and Phonology (01 , 02) 319



Conclusions 320

Child Development—Lefrancois 321


XXI11


321







Conclusions 323


Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language

324


Semantics (T I, T2) 325





Conclusions 327


Research Question I : Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language

328



xxiv

Semantics (Tl, T2) 329





Conclusions 330

Educational Psychology—Elliott 331


331




and Phonology (Ol, 02) 332



Conclusions 334

Educational Psychology—Sternberg 334


335





XXV

and Phonology (Ol, 02) 336



Conclusions 337

Educational Psychology—Woolfoik 338


338

Pragmatics (U l. U2, U3) 338






Conclusions 340

Educational Psychology—Snowman 341


341




and Phonology (01, 02) 342




XXVI

Conclusions 343

A Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks

344

Conclusions and Implications for Teacher Candidates 344

Most Complete Textbook 345


Other Worthwhile Textbooks 347




Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 349

Educational Psychology—Stembeg 349


Textbooks That Should Not Be Used 350

Limitations 351

Textbook Selection 351

Criteria for Evaluation 352

Author’s Style 352

Biases of the Researcher 353

Errors 353

Suggestions for Future Research 354

Methods Textbooks 354

Attitudes Toward Language 354


xxvu

Teacher Candidates’ Knowledge 355

Classroom Practices 355

In Conclusion 355

Reference List 357

Appendix A 377

Appendix B 378


I

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

For early adolescent students, language is the "subject” that will largely determine

the success in all of the other subjects they encounter. Some schools create classroom

environments in which students’ language can thrive and grow. Far too many schools,

however, have environments that are hostile to language development (Piper, 1993). One

major difference between these two types o f schools may be the knowledge the teacher

brings about language to the classroom. For academic learning, all teachers rely heavily

on language because language is uniquely linked to cognitive processing. Learning

comes to depend on language (Piper, 1993).

This research, a content analysis of information available to teacher candidates

about early adolescent language development and usage, will examine textbooks that are

widely used in child development and educational psychology courses. These two

courses are typically the place where teacher candidates begin to develop knowledge of

the characteristics and needs o f early adolescents.

Early Adolescent Language

Early adolescent (ages 10 - 14) language differs from childhood language due to

cognitive changes that begin to allow the early adolescent to see situations from more

than one perspective, to use abstract concepts, to think about thinking and talking, and to

consider several ideas at once (Larson & McKinley, 1995). In contrast to their earlier

language development early adolescents use complex sentences instead o f simple

sentences, consider future consequences instead of the here and now, and use words that

implying double and contextual meanings in place of words that have single meanings.

Early adolescents have a new capacity to reason abstractly, a greater ability to plan ahead


and consider possibilities, and greater metacognitive ability—the ability to think about

thoughts (Loban, 1976; Seifert, & Hoffhung, 1987). The early adolescent has more

strategies than young children to identify the meaning of unfamiliar words. They begin to

understand and use figurative language, passive voice, and logical arguments. Based on

physical changes, early adolescents experience an increase in emotion; these emotions

demand new social situations that in turn influence their use of language. In addition to

emotional changes, early adolescents experience imaginative growth and this in turn

permits the enhanced creativity observed in their oral and written language (Nippoid,

1998).

In contrast to their earlier language development early adolescents also begin to

participate in language situations such as job interviews, peer group activities (dances,

clubs, sports), and oral reports, situations that were not experienced in younger years

(Larson & McKinley, 1995). Because of cognitive development and social changes,

language development in early adolescence is very different from the language

development of childhood—and no less important.

The Teacher’s Role in Language Development

Language development occurs along a continuum that begins at birth and ends in

adulthood (Nippoid, 1998). Knowledge of those changes taking place during early

adolescence can guide the teacher in both understanding student behavior and students in

fostering growth (Van Hoose & Strahan, 1988).

Language and Thinking

The development o f language has a close relationship to the development of

thinking abilities (Berry, 1985; Gambell, 1988; Piper, 1993). Changes in thought


processes interact with language development (Loban, 1976). Language is used to shape

experiences, to store experiences, and to reshape them when they are recalled from

memory. Teachers rely, for the most part, on the language o f their students to inform

them of the order their students see in the world and what sense their students make of

the experience of living in the world (or the lesson just presented).

Critical listening and reading are essential to the early adolescent's comprehension

during discourse—connected periods of using language, such as in lectures and texts. A

critical listener or reader must be a critical thinker (i.e., one capable of engaging in

higher-level thought when it is required by the situation) (Larson & McKinley, 1995).

Early adolescents begin to use critical thinking to frame hypotheses and envision their

consequences, which involves using complex sentences with subordinate clauses of

concession introduced by connectives such as provided that, unless, or in spite o f (Loban,

1976). The development o f critical thinking, moral reasoning, problem solving, and the

ability to use scientific methods and make aesthetic judgments, must be matched

educationally by curricula and instructional practices which demand both thought and

thoughtful communication in the classroom (Smith, 1987).

Oral Language

Before achieving proficiency in reading and writing—and even after proficiency

has been achieved—oral language is one of the important means of learning and of

acquiring knowledge (Lemke, 1989). The development o f oral language skills provides

the foundation for literacy, and precedes and supports development of reading and

writing skills (Holbrook, 1983; Nippole, 1998; Zhang and Alex, 1995). As reading and


4

writing skills increase in early adolescence, teachers must help their students continue to

develop oral competence (Gleason, 1993).

Leading contemporary researchers, such as Filmore and Snow consider

knowledge of oral language to be requisite for effective teaching (as Wolf also did in

1979) (Fillmore & Snow, 2000). They stress the importance for teachers o f systematic

preparation in educational linguistics. However, as has been documented by Zhang and

Alex (1995), and Holbrook (1983), oral language development has largely been ignored

in the early adolescent classroom.

Teachers not only need to know about language, they need to help their students

learn about it by encouraging them to use language. Cooperative learning (small groups

that work together), classroom discussions, and group projects all encourage

communication between students in the classroom. A study that compared the effects of

cooperative learning with traditionally taught classrooms found that in well over half of

the studies student achievement was significantly greater in the cooperative classrooms

compared to the traditional teacher led classes (Slavin, 1987).

Literacy

To quote from a recent journal for teachers o f reading, "Adolescent literacy needs

for the future are complex and demanding and adolescents’ development o f reading,

writing, and language skills deserves serious and continuing attention" (Moje, Young,

Readence, & Moore, 2000, p. 400). To support the development o f those language and

literacy skills are needed by every student, teachers themselves must have knowledge of

language (Filmore & Snow, 2000). Teachers must know more about language than

grammar alone (Murdick, 1996). As Lu (1998) along with Zhang and Alex (1995) point


out, educators must consider what understanding o f language their students bring to the

classroom. Further, teachers must know how students come to learn language; that is,

how language and literacy develop at each stage o f development (McRobbie, 2000).

Teachers, who have knowledge of spoken-written language relationships including

spelling and reading behavior, find that knowledge essential for teaching (Moats, 1994).

Block (2001) suggests teachers of early adolescents use knowledge of language to

help students recognize different points of view and idioms. Among the best lessons to

increase students' language abilities are those lessons that teach students to rephrase when

speaking and writing, to paraphrase when speaking and listening, to reread when

confused while reading, and to revise when writing (Gleason, 1993). Such activities

heighten students’ awareness of language.

Language as a Social and Cultural Activity

Educators must also understand that language learning is both a social and

cultural activity (Lu, 1998; Zhang & Alex, 1995). There is a close connection between

continued growth in language and the academic and social success of early adolescents.

Early adolescents are more aware of and more likely to consider, than were their younger

selves, the thoughts, feelings, and needs of their co-conversationalists and of the

consequences of their own communicative behaviors. They have greater ability to adjust

the content and style of their speech and written work accordingly, which affects both

academic and social outcomes (Nippoid, 1998). Early adolescents create personal

meaning through language, using slang, puns, metaphors, jokes, and sarcastic remarks to

interact with and seek acceptance from peers (Larson & McKinley, 1995).


6

Teachers’ Responsibilities

Any professional working with early adolescents needs to be aware of early

adolescent language development (Nippoid, 1998; Larson & McKinley, 1995, 1998).

Language development that occurs during early adolescence is often subtle, yet it is

critical to the student's academic, sociaL and eventual vocational success. Unlike early

language development, later language development is more individualized as youth

become diverse in their curricular and social experiences. Learning how to distinguish

between normal and disordered language behaviors is paramount for educators (Larson &

McKinley, 1995). Knowledge of language development assists the teacher in identifying

those students who are experiencing academic difficulties and offers the tools (referral,

rephrasing, explaining, etc.) to help the struggling student succeed (Larson & McKinley,

1995). Spoken language difficulties are often associated with reading failures, spelling

problems, and writing deficits and if not addressed may persist into adulthood (Lewis &

Freebaim, 1992; Snyder & Downey, 1991).

Research demonstrates the profound affect the education o f the teacher has on

student achievement (Ferguson, 1991; Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1966). Teachers

who understand early adolescent language and its development are better prepared to

design instructional activities that will promote such development than teachers who are

familiar only with the content of a subject and the methods to teach that subject

(McRobbie, 2000; Wolf, 1979).

With the accountability of the standards movement, teachers are compelled to

include attention to language in the academic curriculum. National and state education

standards address the continued development o f oral language skills at every grade level.


7

Academic standards specify both content (knowledge) and performance (action)

expectations of all students at a particular grade level (National Council of Teachers of

English & International Reading Association, 1996). The fact that standards exist for

oral language, as well as writing and reading, is significant.

From the preceding discussion, it is apparent that teachers’ knowledge of

language and the continued development of language competence in early adolescents are

necessary and desirable. How then do teachers begin to acquire such knowledge? Is it

through their teacher preparation programs? If so, it is necessary to consider the sources

of knowledge in college classrooms, particularly courses that expose teacher candidates

to theories of language acquisition and development.

Textbooks and Courses

Textbooks, along with lectures that are frequently based on textbook content,

constitute the major sources o f knowledge, ideas, and information for teacher candidates

in college and university courses. The power of these textbooks to shape the knowledge,

ideas, values, and interpretive frameworks of the teacher candidates who read them is

generally acknowledged (Silverman, 1991, p. 165). Although they are not the only source

for teacher candidates, textbooks provide the primary sources for information (Silverman,

1991), the "authoritative statement of knowledge about a particular field" (Spring, 1991,

p. 186). Therefore, professors and adjunct instructors, especially those who are new to

the college teaching arena, are often urged to consult required textbooks when creating

syllabi for their courses (Lyons, Kysilka, & Pawlas, 1999).

Unfortunately, according to many university catalogs, the only courses required of

most teacher candidates that address language and language development in early


8

adolescence are child development and educational psychology courses. Courses in

language arts are typically only required of teachers who will teach language arts and it is

not known to what extent these textbooks address early adolescent language

development. Courses in linguistics or language development are sometimes offered at

the graduate level, but even when these classes are offered, they are typically required in

early childhood development programs but not in programs that address teaching early

adolescents. Therefore this study examined those child development and educational

psychology textbooks most commonly required in teacher preparation courses to discover

what information the textbooks make available regarding early adolescent language

development.

Why Look at Early Adolescent Language?

This researcher taught children 12-18-years-of-age in day treatment programs,

many o f whom had language deficits such as misreading the intent of others, difficulty

organizing answers to questions, and comprehending multi-part directions. This research

started with the information that 84% of incarcerated juveniles have an undiagnosed

language problem. Further impetus was created when the researcher observed a middle

school eighth grade student being sent home from school when the student misunderstood

the teacher's use of figurative language while making a class assignment and responded

negatively. The teacher told the class to do a worksheet on verbs “like” the one

previously done on nouns. This student was unable to relate the similarities of one

assignment to another and accommodate the differences between the two assignments. In

frustration and unable to communicate her needs, the student reverted to raising her voice

and demanding immediate help. The student’s pleas were interpreted by the teacher as


aggressive and threatening, rather than expressing frustration and being assertive in

having her needs met. The teacher considered this student a behavior problem and had

her sent home. Observing this incident this research wondered, “Where in the course of

becoming a teacher does a teacher learn about early adolescent language?”

Research Questions

The purpose of this content analysis was to examine textbooks used in child

development and educational psychology courses that addressed teacher candidates'

knowledge of language as they prepared to work with early adolescents. The following

three research questions were investigated:

1. Do child development and educational psychology textbooks address the

language o f early adolescents? If so, in what manner and to what extent?

What components (parts) of language do the authors address?

In what way (description, developmental, acquisition) does the textbook

address early adolescent language?

In what depth (length of statement) does the author address early

adolescent language?

2. With what quality is adolescent language discussed in the child development and

educational psychology textbooks?

3. Do the textbooks present content related to language from a particular theoretical

framework?

These three questions were used to examine the content o f each child

development and educational psychology textbook selected for analysis.


10

Definitions

Textbooks reflect several different disciplines, which employ specific terms in

specific manners. This researcher has chosen to use the vocabulary of linguists in

describing language and language development, because this vocabulary is precise and

descriptive, with meanings that are widely accepted. In this research paper, the following

definitions are used:

Academic Language

Academic language is that language which is used in the school. It is usually

what is known as Standard English. It follows the rules o f grammar (syntax and

morphology). It usually includes a lot o f information in a brief amount o f time.

Academic language becomes increasingly more abstract throughout the grades and is

frequently not supported by the rich array of non-verbal and contextual cues that

characterize social language (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994).

Communicative Competence

Within pragmatics, communicative competence is the ability not only to apply the

grammatical rules o f language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also

to know when and where to use these sentences and with whom (Richards, Platt, & Platt,

1992).

Communicative Functions

Communicative functions are the purposes for which language is used, such as to

ask for information, to relate a story, etc. Communicative functions are key concerns of

pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).


LI

Components o f Language

Components of language are: phonology, semantics, morphology, syntax, and

pragmatics. They are used to describe all aspects of language. When morphology and

syntax are combined and taught together they are called grammar (Owens, 2001).

Concept Formation

Concept formation assumes that the child organizes word concepts based on

certain aspects o f the referent (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an

important part in the development o f thought because it influences not only the first

words of the child but also academic language after the child enters school.

Concepts

Concepts are general ideas or meanings that are associated with words or symbols

in a person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Conversation

Conversation is often the primary means o f language production, the social

language that is used in the home and in the early primary grades (Chamot & O'Malley,

1994). Conversation is rule based and requires people to take successive turns as speaker

and listener, to adapt what is said to what was just said by another person, etc.

Dialect

A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part o f a country, or by people

belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and or

pronunciation form from other forms o f the same language (Richards, Platt, & Platt,

1992).


12

Discourse

Discourse occurs when just one speaker speaks for a relatively long period of time

such as, describing an event, telling a joke, or a lecture, etc. (Barrett, 1999). In writing,

discourse would be a paragraph or more, such as a letter, essay, or poem.

Early Adolescents

Students age 10 to 14 years o f age, typically in grades 5, 6, 7, or 8, who attend

regular education classes.

Grammar

When syntax and morphology are studied together, the study is called grammar.

Such study emphasizes the correct use of speech parts such as subject-verb agreement.

When grammar is specifically applied to written language, punctuation and capitalization

are included in the study.

Integrated Literacy

Integrated literacy is the use o f reading, writing, along with speaking, listening,

and thinking and acknowledging that development in one area affects development in the

other areas—they are all integrated.

Knowledge o f Language

Knowledge of language assumes awareness of components o f language and how

the components interact to create communicative competence.

Language

Language is a socially shared code or conventional system for representing

concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those

symbols (Owens, 2001). Language is both the object o f knowledge and the medium


13

through which knowledge is acquired (Cazden, 1973). Language is a dynamic system,

including content, form, and use. It is developmental and culturally dependent

(ASLSHA, 1982). Language in this paper will include the broadest definitions of

language so that not only the rules of language can be visited but also the situations

where language is used and the communicative intent can be established. Language in

this research refers to both oral sounds and written symbols used by people to

communicate. English is the default language intended unless otherwise specified.

Language Acquisition

Language acquisition concerns itself with the processes and strategies used to

learn language. In this research the term "acquisition" is used instead of "learning" to

avoid confusion with a behaviorist theory o f learning (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Language Development

Language development refers to developmental sequences that occur in language

prior to and during early adolescence. Knowledge of language development includes

knowledge of developmental sequences in all components o f language. Because there

may be a span of several years in normal development between the rapid learners and late

learners, the span o f normal abilities may be great in the middle school classroom

(Loban, 1976).

Lexicology

Lexicology is the study o f the vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language including

their meanings and relations, and changes in their form and meaning through time.

Lexicon is the set of all the words and idioms o f that language (Barrett, 1999).


14

M etacognitive Knowledge

In cognition and learning, the term above is the knowledge o f the mental

processes that are involved in different kinds of learning. Learners are said to be capable

of becoming aware of their own mental processes. This includes recognizing which

kinds o f learning tasks cause difficulty, which approaches to remembering are more

effective than others, and how to solve different kinds o f problems (Richards, Platt, &

Platt, 1992).

M etacognitive Strategy

Metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the mental processes used in the

learning process, monitoring (earning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning

after it has occurred (Richards, Platt, & Platt).

M etalinguistic Knowledge

In language learning, it is the knowledge of the forms, structure and other aspects

of a language that a learner arrives at through reflecting on and analyzing the language.

Morphology

The smallest units that contribute to meanings in a language are called not words,

but morphemes. Morphemes can be free [boy] or bound [-s] (Owens, 2001).

Oral Language

Oral language refers to spoken language as opposed to written language. Spoken

language contains elements that written language does not, such as, inflection, gestures,

facial expression, and a listening audience of one or more that may give feedback during

delivery. Oral language provides a foundation for the development o f other language

skills (Zhang & Alex, 1995).


15

Peer Language

Peer language, that language early adolescents begin to use, is language filled with jargon

and slang. Sometimes it includes secret codes, nicknames, signs, gestures,

etc., that have meaning for a few people for a limited period of time (Nippoid, 1998).

Phonology

Phonology is the study of just those particular sounds that are used in a particular

language, such as English. Phonology is another term for phonemics and for some

linguists, a cover term for both phonetics (study o f speech sounds) and phonemics (study

or description of the distinctive sound units and their relation to one another) (Richards,

Platt & Platt, 1992).

Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study o f the relationships between linguistic forms and the users

o f those forms (Yule, 1996). Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in

communication. Pragmatics includes the study of how the interpretation and use of

utterances depends on knowledge o f the real world, how speakers use and understand

utterances and how the structure o f sentences is influenced by the relationship between

the speaker and the hearer (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Semantics

Linguists use the term semantics to refer to the study of meaning. For this

research project, semantics will refer to a restricted use o f the word—the study of

meanings that are encoded in language (and not pictures). Meanings are created by the

lexicon and syntax (Lyons, 1977).


16

Social Language

Social language is that language that is used in the home. The language may have

its own dialect, means o f delivery, or way o f speaking. The language is contextual—what

is referred to is usually present, has just happened, or is about to take place. Information

is given in little pieces sometimes over a long period o f time (Chamot & O'Malley,

1994).

Syntax

Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences, and the rules which

govern the formation of sentences and (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Syntax includes

the organizational rules that specify word order, sentence organization, and word

relationships.

Teacher Candidates

College students who have aspirations to teach early adolescent students, have not

yet completed their course of study, and do not yet have their credential to teach are

known as teacher candidates.

Textbooks

In this research "textbooks" refer to books used in teacher preparation courses.

These courses include child development and/or educational psychology courses wherein

the teacher candidates might learn about language and language development.

Theory

Theory reveals the perspective one takes in describing a topic or a subject.


17

Summary

This introduction has stated that teacher candidates, especially those who will be

teaching early adolescents, need to know the language used by their students, the means

by which their students acquire language, and the methods by which they, as teachers,

can most effectively assist students in developing language skills. One o f the primary

sources o f information on language for the teacher candidate is the textbook. This

research examined selected child development and educational psychology textbooks to

ascertain what knowledge about the language o f early adolescents might be available to

teacher candidates.

In the chapters that follow a review o f the literature associated with the language

of early adolescents is found (Chapter Two), as well as a description of the research

methodology (Chapter Three). Chapter Four reveals and describes the data collected

from the textbooks, and compares the data within textbook categories. Chapter Five

contains the discussion, conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for further study.


18

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Teachers who work with early adolescents need to know about the language

development of their students (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Such knowledge can guide

the teacher in recognizing both the interplay and interconnectedness o f all uses of

language: speaking, writing, reading, thinking, and understanding concepts. In addition,

such knowledge will assist in preparing and delivering lessons that build concepts and

vocabulary, lessons that recognize the students’ need to process and clarify information

by thinking, talking, writing, and reading about a topic. If not aware of language

development the teacher may miss those cultural, developmental, and situational aspects

that influence subtle changes in the way early adolescents use language and therefore

may identify as behavior problems what are essentially poor oral communication skills

(Larson & McKinley, 1994).

To explore that knowledge of language needed by teachers o f early adolescents,

this chapter addresses the following topics:

• Theories about language acquisition and development

• The language and thought processes o f early adolescents

• The role of concepts in the formation o f language

• Textbooks used in teacher preparation as a source of teacher knowledge

What is Language?

Language is a system of human communication (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992),

a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use

o f arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations o f those symbols (Owens, 2001).


19

Language is a culturally and developmentally dependent, yet dynamic, system, including

content, form, and use (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASLHA)

Committee on Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 1982). Language is

both the object of knowledge and the medium through which knowledge is acquired

(Cazden, 1973). For this research paper, language is defined using the broadest of

definitions so that the many ways o f discussing language may all be considered.

Language acquisition takes place in a cultural context that surrounds and

influences the content, use, and form o f language (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Culture

introduces the values and traditions that are brought to the place where ideas are

exchanged and shared (Greenfield, 1994). Cultural histories create differences in

language, such as dialects, that are not disorders (Paul, 1995). This researcher believes

that it is important that teachers of early adolescents understand basic theories of

language acquisition and development.

Language in the Educational Community

To understand the nature of knowledge of language needed by teachers of early

adolescents, it is important to understand the ways in which knowledge o f language,

language acquisition, and language development are discussed within the educational

community. In educational settings, language is discussed in at least five ways: the basis

of language, the components of language, language as grammar, language as the

foundation of literacy development, and language as part of social skills. Each view of

language is somewhat different.


2 0

The Basis o f Language

Thinking is the link that ties language activities (speaking, listening, reading, and

writing) together (Kavanaugh & Mattingly, 1972). The communicator thinks in

concepts, general ideas, or meanings that are associated with words or symbols in a

person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an important part in

the development o f thought because it influences not only the first words but also

academic language encountered when children enter the school setting.

Thinking also includes strategies—procedures used in learning, thinking, etc.,

which serve as a way o f reaching a goal, such as communicating. Learning strategies and

communication strategies are those conscious or unconscious processes that students

draw upon when effectively using language (Richards, Platt & Platt 1992). For example,

if a student lacks a particular word, the student may use the strategy of paraphrasing to

compensate for not knowing a word. Strategies are important in language because they

can be used to improve effectiveness o f communication and to compensate for

breakdowns in communication (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Teachers need strategies

to express concepts to students, and students need strategies to understand concepts, to

form and remember concepts.


A second way in which language is discussed in educational settings is by its

components. Linguists, those who study language, break language down into several

components—phonology (speech sounds), lexicology (words), semantics (meanings),

syntax (word order), morphology (internal organization of words), and pragmatics

(functional use o f language) (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). The components o f language are


2 1

used to describe the oral production o f language, but can also be used to describe written

communication. The components create a comprehensive picture of language and its use.

For example, speech sounds, or phonemes, can be used to form the smallest units of

language that have meaning, or morphemes. When a group of words are put together to

form a sentence, the word order follows the rules of syntax. Pragmatics is the study of

the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences

and the contexts and situations in which they are used (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Language in Grammar

A third way that language is discussed in educational settings is through grammar,

which is a combination o f morphology and syntax, discussed in the previous section. It is

important to note that when people talk about grammar, they are talking about a

particular part of language. Grammar includes the rules for putting sentences together

(syntax) and changing words (using morphemes) to make good sentences that have

meaning (semantics). Grammar is taught using parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective,

etc.) and parts of sentences (subject, predicate, clauses, prepositional phrases, etc.). To

learn about grammar, students may diagram sentences to create a visual representation of

the structure (Hudson, 1990). The study of grammar is usually applied to written

language and does not take communicative competence (the audience, setting, time, etc.)

into consideration.

Language in Literacy

A fourth way in which language is discussed is through the importance of literacy

development for all individuals. In the past, the term literacy was used to refer primarily

to reading and writing (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992), but recently the term has taken on


2 2

a broader meaning that adds speaking, listening, understanding, and thinking. Many

teachers and researchers view reading, writing, speaking, listening and thinking as

integrated language functions (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Enright & McCIoskey, 1988;

Goodman, 1987; Pearson & Raphael, 1999). For example, acquiring one language

function, such as speech, facilitates the ability to master a second function, such as

writing (Block, 2001; Ruddell, 1997; Zimmerman, 1999). In addition, current

approaches to language instruction stress interactive processes involving authentic texts,

the process of writing, and the integration o f oral and written language skills (Chamot &

O'Malley, 1994).

For most children, the literacy learning process actually begins with speaking-

talking about their experiences. It is through speech that children Ieam to organize their

thinking, to focus their ideas, and to communicate (Lyle, 1993; MoIL, 1990; Vygotsky,

1987). According to research literature on critical thinking and cognitive development,

the development of thinking abilities, such as critical thinking, has a close relationship to

the development of language (Berry, 1985; Gambeil, 1988). As children's language skills

develop, they have more words and concepts to support integrated literacy activities. No

longer can we talk about literacy without acknowledging the role of language

development as well.

Language in Social Skills

Finally, a fifth way that educators discuss language is from the perspective of

social skills training. A social skill, according to Schumaker and Hazel (1984) is:

any cognitive function or overt behavior in which an individual engages while

interacting with another person or persons. Cognitive functions include capacities


23

such as empathizing with or understanding another persons' feelings, and

discriminating and evaluating consequences for social behavior. Overt behaviors

include nonverbal (e.g., head nods, eye contact, facial expression) and verbal

(e.g., what the person says) components o f a social performance, (p. 422)

Social skills are related to peer acceptance and academic success as well as being

predictive of adult adjustment (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995). Social skills are essential for

effective interaction between students and teachers, as well as among students

themselves.

It is important to note that social skills are language driven, although teachers who

teach social skills, and textbook authors who write about social skills frequently do not

acknowledge the linguistic components o f social skills (Bliss, 1993; Gajewski & Mayo,

1989; Hess, 1993; Johnson, Weinrick & Glasser, 1991; Mayo & Waldo, 1994; Schwartz

& McKinley, 1984; Walker, Todis, Holmes, & Horton, 1988; Weinrich, Glasser &

Johnson, 1994; Wiig, 1992). For example, discussion o f social skills typically does not

use linguistic vocabulary to identify pragmatic situations and the contextual influences o f

those situations. Pragmatics is the study o f the relationship between linguistic forms

(spoken or written language) and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). Contextual

influences include the physical environment (home, school, park), the conversational

partner (peer, adult), and the manipulatives employed (toys, food, clothing, etc.).

From a social skills perspective, the socially competent person must:

1) Initially be motivated to perform socially appropriate behaviors;

2) Be able to perceive social situations accurately and identify which skill to use;

3) Be able to decode and correctly interpret information from others


24

4) Perform the correct verbal and nonverbal responses that make up the skill;

5) Be sensitive to social feedback; and

6) Be able to integrate that feedback appropriately to enhance social interaction.

(Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, Sheldon-Widgen, 1983, p 123)

When a teacher observes a conversation, a situation where social skills are displayed, that

same teacher simultaneously observes linguistic components. Situations involving social

skills are available, therefore, not only to evaluate social competence, but also to evaluate

the use of linguistic components such as vocabulary (lexemes), word order (syntax),

volume (phonology), gestures, and communicative competence (pragmatics).

Preliminary Theoretical Considerations

There are two primary theoretical positions that influence how language is

viewed. The first considers language innate and the second considers language acquired.

If these two theories were placed at opposite ends o f a line, that line would represent a

continuum of beliefs that would include all o f those that believed in the innate theory for

some aspects of language and the acquired theory for other aspects o f language (Barrett,

1999).

The Innate Theory o f Language

The innate theoretical position has three premises. The first premise states that the

structure for language is innate-preexisting in every person: “The expressive variety of

language use implies that a language user’s brain contains unconscious grammatical

principles” (Jackendorf, 1994 p.8). In other words, the mind contains a mental grammar.

The second premise claims the child has innate knowledge because ‘The way children

learn to talk implies that the human brain contains a genetically determined specialization


25

for language” (Jackendorf, 1994 p. 26). The third premise maintains that the child can

construct grammar from experience: ‘The experience o f spoken language is actively

constructed by the hearer’s mental grammar” (Jackendorf 1994 p. 161).

The implication of this theory for early adolescents is that teachers who learn that

language is innate may choose to believe that they have no influence over language or its

development. These same teachers may choose to do nothing to promote language

development among early adolescents.

Acquired Theories o f Language

The second primary theory is that language is acquired. As opposed to the innate

view, the acquired language position holds that the child's linguistic capacities are

acquired during the course of development. With reference to language, the child is bom

only with a propensity to learn language and not with a language acquisition device as the

innate theory followers declare (Owens, 2001).

Within the acquired language theory, more so than within the innate theory of

language, there is a continuum of beliefs concerning the acquisition of language (Van

Valin & LaPolla, 1997). At one end of the continuum, it is believed that all language can

be explained in terms of social interaction or communicative intent. For example, when a

child sees a new toy, the child will, within a social context, learn the name of the new toy

by listening or asking. At the other end of the continuum, it is believed that all language

can be explained in terms o f cognitive development This view believes that as the brain

develops, that is as the brain is more able to remember more items at a time, language

also changes by becoming more descriptive and exact. It is because of cognitive

development that sentences become more complex and arguments are better organized.


26

Along this language continuum (social interaction—cognitive development), there are

many different theories (Van Valin & LaPolla, 1997). Some linguists attribute all

language development to social interaction; others attribute it all to cognitive

development; but most lie somewhere in the middle, attributing some parts o f language

development to cognitive development and others to social interaction.

Social or Communicative Theory o f Language. The communicative end of the

language continuum can be expressed by Halliday’s (1985) Systemic Functional

Grammar, which states that:

Language has evolved to satisfy human needs and the way it is organized is

functional with respect to these needs-it is not arbitrary. A functional grammar is

essentially a “natural” grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained,

ultimately, by reference to how language is used. (Halliday, 1985, p. xiii)

For the early adolescent, peer language, or more accurately the peer dialect, can in

part be explained by the changes necessary to accommodate the “human needs” of the

early adolescent. Early adolescents separate themselves from both younger children and

adults by using a peer dialect that sometimes only closely associated peers understand.

Often the more familiar early adolescents are with each other, the fewer words they need

to communicate. Peer dialect forms a social bond between early adolescents, an area of

likeness that is socially important. The development o f a peer dialect is discussed in an

upcoming section.

The Cognitive Theory o f Language. The cognitive position, expressed by

Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar (1987, 1991), assumes that language is neither self-

contained nor describable without essential reference to cognitive processing. This view


27

holds that the meaningful parts of language are only arbitrarily divided into separate

components o f language. Langacker (1990) states “it is pointless to analyze grammatical

units without reference to semantic [meaning] value” (p. I). The cognitive view of

language acquisition is useful in describing language changes in early adolescents, such

as the ability to think and express ideas abstractly.

Language of the Early Adolescent

Early adolescence is a time o f expanded social interests and experiences, a time

when new thinking abilities allow consideration o f many possibilities, and a time when

peers become more influential (National Middle School Association, 1995). At the same

time, great stress is put on developing language to meet the needs of increasingly

complex situations. Changes in cultural dynamics, along with changes in cognitive

thought processes, social and academic experience, influence the language of the early

adolescent, as to what is said and how it is said (Owens, 2001).

Early adolescents speak a social dialect to peers, adults and younger children, an

academic dialect in the school setting (Chamot & O'Malley 1994), and a dialect with

jargon or slang reserved for their peer group (Donahue & Bryan, 1984; Larson &

McKinley, 1995). A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or

by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words,

grammar, and or in pronunciation from other forms o f the same language (Richards, Platt,

& Platt, 1992). Early adolescents may say when greeting a peer, “Give me five.” Instead

o f“HelIo.”

Each early adolescent dialect (social, academic, and peer) has its own primary

social setting, but each dialect is also unique in its form, function, and use. Table 1,


28

Table I

The Three Dialects of Early Adolescent Language

Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect

Spontaneity Spontaneous speech. Must be recognized Spontaneous speech.

of speech. before talking.

Information Information usually Often abstract May be contextual or

contextual or abstract. contextual. information. abstract

Amount of detail Few details, little to Many details. Few details, sometimes given

given. remember. a lot to remember. in code, jargon, slang,

gestures.

Amount of Little information A lot of information Language may include empty

information spread over a long given in a short time. phrases ("you know"), or no

compared to time. time. information.

Familiarity Familiar world Unfamiliar world The more familiarity between

of world knowledge knowledge, familiar knowledge, unfamiliar participants, the less is said.

and topic. topics. topics.

Feed-back from Immediate feed-back Delayed feed-back Immediate feed-back usually.

communication. from other party(ies). (grade or comments),

often written even on

oral reports.

may include language or

gestures including high-5's.

Thinking skills Requires lower order Requires higher and Requires lower order

required. thinking skills. lower order thinking

skills.

thinking skills.


29

Table I (continued).

The Three Dialects of Early Adolescent Language

Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect

Formal or informal. Informal, may not Formal, Standard Informal, may include

Grammatically correct or be grammatically English, speech and slang jargon, and code

incorrect correct. writing need to be words that may not be

grammatically correct. grammatically correct

Where dialect is usually Between peers and In education. Usually between peers.

used and purpose of closely associated employment and formal Used to separate early

communication. children and adults. speaking or writing adolescent from children

Decreases social situations. May increase and adults. May be used

distance. social distance. to confound or confuse

adults.

Purpose of General purposes. Specific purposes. Promotes peer closeness.

communication. day to day living impart knowledge. sameness, solidarity.

needs. respond reflectively.

Response time. Response due Response may wait until Response may depend on

immediately. exam time. code of the group but

usually immediate.

Ease of learning Easier to leant More difficult to learn. May never be learned by

learning supported by supported in all usually only supported in some. Supported by peer

what group. social situations. academic situations. group.

Material taken from Adler & King, 1994; Chamot, & O'Malley, 1994; and Larson & McKinley,

1995.


30

The Three D ialects o f Early Adolescent Language provides a detailed overview of how

the form o f the language changes between dialects. The three dialects of adolescents,

social, academic, and peer, are one language with three different forms and uses. Each of

these three dialects has its own vocabulary, its own meaning, and a particular context in

which it must be used.

Social D ialects

Before children enter school they learn a social dialect used in conversation that is

based on cultural morays and rules of conversation, such as, turn taking. Social dialects

are informal and may not be grammatically correct. They are comprised of elements you

would find in conversations, such as, requests, explanations, greetings, salutations,

questions, etc. Conversations are usually spontaneous and responses are immediate, such

as the exchange o f greetings (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Most of these social language

experiences occur in the context of one or two individuals or small groups. Topics are

familiar and talked about often. Objects or activities that are within sight can be named

or pointed to. Information is often delivered in small pieces—single sentences, i.e. “We

will go to the park after lunch.”

The social dialect requires only lower order thinking skills and is easy for children

to team because it is used and supported in most o f the situations they encounter (Chamot

& O'Malley, 1994). In the early grades, some teacher-student interactions and classroom

activities are also carried out with conversation in social dialect. Topics are presented in

context with materials present. Sentences are short and direct. There is little new

information given at a time (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). As children enter early

adolescence, the social dialect continues but is increasingly reserved for home and adults


31

in the community, partly because of the increased complexity experienced in academic

settings.

Academic D ialed

When children enter school, they encounter a different kind of language from the

social dialect previously experienced. The child may be one of 20-30 students with one

teacher (Merritt, 1988). Spontaneous speech is replaced with waiting to be called on to

talk. Children hear strings of directions and information that increasingly become more

abstract and heavily weighted with detail. A lot o f information is given in a short period

of time. By early adolescence, sentences used in academic interactions become longer

and more complex, and more time is spent reading and listening to discourse (Chamot &

O'Malley, 1994). The subject matter is more complex and topics are presented out of

context.

Early adolescents must learn to sort through both the verbal and written

information to find the main topics and relevant points, remember facts, and respond

reflectively (Dickinson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). Teachers increasingly rely on written

discourse produced by early adolescents as an accurate assessment of their knowledge

and skills in Standard English (Larson & McKinley, 1995). After completing written

exams the early adolescent usually must wait for a grade to know whether the written

response was acceptable to the teacher. The social distance is increased in academic

dialect, over the social dialect, by the delay in communicative feedback, impersonal

content topics, and the use of the more formal Standard English (Richards, Platt & Platt).

Verbal demands also increase in academic terms (Adler & King, 1994) yet,

opportunities for oral language are often limited to responding to direct or discussion


32

questions during instruction (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Early adolescents are often

challenged to justify answers that require higher order thinking skills and offer oral

reports to the whole class. New social situations within the school, such as clubs,

organizations, and intramural sports may also support the academic dialect and present

new communication challenges (Chamot & OMalley, 1994; Heath, 1998).

Peer Dialect

Early adolescents often use a special language that separates them from both

adults and younger children (Larson & McKinley, 1995). It may be used to confound or

confuse adults, but it is more often used just with peers. This peer dialect is spontaneous,

may be contextual or abstract and usually only requires lower order thinking skills. It

promotes peer closeness and solidarity and is filled with jargon (player), slang (ain’t),

empty phrases (you know, whatever), special codes (rock time), and secret meanings

(Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995). The more familiarity between the participants usually the

less that needs to be said. Early adolescents that do not belong to a group may never

learn a peer dialect, may not understand peer humor and may be isolated from their peers.

These early adolescents often lack social skills and the means to improve their language

through peer interaction.

Early adolescents may correctly shift from one dialect to another without even

realizing that they have adjusted their speech or written language for the social,

academic, or peer audience (Adger, 1998). However, when early adolescents do not

appropriately shift from one dialect to another they may find themselves misunderstood

or in trouble with adults. When an early adolescent uses academic discourse at home, the

language may be misinterpreted as a put-down to less-educated parents. By the same


33

token, when early adolescents bring jargon into the classroom they may be

misunderstood by teachers. As stated above, lack o f appropriate peer jargon with peers

can socially isolate or ostracize early adolescents (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995).

This section has described dialects spoken by early adolescents, with emphasis

on the ways in which language is used. To more fully understand language, it is

important to examine the ways that linguists break language into its component parts.

The next section provides a discussion of the components of language, as they are

relevant to the language o f early adolescents.

Development in the Component Areas of Language

A language system can be thought of as having three main components as shown

in Figure 2.1: use (pragmatics), meaning (semantics), and sound (phonology) (Barrett,

1999). These components are interrelated. Each component of language is governed by

rules. Each component of language serves a different function, yet all components are

important in communication. An effective, efficient oral communication system requires

mastery of all o f the components of language (ASLHA, 1982).

Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, such as

speaking and writing, and the users o f those forms (Yule, 1996). People's intended

meanings, their assumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kinds of speech acts

(requests, invitations, etc.) that they are performing when they speak are studied in

pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Pragmatics examines how the features in

different contexts influence the content of what is said. The people, the place and the

topic all influence how language is expressed. For example, a ten-year-old might shout


34

Figure I


Pragmatics(use)

Communicative functions /(negotiation, persuasion.)

/

Conversation \ / (roles, rules

Written or oral / (turn taking, etc.).\ /

\Communicative competence / (cohesive, coherence, norms o f genres)

(form) \\ Discourse

(paragraphs, stories, jokes, lectures.

proverbs)

Lexicology (study of vocabulary items and their meanings.)/ \

Semantics / (meanings )\

\Morphology (study o f smallest units of meaning.)

\ Syntax (study of how words combine to form sentences.)} Grammar, the

rules used to form clauses, phrases, and, sentences.

Articulatory phonetics (how speech sounds produced)./

Phonology___________ / Acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted in the air).(sounds) \

\ Auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived).

Adapted from: Barrett, M. (1999). An introduction to the nature of language and to the

central themes and issues in the study o f language development. In Martyn Barrett (Ed.)

The development o f language, (pp. 1-23). Guilford & King's Lynn, UK: Psychology Press.


35

to a friend about new clothes on a playground but whisper the same news in class.

Pragmatics is often the primary focus o f social interaction or communicative interaction

theorists. To these researchers dialect differences and social-communicative interaction

are important (Owens, 2001). They are concerned with the rules and use o f language as a

function o f role, socioeconomic level, and linguistic or cultural context. For example, an

early adolescent sensitive to his/her role in the school setting and the formality o f the

situation might address a school administrator using Standard English instead of using

slang.

Pragmatics is important in early adolescent language because the early adolescent

begins to expand social experiences to new settings that require different uses of

language than may have been experienced at home or in early school grades. Pragmatics

includes communicative functions of conversation, discourse, and communicative

competence. Communicative competence addresses how well messages are sent and

received. Growth in performance of these functions is characterized by increased speed

and accuracy in responding or reaching solutions, enhanced comprehension of

semantically and structurally complex problems, and greater use o f appropriate strategies

to meet the needs o f the situation (Nippold, 1998; Achenbach, 1969; Cashen 1989).

Growth also occurs metalinguistically (talking and thinking about acts of speaking) and

metacognitively (talking and thinking about acts o f thinking) in that students become

more adept at explaining, defending, and justifying their actions and what they say

(Nippold, 1998). Conversation and discourse require a speaker to use cognitive,

linguistic, metalinguistic, and pragmatic competencies. Because o f slow continuous

growth and great variability in language use, it is necessary to examine children and


36

adolescents several years apart to show differences in the characteristics of language

usage.

Conversation.

The major finding of conversation research in school-aged children is that

coherence in conversation gradually improves as age increases, particularly during

adolescence and young adulthood (Nippold, 1998). Coherence in conversation is

established by focused turn taking, factually related utterances, perspective related

utterances, and smooth transitions between topics coupled with a decline in unrelated or

marginally related utterances and abrupt topic switches (Nippold, 1998). Conversational

rules include staying on a topic, taking turns, using an appropriate vocabulary, and certain

other courtesies. Conversation includes four maxims: I . Give as much information as is

needed. 2. Speak truthfully. 3. Say things that are relevant. 4. Say things clearly and

briefly (Grice, 1967; Parker & Riley, 1994). The conversation of the early adolescent

may include slang, similes and metaphors, idioms, ambiguity, sarcasm, persuasion and

negotiation, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.

Slang. Adolescents are particularly adept at generating and promoting the use of

slang (Nippold, 1998). The use of slang terms unique to the peer group is an important

aspect of later language development (Donahue & Bryan, 1984). Slang terms are used

for many reasons, among others: to promote social interaction, to show one belongs to a

group, to exclude others from a group, to be playful, and to reduce the seriousness of a

situation (Nippold, 1998). Nelson & Rosenbaum (1972) asked adolescents to generate

lists o f slang words for various topics (clothes, autos, appearance, motorbikes, money,

etc.). Boys generated more slang terms than girls for money, autos, and motorbikes.


37

Girls generated more slang terms for appearance, boys, popular and unpopular people.

The results also showed that the mean increased as a function o f grade level, with larger

increases in some topics than others. For example, on the topic of girls, seventh grade

boys produced a mean of 10.4 slang words and twelfth grade boys produced 24.4 slang

words. Slang terms often occur in the form o f metaphors (Leona, 1978).

Sim iles and Metaphors. Both metaphors and similes can be understood by

preschool children when age-appropriate materials and testing procedures are used. A

simile is an expression in which something is compared to something else by the use of a

function word such as like or as. For example, “Tom eats like a horse.”

Metaphors do not use function words. Something is described by stating another

thing with which it is compared (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992), for example, “Her words

stabbed at his heart.” Malgady (1977) studied the understanding of metaphors in children

and early adolescents, from five to twelve years o f age, and found the percent of valid

interpretations increased with each successive age group. These results suggest that even

those early adolescents turning fourteen would not have full understanding o f metaphors.

In the same study Malgady found that a simile task was significantly correlated with

verbal intelligence and reading comprehension.

Idioms. An idiom is an expression which functions as a single unit the meaning

of which cannot be worked out from its separate parts. Idioms, such as “read between the

lines,” or “She washed her hands of the matter.” occur in both written and oral forms of

language. In the written word they sometimes hinder reading comprehension (Edwards,

1975; May 1979); thus an understanding of idioms is important for attaining literacy.

Lodge and Leach (1975) compared the understanding o f a list o f idioms in four different


38

age groups of children and early adolescents. All age groups understood the literal

meanings o f the idioms. The six- and nine-year-olds had difficulty with the figurative

meanings, while the twelve-year-olds understood only some of the figurative meanings,

and only the twenty-one-year-olds understood them all. "Children’s performance on tasks

of figurative understanding is definitely related to their performance on measures of

cognition, language, and academic achievement" (Nippold, 1988, 1998, p. 92).

Ambiguity and Sarcasm . Ambiguity and sarcasm require a conscious reflection

and metalinguistic awareness because words are used in unique and unusual ways.

Students have to know the double meanings of words to appreciate the linguistic contexts

in which they occur. Non-linguistic information such as specific background information

may also be necessary. For example, the ambiguous bumper sticker that reads "You can't

hug your kids with nuclear arms" requires the reader to understand what nuclear arms are.

There are four different types o f sentential ambiguity , phonological ambiguity, lexical

ambiguity (the above example), surface- and deep-structure ambiguity, each

progressively more difficult to understand and master (Shultz & Horibe, 1974).

Sarcasm requires the listener to recognize a discrepancy between what is said and

what is meant, to have background information, to be aware of context clues, and to

understand patterns o f vocal intonation. For example, “Now I’ve seen everything!"

Sarcasm can be interpreted in a variety o f ways. Early adolescents may not have mastered

either the double word meanings or the background information essential to understand

ambiguities or the sensitivity to recognize sarcasm. Capelli et al. (1990) had children

ages 8, 11 and college students listen to tape recorded stories with the last sentence either

neutral or sarcastic. For some, the sarcastic remark was exaggerated, and others it was


39

neutral. Results showed that stories presented in a neutral context with neutral intonation

(sincere) were well understood by all age groups. Those with sarcasm improved with

successive age groups (mean accuracy scores: age 8 - 63%, age 11 - 79%, and college -

93%). Stories that produced sarcasm through context cues only were more difficult than

those that produced sarcasm through intonational cues only or with both intonational and

context clues.

Persuasion and Negotiation. Persuasion makes use of argument to convince

another person to accept a point o f view or to act in a manner desired by the persuader.

Piche, Rubin, and Michlin (1978) investigated fifth- and ninth-graders who were told to

pretend to sell newspapers to four people, one younger, one the same age, one older, and

one an authority figure. Results indicate that students made adjustments to different

listeners in terms of authority and intimacy. The students expressed more imperatives

(e.g., “Oh, please buy it”) to low authority listeners. Ninth graders made more personal

appeals (“The kids in your class will like it.”) and greater variety in appeals, than fifth

graders. Positive appeals to the younger listener were more aggressive, (“You should

buy it!”).

Negotiation involves communication to resolve conflicts and achieve mutually

acceptable goals. As shown in Table 2, as children advance in years, they acquire greater

skills in bargaining, cooperation, compromise, and the perception of social perspective

(Nippold, 1994).

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. There is not only great variability in

reasoning within the age group o f early adolescents, but there is also variability within

individual students in their ability to apply reason (Piaget, 1977; Van Hoose & Strahan,


40

Table 2

Areas In Which Gradual Improvements Occur in Persuasion and Negotiation

Persuasion:

1. Adjusts to listener characteristics (age, authority, familiarity)

2. States advantages to the listener as a reason to comply

3. Anticipates and replies to counter arguments

4. Uses positive strategies such as politeness and bargaining

5. Gives up negative strategies such as shining and begging

6. Generates a large number and variety o f different arguments

7. Controls the discourse assertively

Negotiation:

1. Takes the social perspective of another

2. Shows awareness of the needs, thoughts, and feelings of others

3. Reasons with words (verbal reasoning)

4. Uses cooperative and collaborative strategies

5. Shows concern for group welfare

6. Shows concern for long-tem implications o f conflict

7. Shows willingness to compromise

Adapted from Nippold, M. A. (1994) Persuasive talk in social contexts: development,

assessment, and intervention. Topics in Language Disorders, I4{3), p. 2.


41

1998). Piaget (1977) suggested that mental development occurs in sequential stages with

the logical operations of one stage building on the prior stage. He defined the stages as

preoperational (logical operations not used), concrete operational (objects needed to

understand logic), and formal operations (abstract ideas could be manipulated logically).

Elllsworth and Snidt (1991) expanded the concrete and formal stages into onset and

mature periods for each stage. Table 3 lists the percent o f children (out of 100%) for

each age that would fall into each stage o f development. Note the great range found in

the early adolescent ages (in bold type) and that some never achieve the concrete or

formal operational stages.

Van Hoose and Strahan (1998) also have described mental development in terms

of the abilities to use reason. They use a span of years that is even larger than Piaget's.

Table 4 notes not only the reasoning abilities but also the difficulties encountered when

children, early adolescents, and adolescents have not reached a particular stage of

development. Note that they call all of the early adolescent years a time of transition.

Baft, (1971) and Martorano, (1977) found that adolescents apply formal thought

(logical thinking) in some contexts but not in others. For example, formal abstract

thought may be applied in literature but not in science. This inconsistency may, in part,

be explained by the experiences that the students participate in and the quality o f

stimulation or instruction they receive in school. Inductive and deductive reasoning

abilities depend on both internal and external constraints. Internal constraints include

age, cognitive level, academic achievement, and the problem solving style of the student

(Dickson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). External factors include the structural and semantic

complexity o f the problems themselves.


42

Table 3

Cognitive Levels of Reasoning

Cognitive Levels of Reasoning (in Percent of Students)

Age (Years) Preoperational Concrete

Onset

Concrete

Mature

Formal

Onset

Formal

Mature

5 85 15

6 60 35 5

7 35 55 10

8 25 55 20

9 15 55 30

10 12 52 35 1

11 6 49 40 5

12 5 32 5t 12

13 2 34 44 14 6

14 1 32 43 15 9

15 1 14 53 19 13

16 1 15 54 17 13

17 3 19 47 19 12

18 1 15 50 15 19

Bold type identifies early adolescent ages.

From Ellsworth, P., & Snidt, V., (1991) What every teacher should know about how

students think: A survival guide fo r adults. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications (p. 28).


43

Table 4

Development of Reasoning Abilities in Early Adolescence

Development of Reasoning Abilities in Early Adolescence

Age Reasoning development Abilities Difficulties

7 - II Development of concrete

reasoning

Logical thinking about things

Classification,

conservation,

"arithmetic"

Abstract ideas,

verbal problems,

suspending

judgments

10 -I4 a Time of transition. Creating theories Empathy

Mastery of concrete operations

experimentation with formal

operations

Thinking about

thinking

Patience

Synthesis

13 -? Development of formal

operations

Thinking with abstractions

Hypothetical-

deductive reasoning

Applications and

transfer

a indicates early adolescents.

Taken from: Van Hoose. J., & Strahan, D., (1998). Young adolescent development and

school practices: Promoting harmony. Columbus, OH: National Middle School

Association, (p. 14).


44

Analogies use inductive reasoning where similarities and differences between

objects and events are used to solve problems or learn about the world. The form usually

given in tests is: A is to B as C is to . . . ? (D), where the student must generate the

appropriate D item or select from alternatives (Nippold, 1998).

Syllogisms use deductive reasoning and are a form of argument that contains two

premises and a conclusion that follows logically from those premises. Research shows

that syllogisms are easier to solve when accompanied by concrete objects, such as knives

and forks, and presented as conversational tasks, and more difficult when presented

without objects and in written form. Categorical syllogisms are easier for students to

solve than if—then, conditional syllogisms (Roberge & Flexer, 1979; Roberge & Paulus,

1971). As expected, performance on tasks improved with age but continued to be

challenging throughout adolescence (Nippold, 1998). See Table 5 for types of syllogisms

used in testing.

Discourse.

Discourse is more formal and longer in length than conversation. Discourse is a

connected flow of language (Reed, 1994). Discourse refers to larger units than a phrase

or a sentence—it refers to paragraphs, stories, jokes, proverbs, lectures, interviews

(Richards, Platt & Platt, 1993). Discourse requires the speaker to link successive

sentences together coherently, to take the listener's perspective into account, and to adapt

the language to the function o f the communication.

Whereas conversation is the primary means o f giving information to preschool

and primary children, discourse becomes more common for presenting information as


45

Table 5

Types o f Syllogisms

Types of Syllogisms used in Early Adolescence

Concrete - Familiar:

Categorical: (Easier than conditional to solve.)All o f the green coats in the closet belong to Sarah.The coat in the closet is green.Therefore, the coat in the closet does not belong to Sarah, (no)

If-Then Conditional:If the hat on the table is blue, then it belongs to Sally.The hat on the table is blue.Therefore, the hat on the table does not belong to Sally, (no)

Suggestive:

Categorical:All ants that can fly are bigger than zebras.This ant can fly.Therefore, this ant is bigger than a zebra, (yes)

If-Then Conditional:If mice can fly, then they are bigger than horses.Mice are bigger than horses.Therefore, mice can fly. (maybe)

Abstract:

Categorical:All pittles are cloots.This is a pittle.Therefore, this is a cloot. (yes)

If-Then Conditional: (Most difficult to solve.)If there is a nupittle, then there is a coolt.This is not a coolt.Therefore, there is a nupittle. (no)

Used by: Roberge, J. J., & Paulus, D. H. (1971). Developmental patterns for children's

class and conditional reasoning abilities (p. 4). Developmental Psychology, •/, 191-200.


46

students advance in age and grade. The early adolescent not only hears more discourse

and less conversation in the classroom, but also begins to use discourse in school to give

oral book reports, explain science projects, report on specific topics in social studies, and

contribute to the school newspaper. Discourse competence, an aspect of communicative

competence, describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that

shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres, as a

business letter, a scientific essay, or poetry. Appropriate to the situation, successive

sentences must be linked through rules of discourse or discourse competence (Richards,

Platt & Platt, 1992). Discourse offers the student less support, poses more organizational

problems, and demands more complex syntax than conversation (MacLachlan &

Chapman, 1988). Discourse includes storytelling and proverbs.

Storytelling. Storytelling, a form of discourse, serves as an excellent example to

observe differences between age groups. Storytelling requires a set of rules that

organizes the discourse and requires the storyteller to include key elements such as the

characters, the setting, the problem, and the consequence. Adolescents will include more

of the feelings, emotions, and thoughts o f characters as they imagine them while story

telling, than will younger children. Roth and Spekman (1986) asked groups of children

eight and nine, and early adolescents, ten and eleven, and twelve and thirteen-years-of-

age to make up a story. A complete episode was deemed to be one that included three

key elements:

1. An initiating event or response that prompted a character to do something,

2. An attempt to address a problem, and

3. A direct consequence or resolution.


47

They found that 5% of the eight to nine year old group created complete episodes while

69% of the twelve to thirteen-year-olds created complete episodes. The older group of

students also had more imbedded episodes within the story than younger students. The

authors speculated that the older students’ ability to plan and organize, which required

greater memory capacity, influenced not only the increased length o f story but also the

imbedded episodes.

Proverbs. Proverbs are statements that express values, beliefs, and wisdom of a

culture (Mieder, 1993; Kirsch, Kett, & Trefil, 1988). They reflect an ethos and serve a

variety of communicative functions such as, encouragement, advice, and comments on

events. Context plays an important role in interpreting proverbs, and proverbs told out of

context may be misinterpreted. Exposure to proverbs is an important part of cultural

literacy (Hirsch, et al., 1988). In a test for understanding proverbs, Richardson & Church

(1959) found that younger children usually explained proverbs in literal and situation-

specific terms. Twelve-year-olds still had difficulty with some proverbs, and even

adolescents and adults had some immature explanations of some o f the proverbs used in

the test (Richardson & Church, 1959).

Communicative Competence

Communicative competence includes both what is said and what is heard. When

linguistic messages convey the meaning that was intended, competence has been

achieved. Communicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and

vocabulary of the language, as well as, knowledge of rules o f speaking, e.g., knowing

how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about under

different circumstances, knowing which address forms should be used with different


48

persons one speaks to, and in what social context (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Competence also includes how to use and respond to different types o f speech acts such

as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations (Parker & Riley, 1994). A competent

speaker will take into account the social setting, their relationship to the other person(s)

and the type o f language that is appropriate. A competent listener will interpret sentences

within the total context in which they are used. For example, “7/ is rather hot in here. ”

could be a request to open a door or turn on an air conditioner, particularly if the person

making the statement had a higher social role or if the listener is the person most able to

do something about the temperature. Communicative competence is the ability not only

to apply the grammatical rules o f a language so as to form grammatically correct

sentences but also the ability to know when and where to use such sentences and to

whom (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992).

Loban (1976), in a longitudinal study of students, determined communication

competence in terms of fluency. One measure of fluency was the number of words in

mazes. Mazes in speech are false starts, hesitations, repeated words, and revisions while

speaking (Nippold, 1998). They give the speaker time to organize thoughts and collect

appropriate words to use. For the listener, mazes create breaks in the sound stream that

interrupt the flow of thoughts and make following the speaker’s points difficult. Loban

(1976) found that mazes increase during the early adolescent years and then by grade

twelve return to just about the same number of mazes that were present in first grade.

The increase in mazes may be due to new thought processes experienced by the early

adolescent that allow for his/her awareness of different points o f view and more abstract

thinking.


49

Semantics

Linguists use the term “semantics” to refer to the study of meaning that may be

expressed through spoken sounds, written words, pictures, conventional signs, actions, or

objects. Semantics is the system o f vocabulary or meaning o f words including concepts,

attributes, and word relationships (Griffith & Ripich, 1999). Meaning is the primary

purpose of language (Lyons 1977). To learn a language, the child must abstract basic

linguistic relationships and rules from the environment, and then internalize and

categorize the information in a way that creates meaning. Later, this information appears

as the child's expressive language (Reber, 1973). “Language development is a product of

the strategies and processes of general cognitive development, although not a direct

manifestation of it" (Owens, 2001, p.53). Supporting this semantic/cognitive model of

language acquisition is the notion that concepts are formed before words and that

concepts underlie meaning (Griffith & Ripich, 1999). How the concepts that underlie and

support language are formed will be discussed next. Other components o f language:

lexicon, morphemes and syntax, each which create meaning in their own, will be covered

later.

Concept Formation

A concept is the general idea or meaning that is associated with a word or symbol

in a person's mind. Concepts are the abstract meanings that words and other linguistic

items represent and they therefore play an important part in the development of thought

(Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). How concepts are formed is important for the teacher to

know. If the teacher is to present a lesson so that early adolescents derive meaning and

understand the concepts involved in the content areas, such as math, science, history and


50

language arts, the teacher must know how concepts are formed. These concepts may

require new vocabulary as well as new ways of manipulating ideas. Included here are

four different theories o f concept formations: semantic feature hypothesis, fonctional-

core hypothesis, associative hypothesis, and the prototypic complex hypothesis. See

Table 6 for a detailed comparison of the four theories. Each theoretical position assumes

that children and early adolescents organize word concepts based on certain aspects of

the object or idea referred to.

When concepts are inferred from linguistic and nonlinguistic actions and context,

this contextual analysis can be labeled a rich interpretation (Owens, 2001). For example,

children and early adolescents who do not understand all o f the words on a page can

create a rich interpretation, by inferring meaning from the pictures, the content, and the

context clues that have already been given on that page and preceding pages.

Semantic Feature Theory. In this theory E. V. Clark (1990) proposed that

meaning is established by putting together salient features o f objects, such as

animate/inanimate, that are present and perceivable in the environment. Size, shape, and

movement are seen. Other features may be smelled, tasted, or heard. Limitations o f this

theory are that it fails to explain the holistic nature of meaning, how the most relevant

features are determined, and how meaning is derived for non-objects, such as up.

The semantic feature theory does support the position that early adolescents may

need to have the holistic nature o f a subject explained before the more relevant features

can be understood. For example, a combustion engine's general purpose (to convert fuel

energy by burning into mechanical energy in the form o f a moving piston) may need to

be explained before the purpose o f a piston ring or valve lifter may be understood.


51

Table 6

Summary of Theories Used to Explain Concept Formation

Theory: Used bv

Concept Focus on

Semantic Meaning is established by putting together features of objects that are Static

Feature: present and perceivable in the environment. Example: "Round container features.

E.V. Clark (cylinder), flat bonom with handle sticking out to the side from the top. size.

(1990) used on top o f stove it is a pan.” shape

Functional A functional-core or object-use to which perceptual features are added are Motion

Core: used to create concepts. A sequence of events is joined to create scripts. features

K. E. Nelson generalized event representations, such as the mealtime script Example:

(1990) "Pan with water in it was puts over a flame, then noodles were added.

Cooking dinner?”

Associative A concept may be considered loosely defined when different features are External

Complex: chosen to describe an object Concepts are supported by social experience features.

Vygotsky in the context relevant to the domain of knowledge and are shaded or more functional

clearly defined, with successive uses. Example: "Mom cooks dinner this and

time of day. Last time noodles meant spaghetti for dinner.” perceptual

Prototypic Children expect to make sense of the world, to seek order, and to do this. Internal

Complex: build schemas. Concepts underlying schemas include central references or structure

Piaget prototypes, usually from adult speech, with a highly specific mental of

(1984) representation of the concept or schema. The closer a new instance is to the

prototype, the more likely the new instance is to be labeled by that symbol.

A schema is adjusted through accommodation when the current schema is

in conflict with new information. Example: "There are other smells. It is

not spaghetti maybe it is chicken noodle soup.”

concepts

Information taken from: Bowerman, 1978; Cole, 1990; Goodman & Goodman, 1990; Owens,

2001: and Panofsky. John-Sterner & Blackwell, 1990; Schwartz & Leonard, 1984.


52

Functional Core Theory. In this theory, concept formation begins with the object-

use meaning to which perceptual features are added. This hypothesis was issued by K. E.

Nelson (Panofsky, John-Steiner, & Blackwell, 1990) to explain the acquisition of script

like knowledge that develops spontaneously from everyday experiences. These

experiences are generalized as contextualized wholes such as the school script or

restaurant script. She felt concepts were defined in terms o f logical relationships or

logical acts. The significance of Nelson's script-based concepts is the revelation that

children construct regularities, connections, and systems o f ongoing daily activity.

For the early adolescent to create meaning, new concepts in the content areas may

need to be witnessed or tied to existing concepts or scripts. Two theories seek to explain

concept formation at the early adolescent age: associative complex theory and prototypic

complex theory.

Associative Complex Theory. In this theory a concept may be considered loosely

defined when different features are chosen to describe an object. The features may be

based on functional and perceptual features. Vygotsky found that successive use of the

word shaded some feature with a central instance or core concept. For him, the

development of systematic concepts was not dependent on prior development but, rather,

concepts were supported by social experience in the context relevant to the domain of

knowledge. He found language to be derived from meanings and developed in an area

called "the zone o f proximal development" (Goodman & Goodman, 1990, p. 227). For

Vygotsky, concepts differed on the basis o f their context o f acquisition. This theory

supports the position that early adolescents can learn new concepts when they share


53

experiences supported by social communication capable of clarifying salient features of

the concept.

Prototypic Complex Theory. This theory is an expansion of the associative

complex theory. Children expect to make sense of the world, to seek order, and to do this,

build schemas (Goodman & Goodman, 1990). Concepts underlying schemas include

central references or prototypes, usually from adult speech. Children have a highly

specific mental representation of a concept or schema including the attributes and

features that characterize the prototype referent. Because the child may choose features

that are not critical or exclude essential features o f the adult concept, the child may over-

or under- generalize the meaning and, consequently, the use of the word.

Early adolescents, like adults, seem to analyze a concept relative to its essential

features, which are then used to determine a goodness-of-fk between the original model

(for example, a car) and the new model (whether it can be called a car also). The closer a

new instance is to the prototype the more likely the new instance is to be labeled by that

symbol (Bowerman, 1978). A schema is adjusted through accommodation when the

current schema is in conflict with new information (Goodman & Goodman, 1990). Some

adult concepts are finite, while others, especially categorical terms, have fuzzy

boundaries. A feature may be included in one context and omitted in another. Consider

an example of clothing. When referring to a camping situation, a jacket might be

included and a coat omitted, but, when referring to a dance, the opposite might be true.

For Piaget the development o f mental structures preceded the learning o f logically

or systematically organized concepts. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed 'pseudo" or

"spontaneous" concepts were inductive and were based on the child’s history. Piaget


54

focused on the internal (mental) structure o f concepts while Vygotsky focused on the

external features (social interaction) surrounding the formation of concepts.

Each of the above theories looks at concept formation from slightly different

points of view, each has its own rich interpretation, and each has its limitations for

explaining concept formation under all circumstances for all ages. Each also has

implications for early adolescent language development and the teachers who choose to

foster that development.

Meanings.

Meanings included multiple meanings of words and metaphorical meanings.

These two are closely related in that multiple meanings are often used in metaphors.

M ultiple meanings. In English, it is possible for a single word-form, which

describes a particular sound pattern, such as ran, to have multiple meanings. Different

word-forms (found and find) can be based on the same lexeme (find). Likewise, the

same word-form can be based upon different lexemes (Kempson, 1977; Lyons 1977).

Consider, for example, the word-forms ran in the following sentences,

He ran the footrace.

He ran the office.

are based on two different lexemes that have different meanings.

Many words in English have more than one meaning-they are polysemous terms

(Nippold, 1998). Very often, these words have a primary meaning that is spatial and a

secondary meaning that is abstract. Understanding the secondary meaning is often

necessary in the understanding o f mathematics and musical concepts presented at school.

Secondary meanings are learned much later than primary meanings. For example:


55

They went up the hill, (primary definition, spatial)

She went up an octave, (musical)

They counted up by 5’s. (mathematical) (Nippold, 1998, pp.2l-22)

Some polysemous words also have secondary psychological meanings (cold, sweet, hard,

soft, bright). Schecter and Broughton (1991) found that the ability to detect and explain

the overlapping properties between physical and psychological meanings of double

function words was a relatively late attainment (age fourteen). Early adolescents have

difficulty with and are often confused by words that have more than one meaning. It is

during early adolescence that children begin to understand that many words have both

concrete meanings as well as a more abstract meaning. Once learned, double (or

multiple) meanings are used by early adolescents in metaphors and humor (Nippold,

1998).

M etaphorical meanings. Metaphorical meanings are a figure o f speech

containing an implied comparison in which a word or phrase normally used to describe

one thing is applied to another (i.e., “copper sky^). Inferred and metaphorical meanings

may be derived from words, phrases and discourse.

Lexicology

Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary items (lexemes) o f a language including

their meanings and relationships. A lexicon is the set of all the words and idioms of a

particular language (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992).

Size and Increase in Vocabulary.

The size o f the vocabulary of the early adolescent depends on what words are

being measured: root words, reading vocabulary, or oral vocabulary. Because the early


56

adolescent knows many thousand words, the total vocabulary is only estimated by

various tests. Children enter school knowing about 14,000 words (Carey, 1978; Smith,

1926; Templin, 1957) and learn 3,000 - 5,000 new words every year (Miller & Gildea,

1987; Nagy & Anderson, 1984; Nagy & Herman, 1987), or 10-13 new words each day.

By the time early adolescents are in the fifth grade they know 29,000-39,000 words and

leave eighth grade knowing about 42,000 -59,000 words. Some words are derivatives of

words already in their lexicon and some are less well known than others. Early

adolescents learn new words by hearing words in context, reading, and by adding

prefixes and suffixes to already known root words (Loban 1976).

Written Language.

Written language is also known to have an effect on language—on vocabulary

specifically and language competence generally. This is included in lexicology because

many new words are learned from reading. The spoken word is the primary source for

word learning in the early grades. At about the fourth grade written language becomes a

significant additional source of learning (Nippold, 1998). Proficient readers develop

substantially larger vocabularies than their peers who read less and consequently read

with less skill, interest and motivation (Nagy & Herman, 1987). When students reach

early adolescence, reading becomes increasingly more abstract, more precise, and more

context specific with some of the new words coming from school content areas, such as

math, English, history, and science. New vocabulary words for the early adolescent are

increasingly found in written contexts compared to spoken contexts (Nagy, Diakidoy, &

Anderson, 1993). As children become early adolescents, the length of the words

increased as well as the number of syllables in words.


57

Young children learn the meaning o f extremes (hot, cold; tall, short) before they

learn the meaning o f words in between (warm, cool; average). Early adolescents also are

able to identify adverbs at the ends of a continuum (definitely, possibly) before

identifying intermediate words (probably) (Hoffner, Cantor, & Badzinski, 1990). It is

important for teachers to know if students understand the extremes of a continuum (North

Pole, equator) before introducing words that fall between the extremes (temperate zones).

Morphology

From a semantic point of view, the smallest units that contribute to meanings are

called morphemes rather than words. Morphemes can be free and can stand alone like

boy and play, or be bound and attached to free morphemes, such as -s and -ed. Only one

morpheme is associated with the past tense of run, ran, while there are two morphemes in

played, play and -ed

M orphological Analysis.

There may be many bound morphemes in a single word. The word unseemliness

contains four morphemes: un-, seem, -ly, and -ness. Each of these morphemes is a

lexical item and contributes to the overall meaning of the word, and is part o f the lexicon.

During early adolescence some o f the new vocabulary acquired comes from learning to

use affixes. An affix is a letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (a morpheme)

which is added to a word and which changes the meaning or function of the word. Added

to the beginning o f a word an affix, (i.e., un-. ab-, or d i-\ constitute a prefix. Added to

the end o f a word an affix (i.e., -ness or ~ly) is a suffix, or added within the base of the

word (such as, gemology), the bound morpheme is an infix (Neufelldt, 1994). An

investigation by Dale and Eichholz (I960) produced a list of Words Understood by


58

Grade Level (shown in Table 7) that demonstrated early adolescent's comprehension of

selected words. Note that affixes begin to be seen in sixth grade words and are prominent

in eighth grade words.

When an unfamiliar word is encountered the components of the word can be

separated into lexical, inflectional, and derivational morphemes to infer the meaning of

the word using morphological analysis (Anglin, 1993). The words serviced, seabound,

and talkativeness can be separated into lexical morphemes (service, sea, bound, talk),

inflectional morphemes (-ed) and derivational morphemes (-ive, -ness). Wysocki and

Jenkins (1987) reported that students in grades fourth, sixth, and eighth were able to

derive meanings of unfamiliar words through morphological analysis in combination with

context clues in the written passages. Sixth and eighth graders were found to be more

proficient in combining two or more strategies for deciphering words than fourth graders.

Syntax

Syntax comes from a Greek word meaning arrangement. Syntax is the study of

how words combine to form sentences, and the rules which govern the formation of

sentences (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992).

Syntax is important to the innate theory o f language used by psycholinguists in

the late 19S0’s and 1960's because it enables language users to generate sentences. For

this theory phonology and semantics are purely interpretive. The leading proponent of

this theory was N. Chomsky who was concerned with what the child brought to language

learning. He reasoned that a child is presented with a finite set of examples, and must

form some hypothesis about the underlying rules for the language and test these rules.

According to Chomsky children are bom with a mechanism called a "language


59

Table 7

Words Understood by Grade Level

The following list was understood by 75% of the students at various grade levels.

Grade 4: bulldog, camper, cigar, crocodile, distance, dizzy, dodge, locket, sheriff,

sniff, tangle, thirst, weedy, widow, wives.

Grade 6“ adhesive, alto, appetite, bacteria, berth, bridal, campus, davenport,

fatherless, fishery, gadget, grit, midst, pardon

Grade 8* amend, archeology, byway, dimension, fluorescent, horoscope, inefficient,

laughingstock, lingerie, officialdom, salutation

Grade 10 circumstantial, deface, diversion, enshrine, gallows, hinder, implication,

negligent, orthodox, pollination, proton, refrain

1 Included in definition o f early adolescents.

Adapted from: Dale, E., & Eichholz, G. (I960), Children’s Knowledge o f Words: An

interim report. Columbus OH: Bureau of Educational Research and Service. Ohio State

University.


60

acquisition device” that assists the child in deriving syntactic rules. It is a theory that

contains rules for generating sentences (N. Chomsky as cited in Owens, 2001). This

theory neglects to describe innate cognitive abilities, negates children's uses of language,

and de-emphasizes the importance o f the environment and early social and cognitive

growth.

Syntax includes the organizational rules that specify word order, sentence

organization, and word relationships. The two sentences, “Bob ran to Ann ” and ““Ann

ran to Bob. ” each contain the same word-forms, morphemes and lexemes, but still

express different meanings because of the organization of the word-forms in the

sentences. Sometimes to make sentences syntactically correct different sequences of

words and the use of different morphemes are required as in the following four sentences.

Bob hugged Ann. Bob hugs Ann.

Ann is being hugged by Bob. Bob is hugging Ann.

Because of the interdependence between word structures (morphemes) and word

sequences (syntax), the two are often studied together as grammar.

Loban (1976) published a longitudinal study of 212 students that he followed

from kindergarten through high school. From his initial language and IQ testing he

created: the high group (top 35 scores, IQ 110), the low group (bottom 35 scores, IQ 90),

and the random group (picked using a table o f random numbers, IQ 100). The high

group always scored higher than the random group, the random group was always

between the high and low group, and low group was always below the random group.

Regardless o f the group, all students followed the same sequences o f language

development, the low group taking one to six years longer to meet milestones than the


61

high group. The most significant o f Loban's results, for this study, are how the dependent

clauses affect the mean length o f utterance (MLU). The MLU is defined as the main

clause and its modifiers.

Clauses.

While Loban found that there are many new applications of syntax that occur in

late childhood and early adolescence, it is primarily the use of dependent clauses that is

responsible for the dramatic increase in the MLU during early adolescence. This sharp

rise occurred in oral communication between the fifth and sixth grades and in written

communication between the seventh and eight grades. The number o f dependent clauses

increases until students begin to use other more concise methods of expressing

themselves both orally and in writing. He noted that superior writers often found "tighter

ways to coil their thoughts than dependent clauses permit" (p. 38). He also found that the

low group was weaker in comparison to the high and random groups not only because of

poor spelling, punctuation, and usage but also because o f a general lack of coherence and

organization of content. Loban found that overall there was a close correspondence

between the written and the oral MLU. Table 8 shows the oral MLU of the three groups

in his study over the twelve years o f study. The early adolescent years have been put in

bold. Note the sharp rise in MLU between the fifth and eighth grades. It is critical to

note that language development continues well after adolescence and into adulthood.

One method of elaborating and adding detail is by using clauses. When Loban

(1976) compared oral and written language elaboration samples, he found that points

given for elaboration were higher in the primary grades in oral language than in written


62

Table 8

Average Number of Words per Communication Unit—(Oral Language)

Grade 1 2 3 4 5“ 6* 7* 8* 9 10 11 12

MLU

13 h h

12 h h m

11 h h m m m I

10 h m m 1

9 h h m 1 1 I I

8 h m/h m/h m m 1

7 m 1 1 1 1

6 1

5

4

Key: the three groups were: h = high group, m = random group, I = low group

MLU = mean length of utterance

* Identifies early adolescents.

Taken from Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade 12..

Urbana, Illinois: National Council o f Teachers o f English, p. 28


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language. This changed as students entered sixth grade when written language had more

elaboration points than oral language, and remained so through high school.

Conjunctions

Both the meaning within sentences, and also between sentences, is part of the

study o f syntax. Intra-sentential growth occurs at the individual sentence level when a

sentence is made longer and ideas are joined by using conjunctions. Inter-sentential

growth occurs when ideas are related between sentences by using cohesive devices.

Growth in syntax during the early adolescent years can be traced to the use and

understanding of linguistic devices to join sentences to produce cohesive discourse. Two

types o f inter-sentential cohesive devices have been researched—the adverbial conjuncts

and lexical cohesion.

The first conjunction children use is and. And is followed by but and because. As

children enter early adolescence they begin to use more abstract and more precise

conjunctions. Nippold (1998) and Scott (1984) suggest that adverbial conjuncts such as

moreover, consequently, and furthermore, are used to link clauses and sentences on the

basis o f some logical relationship (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973). More common adverbial

conjuncts may occur in conversations where they can be used to signal transitions into

new or related topics (anyway, by the way) or a difference o f opinion (e.g., even so, on

the other hand) (Mentis, 1994). Dexterity in using these devices is important for both

academic success and conversational dexterity.

Lexical cohesion. Research has shown that certain lexical cohesion devices such

as synonyms and collocation are used across sentences in written language with

increasing frequency during the adolescent years (Crowhurst, 1987). A synonym or near-


64

synonym can be used to prevent redundancy while still maintaining cohesion across

sentences, such as those found in the following example.

The group was putting on a tennis tournament over the weekend.

Organizers were working hard to prepare for the contest.

In contrast, collocation occurs when words commonly associated with one

another co-occur in text. Examples of collocation from Halliday and Hasan (1976, pp.

285-286) include contrasts (hot, cold) and antonyms (wet, dry), words that are

categorical (table, chair), super-ordinate (dollar, penny), part-whole (lid, box), or

sequential (Saturday, Sunday), relationship to one another. When words related by

physical (door, window) or topical (sunshine, cloud, rain) proximity co-occur, this also

constitutes collocation. Words used in collocation generate a cohesive force if they occur

in adjacent sentences. Crowhurst (1987) demonstrated developmental increases in the use

of these two types of lexical cohesion devices when students were tested in sixth, tenth,

and twelfth grades.

The writing and reading o f different genre give students opportunities to practice

different cohesive devices. Writing, as opposed to speaking, is an ideal mode for

acquiring complex syntactic structures because writing allows the student to deliberate,

review, and correct without interference or pressure from a conversational partner

(Perera, 1985).

Grammar

Grammar is the description of the structure of our language. It is comprised of

principles and rules that govern word choice, word order, usage, sentence structure,

sentence type, dialect, paragraph form, paragraph function and story structure (Block,


65

2001). In other words, grammar is a study that includes the rules of both morphology and

syntax. The study of grammar generally takes place without considering the context of

the communication—any world reference, or the person who is talking or writing. It is in

the early adolescent years when students generally participate in a formal study of

grammar.

Syntactic attainments are closely related to academic success (Nippold, 1998).

Research has shown that elaboration and complexity of syntax are clearly measures of

development in both written and oral language (Loban, 1976). Table 9, Sequences o f

Oral Language Development, lists some of the milestones of language development

appearing in early adolescence that are related to syntactic achievements. This table also

indicates the MLU for each group o f ages. Table 10 Sequences o f Written Language

Development shows similar increases in length of communication unit for written work of

students. In Table 10, the numbers represent the average number o f words per

communication unit in writing.

Phonology

Spoken language can be described as a code where sound is used to create

meaning. Phonology is the study o f just those sounds that are used in a particular

language, such as English. For purposes of this research, phonology will be used as a

cover term for both phonetics (study of speech sounds) and phonemics (study or

description of the distinctive sound units and their relation to one another) (Richards,

Platt & Platt, 1992). Speech sounds are called phonemes. A phoneme is the


6 6

Table 9

Sequences of Oral Language Development

Ages Areas Demonstrating Growth in Oral Language

5 and 6 Tenses: Use pronouns and verbs correctly in

• present tense.

• past tense.

MLU: average 6.8; range 6 to 8 (weak and strong proficiency).

MLU 7; range of 4 to 9.5 [more affluent children) (O’Donnell, et al., 1967).

7 and 8 Clauses: Addition of more complex sentences using

• adjectival clauses

• conditional dependent clauses such as those beginning with if

MLU 7.5: range of 6.6 to 8.3

8-10 Conjunctions:

• Begin to relate particular concepts to general ideas, using

meanwhile, unless, even if.

• Begin to use the subordinating connector although correctly.

Tenses:

• Begin to use present participle active: Sitting up in bed, I looked around.

• Begin using perfect participle: Having read the book. I returned it to the

library.

Begin using gerund as the object of a preposition: I didn't have to read the book.

MLU 9; range of 7.5 to 9.3.


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Table 9 (continued).

Sequences of Oral Language Development

Ages Areas Demonstrating Growth in Oral Language

10 - 12* Structure: Frame hypothesis and envision consequences.

Conjunctions:

• Use subordinate clauses of concession introduced by connectives like

provided, that, nevertheless, in spite of, unless.

• Begin to use in speech If this, then that (probability) usually applied to

temporal things rather than to non-temporal ideas and relations.

Verbs: Use auxiliary verbs such as might, could, and should.

Tenses: Have difficulties distinguishing and using the past, past perfect, and

present perfect tenses of the verb and almost none of the students used the

expanded forms of the past perfect or the future perfect.

Clauses in both speech and writing:

• Immature coordination of main clauses showed a marked decrease.

• More subordinated adjectival clauses.

Adverbial clauses occurred twice as frequently (age 12) than in kindergarten.*

Phrases that appear more frequently:

• Nouns modified by a participle or participial phrase.

• Gerund phrase, the adverbial infinitive and the compound or coordinate

predicate: We examined and ate the candy in the package.

MLU 9.5; range of 8 to 10.5.

13-14* MLU 10.96; range of 9.2 to 11.79

1 Indicates early adolescents. Derived from: Loban, W. (1976).

* Study by O’Donnell, R. C., Griffin, W. J„ & Norris, R C. (1975).


68

Table 10

Sequences of Written Language Development

Ages

Areas Demonstrating Growth in Written Language

Numbers represent the average number of words per communication unit in

writing.

7 and 8 • Grade 2. ranged from 6.9 to 8.3 (High Scope study)

8 - 10 • In Loban’s study: 8.0 with a range from 6 to 9.

• In Hunt’s (1966) study: 8.1 for boys and 9.0 for girls

• When twelfth grade is used as a base for the total growth, the fourth

graders have achieved 46% of their total growth in writing.

10-12* • In Loban’s study: 9 with a range from 6.2 to 10.2

13-14* • In Loban’s study: 10.5 units in length with a range o f 8.78 to 11.09

a Indicates early adolescents.

Derived from: Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade

twelve. Urbana, IL: National Council o f Teachers of English.


69

smallest linguistic unit o f sound that functions to differentiate words from one another

using distinctive features. The words "ran" and "run” are alike in every respect except

the middle sounds, each being distinctly different. Because the word "ran" has a

different middle sound than "run", it is a different word with a different meaning.

Phonology is broken down into: articulation phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory

phonetics.

Articulation Phonetics

Articulatory phonetics describes the way speech sounds are produced. Sounds are

classified according to the place o f articulation—the position o f the lips, the tongue, how

far the mouth is open, the flow of air, and whether the vocal cords are vibrating. Most

children master all of the speech sounds by the age of eight. The last eight sounds to be

acquired are the ///, the sh sound in she; /0/, the th sound in thigh; /si, as in see; /z/, as in

zoo; /o/, as in thy; /l/, in lie; /r/ as in row; /3/, the ge in rouge (Crystal, 1995). By the age

o f ten only those early adolescents with pronounced speech problems are still learning to

articulate speech sounds (Paul, 1995). Sounds may also be described by the manner of

articulation, such as in slurred speech where the sounds are pronounced indistinctly by

combining or dropping sounds, or in stuttering where a sound in a word is repeated

several times (Newfield, 1994).

Acoustic Phonetics

Acoustic phonetics describes the transmission of sounds through the air in terms

of physical properties, such as, frequency, amplitude, intensity, and duration (Garman,

1990). When the voice changes, which it does during the adolescent years, the


70

fundamental frequency shifts to a lower frequency as the early adolescent’s vocal cords

become longer and the larynx becomes bigger. This is particularly noticeable in males.

The acoustic signal from a person speaking is continuous and words are not

signaled by breaks in the acoustic signal. Children, therefore, must be able to segment

and extract information about the units of speech from the variable and continuous

acoustic signals they receive (Barrett, 1999).

Auditory Phonetics

Auditory phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are perceived by the

listener. Assuming that the listener is able to use acoustic phonetics to segment and

extract words from a speech stream, then auditory phonetics enables the listener to

perceive speech and inflection. Intonation patterns, (pitch, loudness, syllable length, and

speech rhythm), rely on auditory phonetics for accurate perception by the listener, such as

the difference between "Run?" and "Run!" The differentiation in meaning made by a

listener becomes an issue o f semantics or meaning.

Children usually first use inflection with yes and no questions. Questions using

inflection are followed by stress (frilling pitch) to note ownership (’daddy car) [stress on

the first word, daddy] and location (daddy ’car) [stress on the second word, car].

Inflection plays a big part in delivering sarcasm or sarcastic remarks and is not

well understood by the early adolescent. Sarcasm expresses complex meanings that can

be interpreted in a variety o f ways. Demorest, Silberstein, Gardner, & Winner (1983)

examined the understanding o f sarcasm in children six-, eight-years o f age, and early

adolescents eleven-years-of-age by having them listen to a story with pictures, the last

sentence o f which was a sarcastic remark. Then the children were asked to explain the


71

last sentence. Six year olds generally failed to recognize both the discrepancy and the

speaker’s purpose, while eleven year-olds recognized both elements. Stories with only

intonational clues were the most difficult for early adolescents to understand (Capelli,

Nakagowa, & Madden, (1990).

Conclusions that can be drawn from these studies (Capelli, et al. 1990;

Cruttenden, 1974. Demorest, et al., 1983) are that early adolescents do not understand all

of the inflections and intonational patterns that are perceived by adult listeners, and that

early adolescents may misinterpret the meaning of some communications where

inflection or intonation is important for understanding.

Summary o f Components

It has been emphasized that language continues to develop throughout the early

adolescent years with skills developing in a sequential manner. Table 11 is a summary of

language skills acquired by age. The x’s on the table give an indication of the ages

wherein the skill is still developing (bold type X’s indicate early adolescences) and one

might see a great range of proficiency, from beginning to acquire a skill to great

competency with a skill. Some children will use a skill in one setting before generalizing

that skill to other settings or social situations. For example, reasoning may be seen in

social studies, but not English.

As can be seen in the table, story telling with complete episodes is not

accomplished during the early adolescent period. Pragmatic strategies also continue to

develop beyond early adolescence. Pragmatic strategies refer to organization o f thought

contributing to coherence in both oral and written forms of communication as can be seen

in reasoning, persuasion, and negotiation. Pragmatic strategies also include taking into


72

Table II

Summary of Language Skills Acquired in Eariy Adolescence

Skills \ Age Acquired 5 6 7 8 9 10* 11* 12* 13* 14* 15 16 17 18

Pragmatics, Perspective X X X X X X X X X

taking

Pragmatics, Storytelling 5 5 X X 69 69

% with complete episodes

Pragmatics, Strategy use X X X

transitions to mature forms

Pragmatics, Communication X X X X X X X X

strategies become automatic

Semantics, understands X X

definitely, probably, possibly

Semantics, Understands X X X

unless

Syntax, Pattern recognition X X X X X X X X X

Lexicology, +3.000words /vr. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

Morphology, adding affixes. X X X X X X X

-y. -er, un- bi-

Morphology, -ly. -hood X X X X X X

Phonology, masters fricatives X X X X

1 and X Identifies early adolescents.

An x or X means skill is in the process of being acquired.

Information taken from: Loban, (1976) and Owens (1999).


73

consideration the audience, what needs to be said, and how it can best be said. The syntax

patterns refer to the types o f sentences and the ways that sentences are formed. For

instance, the passive voice has a different syntactic pattern than the active voice.

The dog bit him. (active voce)

He was bitten by the dog. (passive voice)

Under semantics both conjunctions and words that begin adverbial clauses are listed as

being mastered in early adolescence, some earlier than others. An awareness of affixes is

necessary for morphological analysis, a skill used to identify the meaning of unfamiliar

words. This skill also continues to develop beyond early adolescence. Loban addressed

many components o f language in his study but he did not address inflection.

Theories o f Language as They May Affect a Textbook Author

An author of a textbook for teacher candidates has many decisions to make

regarding what content to include. To provide information on early adolescent language

the author need not present all of the theory regarding linguistics. Only some of the

explanations that are covered in linguistic theory are important for understanding early

adolescent language. Van Valin & La Polla (1997) list eight things that a linguistic theory

should explain. Those of concern to early adolescents are in bold type.

a. Why human languages have the structure that they do,

b. What is common to all human languages.

c. Why human languages vary structurally the way they do,

d. How human languages change over time,

e. How speakers use language in different social situations,

f. How speakers produce and understand language in real time,


74

g. What is the nature o f native speakers’ knowledge of their language, and

h. How children learn language, (adapted from p. 4).

Only e-h above are of concern when early adolescent language is examined: how

speakers use language in different social situations, how speakers produce and understand

language in real time, the nature o f native speakers' knowledge of their language, and,

how children and early adolescents learn language.

Other theoretical constraints on a textbook author might include theoretical

adequacy. Chomsky (1968) first proposed levels o f theoretical adequacy. They are:

a. Observational adequacy: Grammar correctly predicts which sentences

in a language are well formed and which are not.

b. Descriptive adequacy: The grammar is observationally adequate, and it

assigns structural descriptions to the sentences in the language that

captures native speaker intuitions about the structure and meanings of

the sentences.

c. Explanatory adequacy: The grammar is descriptively adequate and is

part of a theory that provides an account of how these facts arise in the

mind of the speaker-hearer (p. 386).

Additional levels of theoretical adequacy have been added by Dik, (1991), which

are more applicable to acquired language in early adolescence than those Chomsky

proposed and include the following:

d. Psychological adequacy: a theory should be compatible with the

results of psycholinguistic research on the acquisition, processing,


production, interpretation, and memorization of linguistic expression

(P-248).

e. Pragmatic adequacy: "the theory and the language descriptions based

on the theory must be interpretable within a wider pragmatic theory of

verbal communication" (p. 247)

f Typological adequacy: "the theory should ’formulate such rules and

principles as can be applied to any type of language without ‘forcing,’

without adapting the language to be described to the theory already

developed’" (p.248).

The author who writes a textbook for teacher candidates may limit what is said

about language not only by the components the author is willing to discuss, but the

linguistic theoretical stances that the author is willing to present. The theoretical stance

may limit what is said about language and its development. An author, who only talks

about the social uses of language, will probably not tell readers how early adolescents

gain meaning from understanding the use o f morphemes. Because a theoretical

perspective views all of the components of language from a particular stance, the

theoretical perspective may limit what can be discussed and how it is discussed.

Textbooks as a Source of Teacher Knowledge

Earlier in this chapter, the importance of teacher knowledge of early adolescent

language development was discussed. Now, it becomes important to understand how

teacher candidates acquire that knowledge. Teacher candidates are required to take

classes where the primary sources o f information are the lecture/discussion and readings.

Most college classes have required textbooks. Books found on college and university


76

campuses are usually textbooks, but may also, on occasion, be trade books. Textbooks

are published primarily by three sources: recognized textbook publishers, professional

and academic book publishers, and university presses.

Trade Book Publishers

Trade books are the popular books aimed at the general population, which are

found in bookstores. Usually, trade books are short in length, easily read, and not well

referenced. They may sometimes be used as supplementary readings but are seldom used

as required textbooks (Silverman, F., 1998). They were not be considered as textbooks in

this research.

Professional and Academic Book Publishers

Professional and academic book publishers publish specialized books and

monographs intended for academics and working professionals. Often used as reference

books, these specialized books are not typically used as required textbooks for

undergraduate courses (Silverman, F., 1998), and, consequently, were not considered in

this research.

University Presses

University presses are major publishers of professional reference books, are

highly selective about the books they publish, and keep the publication in press for

several years. These books also are not usually written for undergraduates (Silverman,

F., 1998), and were not considered in this research.

Textbook Publishers

Textbooks from textbook publishers are sold to college bookstores owned or

leased by an institution or by independent bookstores that specialize in textbook sales on


77

or near a campus. Textbook publishers prefer to deal directly with authors who are

usually college professors but may also be professional writers. Publishers will update a

book every few years, using a new edition when new research and new information

marks the old textbook as out of date. When sales drop publishers will declare a book

’out of print.' Textbook publishers compete for a limited and predictable market of

subject matter classes, particularly in undergraduate level classes (Silverman, F., 1998).

Only textbooks published by textbook publishers and authored by people associated with

a college or university will be considered for this research.

Teacher Education Courses

Teacher candidates need to take specialized courses to learn about the

characteristics and development of their future students. Colleges and universities offer

classes in child development and educational psychology to meet this need.

Child Development Courses

Child development courses include information on physical, social, and emotional

development o f children, early adolescents and adolescents. These courses contain

general developmental information for education, psychology, and social work students.

Educational Psychology Courses

Educational psychology courses also include information on student

characteristics, but emphasize how students learn, and how teachers can change student

behaviors. These classes are primarily for education majors, but as well meet

requirements for college students interested in counseling and psychology. In both

courses issues related to language and language development may be presented.


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Summary

This chapter described some theoretical views of language that a textbook author

might consider when addressing the language o f early adolescents. The theoretical

positions that the author takes will influence what the author says about language. This

discussion included the innate, the social or communicative and the cognitive theories of

language development.

During the early adolescent years language continues to develop with

developmental changes occurring in all o f the component areas o f language including

pragmatics, semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology. Some of the

developmental changes where described for each component o f language along with

some of the developmental changes that occur in language.

Teacher candidates may learn about the language of their future early adolescent

students from textbooks in child development and or educational psychology courses.

This research examined textbooks in these two categories to find what information on

early adolescent language was included in some of the textbooks used today.

Chapter Three describes the methodology and procedures used in identifying and

analyzing the data. Chapter Four contains the data. Chapter Five includes the discussion,

conclusions, limitations and suggestions.


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CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD

Introduction

This chapter identifies the method, discusses the procedures used, and describes

how inter-rater reliability was established.

The purpose of this research was to assess whether information about early

adolescent language was incorporated into the textbooks that teacher candidates are

likely to encounter in child development and educational psychology courses. To

accomplish this purpose a content analysis with description was used. Textbooks were

selected, appropriate passages were found and coded, coded data was entered into tables

where it was discussed and compared.

Other things this research examined included how the authors described

language, the quantity of the information on early adolescence language, the quality of

the information, and the theoretical perspectives that the author used to describe

language. This research also briefly discussed what the impact of the information found

in the textbooks might be on the reader.

Method

The research method used was a content analysis with description. A content

analysis is a method used to answer research questions about content (Riffe, Lacy &

Fico, 1998). Schwandt (1997) describes content analysis as a means o f textual analysis

that involves comparing, contrasting, and categorizing a large amount of data. In the

design of a content analysis, the researcher identifies the categories for analysis, the

content in each category, and then evaluates the content of each category. Contrasts and

comparisons are then made among and between categories.


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The two categories for analysis were the child development textbooks and the

educational psychology textbooks. The content in each area included the sub

components of language, how the selections were addressed language, the length of the

selections, the quality o f the selections and the theoretical perspectives. The content of

each category was sub-divided and given codes. Selected passages in the textbooks each

contained a topic that could be identified under a sub-component o f language and applied

to early adolescents. These were called selections. Selections were entered onto data

sheets, coded, and counted. The data was entered into tables. Sample selections were

included with the data in a summary o f each textbook in chapter four. This data was then

discussed in chapter five and conclusions were made from this data.

Textbooks Used in Analysis

All colleges and universities that prepare teachers have a required curriculum,

required courses with required textbooks. Most programs typically require a child

development and/or an educational psychology course. An effort was made to identify

the most influential and widely used textbooks, so that the results might indicate what

teacher candidates would be aware of concerning early adolescent language if they had

used any of the selected child development and educational psychology textbooks.

Identifying Textbooks

Four methods were used and to select textbooks. The first method was to identify

established publishing houses that were often used to supply textbooks for beginning

teacher preparation courses. The second method was to identify possible textbooks by

sales volume. The third method was to limit authorship and identify topics within

possible textbooks so that there would be some material on which to gather data. The


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fourth method was by asking professors who teach these two courses to identify

appropriate textbooks and verify or change the selected textbooks.

A Non-Random Sample.

The above selection process created a purposive sample, and not a random

sample. A sample is a subset of the units from the entire population being studied. “If

researchers assemble samples in any way other than random sampling the

representativeness o f the sample is biased and sampling error cannot be calculated

accurately” (Riffe, Lacy & Fico, 1998, p. 81). Purposive samples are used because o f the

nature of the research project and require research justifications, such as time or content.

The availability of the content was one consideration (after publisher and sales volume)

in this research. If a textbook did not mention language in the table of contents, it was

considered less likely to have information on early adolescent language than a textbook

that did mention language in the table of contents. A purposive sample defines the

population based on practical considerations. A purposive sample was used.

Identification o f Areas That Were Compared (Coding Categories)

Components

Research Question 1.1 What Components o f Early Adolescent Language are

Discussed in the Textbook?

The major components of language are identified as pragmatics, semantics, syntax,

lexicology, morphology, and phonology. These components and the associated sub

components were identified and discussed in the literature review. Those sub

components that were identified in the textbooks included under pragmatics:

conversation, discourse, and comprehension; under semantics: concepts and meanings;


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under syntax: clauses, conjunctions and grammar, under lexicology: size o f vocabulary,

and written language influence on vocabulary; under morphology: morphological

analysis; and under phonology: voice change, and inflection.

Description o f Language

Research Question 1.2 How Was Language Described? The way authors

described language was divided into three perspectives that could be used with early

adolescent language. They are somewhat weighted from brief coverage to detailed

coverage, but the author’s way of writing took precedence. First, the “snap-shot” was a

description without great elaboration that noted just what could be observed. For

example, “early adolescents use complex sentences with clauses.” Second, the

developmental approach compared early adolescent language to another age or placed

language skills in a sequence of development. The third way that authors described

language was in terms o f how early adolescents acquire language skills. Selections

associated with acquisition often listed strategies for learning skills. All selections were

coded for the way in which the author wrote about early adolescent language.

Length o f Selections

Research Question 1.3: What were the Depths (Lengths) o f the Selections? The

depth of the author’s coverage was measured by the quantity o f writing: isolated hem,

vignette, sentence, paragraph, or section. Isolated items were individual words or

phrases that were mentioned but not elaborated upon, such as an item in a series of items

used to give a specific example of a broader topic. The vignette included any table,

figure, margin note, graph, chart, or vignette that was not in the running text. A sentence

was one sentence. A paragraph was a paragraph or three or more sentences of a


83

paragraph. This was done because some authors had many topics in a single paragraph

that covered several pages. Sometimes a paragraph would contain information on a topic

but would compare several ages. If more than one sentence addressed early adolescent

ages, the paragraph was coded. The section was a paragraph or more with a section or

sub-section heading o f its own where all of the material was pertinent to the topic being

addressed.

Quality o f the Selections

Research Question 2: With What Quality is Adolescent Language Discussed in

the Textbook?

The quality of the information on early adolescent language is classified as being

misinformation, unclear information (information needing more clarification for

application or understanding), adequate information, and best quality of information

available (information given in great detail, or backed by current research).

Theoretical Perspectives

Research Question 3: Does the Textbook Present Content Related to Language

from a Particular Theoretical Framework? If so, in what manner is the content

presented? The theoretical stances identified in the literature review included the innate,

behavioral, cognitive and social/environmental.

Procedures

Procedure fo r Selecting Sample Textbooks

The procedures for selecting sample textbooks included identifying publishers,

identifying sales volume, limiting authorship and poling professors.


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Identifying Publishers. This researcher found through inquiries o f libraries,

bookstores, web searches and fellow students that child development and educational

psychology textbooks are published by at least twelve different publishers, identified in

Figure 3.1. Each o f these publishers was contacted on line and asked, “What textbooks in

the areas of child development and educational psychology are published by your

company and are widely used in the preparation of teachers o f early adolescents?” Three

publishers’ representatives contacted the researcher, two by e-mail and one with a phone

call. The representatives from Heineman and Steinman suggested titles o f textbooks

they publish. ABLongman, formerly Allyn and Bacon, and Longman, referred the

researcher to their web site. The publishers and their representatives seemed either

unable or unwilling to say which books sold more than others.

The recent consolidation o f publishing houses created some confusion regarding

what books came from a particular publisher. Merrill Publishers listed books published

by ten other publishing companies that are now owned by one publishing group. With so

many publishers consolidated under one name, it was evident that some other method of

identifying textbooks would be necessary than taking the best selling textbook of each

publisher. A web search discovered that, although some textbooks had the same title and

author, they were issued by different publishers and were assigned different ISBN

numbers. For example, Teaching Strategies: A guide to better instruction, 5th edition by

Donald C. Orlich (Ed.) (1990) was listed with two publishers DC Heath with ISBN

0395872456 and Houghton Mifflin with ISBN 0618025413.


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This initial search also uncovered the fact that many authors had written both

child development and educational psychology textbooks. A decision was made to use

an author only once, for their most widely sold textbook.

The list o f publishers was then narrowed to five publishers that publish widely for

undergraduate college classes. All admitted or proclaimed to being a large supplier of

textbooks for these particular undergraduate classes—educational psychology and child

development. The final selection o f publishers included the following:

1. Allyn and Bacon

2. Houghton Mifflin

3. McGrawHill

4. Prentice Hall

5. Wadsworth

These were the only publishers considered in the final selection of textbooks. A list o f

the publishers that were considered appears in Table 12, along with the number of

textbooks each published in child development (CD) and educational psychology (EP).

Publishers that were selected and the books selected appear in bold type.

Identifying by Sales Volume. The second method of selection was to determine

the volume of books sold. The web sites for large book distributors, Amazon

(amazon.com) and Barnes and Nobel (bn.com), list books by category, but do not

distinguish between trade books and textbooks. They both also list books by publisher

and rank books by sales volume. Only Amazon identified rank-by-rank numbers. Barnes

and Nobel listed books by rank but without ranking numbers.


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Table 12

Distribution and Sources of Selected Textbooks

Issues Initial Returned Merrill Internet Considered Chosen

Publishers Contact e-mails List CD EP CD'EP*

Ailyn & Bacon* X X X 7 23 30 3 3

Longman X X X I I 2

Addison Wesley I 23 24

Guilford 2 4 6

Heinemann X X I - I

Houghton Mifflin* X X 4 6 10 1

DC Heath - -

John Wiley -

Jossev-Bass

McGraw Hill* X 20 6 26 2 1

Merrill X 176 titles, none published by Merrill.

Prentice Hall* X X 24 - 2

Stenhouse X X I I 2

Teachers College 5 - 5

Wadsworth* 34 6 40 I

Totals 75 74 149 6 7

1 Identifies textbooks selected for study.

Each group of un-separated publishers represents a consolidated publishing house. Within each

group, the same book (title and author) may be published by more than one publisher.


87

At Amazon the most popular selling book was ranked “ 1”; the less popular were

ranked with increasingly larger numbers up to nearly two million. The researcher

defined a “widely-used-textbook,” as one with a sales rank o f600,000 or better, placing

it in the top quarter of all books sold by Amazon. The rank by Amazon was one

indication of sales popularity that was accessible to this researcher. Because many

textbooks are sold by college textbook stores, instead of book distributors like Amazon,

trustworthiness o f this selection process was suspect. Those textbooks that sold very few

copies and ranked below the rank o f600,000 at Amazon were not considered, at this

time.

Limiting Authorship. The third method o f selection examined author

qualifications and book content An examination was made of the title page and table of

contents o f textbooks that met the above criteria for publisher and sales volume. The

title page identified the authors, their university, and the edition of the book. Authors of

first editions, who had never published before, were not considered. All o f the authors

finally selected were either in a second or later edition of their textbook or had published

other articles or textbooks in the fields o f child development and educational psychology.

Textbooks in the final selection were all written by professors or people associated with a

college or university. Professional writers were not included primarily because o f sales

volume, but also because of no university to affiliation, and the possibility o f the book

being a trade book and not a textbook.

To narrow the number of textbooks to a manageable number to examine for

analysis, one last selection criteria was used. The table of contents was examined to see


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whether or not language was a topic. As a result of the selection process, five child

development textbooks and six educational psychology textbooks were selected.

A Poll o f Professors. The last step in the selection process was to confirm or

change the sample by speaking to teaching professors at the University o f Nevada, Reno

(UNR). Four faculty members, two teaching educational psychology and two teaching

child development, were given the list o f the textbooks selected in their area. They were

asked, “What textbooks would you expect to see on a list that is representative of widely

used child development (or educational psychology) textbooks?” “Is the list above

representative of widely used textbooks in the course you teach?” “Are there other

textbooks you would include in a representative sample of textbooks in this area?”

The two faculty members teaching child development independently suggested

that Santrock’s textbook on child development, published by McGraw Hill, be included.

This book had not been on the original list because Amazon.com ranked it below

600,000 sales rank. On the recommendation of these two professors, Santrock’s (2001)

book was added to the list, making six child development textbooks.

During the summer o f2001, professors at UNR had completed a comprehensive

review o f educational psychology textbooks in the process o f evaluating and updating

their courses. These professors suggested textbooks already on the list by Ormrod

(2000); Woolfolk (2001); and Snowman & Biehler (2000), but also asked that another

textbook be considered—one by Elliott, KratochwilL, & Travers (2000) and published by

Brown and Benchmark. These professors felt that this textbook was the most complete

and comprehensive educational psychology textbook available. This was not a publisher

previously considered. After further inquiry, it was found that the third edition of this


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textbook, was published by McGraw Hill. It, too, was added to the list of selected

textbooks, making seven.

Since the professors did not want to remove any previously selected titles from

the existing lists and only had one title to add to each of the child development and

educational psychology categories, this researcher felt that the selection process appeared

to arrive at a representative sample o f widely used and influential textbooks. Of the 149

textbooks identified (Table 12), 13 were selected and are listed in Table 13 (child

development) and Table 14 (educational psychology). Between the time the textbooks

were selected and acquired, some o f the copyright dates on the books changed, for

example Meece’s textbook has a 2002 date. In the next chapter, the date o f the textbook

that was actually used is listed. The ISBN numbers did not change.

Coding Procedures

Identification o f Selections or Passages in Textbooks

The examination o f the contents o f the 13 textbooks began by searching for

topics related to early adolescent language in the textbooks. To this end, the of contents,

index, and chapter summaries of each textbook were consulted to locate passages having

to do with early adolescent language. The textbook presented information on early

adolescent language when the author met any of the criteria for the definition of

language. The definition o f language used in this research and presented in Chapter 1, is

repeated here:

Language is a socially shared code or conventional system for representing

concepts through the use o f arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of

those symbols (Owens). Language is both the object o f knowledge and the


90

Table 13

Selected Child Development Textbooks

Title.

ISBN

Authors)

Publisher

Pages

Pub. Date

Rank on

8/1/01*

Rankll/l/0lo

Ama- Bames zon /Nobel

The Developing Child, 9/e

ISBN: 0321047095

Helen Bee

Allyn & Bacon

575 pp

6/3/99

246,259 439 104

Child Development, 5/e

ISBN: 0205286348

Laura Berk

Allyn & Bacon

776 pp

8/10/99

93.225 178 136

Of children: An Introduction to

Child and Adolescent

Development. 9/e

ISBN: 0534526063

Guy Lefrancois

Wadsworth

654 pp

6/01

634,770 720c 252c

Child and Adolescent

Development for Educators.

2/e ISBN: 0072507683

Judith Meece

McGraw Hill

400 pp

9/01/01

427.847 355 428

Child Development 9/e

ISBN: 0072420049

J.WW Santrock

McGraw Hill

653 pp

8/00

1.026.174 449C I46c

Understanding Children and

Adolescents. 4/e

ISBN: 020531418X

1. Schickedanz

D. Schickedanz

P. D Forsyth

G. A. Forsyth

Allvn & Bacon

716 pp

7/21/00

582,730 736 197

a Ranking numbers of 8/1/01 are based on Amazon total sales, approximately 2 million. b Ranking numbers on 11/1/01 are based on Child Development books listed by keyword. Amazon listed 765 titles and Bames and Nobel listed 2102 titles c Ranking numbers listed on 12/1/01.


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Table 14

Selected Educational Psychology Textbooks

Title

ISBN

Author

Publisher

Pages

Pub. Date

Rank

8/1/01*

Rank ll/l/O l6

Ama- Barnes / zon Nobel

Educational Psychology:

Windows on Classrooms. 5/e:

ISBN: 013017176X

P. Eggan

D. Kauchak

Prentice Hall

728 pp

7/11/00

264.436 116 284


Developing Learners. 3/e

ISBN: 0130322989

J. E. Omrod

Prentice Hall

773 pp

7/01/00

306.622 210 383


Theory and Practice. 6/e

ISBN: 0205292704

R. E Slavin

Allyn & Bacon

5% pp

7/22/99

259.957 33 99

Psychology Applied to

Teaching, 9/e

ISBN: 06118096043

J. Snowman. R. Beihler.

C. J. Bonk

Houghton-MifOin

672 pp

7/01/00

416.359 442 Not

ranked

Educational Psychology

ISBN: 0321011848

R. J. Sternberg

W. M. Williams

Allyn & Bacon

640 pp

10/19/01

208.089 Not

listed

154


Effective teaching, effective

learning, 3/e

ISBN: 0697375404

S. N. N. Elliott

T. R. Kratochwill

J. L. Cook: J. Travers

McGraw-Hill

656 pp

6/99

Not

checked

Not

checked

Not

checked

Educational Psychology. 8/e:

ISBN: 0205289959

A. Woolfolk

Allyn & Bacon

661 pp

7/26/00

49.093 56 91

* Ranks o f 8/1/01 are based on Amazon total sales, approximately 2 million. b Ranks on 11/1/01 based on keyword, published after 1997. Amazon had 542 titles, bn had 1578 titles.


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medium through which knowledge is acquired (Cazden, 1973). Language is a

dynamic system, including content, form and use. It is developmental and

culturally dependent, (ASLHA, 1982). Language in this paper will include the

broadest definitions of language so that not only the rules of language can be

visited but also the situations where language is used and the communicative

intent can be established. Language in this research refers to both oral sounds

and written symbols used by people to communicate. English is the default

language intended unless otherwise specified.

Topics that were successful in locating passages about early adolescent language

included: adolescence, peers, social skills, communication, critical thinking and

reasoning, concept formation, grammar, etc. An alphabetical detailed list is included in

the Appendix B. The pages were noted in the index and table of contents for items that

might pertain to early adolescent language. These pages were then read for any sentence,

paragraph or section that might have to do with the language o f early adolescents. When

the table o f contents and index sources of early adolescent language had been read and

coded, the summaries of every chapter were read looking for any passages or selections

that might have been missed.

Passages were then read for details, and evaluated. Sometimes preceding and

following passages were read to establish either language or early adolescence. The

passage was coded if it met any of the descriptions in the broad definition for language

above. Early adolescence was established if any o f the ages included in the description

included the ages o f 10-14 years-of-age. Sometimes headings, examples, research

findings as well as skills and abilities listed in the running text were used to establish age


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of children and/or language. Passages were not used if they only implied language,

discussed just thinking or described any activity, such as problem solving, without the

use o f language.

Coding Criteria fo r Sub-Components

In the sections that follow the coding for components and sub-components is

explained. Each sub-component is followed by an example from Educational

Psychology, 3rd ed by Robert E. Slavin, (1991). (This textbook was not one of the 10

textbooks selected for analysis).

Pragmatics. Pragmatics was coded if the use of language was discussed. The use

of language referred to the purpose of the communication (argument, story telling), or

the type o f language used (slang, idioms, etc.). Pragmatics was divided into

conversation, discourse, and competence.

I. Conversation: This entry included slang, persuasion and negotiation,

inductive and deductive reasoning, idioms, ambiguity, and sarcasm. An

example of inductive and deductive reasoning in Slavin (1991):

Another ability Piaget and others recognized in the young adolescent is

the ability to reason about situations and conditions that have not been

experienced. The adolescent can accept, of the sake o f argument or

discussion, conditions that are arbitrary, that are not known to exist, or

even that are known to be contrary to fact. Adolescents are not bound to

their own experiences of reality, so they can apply logic to any given set

of conditions, (p. 83)


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2. Discourse: This item included proverbs, jokes, storytelling, and reports.

Slavin (1991) had no examples o f discourse.

3. Communicative Competence: This item was coded if the author discussed or

described how well thoughts and ideas are either expressed in words or

received in words by the early adolescent. An example from Slavin (1991):

Studies of reciprocal teaching methods have found that they significantly

increased the reading comprehension o f low-achieving junior high school

students.” (p. 177)

Semantics. Semantics had two sub-components concepts and meanings.

1. Concepts. When the author discussed the formation o f concepts or schemas

concepts were coded. An example of concepts:

Various aspects o f schemata may be related by series of propositions, or

relationships. For example. Figure 5.6 illustrates a simplified schema for

the word “bison” showing how this concept is related to other concepts in

memory, (p. 139)

2. Meanings included the meanings o f words, multiple meanings of words, or

metaphorical meanings o f words or phrases. Slavin (1991) had no examples.

Syntax. Syntax had three sub-components: clauses, conjunctions, and grammar.

1. Clauses was coded if the author mentioned the increase in the use of clauses

in early adolescence. Slavin (1991) had no examples.

2. Conjunctions were coded when the author discussed the change in the use of

conjunctions in early adolescence. Slavin (1991) had no examples.


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3. Grammar or rules o f grammar included cohesive devices within and between

paragraphs and sentences. Slavin (1991) had no examples

Lexicology. Lexicology was divided into two sub-components. First, the number

of words the early adolescents had in their vocabulary, and second, the effect of written

language on vocabulary or other aspect o f language. Slavin, 1991 had no examples.

1. Vocabulary size, how the vocabulary increased, or the change in the size of

the vocabulary over the years, were all coded under vocabulary size.

2. The effect of written language on vocabulary was the second sub-component.

This was coded when the vocabulary specifically or language in general of

the early adolescent was changed in some way by the written text.

Morphology. Morphology had only one sub-component, morphological analysis.

This was coded when the author discussed word affixes including suffixes and prefixes

and their use, such as changing nouns to adverbs, accident to accidentally. There were no

examples in Slavin (1991).

Phonology. Phonology had two sub-components the voice change that occurs in

puberty, or other voice characteristics, and inflection.

1. Voice change was mentioned by Slavin ( 1991). “Boys: The voice deepens

noticeably” p. 80.

2. Using or hearing inflections or intonational patterns or word stress was coded

as inflection. Slavin (1991) had no examples.

Criteria fo r Selecting the Quantity o f Language Coverage

The quantity was coded for all selections according to the amount o f text that was

used to describe a component. The quantity was identified as being an isolated item, a


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vignette, a sentence, a paragraph, or a section comprised of several paragraphs or one

half page paragraph or more with a heading. The vignette code described any source not

in the running text. This code included a margin note, a table, graph, picture caption,

chart, summary of skills, or figure.

The following criteria were used to quantify the depth (length) o f language

information. The criteria and codes are listed below followed by an example from

Educational Psychology, 3rd ed by Robert E. Slavin, (1991). (This textbook was not one

of the 13 textbooks selected for analysis).

1. Content mentioned in a single word or phrase, without elaboration

Code. T ’ for isolated item.

Example: “ . . some preteens talk back to teachers in ways they would

never have considered several years earlier, and some openly

challenge teachers” (Slavin, 1991, p. 77).

Rationale: A single sentence gives isolated information that is usually not

tied to other language behaviors and does not give reasons for the

behavior. This code originally also stood for implied, but teacher

candidates would not grasp implications o f language without prior

knowledge needed to infer meaning. Implied use of language was

avoided and only explicitly stated language was coded.

2. Language presented in vignettes, tables, graphs, figures, margins—places other

than the running text.

Code: “V” for vignette.

Example: Beverly Harrison, a seventh-grade teacher in Omaha, Neb., says


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teachers must remember the limitations o f students’ experience

and

knowledge. 'I tended to over estimate the readiness and

background o f my students, so I taught ‘over their heads’ for many

years. I expected them to have heard about the things I knew

about as an adult. It wasn’t until my own child reached the level

that I was teaching that I realized children are limited in their

scope of experiences, vocabulary, and conceptual development.

Teachers must remember themselves as students at the level at

which they are teaching. I became a better teacher when I realized

the limitations o f my students.’ (Slavin, 1991, p. 75).

Rationale: A vignette will give more extensive information and contextual

details, such as the teacher’s experience described in the example

text above. A vignette is isolated, often appearing in a box, and

there is no supporting evidence in the text. The fact that

vocabulary and concepts are limited in seventh graders was not

supported or expanded upon in the text.

3. More than one sentence with an explanation, elaboration, or reason.

Code: “R”. for reason, and rationale.

Example: Children in the upper elementary grades move from egocentric

thought to more decentered thought. Nine- to twelve-year-olds can

perform logical, reversible thinking; can reason without having to


physically manipulate objects; and are aware o f different variables

and their relationships, (p. 93).

Rationale: The first sentence offers general information, and the second

sentence supports the first with specific examples that give

expanded meaning to what is stated, however there is no further

discussion in the text. This unit, coded R, is being used to denote

information that does not comprise a paragraph.

4. A paragraph with elaboration or explanation.

Code: “P” for paragraph.

Example: Children normally develop basic language skills before entering

school. Language development involves both verbal and written

communication. Verbal abilities develop very early, and by age

three, children are already skillful talkers. By the end of the

preschool years, children can use and understand an almost infinite

number of sentences, can hold conversations, and know about

written language (Gleason, 1981; Menyuk, 1982; Schickedanz et.

al.. 1982). p. 59-60.

Rationale: A paragraph is long enough to contain information that not only

describes a concept, but gives related details, reasons, and

examples.

5. A section, generally several paragraphs, half a page or longer.

Code: “W” for a whole section.

Example: Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s Theory


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Piaget’s theory revolutionized and still dominates the study

of human development. However, some of his central principles

have been questioned in more recent research, and modern

descriptions o f development have revised many of his views.

One important Piagetian principle is that development

precedes learning. That is, Piaget held that developmental stages

were largely fixed, and that such concepts as conservation could

not be taught. However, research has established some cases in

which conservation could not be taught. However, research has

established some cases in which Piagetian tasks can be taught to

children at earlier developmental stages (Gardner, 1982; Price,

1982). Piaget (1964) responded to such demonstrations by

arguing that the children must have been on the verge of the next

developmental stage already—but the fact remains that some

(though not all) o f the Piagetian tasks can be taught to children

well below the age at which they usually appear without

instruction.

Other critics have argues that Piaget underestimated

children’s abilities by using confusing, abstract language and

overly difficult tasks. Several researchers have found that young

children can succeed on simpler forms o f Piaget’s tasks that

require the same skills (Donaldson, 1978; Black, 1981). For

example, Gelman (1979) found young children could solve the


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conservation problem involving the number o f blocks in a row

when the task was presented in a simpler way with simpler

language. Boden (1980) found that the same formal operational

task produced passing rates from 19 to 98 percent, depending on

the complexities o f the instructions (see also Nagy and Griffiths,

1982).

Similar kinds o f research have also led to a reassessment of

children’s egocentricity. In simple, practical contexts children

demonstrated their ability to consider the point o f view of others

(Donaldson, 1978, Black, 1981; Damon, 1983).

The result o f this research has been a recognition that

children are more competent that Piaget originally thought,

especially when their practical knowledge is being assessed.

Obviously, older children do succeed at tasks that overwhelm

younger children, so differences in their thinking must exist.

Gelman (1979) suggests that the cognitive abilities of preschoolers

are more fragile than those o f older children and therefore are only

evident under certain conditions. The skills that preschoolers do

display, however, are the roots of later, more complex

understandings.

For more on revisions of Piaget’s theories, see Miller

(1983) and Nagy and Griffiths (1982). (pp. 37-38)


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Rationale: A section is long enough to cover a concept in detail with

examples, a progression, or describe several related concepts and

indicate how they are related to each other.

6. A chapter. This was an original heading but was not used because no

textbook had a full chapter on early adolescent language.

Criteria fo r Identifying the Way Textbooks Described Early Adolescent Language

The way that the authors described language was coded next. All passages were

coded. Three choices were possible: language development, language acquisition, or

language description. When the author described language in relation to earlier or later

development, such as, “vocabulary continues to increase.’’ the selection was coded as a

statement that discussed the development of language. When the author mentioned a

strategy used to increase language skills the statement was coded as language

acquisition. For example, “An outline can be used with oral reports to organize thoughts

and remember the important ideas.” was coded language acquisition because the passage

listed a strategy for speaking that was intended to improve the content o f what was said.

When the author’s statements could not be classified as either development or acquisition

then the passage just described language as a “snap-shot”—what the language looked

like. For example, “Early adolescents may not understand the inflection of sarcasm.”

describes early adolescent language abilities and would be coded as a description only.

This passage did not address acquiring a language skill nor did it address developmental

stages or sequences, although this might be implied.


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Criteria fo r Selecting the Quality o f the Selections

The quality of the passage was intended to establish whether what the author had

to say about early adolescent language was understandable or usable. Confusing

passages with ambiguous meanings were coded as unclear. Passages coded as best

possible, explained one aspect o f language in detail and depth, and out of proportion to

other topics in the textbook. These passages usually provided more information than a

beginning teacher could easily use. These passages were also often associated with the

author’s own research or pet topic. Miss-information was a code for something that was

totally wrong in relation to information uncovered in the literature review. All selections

not coded for one o f the above were coded as adequate.

A Likert type scale was used to measure the quality o f the information. The scale

of I - 4, as described below, was applied to each language component.

1. Misinformation.

Code: “X” for wrong, out dated, or misinformation

Example: Language development is complete by the end o f the elementary

school years. (Example not found in text used for examples.)

Rationale: When any information is given that cannot be verified in the

literature review or the sources o f the literature review, it will be

deemed misinformation.

2. Unclear.

Code: “Y” for why didn’t the text elaborate more?

Example: “ ... some preteens talk back to teachers in ways they would


never have considered several years earlier, and some openly

challenge teachers” (p. 77).

Rationale: The quality o f content will be coded as unclear when a statement

is made and is not tied to other information in the text, where no

explanation is made that would clarify why the author made the

statement, or where no explanation for the behavior is given.

3. Adequate information, but the information lacks depth.

Code: “A” for adequate

Example: Children in the upper elementary grades move from egocentric

thought to more decentered thought. Nine- to twelve-year-olds can

perform logical, reversible thinking; can reason without having to

physically manipulate objects; and are aware of different variables

and their relationships, (p. 93).

Rationale: This information is adequate, but the quality of the information is

less than that described in the literature review.

4. Meets or exceeds information found in the literature review.

Code: “B” for better information—meets or exceeds that information

found in the literature review of this research project, or cites

extensive detail and current research.

Example: One important implication o f transformational grammar theory is

that different languages or dialects that can express the same

information are linguistically equivalent. For example, although a

dialect used within black communities in the United States has its


own grammatical rues and conventions, it is equivalent in

conceptual quality to standard English. Standard English should

still be taught to all students because proficiency in it is important

in its own right, but this does not imply that the cognitive level of

different languages or dialects differ (Edwards, 1979). p. 60-61.

Rationale: When a concept is covered in the textbook to the extent that it is

covered in the literature review, it will be considered to have met

the expectations of this researcher. This code is used for all

information that meets or exceeds information found in the

literature review.

These four criteria (misinformation, unclear, good, meets/exceeds) were used to

evaluate the quality o f language related material found in textbooks. Each quantity of

selected text (sentence, paragraph, etc.) was evaluated. Representative examples were

taken from the textbooks for comparison of data.

Criteria fo r Selecting the Author’s Theoretical Perspective

The last item coded was the theoretical perspective of the author. Only passages

where a theoretical perspective could be identified were coded. Theoretical perspectives

were limited to innate, behavioral, cognitive, and social/environmental. Innate,

cognitive, and social/environmental reflect theories of language discussed in the

literature review under language theories. The behavioral perspective is discussed under

social skills and is a learning theory and not a theory o f language. Because it is

concerned with language acquisition in regard to social skills training, it was included.

Textbook passages often identified a personality associated with a theoretical perspective


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(cognitive—Piaget, social/environmental—Vygotsky). Where the theoretical perspective

was not explicit, the environment, the behavior of a teacher, or the changes in thinking

patterns of a child were clues as to the theoretical perspective of the author. Once again

descriptions in the literature review were referenced for consistent application.

Example o f behavioral theoretical perspective:

Two girls in a regular seventh-grade language arts class were having trouble

completing their assignments. At first, the teacher asked the girls to write ten

sentences using correct grammar and punctuation each day. The sentences were

scored and returned the following day. Under these conditions, the girls averaged

about 58% correct sentences. Then the teacher decided to grade and return the

papers immediately. When the immediate correction procedure was introduced,

the girls’ correct sentence writing increased dramatically, to 90% for “Betty” and

93% for “Jane.” (Slavin, 1991, p. 109.)

Example o f cognitive theoretical perspective: “Another ability Piaget and others

recognized in the young adolescent is the ability to reason about situations and

conditions that have not been experienced. The adolescent can accept, of the

sake o f argument or discussion, conditions that are arbitrary, that are not known

to exist, or even that are known to be contrary to fact. Adolescents are not bound

to their own experiences of reality, so they can apply logic to any given set of

conditions.” Slavin, 1991, p. 83.)

How was Coding Applied?

Passages Selected. The age of the early adolescent child (10-14) was easier to

discern in some textbooks than others. Some textbooks grouped children by age to


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discuss a topic. Others, particularly the educational psychology textbooks, tried to cover

all school ages at the same time. If in these textbooks the characteristics of the children

being discussed met the characteristics of early adolescents, without identifying the ages

of the students, the selections were coded. If the group of children identified in the

textbook included the early adolescent ages as well as other ages, the selection in the

textbook was also coded.

M ixed Selections. Some selections had more than one topic, particularly chapter

summaries. These were usually paragraphs that were for coding purposes divided into

sentences. In these cases the sentences were coded instead of the paragraph.

In some cases a sentence had one topic but mentioned a second topic. In this case

the sentence was coded for the most applicable sub-component and the second topic was

coded as an isolated item. For example, Woolfolk (2001) stated, “Many children are in

their preadolescent years before they are able to distinguish being kidded from being

taunted or before they know that a sarcastic remark [emphasis added] is not meant to be

taken literally” (p. 54). The above passage was coded as a sentence being in the compo

nent area of pragmatics under communicative competence because being able to

understand the intent of a communicative message is competence. The underlined

portion was coded as an isolated item under sarcasm, a topic associated with

conversation. The isolated item occurred when a specific item was used to support a

more general topic.

Summary o f Data Collection Procedures

Once a passage or relevant selection was found, the selection was copied onto a

data collection sheet in the left hand column. The textbook title, author, chapter number,


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chapter heading, and section heading were identified at the top o f the data collection

sheet. Columns to the right of the selection were used for coding the theoretical

perspective (if present), the way the author described early adolescent language, the

quantity (length of selection), the sub-component, the quality o f information, and

comments. A data collection sheet is in Appendix A. The above procedures are

summarized in Table 15. Note that the codes used are listed at the beginning of each

row.

Analysis

Analysis involved the comparison and contrast of the data found in the textbooks

within and between categories. The data compared included the sub-components, the

way selections were described, the length o f selections, the quality o f the selections and

the theoretical frameworks found and the quantity of the selections found in each

textbook. In the discussion some conclusions were drawn from the analysis along with

what it might mean to the reader to read a particular textbook.

Reliability

Reliability o f an instrument refers to the consistency o f its measurement.

Estimation of the reliability o f raters involves agreement among different raters (Long,

Convey & Chwalek, 1991). Consistency in this research is based on this researcher

finding the same references to language, the same manner in which the selection

addressed language, the same length o f a selection, the same quality of selection, the

same theoretical framework, the as would other readers, and coding them the same as

would other readers.


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Table 15

Data Collection Questions

i What component(s) o f language is the author discussing?U = pragmatics:

1. Conversation: slang, persuasion and negotiation reasoning, problem solving, critical thinking, idioms, ambiguity, and sarcasm2. Discourse: proverbs, story telling, reports, jokes.3. Communicative competence

T = semantics: 1. Concept formations, 2. Metaphorical meanings S = syntax: I. Clauses, 2. Conjunctions, 3. Grammar, cohesive devices,L = lexicology: I. Vocabulary increase, 2. Written language M = morphology: I . Morphological analysis0 = oral sounds of language: I. Voice quality, 2. Inflections

2. In what quantity of space of text is early adolescent language considered?1 = isolated informationV = vignette, caption, figure or table R = reason, mentioned in a sentence P = paragraphW = a whole section

3 What aspect o f early adolescent language is the author describing?1. Description of early adolescents language?2. Language development sequences?3. Language acquisition, concept formation or strategies?

4. What is the quality of the discussion of language?X = misinformationY = unclear, ambiguous, y for “why?"A = adequateB = best, better than literature review.

5. What theoretical framework does the author use?E = Social environmentF = BehavioralG - Cognitive involving gray matter N = Innate


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Two outside readers were used to find inter-rater reliability. The first reader, CP,

was a graduate student in curriculum and instruction working on a doctorate in literacy.

The second reader, JT, was a graduate student in speech therapy and audiology and

working on a masters degree in speech therapy. Both were familiar with the components

o f language. Each was trained to above 90% agreement on sections in textbooks used in

this study. After training, the readers each read a total of twenty-five passages from

selected textbooks used in the study, coding the information pertaining to early

adolescent language. The ratings o f each reader were then calculated as a percentage of

agreement with the researcher to provide a measure of “inter-rater reliability”

Errors that may influence reliability include non-standardized administration of

criteria, observer error, and idiosyncrasies. If a reader is not consistent in the application

of the criteria, for example with reference to the quality o f the information in the

textbook, then there may be great discrepancy both between textbooks and coders, where

none should exist. Observer error may occur when a passage is misread or

misinterpreted. The idiosyncrasies o f observers refer to possible temporary mood states

of the observer and to the careless administration of criteria to textbook text (Smith &

Glass, 1987).

Coding training sessions were done in a campus office. Each participant was

provided with a list of the definitions, a list of the criteria for each o f the research

questions, and sample examples. Coding was done immediately after training for JT (the

one with 92.9%) and the other one, CP, took the materials home to code later in the day

(89.3%). The average of these two percentages is 91.2%. These two can be averaged

because the sample size was the same for each reader.


110

The two outside readers used the same data sheets as the researcher. A data

summary sheet is shown in Appendix A on which information and codes were recorded

for each relevant textbook passage. A summary of the reliability data is shown in Table

16 for CP and Table 17 for JT. A summary of the calculation of reliability is found in

Table 18, Inter-Reader Reliability Calculations.

Tables 16 and 17 show that the percentages o f agreement in coding selections for

theoretical frameworks were 92% for CP and 84% for JT, with an average of 88%. The

readers could code the theory as absent, behavioral, cognitive, or social/environmental.

Both readers found two theoretical frameworks in selections where the researcher did

not. They were from different selections. The theory was not usually explicitly stated

but had to be inferred from the selection or the perspective was described in the

selection. Theory was particularly a problem for JT because she was not as familiar with

theories as she was the linguistic vocabulary. For two selections she reversed cognitive

and social/environmental perspectives from what the researcher and CP found.

The percent agreement for “how selections were addressed” was 92% for CP

and 96% for JT, with an average o f 94%. These were coded descriptive, developmental

or acquired. The lack of agreement occurred in every case where the researcher

identified a selection as developmental while reader CP identified two selections as

descriptive and JT identified one selection as acquired. Once again these had to be

derived from the selection and were not explicit in the text.

The percent agreement for identifying the subcomponent of language in a

selection was 79.4% for CP and 85.3% for JT, with an average of 82.3 percent.

Selections were coded for any o f 13 sub-components: conversation, discussion,


I l l

Table 16

Reliability Data for CP

SelectionsTheory How

addressedSubcomponents

LengthDepth

Quality Not Matched

I -t- 4- 4- 4- 4-

2 -t- 4- - 4- 4-/4- 4- S3/T23 + 4- 4- 4- 4-

4 - + - 4- 4- G/X.02/U35 -t- 4- + + . + . + 4-

6 -t- 4- 4". + 4-

7 + 4- 4- 4- 4-

8 + 4- - 4- „ - 4- X/Ul9 + 4- 4- 4- 4-

10 + 4- 4- 4- - r

11 + 4- 4- 4- 4-

12 4- 4- 4- 4-

13 ■4- - - r % - 4- . 4- 4- 2/I.X/U414 4- 4- 4- 4- 4-

15 4- 4- 4- 4-

16 + 4- - 4- P/I17 + 4 - 4-, - 4- 4- Tl/X18 4~ -r - 4- - U3/T1. Y/A19 4- * -r- 4- 4-

20 - 4* •r - - E/X.P/R. A/Y21 + 4- 4- 4-

22 4- - 4 * + 2/123 + +■ 4- 4- +

24 4" 4- 4- 4- +■

25 4- - 4- +■ S1/T2Total -2 -2 -7 -2 -2 125/ 140% 92% 92% 79.4% 94.1 92% 89.3%Key:+ = a point of agreement - 3 a point of disagreement X = no code was given/ = separates reader from researcher's responses;Theory: G = cognitive, E = environmental. N = innateHow Addressed: D = Descriptive. De = Developmentallv. A + AcquiredSub-components:U = Pragmatics (1 = conversation. 2 = discourse. 3 = competence)T = Semantics (1 = concepts, 2 = meanings)S = Syntax (1 = clauses. 2 = conjunctions. 3 = grammar)L = Lexicology (1 vocabulary, 2 = written text)M = MorphologyO = Phonology (1 = voice, 2 = inflection)Length: I = isolated item. R = Sentence. P = Paragraph. S = Section (not used here) Quality: Y = not clear. A = adequate. B = Best


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Table 17

Reliability Data for JT

Theory Howaddressed

Subcomponents

LengthDepth

Quality Mot Matched

1 + + 4- + +2 + -r + . 4- +•>J + + 4- + 4-

4 + + + 4- 01/X.S3/U33 + 4- -K +• +•+ 4 - . 4 -. -K. 4* 4-

6 4* 4- . 4- 4- +7 -r -U 4- 4- -r

8 - + 4- . - 4-. 4- 4- E/G, U3/U19 + 4- +• •r -u

10 - + +■ 4- 4- G/E11 + 4- 4-, 4- 4- T2/X12 4- 4- - 4- + UI/S313 -f- - + 4- + De/A.14 -t- 4- 4- 4- 4*

15 4- 4- + 4*

16 + 4- 4- Jm. 4*

17 + + 4- + 4-

IS +■ 4- 4- + 4*

19 4- 4- 4* 4-

20 - -r- 4- 4~ 4. E/X21 > 4- 4- + 4.

22 4- +. 4- 4" 4-

23 - -r 4- -T- + N/X24 4- +

25 -r 4- 4* 4-

Total -4 -I -5 -0 -0 130/ 140% 84% 88.8% 85.3% 100% 100% 92.9%Key:+ = a point of agreement • = a point of disagreement X = no code was given/ = separates reader from researcher's responses.Theory: G = cognitive, E = environmental. N = innateHow Addressed: D = Descriptive, De = Developmentally. A + AcquiredSub-components:

U = Pragmatics (1 = conversation. 2 = discourse. 3 = competence)T = Semantics (1 = concepts, 2 = meanings)S = Syntax (1 = clauses. 2 = conjunctions. 3 = grammar)L = Lexicology ( I vocabulary. 2 = written text)M = MorphologyO = Phonology (I = voice. 2 = inflection)

Length: I = isolated item. R = Sentence. P = Paragraph. S = Section (not used here) Quality: Y = not clear. A = adequate. B = Best


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Table 18

Inter-Reader Reliability Calculations

Reader CP Reader JT

Number of selections: 25 Number of selections: 25

Number of data points: 140 Number of data points: 140

Number of matches for CP = 125 Number o f matches for JT = 130

Percent agreement for CP =89.285 = 89.3 Percent agreement for JT = 92.857 = 92.9

Average Percentage Agreement = 91.2


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communication competence, concepts, meanings, clauses, conjunctions, grammar,

vocabulary, effect o f written text, morphological analysis, voice, and inflection. Five of

the coding points o f disagreement occurred because either the researcher or the reader

coded something that the other did not code. Another five points of disagreement

occurred when either the reader or researcher identified a selection in the area of

communicative competence, while the other identified the same selection as being in a

different sub-component. Because communicative competence might be addressed in a

selection along with another topic, for instance conversations, it was very difficult to

decide the main emphasis for that particular selection since only one code could be used

for a selection. Three points of disagreed occurred with the coding of grammar, an area

that was broad and was interpreted by either the reader or researcher as meanings of

words, competence, or conversation. Because there are different interpretations of

language and because so many codes were used, the lack o f agreement in this area might

be problematic for this study.

Because there was provision for a paragraph to be divided into sentences and an

isolated item to be separated from a sentence (a sentence that made sense without the

item), there were some points of disagreement in the length o f selections. Reader CP

agreed with the researcher 94.1% of the time and reader JT 100% of the time, with an

average of 97.1 percent.

Quality was coded as adequate, unclear, best information or misinformation. In

the selections that were used for reliability only adequate and unclear selections were

coded. Reader CP agreed with the researcher 92% of the time and reader JT agreed with


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the researcher 100% o f the time, with an average o f 96 percent. CP and the researcher

reversed adequate and unclear codes on two selections.

Summary

This chapter has presented the content analysis and discussion method used in

this research, the procedures that were used to carry out the method, a description of the

analysis and discussion, and how inter-rater reliability was established.


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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA AND FINDINGS

This chapter will report the data for each research question. Information coded

for each of the 13 textbooks in this study is reported.

Research Questions

There are three research questions:

1. Do child development and educational psychology textbooks address the

language o f early adolescents? If so, in what manner and to what extent?

What components (parts) o f language do the authors address?

In what way (description, developmental, acquisition) does the textbook

address early adolescent language?

In what depth (length of statement) does the author address early

adolescent language?

2. With what quality is adolescent language discussed in the child development and

educational psychology textbook?

3. Do the textbooks present content related to language from a particular theoretical

framework?

Coding the Data

As selections having to do with early adolescent language were found in the

textbooks being examined, they were copied onto data collection sheets and coded.

Tallies for the codes were then recorded on tables. The following items pertain to all of

the selections that were taken from the textbooks.

Passages Selected. The age of the early adolescent (10-14) was easier to discern

in some textbooks than others. Some textbooks grouped children by age to discuss a


117

topic. Other textbooks, particularly educational psychology, addressed all school ages at

the same time. If the characteristics of the children being discussed met the characteristics

of early adolescents, even without identifying specific ages, the selections were coded. If

the group of children identified in the textbook included the early adolescent ages as well

as other ages, the selection in the textbook was also coded.

Components. In the review o f literature related to early adolescent language six

components were identified: pragmatics, semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology and

phonology. For identification and discussion, these six components were divided into 20

sub-components that are more specific. Each sub-component addresses one aspect of

early adolescent language. While there are many areas that over-lap and that could have

been coded in more than one component area, sentences were coded for the most

applicable sub-component. Paragraphs were also coded for the most applicable sub

component, but items mentioned in the paragraph that were not related to that sub

component, were coded as isolated items.

The Way Language Was Described. The way authors described language was

divided into three perspectives that could be used with early adolescent language. First, a

“snap-shot” of language was coded as a description and was usually without elaboration.

Second, statements about the development o f language typically compared early

adolescent language to another age or placed language skills in a sequence of

development. The third way that authors described language was in terms of how early

adolescents acquire language skills. Selections associated with acquisition often listed

strategies for learning skills. All selections were coded for the way in which the author

wrote about early adolescent language.


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Depth o f Coverage. The depth o f the author’s coverage was coded by the quantity

o f text and was coded as an isolated item, a vignette, a sentence, a paragraph, or a section.

Isolated items were individual words or phrases that were mentioned but not elaborated

upon, such as an item in a series of items used to give a specific example o f a broader

topic. The vignette included any table, figure, margin note, graph, chart, or vignette that

was not in the running text. A sentence was one sentence. A paragraph was a paragraph

or most of a paragraph. Sometimes a paragraph would contain information on a topic but

would compare several ages. If more than one sentence addressed early adolescent ages,

the paragraph was coded. The section was a half page paragraph or many paragraphs with

a section or sub-section heading o f its own where all o f the material was pertinent.

Quality o f Language. The quality of language was identified in each selection as

being misinformation, unclear, adequate, best information available (research based with

extensive detail). Early in the coding process, and later in worldng with the other readers

establishing reliability, it was necessary to limit selections to only those that explicitly

discussed early adolescent language. It was found that there were simply too many

places where language was inferred by the authorfs) that teacher candidates might not

grasp the inference or make a connection between thinking and talking, or cognitive

processes and expressing ideas. For this reason, if more information was needed than

what was explicitly stated for the reader to make a connection between the text and early

adolescent language, then the selection was not used. Consequently there were very few

passages that were coded as poor. It was found that most information was backed by

research and well documented.


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When an author stated “only refinements occurred in language beyond the age of 4, or

5,” this was not coded as misinformation, although it might have been. Comments such

as these were open to interpretation. By not stating what refinements occurred, the author

left the door open for major changes in language to be called, ‘refinements. ’ This

researcher used the author’s statements to determine what develops in language and

when.

Theoretical Framework. The theoretical stances identified in the literature review

included the innate, behavioral, cognitive and social/environmental. Most of the

textbooks briefly discussed language development from the theories covered in the

literature review. Some also included cognitive behavioral or information processing

perspectives that were also included in the general umbrella of a cognitive theoretical

framework. Theories were seldom explicitly stated beyond an initial discussion of

language development theories.

The theoretical framework was not coded on all selections where language was found,

since in most selections the theoretical framework could not be identified. Innate is

omitted because it was not mentioned in the textbooks in regard to early adolescent

language.

In the sections that follow the data from each textbook is presented. Child

development textbooks are presented first, then educational psychology textbooks. Data

for each research question is presented for each textbook. Textbooks are presented in

descending order, according to the number o f selections related to early adolescent

language that were included in each.


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Child Development - Schickedanz

Textbook: Judith A. Schickedanz, David I. Schickedanz, Peggy D. Forsyth and G. Alfred

Forsyth (2001). Understanding children and adolescents, (4th ed.). New York

Allyn and Bacon.

Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed

Schickedanz et ai. addressed all six of the components of language and 12 of the

13 sub-components. Schickedanz et al. had a 22-page chapter on Language Development

in Adolescents. Although this chapter did not include all components of language

identified in the literature review, it did address most o f the areas where changes take

place in the language of early adolescents.

Pragmatics—Conversation (U l)

Conversation was coded Ul. uses of language. Conversation included

persuasion, negotiation, and problem solving, concrete and abstract reasoning, idioms,

slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, and sarcasm. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had 11

selections related to conversation, two had to do with reasoning (see Table 19). Of the 11

selections, six were addressed descriptively, two were addressed developmentally and

three were addressed from a language acquisition perspective. The section was titled

Conversational Slang (p. 614-617).

While looking at peer relationships Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated.

Adolescent-adolescent interactions often lead to joint discovery as peers work

together to generate ideas and solutions to questions. Literature circles ... active

learning activities ...cooperative learning activities that stress sharing and


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Table 19

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Schickedanz

Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total

Schickedanz Descriptive - - (I) 4 1 6

Developmental - - - 2 - 2

Acquired - - (1) 2 - 3

Table 20

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - - 4 - 4

Developmental - - - - - -

Acquired - I - 1 - 2

Table 21

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive I 3 4

Developmental 1 4

Acquired I "S3 4


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evaluating information result in an opportunity for children to speak, listen, read,

and write .. .building confidence. (P. 611)

Schickedanz et al. continued, “Language also plays an important role as early adolescents

share each other’s perspectives and establish close friendships and intimacy through self

disclosure and discussion of important issues” (614). Perspective taking was included

under conversation because it appeared necessary for problem solving. Schickedanz, et

al. stated, “Improved cognitive abilities ...help adolescents move from polarized thinking

... to dialectical thinking, understanding that several perspectives may have some truth”

(p. 613).

Schickedanz et al. (2001) included a section on conversational slang and

mentioned it elsewhere that “ .. slang is a conscious choice, and an adolescent may prove

his affiliation with a group by talking as the group talks” (614). “Slang is novel... Slang

is very evocative .. . suitable for expressing feelings and attitudes, is a tool for defense.

Slang is informal.” (p. 165).

In addition, Schickedanz et al. (2001) discussed ambiguity at several levels

(syntactical, lexical, and phonological), addressed in detail metaphorical reasoning, and

mentioned without elaboration that, “Adolescents also use irony and sarcasm” (p. 613).

As a part of conversation, Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not address idioms or similes.

Pragmatics—Discourse (U2).

Discourse was coded U2, uses o f language and included proverbs, story telling,

oral reports, essays, and letters. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had six selections regarding

discourse, four were addressed from a descriptive perspective and two from an


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acquisition perspective. See Table 20 for depth of selections in regard to how selections

were addressed.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) reviewed the findings of a team of researchers, (Gibbs

and BieteL, 1995) when they discussed proverbs, “Gibbs and BieteL, (1995) suggest that it

is the use of proverbs in daily discourse—making them up as the situation demands—that

illustrates people’s ability to think in figurative metaphorical rather than literal ways” (p.

608). These authors also discussed storytelling under oral language, and essays under

written language. Schickedanz et al. did not address discourse in the form o f either oral

reports or letters.

Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3)

Communicative competence was coded U3 and included rules of speaking and

writing, how to use and respond to speech acts, responding to the needs of the situation

(changing registrars), and knowledge o f grammar and vocabulary as a part o f

communicative competence. Schickedanz et al. had 12 selections having to do with

communicative competence. Four o f the selections were addressed descriptively, four

developmentaliy and four addressed acquisition of language skills. See Table 21 for

depth o f selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Regarding the use of speech acts Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated, “Adolescents

communicate more effectively if they learn to use several strategies. Adolescents may

also learn to ignore unpleasant remarks, decide not to argue a position, or simply end the

conversation” (p. 613). Schickedanz et al. also stated, “Adolescent’s improved ability to

apply the rules o f grammar and to reason logically and analytically also helps to improve


124

language” (606). These authors did not address the rules of speaking or writing (beyond

grammar), changing registrars or vocabulary in regard to communicative competence.

Semantics—Concepts (TI)

Concepts were coded T l and included meanings of language as well as the

formation and use of concepts. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had two selections about

concepts, both addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 22 for depth of

selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

These authors did not directly address concepts beyond the preschool age. They

did, however, allude to concepts in the following comments, “Adolescents continue to

refine their understandings of word meanings as they encounter words in many different

contexts. Most words have more than one meaning, and a word’s precise meaning in a

specific context depends on how it is used” (p. 609). In addition the authors stated that,

“Text reading comprehension.. .research supports a situational text comprehension

model... where language is a set o f processing instructions on how to construct mental

representation of the described situation” (p. 610). Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not

discuss the use of concepts, only the formation of concepts.

Semantics—Meanings (T2)

Meanings were coded T2 and included multiple meanings o f words and phrases,

along with metaphorical meanings. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had eight selections

regarding meanings, six addressed development of language and two addressed the

acquisition o f language skills. See Table 23 for depth of selections in regard to how

selections were addressed.


125

Table 22

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - I 2 - 2

Developmental - - - - -

Acquired - - - - -

Table 23

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - - - 6

Acquired - - 2 - 2

Table 24

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - - 1 - 1

Acquired - - - - -


126

Schickedanz et al. (2001) addressed multiple meanings and implied the use of

metaphors when they wrote about implied figurative meanings, “ .. .the adolescent

understands the relationship between the ordinary meaning of the words and the implied

figurative meaning” (p. 607). They continued, ‘‘Adolescents and younger children may

use figures of speech without actually being able to think metaphorically” (p. 608). They

also identified six ways to increase metaphorical reasoning. Schickedanz et al. did not

address the meanings of phrases.

Syntax—Clauses (SI)

Clauses were coded SI and included the use of clauses and the kinds of clauses

used during early adolescence. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had one selection that was

addressed developmentaily. See Table 24 for depth o f selections in regard to how


Schickedanz et al (2001) stated,

Adolescents' greater sophistication in speaking and writing... their ability to

create complex sentences containing many clauses. . .is made possible by their

improved mental functioning. To use clauses, a person must decide which

elements are primary, or super-ordinate, and which are secondary, or subordinate.

Classes or categories must be created and their relationships considered” (p. 606).

Schickedanz et al. did not mention the kinds of clauses that were used in early

adolescence.

Syntax—Conjunctions (S2)

Conjunctions were coded S2 and included the sequence of conjunctions learned,

those used in early adolescence, or for what purposes conjunctions were used.


M l

Schickedanz et al. (2001) had one selection about conjunctions that was addressed from a

developmental perspective. See Table 25 for depth o f selections in regard to how


Schickedanz et al. (2001) related a story told by two children, one seven and one

seventeen:

Like Eric, most younger children use many sentences to say what adolescents can

say in just one or two. When younger children do make longer utterances, they

usually accomplish this by combining several simple sentences with the

conjunction and while adolescents use grammatical devices to subordinate some

information in the sentence to other information, (p. 606)

Schickedanz et al. only discussed the use o f the conjunction and’ ignoring other

conjunctions used, but they did mention that other grammatical devices are used for

communication.

Syntax—Grammar (S3)

Grammar was coded S3 and included the rules o f syntax and morphology, as well

as how words and sentences are constructed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had eight

selections regarding grammar, three were descriptive, two developmental, and three

addressed the acquisition of language skills. See Table 26 for depth o f selections in

regard to how selections were addressed.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated that early adolescents’

“grasp of more complex sentences and paragraphs makes their writing more

sophisticated. Students who planned their writing, wrote multiple drafts, and


128

Table 25

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - -

Developmental I - 1

Acquired - - -

Table 26

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Schickedanz

Textbook How Addressed Item Vigntte Sentence Paragraph Section Total

Schickedanz Descriptive I I 1 - 3

Developmental 1 I - 2

Acquired 3 - 3

Table 27

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary Size for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive 2 - 2

Developmental I I - 2

Acquired 2 - 2


129

saved their work in portfolios had higher scores than students who did not use

these techniques” (p. 617).

They also stated, “The adolescent's improved ability to apply the rules of grammar and to

reason logically and analytically also helps improve language” (p. 606). Schickedanz et

al. (2001) did not address the construction o f words (morphological rules) or identify any

specific grammatical rules.

Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI)

Vocabulary size was coded L 1 and included the size of the vocabulary, how

words were learned, or the kinds o f words that were learned by the early adolescent.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) had six selections about the size o f vocabulary, two were

descriptive, two were developmental, and two focused on the acquisition o f vocabulary.

See Table 27 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated “Numerous studies have been conducted to

estimate increases in vocabulary during adolescence. The estimates vary a great deal

depending on whether they were based on writing, speaking, listening or reading

vocabulary” (p. 609). Schickedanz et al. continued with, “Reading vocabulary is 20,000-

40,000 entering middle school. Much o f this vocabulary increase results from hearing

new words in context” (p.609). These authors did not related oral vocabulary with

reading vocabulary other than to mention them side-by-side.

Although children learn some words through direct instruction, much of their

word learning during these years occurs in context (Miller & Gildea, 1987).

About half o f the words children learn during the school-age-years are learned by

inferring meanings of new words from reading (Nagy, et al., 1987). (p. 483)


130

In another place in the textbook these authors make a similar statement regarding growth

o f vocabulary:

In a second study (Aglin, 1993), the total vocabulary was estimated to be 10,398

words in first grade, 19,412 words at third grade, and 39,994 words at fifth grade.

Using these estimates, we can see that children learn about 20 words a day

between first and fifth grade, (p. 482)

These authors continued by saying that it is because some children read a lot and others

read very little that vocabulary size varies considerably. These authors did not address

the kinds of words (compound words, words with affixes) early adolescents leam that

increases their vocabulary.

Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text (L2)

The effect of the written text was coded L2 and included the effect of the

written text on vocabulary or other aspect o f language. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had

seven selections regarding the influence o f the written text on vocabulary or other aspect

of language. Two of the selections were developmental and five addressed the acquisition

of language skills. See Table 28 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were

addressed.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) considered the influence of the written word on

vocabulary in this statement:

Older children and adolescents are more able to leam word meaning from formal

definitions . . . but adolescents need to read elaborate teas—texts in which new

words are encountered many times in different contexts—if they are to leam

accurate and complete meanings o f the words they read... "Adolescents leam


131

Table 28

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Written for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - - - -

Developmental - 1 - I - 2

Acquired - 5 - 5

Table 29

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Morphological Analysis for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive I I - 2

Developmental - - - -

Acquired - - - -

Table 30

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Schickedanz


Schickedanz Descriptive - I - I


Acquired I I - 2


132

most new words by inferring g their meaning from reading as well as listening

(Tonjes, 1991), from direct instruction,...” (p. 609).

Abstract words were mentioned more than other kinds o f new words. Schickedanz et al.

stated that the written word is a source of new vocabulary, but they did not attribute other

language knowledge to the written word.

Morphology—M orphological Analysis (M)

Morphological analysis was coded M and included the process of dividing a word

into a root word with affixes, as well as using morphological analysis to discover the

meaning of the word. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had two selections regarding

morphological analysis, both addressed descriptively. See Table 29 for depth of

selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) wrote, “Adolescents leam most new words ... by using

morphological knowledge” (p. 609). This isolated item was given no further explanation.

Schickedanz et al. did mention but did not discuss the process of morphological analysis.

Phonology—Voice (Ol)

Voice was coded Ol and included voice change and voicing problems.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not address voice.

Phonology—Inflection (02)

Inflection was coded 0 2 and included the placement o f stress in words and

inflected meanings. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had three selections about inflection, one

was addressed descriptively and two addressed acquisition o f skills. See Table 4.30 for

depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.


133

Schickedanz et al. also discussed another aspect of inflection, phonological

ambiguity. The authors stated, “Ambiguity can be located at any level o f language. At

the phonological level the ambiguity arises from how a word is pronounced” (p. 486).

This textbook used the example of “a green house” (color o f house) and “a greenhouse”

(a place to grow plants) as an illustration o f an inflection that is often not distinguished

until early adolescence

Research Question 2: Quality o f Language Selection

Schickedanz et al. had one selection coded as misinformation, two coded as

unclear, and 64 coded as adequate. The misinformation was a selection that discussed

“the phonological loop” (p. 609), a theory by Baddeley (1998), as if it was fact, backed

by research. Although this researcher is unaware of any research that has proven this

theory, these statements by Schickedanz et al. would have been accepted as fact had the

textbook identified the theory as theory and qualified its presentation as another way of

visualizing what might happen in a child’s mind in the effort to remember the spoken

word. Instead, the phonological loop was presented as proven fact, and was coded mis

information. Two selections were coded as unclear, making 97% of the selections coded

as adequate.

Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework

For Schickedanz et al. (2001) the theoretical framework was seen most often in

communicative competence (eight times), followed by conversation (five times) and

vocabulary (three times). In each of these three sub-components it appeared more often

in the social/environmental framework than the cognitive. Concepts, meanings, and

clauses were each addressed once cognitively, while effect o f written text and inflection


134

were each addressed once social/environmentally. Most o f the places where selections

were addressed from a theoretical framework occurred in selections that addressed the

acquisition of language (14 of 21). Most o f these selections were written from the

social/environmental perspective (10 of 14). See Table 31 for sub-components for each

theoretical framework.

Summary o f Selections by Schickedanz et a i

Schickedanz et al. (2001) had 67 selections: 24 were addressed descriptively, 20

were addressed developmentally and 23 addressed the acquisition o f skills. They

addressed 12 of the 13 sub-components, not addressing voice. The depth (length) of the

selections included two selections that were isolated items, four vignettes, 19 sentences,

41 paragraphs and one section. Most o f the selections had adequate quality (97%). Of the

67 selections a theoretical perspective was found in 21 o f the selections and were divided

between a social/environmental perspective (12) and a cognitive perspective (9). Table

4.14 provides a summary of the number o f selections under each sub-component along

with how each sub-component was addressed.


135

Table 3 1

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Schickedanz

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed

Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total

Pragmatics Descriptive - I - 1

Conversation, U1 Developed - I - 1

Acquired - - 3

Pragmatics Descriptive - 1 I 2

Competence. U3 Developed - I 1 2

Acquired - 1 3 4

Semantics

Concepts. T1

Acquired I 1

Semantics

Meanings. T2

Descriptive I I

Syntax

Clauses, SI

Acquired I 1

Lexicology

Vocabulary, LI

Acquired I 2 3

Lexicology

Written. L2

Acquired 1 1

Phonology

Inflection. 02

Acquired 1 I

Totals 0 9 14 21

Descriptive = 0; Developmental = 9; Acquired = 14; Total = 21


136

Figure 2

Summary o f Selections by Schickedanz et al.

S c h ic k e d a n z e t a l

1:17:7Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Clausesa.

Conjunction

Grammar

Vocab

Written

Morph. A.

Voice

Inflections

Selections

M Description ■ Developmental □ Acquired |


137

Child Development - Meece

Textbook: Judith L. Meece (2002). Child and adolescent development fo r educators, (2nd

ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.


Meece’s textbook had 67 selections that addressed five of the six components of

language and nine of the 13 sub-components. Meece devoted a section concerning

Language into Adolescence in her chapter entitled Language and Literacy Development.

Pragmatics—Conversation, ( U l)

Of the 27 selections found in Meece’s (2002) textbook that related to

conversation, 11 had to do with concrete and abstract reasoning. Of the 27 selections, 14

were addressed descriptively, seven were addressed developmentally and six were

addressed acquisition of language skills. See Table 32 for depth of selections in regard to

how selections were addressed.

Meece included a section titled, Focus on Research: Teenagers and Slang (p.

262). Regarding conversation Meece (2002) stated.

Now that they have mastered the basics, older children focus their energies on

learning how to use language, greatly expanding their range of language registers

(formal-informal speech) and styles, (narratives, arguments, etc.) in both speaking

and writing, (p. 260)

Meece made this broad statement without references, but did follow it with widely

scattered examples and further elaboration. Meece (2002) stated, “Slang, or language

used in casual settings to establish group solidarity and to signal group membership, is a

prototypical practice during adolescence precisely because peer group socialization is so


138

Table 32

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Meece


Meece Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

(3) 1.(2) 5.(1) 1

(I) - 2.(1) 3

3,(2) (I)

13

7

6

Table 33

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Meece


Meece Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

I 2 3

Table 34

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Meece


Meece Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

3 1 2 -

2 6

1 2 3 -

6

8

6


139

important at this age” (p. 261). Later she added, “Slang is also creative work; many new

words are added to English every year through the ingenuity and cleverness of the

teenage mind” (p 262).

Meece (2002) addressed conflict when she stated:

For older children, especially adolescents, interactions with peers and adults are a

natural source of cognitive conflict. Through interacting with others, children

clarify their views, obtain conflicting opinions, and reconcile their ideas with

those of others, (p. 151)

Meece used Piaget (1976) to support these comments. She did not define cognitive

conflict. She continued, “Social interactions can also help children develop an awareness

and understanding o f others” (p. 152). Meece included a paragraph on aggression that

stated, “Teasing, ridiculing, and shouting are the preferred modes of aggression among

older children” (p. 454).

Meece (2002) commented on the acquisition o f conversational language when she

said, “Discussion and reading groups for adolescents can help them to understand that

others may have feelings like them” (p. 152). “Children use speech to guide each other’s

activities, and these social interactions are gradually internalized as tools for regulating

independent problem-solving efforts in the future” (p. 166). Meece quoted a study by

Jonathan Tudge (1993) that examined the influence o f peers on learning:

The results showed that the less competent partner improved significantly on the

balance beam task when paired with a peer who could reason about the problem at

a more advanced level. This study also suggested that the less competent partner

needed to adopt the reasoning o f the more competent partner while performing the


140

task.... Of even greater importance was the finding that there were circumstances

under which children’s thinking may be adversely affected by a peer. (p. 166)

Meece concluded that children can influence each other in their social interactions, and

that the teacher needs to carefully structure situations for the benefit of students. The

ability to reason was only one consideration in matching peers to help them solve a

problem. When the more competent peer had little confidence in their own ability, the

less competent peer also lost confidence in not only the more competent peer but also in

their own ability to use more abstract reasoning.

Meece (2002) did not include information on persuasion, negotiation idioms,

ambiguity, or sarcasm.

Pragmatics—Discourse (U2)

In the subcomponent of discourse, Meece (2002) had three selections that were

addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 33 for depth of selections in regard

to how selections were addressed.

Meece (2002) gave an overview of humor when she stated, “Linguistic styles

proliferate at this age, especially those associated with humor puns, quips, non-sequiturs,

jokes, adlibs, double entendres, caricatures, and imitations are common fare” (p. 261).

She listed types o f discourse used (book reports, research papers, essays, poetry, letters),

gave examples, and discussed the features or purpose o f the discourse. Meece did not

address proverbs or story telling.

Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3)

Meece (2002) had 20 selections having to do with communicative competence,

six were addressed descriptively, eight were addressed developmentally and six were


141

about how communicative competence is acquired. See Table 34 for depth o f selections

in regard to how selections were addressed.

Regarding communicative competence, Meece (2002) stated,

Individuals develop a repertoire o f styles suited to a social context and the other

participants. This ability includes knowing when and how to speak, being

sensitive to appropriate topics, and adjusting style, vocabulary, and politeness

levels to match the age and gender of other speakers, (p. 261)

Meece also mentioned slang as a peer language, use o f peers to develop competence,

social perspective, and social rules o f displaying emotions. Meece stated, “Discussion

and reading groups for adolescents can help them to understand that others have feelings

like them” (p. 152). Competence was also addressed later when she stated, “In a literate

culture, developing communicative competence includes knowing how to communicate

effectively in writing in many contexts, but especially in school” (p. 295). Meece (2002)

mentioned vocabulary, and the need to know the rules o f speaking and writing along with

changing registrars, but she did not address what the early adolescent needed to know

about grammar.

Semantics—Concepts, (TI)

Meece (2002) had two selections regarding concepts, one addressed from a

descriptive perspective and one addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table

35 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Meece (2002) stated, “Talk is especially critical in promoting concept

development, developing interactional skills, and sharing knowledge in general” (p. 300).

Elsewhere, Meece stated,


142

Table 35

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Meece


Meece Descriptive - - I - 1

Developmental - - I 1

Acquired - - -

Table 36

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Meece


Meece Descriptive I - - I

Developmental 3 2 - 5

Acquired - - - -

Table 37

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Meece


Meece Descriptive - - - -

Developmental I I - 2

Acquired - - - -


143

Older children can mentally construct relations among objects. They can infer the

relationship between two objects by knowing its relationship to a third. They can

infer the relationship between two objects in the middle o f a series is both shorter

and longer than others” (p. 137).

Meece did not address uses o f concepts.


Meece (2002) had six selections, one was addressed descriptively and the

remaining five were addressed developmentally. See Table 36 for depth o f selections in

regard to how selections were addressed.

Meece (2002) stated.

Around the age of 11 or 12, children pass another linguistic benchmark

when they perceive that meaning is multidimensional: Words have both literal

and metaphoric definitions.... Language takes on an entirely new dimension for

creative expression and comprehension once the child understands how figurative

language, such as metaphor, conveys meaning. Their cognitive and linguistic

abilities complement each other.” (p. 260).

Meece stated, “Teenagers generate slang expressions that their parents, for instance,

might not understand at first and would certainly never use” (p. 262). Meece also

addressed multiple word meanings and metaphorical meanings.

Syntax—Clauses, (SI)

Meece (2002) had one selection that was addressed developmentally. See Table

37 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.


144

Meece (2002) stated, “Once children reach middle childhood, the sound, meaning,

and grammatical systems are well developed apart from a few, less commonly used forms

in speech, such as relative clauses and passive sentences” (p. 260). Meece was more

specific in the kinds of clauses when she wrote,

A longitudinal study (K-12) [Loban, 1976] showed that as children grow older

they write longer clauses and embed dependent clauses more often. In particular,

clauses are more complex because o f changes in noun phrases found in the

subjects and objects, including objects of prepositions” (p. 294).

Meece addressed the kinds o f clauses used and the use of clauses.

Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2)

Meece (2002) did not address conjunctions.

Syntax—Grammar, (S3)

Meece (2002) had five selections about grammar, four were addressed

developmentally and one addressed how grammar was acquired. See Table 38 for depth

of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Meece (2002), wrote, “The sentences produced by 12 year-olds are precise,

detailed, and condensed, demonstrating more syntactic and cognitive complexity than

those written by younger children” (p. 294). She also stated,.. .“that written syntax has a

different and more precise set o f rules than spoken syntax” (p. 295). Meece mentioned

the rules of syntax as a body o f knowledge but did not identify any specific rules or give

further examples. Meece did not address the rules of morphology, or how words and

sentences are constructed.


145

Table 38

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Meece


Meece Descriptive

Developmental 2 I

Acquired

I - 4

I - I

Table 39

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Influence of Written Text for Meece


Meece Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

I 1

I - I

Table 40

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Meece


Meece Descriptive -

Development 1

Acquired . . .

1


146

Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI)

Meece (2002) did not address vocabulary.


Meece (2002) had two selections regarding the effect of written text, one was

addressed developmentally and the other addressed the acquisition of language skills.


Meece (2002) connected learning to speak and learning to write and made

parallels between them. Meece stated while discussing writing,

To enhance writing development it is important to recall the process by which

children develop spoken language. The need to communicate, an environment

rich in social interchange, available and experienced adults, and hour upon hour

of practice are all essential to language development, (p. 298)

In addition, she stated:

“As children grow older, written language development evolves in two

dimensions: expanding the variety of writing forms or styles and writing for more

abstract purposes” (p. 295).

Meece did not address how the written text effects vocabulary.

Morphology—M orphological Analysis. (M)

Meece (2002) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology—Voice (Ol)

Meece (2002) included one sentence about voice change. This selection was

addressed developmentally. See Table 40 for depth of selection in regard to how selection

was addressed.


147

Meece (2002) outlined puberty changes by stating, “The first signs of puberty in

males are .... Development of facial and body hair, and a gradual lowering o f the voice”

(p. 96). Meece did not address voice problems.

Phonology—Inflection (02)

Meece (2002) did not address inflection.

Research Question 2: Quality o f Language Selections

Meece (2002) had 67 selections of which 66 (98.5%) selections that were coded

as adequate and one was coded as unclear. No selections were coded as either

misinformation or best information.


Meece had 30 selections that were coded for theoretical framework. Most of those

identified were in conversation (11 selections) followed by competence (9 selections).

Overall there were more social/environmental selections under acquisition of language

skills and more cognitive selections related to developmental sequences. The behavioral

framework was only found in the acquired column. Table 41 identifies the sub

components, theoretical frameworks and how each selection was addressed.

Summary o f Selections by Meece

Meece (2002) had 67 selections, 25 addressed language from a descriptive

perspective, 27 addressed it developmentally and 15 addressed language form an

acquisition perspective. Meece addressed nine of the sub-components. The depth of the

selections included three isolated items, eight vignettes, 26 sentences, 30 paragraphs and

one section. Most selections were adequate in quality. Of the selections identified as

having a theoretical perspective 18 o f 30 selections came from the social/environmental


148

perspective. Figure 3 provides a summary o f the number o f selections under each sub

component along with how each sub-component was addressed.


149

Table 41

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Meece

Component How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total

Sub-Component Addressed

Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 4 6

Conversation, U1 Developmental - I - 1

Acquired 2 I 1 4

Pragmatics Descriptive - - - -

Discourse, U2 Developmental - - - -

Acquired - - 1 1

Pragmatics Descriptive - - 2 2

Competence Developmental - 1 I 2

Acquired - I 4 5

Semantics Descriptive - I - 1

Concepts, Developmental - 2 - 2

Acquired - - 1 1

Syntax Developmental - I - 1

Clauses, S1 Acquired - - I 1

Lexicology Descriptive - - I 1

Written, L2 Developmental - - I 1

Acquired - - I I

Totals 2 10 18 30

Descriptive =10. Developmental = 7, Acquired = 13


150

Figure 3

Summary o f Selections for Meece

M eece

Conversation

Discussion

Competence

Meanings

g Conjunctions

Grammar

m Vocabulary

Wntten

Morph.A.

Voice

Inflection

10 15 20Selections

25 30

□ Description ■ Development □ Acquired


151

Child Development - Berk

Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). C hild development, (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed

The Berk (2000) textbook included 64 selections related to early adolescent

language. The selections addressed five of the six components and eight o f the 13 sub

components o f language.

Pragmatics—Conversation, (U l)

Berk (2000) had 16 selections related to conversation, seven of which were

related to reasoning. O f the 16 selections, five were written from a descriptive

perspective, nine from a developmental perspective and two from an acquired

perspective. See Table 42 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were

addressed.

Berk (2000) described some of the speaking and reasoning abilities of the early

adolescent. She stated that early adolescents have the, “ability to give clear directions” (p.

250), and the “ability to consider multiple sources of information when explaining others’

emotions” (p. 413). Both of these examples she connected to improved cognitive abilities

derived from growth during early adolescence. Berk addressed reasoning in connection

with Piaget’s stages of development; however, Berk did not discuss reasoning in terms o f

language skills. Instead she described reasoning in terms of observable behaviors, such

as solving a manipulative problem.

In a table that addressed ages 10-15, Berk stated, “Children can step outside a

two-person situation and imagine how the self and other are viewed from the viewpoint


152

Table 42

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Berk


Berk Descriptive - 2,(1) L (I) - 5

Developmental - 1 U D 4, (2) - 9

Acquired - (I) (1) - 2

Table 43

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Berk


Berk Descriptive - - I - 1


Acquired - - - - -

Table 44

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Berk


Berk Descriptive - - I - 1

Developmental - 5 7 - 9

Acquired - I 2 - 3


153

of a third, impartial party .” (p. 465). Berk identified this behavior as recursive thought

and stated that by sixth grade only half o f early adolescents have mastered one-loop

recursion (thinking about another person’s thinking). Berk (2000) stated, “Recursive

thought makes human interaction truly reciprocal” (p. 466). Once again, Berk identified

what the early adolescent might be thinking, but did not tie thinking to speaking

explicitly.

Berk (2000) stated that effect of imaginary audience and personal fable “are

strongest in early adolescence and gradually decline” (p. 250). The imaginary audience

is seen when the early adolescent becomes self-conscious and feels that everyone is

looking at him/her. The personal fable is the self-talk that the early adolescent tells

himself/herself, such as, “I’ll realize my hopes and ambitions” (p. 255). Berk stated, “In

early adolescence, young people unify separate traits such as “smart” and “creative” into

higher order, abstract descriptors, such as “intelligent.” But these generalizations about

the self are not yet interconnected, and often they appear contradictory” (p. 447). She

continued to suggest that early adolescents might describe themselves in different ways in

different contexts.

Berk acknowledged early adolescents’ use of humor when she stated, “School-age

children can grasp word meanings from definitions, and comprehension of metaphor and

humor expands. Adolescents’ ability to reason abstractly leads to an enlarged vocabulary

and appreciation of subtle meanings as in irony and sarcasm” (p. 394). She did not

expand or clarify these statements.

Berk (2000) gave many examples o f what early adolescents would say, but she

did not describe adolescent conversation in linguistic terms. She did not address


154

persuasion, negotiation, idioms, or ambiguity. She mentioned, but did not discuss, irony

or sarcasm.

Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2)

Berk (2000) had one selection about discourse written from a descriptive

perspective. See Table 43 for depth of selection in regard to how the selection was

addressed.

Berk (2000) stated “Around 9 to 11 years .. children tell coherent stories with a

main plot and several subplots” (p. 275). Berk did not address discourse beyond age 11.

Berk had nothing to say about other aspects of discourse such as proverbs, story telling at

a later age, essays or letters.


Berk (2000) had 13 selections about communicative competence, one was

descriptive, nine were from a developmental perspective, and three were about how

language competence is acquired. See Table 44 for depth of selections in regard to how


Berk (2000) addressed communication competence in several places. She stated,

With age, children become better at resolving conflict through social problem

solving. Components of the social problem-solving process—encoding and

interpreting social cues, clarifying social goals, generating and evaluating

strategies, and enacting responses—become more strongly linked to socially

competent behavior during middle childhood, (p. 477)

This description included expressive components of language, as well as receptive

components. She also stated “Older children justify display rules by referring to social


155

norms. (‘It’s impolite to show you feel that way.’)” (p.407), and “Older children apply

their more advanced referential communication skills to their speech register adjustments,

taking extra steps to accommodate the needs of their listeners” (p. 389). Berk did not

address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar or vocabulary. She

only briefly mentioned some of the rules o f speaking, but not o f writing.


Berk (2000) had six selections regarding concepts, one each from the descriptive

and acquired perspectives and four from the developmental perspective. See Table 45 for

depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

In discussing the semantic (meaning) complexity of words of adolescents Berk

(2000) stated.

Even among young children, pronunciation is best for easily understood words.

.... Working on the sound and meaning of a new word simultaneously may

overload the system, leading children to sacrifice sound temporarily until the

word’s meaning is better understood (p. 371).

Although Berk cited young children, this selection was under a heading about

adolescents.

Semantics—Meanings, (T2)

Berk had nine selections about meanings, one descriptive and eight written from a




156

Table 45

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Berk


Berk Descriptive - - I 1

Developmental 1 2 I 4

Acquired - - 1 I

Table 46

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Berk


Berk Descriptive 1 - I

Developmental 2 3 3 S

Acquired - - -


157

In a “Table of Language Development Milestones,” Berk (2000) listed,

6-10 years. Meanings o f words are grasped on the basis of definitions.

Appreciation of multiple meanings of words enhances understanding of

metaphors and humor.

11-adulthood years. Understanding of subtle, nonliteral word meanings, as in

irony and sarcasm improves (p. 390-91).

Berk did not elaborate or expand on the table. Both age groups listed above are included

in the definition of early adolescence for this study.

Berk (2000) stated, “School-age children’s more reflective, analytical approach to

language permits them to appreciate the multiple meanings of words. ... words, such as

‘cool’ or ‘neat’ have psychological meanings as well as physical meanings” (p. 377).

Although Berk gave an example of words that have both psychological and physical

meanings, she did not elaborate on how a more reflective or analytical approach to

language would lead to an appreciation o f those words. Later in the text she stated,

“School-age children can grasp word meanings from definitions, and comprehension of

metaphor and humor expands” (p. 394). Again on page 377 she stated, “They can add

new words to their vocabulary simply by being given a definition (Dickinson, 1984).”

Berk addressed multiple meanings but only mentioned metaphors.


Berk did not address clauses.


Berk did not address conjunctions.



158

Berk had nine selections about grammar, six from a developmental perspective

and three from an acquired perspective. See Table 47 for depth of selections in regard to


Berk described the importance o f grammar to the development of linguistic

abilities when she stated.

Like vocabulary, later grammatical achievements are fostered by children’s

cognitive development and improved ability to analyze and reflect on language.

Older children can deal with more complex relationships and are more attentive to

subtle linguistic and situational clues. These capacities play major roles in

helping them understand the most intricate grammatical forms, (p. 384)

Berk (2000) stated, “Older children also apply their understanding o f the passive

voice to a wider range of nouns and verbs” (p.383). Berk also addressed understanding

of pronoun reference and passive voice (abbreviated and full passives). She also

mentioned in a table that “Refinement o f complex grammatical structures continues”

(p.391) during early adolescence but she did not discuss or explain this statement in the

text.

Berk did not discuss the rules o f syntax or morphology or how words are

constructed. She did, however, address some aspects of how sentences are constructed.

Lexicology—Vocabulary, (LI)

Berk (2000) had four selections regarding vocabulary, all from a developmental

perspective. See Table 48 for depth o f selections in regard to how selections were

addressed.

Laura Berk (2000) stated,


159

Table 47

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Berk


Berk Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - 2 I 3 - 6

Acquired - _> - - 3

Table 48

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Berk

Textbook How addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total


Developmental - j 1 - 4

Acquired - - - - -

Table 49

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Berk

Textbook How addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total


Developmental - 2 2 2 - 6

Acquired - - - - -


160

Between the start o f elementary school and adolescence, vocabulary increases

fourfold, eventually exceeding 40,000 words, a rate of growth that exceeds that of

early childhood. In addition, as we saw in Chapter 7, the knowledge base that

underlies school-age children’s vocabulary becomes better organized. This

permits them to use words more precisely and think about them differently than

they did at younger ages.” (p. 376)

Berk added in a table: “ I I-adulthood. Vocabulary builds to over 40,000 words and

includes many abstract terms” (p. 390-391). “Fifth and sixth graders no longer need to be

shown what a word refers to in order to understand it. They can add new words to their

vocabulary simply by being given a definition” (p. 376). Berk stated in regard to

adolescents: “The capacity for abstract reasoning permits adolescents to add such words

as “counterintuitive, incredible, and philosophy to their vocabularies” (p. 377). Berk did

not specifically address compound words or word affixes.

Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2)

Berk (2000) did not address the effect of written text on language.

Morphology—M orphological Analysis, (M)

Berk (2000) did not address morphological analysis as a part of language

development.

Phonology—Voice, (Ol)

Berk (2000) did not address any issues of change in voice during early

adolescence.

Pholology—Irrflection, (02)


161

Berk (2000) had six selections about inflection, all from a developmental


addressed.

Berk (2000) stated, “Changes in syllabic stress after certain abstract words take on

endings—for example, “humid” to “humidity” and “method” to “methodical”—are not

mastered until adolescence” (p.37l). Later, Berk described another kind of inflection

when she stated, “School-age children sometimes realize that a sarcastic remark is

insincere if it is said in a very exaggerated, mocking tone o f voice” (p.377).


O f Berk’s (2000) the 64 selections, 62 were coded as adequate (96.9%) and two

were coded as unclear. None were coded as misinformation or best information. .


Berk (2000) had 20 selections in which the theoretical framework was identified:

two were behavioral, 11 cognitive and 7 were identified as having a social/environmental

perspective. The sub-components with which they were associated and the perspective

from which they were addressed are included in Table 50.

Summary o f Selections by Berk

Berk (2000) had 64 selections; however, 15 topics were repeated more than once

(18 duplications). Of the 64 selections, nine were descriptive, 46 were developmental

and nine were written from an acquired perspective. Berk addressed eight o f the 13 sub

components. The depth o f the selections included no isolated items, 14 vignettes, 21

sentences and 32 paragraphs. Figure 4 provides a summary o f the number of selections

under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed


162

Table 50

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Berk

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics Descriptive - - I 1

Conversation, UI Developed - 3 2 5

Acquired - - I 1

Pragmatics Developed -■n 2 5

Competence, U3 Acquired I I 1 3


Concepts, T1 Developed - 1 - I

Acquired 1 - - 1

Semantics

Meanings, T2

Descriptive 2- 2

Totals 2 11 7 20

Descriptive = 2, Developmental = 13, Acquired = 5


163

Figure 4

Summary o f Berk’s Selections

Berk

ae«eoa.E4naco

mjjgBgjBgga

Meanings

Conjunctions

Grammar

Wntten

Morph A

voice

Inflection

Selections

, S Descriptive ■ Developmental o Acquired !


164

Child Development - Santrock

Textbook: John W. Santrock (2001). Child development. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed in Textbook

The Santrock textbook included SI selections related to early adolescent

language. All six o f the components and ten of the 13 sub-components were addressed in

some manner.

Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul)

Santrock (2001) had 18 selections regarding conversation, 12 were addressed

descriptively and five developmentally and one was addressed by how language skills are

acquired. Eight of the selections were about reasoning (found in parenthesis in Table 51).

Santrock had two sections with headings, one in a chapter on self and identity called

Abstract and Idealistic that described how adolescents described themselves in various

contexts and roles. The second section was in a chapter on social cognition that

addressed Friendship Functions and included the comment that “Adolescents spend 103

minutes a day in meaningful interactions with friends (versus 28 with parents)” (p. 501).

Santrock (2001) discussed what early adolescents say and talk about in the

following selections: “The adolescent compares her parents to an ideal standard and then

criticized their flaws” (p. 471). “Teenagers engage in all sorts o f negative conformity

behavior—for instance, they use seedy language, steal, vandalize, and make fun of

parents and teachers” (p. 505).

When young adolescents are asked what they want from a friend or how they can

tell someone is their best friend they frequently say that a best friend will share


165

Table 51

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - I L(I) 5,(3) 1 12

Developmental - (I) 1,(2) I 5

Acquired - (I) - 1

Table 52

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 2

Developmental - I I 2

Acquired - . - -

Table 53

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 3 - 5

Developmental 1 1 - 2 - 4

Acquired - - - -


166

problems with them, understand them, and listen when they talk about their own

thoughts or feelings, (p. 502)

Santrock (2001) stated, in a table that the “Adolescent (ages 10-12) can step

outside the two person dyad and view the interaction from a third-person perspective” (p.

379). Perspective is a skill necessary for problem solving and negotiation. Santrock

discussed the adolescent’s verbal problem solving abilities, as well as concrete and

formal reasoning abilities but did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang,

similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm and only mentioned metaphors.


Santrock (2001) had four selections, two addressed descriptively and two

addressed developmentally. See Table 52 for depth of selections in regard to how


The one section, in a chapter on gender issues with the heading Sim ilarities and

Differences: Socioemotional addressed the differences between rapport and report talk.

Santrock (2001) related the work of Deborah Tannen (1990) that compared

rapport talk (conversation) and report talk (discourse).

Report talk is talk that gives information. Public speaking is an example o f report

talk. Males hold center stage through report talk with such verbal performances

such as story telling, joking, and lecturing with information, (p. 407)

Santrock also stated,

In elementary school they narrate and describe or write short poems, in late

elementary and middle school, they move to projects such as book reports that

combine narration with more reflection and analysis, (p. 330)


167

Santrock did not elaborate as to whether the book reports were oral or written. Santrock

did not address proverbs, storytelling, essays, or letters


Santrock (2001) had nine selections regarding communicative competence. Five

selections were addressed descriptively and four were addressed developmentally. See

Table 53 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Santrock (2001) contrasted children who are maladjusted with those that do not

have adjustment problems. “The social cognitive perspective views children who are

maladjusted as lacking social cognitive skills to interact effectively with others” (p. 493).

Santrock did not refer to the skills needed to interact effectively with others as language

skills. Next, Santrock listed the skills identified with boys who did not have adjustment

problems. They:

generated more alternative solutions to problems, posed more assertive and

mature solutions, gave less-intensive aggressive solutions, showed more adaptive

planning, and evaluated physically aggressive responses less positively than boys

with problems” (p. 493).

Santrock’s social cognitive skills as listed here could also be called metalinguistic skills,

or one’s awareness of language


Santrock (2001) had three selections about concepts, two were addressed

descriptively and one developmentally. See Table 54 for depth of selections in regard to



168

In a selection on concepts Santrock (2001) discussed the importance of people

understanding their own minds and those of other people. “Regardless of whether we are

playing chess, football, poker, or tennis, we analyze our opponents’ intentions and

beliefs, and vary our own behavior to take advantage o f their expectations” (p. 257).

To Santrock concepts continue to progress from the concrete o f the child to the abstract

of the adult who can fully consider the intentions o f others. The early adolescent is

involved simultaneously in understanding his/her own mind and the intentions of others.

Santrock addressed the use o f concepts, but not the formation of concepts.

Semantics—M eanings, (T2)

Santrock (2001) had one selection on meanings, and it was addressed from a

developmental perspective. See Table 55 for depth o f selection in regard to how selection

was addressed.

In a table titled, The Child's Development/ Behavior Santrock (2001) stated that

the child “ 11-14 Understands metaphor and satire” (p. 328). Santrock did not elaborate

further. Santrock did not address multiple meanings o f words.


Santrock (2001) did not address clauses.


Santrock (2001) did not address conjunctions.


Santrock (2001) had six selections about grammar, one addressed descriptively

and five developmentally. See Table 56 for depth o f selections and how selections were

addressed.


169

Table 54

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 2

Developmental - I - 1

Acquired - - - -

Table 55

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - - - -


Acquired - - - -

Table 56

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - I - 1

Developmental I 2 2 - - 5

Acquired - - - -


170

Santrock included a chapter on language development that did not address

language development past late childhood, except in a table. Table 10.6, with no

elaboration in the text, Santrock stated for children 11-14, “Understanding o f complex

grammar forms.” (p. 328). He did stated, “By the end o f the elementary school years,

children can usually apply most of the appropriate rules of grammar” (p 327). The

elementary years typically end at 5th or 6th grade, 11 to 12 years of age.

Santrock (2001) related grammar to writing when he stated,

As their language and cognitive skills improve with good instruction, so will their

writing skills. For example, developing a more sophisticated syntax and grammar

serves as an underpinning for better writing” (p. 330).

Here Santrock identified (oral) language skills as preceding written skills. Santrock

referred to the rules of grammar as a body of knowledge but did not discuss how words

or sentences are constructed.


Santrock (2001) included three selections about vocabulary, all addressed from a

developmental perspective. See Table 57 for depth of selections in regard to how


Santrock (2001) stated in his Chapter 10, Language Development, under a

heading o f language development in middle and late childhood,

During middle and late childhood, a change occurs in the way children think

about words. They become less tied to the actions and perceptual dimensions

associated with words, and they become more analytical in their approach to

words, (p. 326-327).


171

Table 57

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Santrock



Developmental - 1 2 - - 3

Acquired - - - -

Table 58

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Effect of Written Text for Santrock



Developmental - I 2 2 5

Acquired - - - -

Table 59

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Morphological Analysis for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive - - . -

Developmental - - I 1

Acquired - - _ -


172

He also stated in a table titled, Children’s Development / Behavior for the child 11-14,

“Vocabulary increases with addition o f more abstract words” (p. 328). He did not define

or describe abstract words or identify the amount of increase in vocabulary that occurs

during early adolescence. At the bottom o f the table was a note that read in part, “Also

keep in mind that there is a great deal of variation in the age at which children reach these

[language] milestones and still be considered within the normal range of language

development” (p. 328). Santrock does not elaborate on the table or the note in the text.


Santrock (2001) had five selections o f the effect of written text on vocabulary or

other aspects of language, all addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 58

for depth o f selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Santrock (2001) described reading stages as they might relate to early

adolescents: “Stage 3. In fourth through eight grade, children become increasingly able to

obtain new information from print. In other words, they read to learn” (p. 327). Santrock

did not elaborate on this statement.

Morphology—Morphological Analysis, (M)

Santrock included one selection about morphological analysis addressed from a



Santrock stated, “The increasing ability o f elementary school children to analyze

words helps them understand words that have no direct relation to their personal

experiences” (p. 326). Santrock did not elaborate as to what he meant by “analyze

words.” No other reference was made to morphological analysis.


173

Phonology—Voice, (OI)

Santrock had one selection about voice change that was addressed

developmentally. See Table 60 for depth o f selections in regard to how selections were

addressed.

Santrock (2001) indicated that, “Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys

with the development o f genitals, and increase in height and a change in voice” (p. 181).

This comment did not indicate the direction or impact o f the change in voice.

Phonology—Inflection, (02)

Santrock (2001) did not address inflection.


Santrock (2001) had S1 selections and all were coded as being adequate or better

than adequate. Of the 51 selections, 49 selections were coded as being adequate and two

were coded as having the best available information. None were coded as having

misinformation or unclear information.


Santrock (2001) had 14 selections that were coded as having a theoretical

perspective. Seven o f the selections had a cognitive perspective and seven had a social/

environmental perspective. None were written from the behavioral perspective. Table 61

identifies the sub-component and how each selection was addressed.

Summary o f Selections by Santrock

Santrock (2001) had 51 selections o f which 22 were addressed descriptively, 28

were addressed developmentally and one was addressed from an acquisition perspective.

Santrock addressed 10 o f 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included two


174

Table 60

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Santrock


Santrock Descriptive -

Developmental 1

Acquired . . .

1


175

Table 61

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Santrock

Component Sub- How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total

Component Addressed

Pragmatics Descriptive 3 I 4

Conversation, U1 Developmental I I

Pragmatics Descriptive I 3 4

Competence. U3 Developmental I 1

Semantics Descriptive I I

Concepts. T1

Syntax Developmental I I

Grammar. S3 Acquired I 1

Lexicology Developmental I I

Vocabulary. LI

Totals 0 7 7 14

Descriptive = 9; Developmental = 4; Acquired = 1; Total = 14


176

isolated items, nine vignettes, 12 sentences, 26 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 5

provides a summary of the number o f selections under each sub-component along with

how each sub-component was addressed.


177

Figure 5

Summary o f Santrock’s Selections

Santrock

£e•eea,Eo9aaCO

Conversation m

Discourse

Meanings

Grammar

vocab

Written

Morph A.

voice

Inflection

> a Descriptive ■ Developmental^ □ Acquired |


178

Child Development - Bee

Textbook: Helen Bee (2000). The developing child' (9th ed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.


In her textbook Helen Bee (2000) included 31 selections related to early

adolescent language. Two of the six components and four o f the 13 sub-components

were addressed.


Of the 20 selections found that related to conversation, 10 had to do with

reasoning. Of the 20 selections, four were written from a descriptive perspective, 14

were written from a developmental perspective and two from an acquired perspective.


Bee (2000) stated that reasoning abilities develop fairly rapidly during the ages of

about 11 to 15. Early adolescents begin to operate with possibilities in addition to reality,

and faced with disconfirming evidence they are more likely than younger children to

change their theory or initial guesses. She stated, “Whether one develops or uses these

forms of logic depends heavily on experience, expertise, and environmental demand” (p.

191). Bee’s discussion of reasoning was extensive and backed by research that described

moral reasoning (e.g., Lawrence Kohlberg, 1964; 1976; 1980; 1981; Lawrence Walker,

1980); and formal operational reasoning (e.g., Susan Martorano, 1977; Piaget, 1932).

Bee (2000) discussed the content o f children’s conversations by reviewing the

work of Carl Barenboim (1977; 1981) who studied children ages 6-16 and the statements

that they used in their conversations. In part Bee stated,


179

Table 62

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Bee


Bee Descriptive - - 4 4

Developmental (1) 2 4,(7) 14

Acquired - (2) - 2


180

Statements that involved some internal personality construct he [Barenboim]

called psychological constructs (such as “Sarah is so land.” ...) while any that

included qualifiers, explanations, exceptions, or mentions o f changes in character

he [Barenboim] called organizing relationships (e.g., “He’s only shy around

people he doesn’t know.” Or ...). ... You can see that behavioral comparisons

peaked at around age 8 or 9, psychological constructs peaked at about age 14, and

organizing relationships did not appear at all until age 10 and were still increasing

at age 16. (p. 359)

Bee did not expand upon this research or comment on the importance of these changes.

Intimacy is one aspect of the content of early adolescent conversations. Bee

(2000) reported a study o f intimacy by Biglow and LeGiapa (1975) and then

summarized: “References to intimacy potential (e.g., ‘I can tell her things about myself I

can’t tell anyone else’) did not appear until seventh grade and then increased further in

eighth grade” (p. 360).

Bee summarized the research of Biglow and LeGiapa (1975), Carl Barenboim

(1977; 1981) Lawrence Kohlberg (1964; 1976; 1980; 1981), Lawrence Walker (1980),

Susan Martorano, (1977) and Piaget, (1932) when she stated,

Taking together all o f what I have told you so far, you can see that the patterns of

developmental change in children’s understanding o f themselves, of others, and of

relationships are strikingly similar, shifting in all the ways I mentioned at the

beginning of the chapter from outer to inner characteristics, from observation to

inferences, from definite to qualified, and from egocentric to a general view. (p.

360)


181

Bee (2000) did not address other uses of language in conversation, including

persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm.

Pragmatics—Discourse (U2)

Bee (2000) had one selection on discourse that discussed the content of essays

from a developmental perspective. See Table 63 for depth o f selection in regard to how

selection was addressed.

Bee (2000) reviewed research on essays by Brian Biglow and John Le Gaipa

(1975) who asked students,

to write an essay about how their expectations of best friends differed from

expectations o f other acquaintances. You can see that references to demographic

similarity were highest among fourth graders, while mentions of loyalty and

commitment were highest among seventh graders, (p. 360)

Bee (2000) did not address other aspects of discourse, including proverbs, story

telling, oral reports or letters.


Bee (2000) had nine selections regarding communicative competence, primarily

on social cognition. O f the nine selections, four were written from a descriptive

perspective, four from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired


addressed.

Bee (2000) described communicative competence when she discussed social

cognition:


182

Table 63

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Bee


Bee Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - - 1 - I

Acquired - - - - -

Table 64

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Bee


Bee Descriptive - I - 4

Developmental - 2 2 - 4

Acquired - I - - 1

Table 65

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Bee


Bee Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - - I - 1

Acquired - - - - -


183

Social cognition differs from other aspects of cognition, however, in that the child

must learn that people behave with intention, mask feelings, and operate by

special socially defined scripts or rules. The ability to read others’ emotions and

intentions is an important element in the child’s general social competence. Those

who are less skilled, who have less “emotional knowledge,” are more likely to be

rejected by their peers, (p. 374)

She did not elaborate on “socially defined scripts or rules.”

Bee (2000) also described a study by L. J. Walker (1980) on social cognition:

“The developmental sequence o f events found in social cognition was that “the child

developed logical thinking first, then more advanced social understanding, and then the

parallel moral judgments” (p. 374). These changes in cognition were bom out by

conversation samples taken by Walker in his study.

Bee (2000) did not use linguistic terms when describing these receptive

components of communicative competence (such as pragmatics) although she had earlier

defined them in her textbook. Bee did not address other aspects of communicative

competence: the rules of speaking or writing, or what the early adolescent needs to know

about grammar or vocabulary.

Semantics—Concepts. (Tl)

Bee (2000) had one selection about concepts written from a developmental

perspective. See Table 65 for depth o f selection in regard to how selection was addressed

In regard to changes in the ways that early adolescents use previous ways of

thinking, Bee stated,


184

The 12- or 13-year old is assimilating an enormous number of new physical,

social, and intellectual experiences Old patterns, old schemes no longer work

very well, but new ones have not been established. It is during this early period

that the peer group is so centrally important, (p. 480)

Bee (2000) did not explain further how concepts were learned or used during early

adolescence.


Bee (2000) did not address meanings.


Bee (2000) did not address clauses.


Bee (2000) did not address conjunctions.


Bee (2000) did not address grammar for early adolescents. She did, however,

include a chapter titled The Development o f Language that addressed language

development through complex sentences for ages 30-48 months. After referencing

complex sentences and passive forms she stated, “But these are refinements. The really

giant strides occur between ages 1 and 4 as the child moves from single words to

complex questions, negatives, and commands” (p. 239).

Lexicology— Vocabulary Size. (LI)

Bee (2000) did not address vocabulary size.

Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text on Vocabulary, (L2)

Bee (2000) did not address the efiect o f the written text on vocabulary.


185


Bee (2000) did not address morphological analysis.


Bee (2000) did not address voice.


Bee (2000) did not address inflection.


Bee (2000) had 3 1 selections that were coded for quality. Of the 31 selections, 28

selections were coded as adequate (90.3% of the selections) and three as being unclear.

None of the selections was coded as having misinformation or being best information

available.


Bee (2000) had ten selections that were coded for theoretical framework. Of the

ten selections, five were written from a cognitive theoretical perspective and five were

written from a social / environmental perspective. Table 66 identifies the sub

components associated with the theoretical framework in the selections along with how

the selection was addressed.

Summary o f Selections by Bee

Bee (2000) had 31 selections eight from a descriptive perspective, 20 from a

developmental perspective and 3 from an acquired perspective. Bee addressed four of the

13 sub-components. Most of the selections were coded as adequate, but three were

unclear. The depth o f the selections included one vignette, eight sentences and 22


186

paragraphs. Figure 6 provides a summary o f the number o f selections under each sub

component along with how each subcomponent was addressed.


187

Table 66

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Bee


Component Addressed

Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 2 4

Conversation,Ul Developed - I 1 2

Acquired - I - 1

Pragmatics Descriptive - - I I

Competence, U3

Semantics Descriptive - 1 I 2

Concepts. Tl

Totals 0 5 5 10

Descriptive = 7; Developmental = 2; Acquired = I


Figure 6

Summary o f Bee’s Selections

Bee

Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

g Meaningscc ClausesoE Conjunctions o

Grammar3

CO Vocab

Written

Moiph. A.

Voice

Inflections

HH

10 15

Selections20 25

| m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired


189

Child Development - Lefrancois

Textbook: Guy Lefrancois (2001). O f children, (9th ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Wadsworth.


In his text Lefrancois included 23 selections that briefly addressed three o f the six

components of language and five o f the 13 sub-components.


O f the 16 selections regarding conversation for Lefrancois (2001), nine were

descriptive and seven addressed conversation developmentally. Only two selections were

concerned with abstract and concrete reasoning, (noted in parenthesis in Table 67 below).

Table 67 also lists how the selections were addressed and the depth o f each selection.

Lefrancois (2001) seldom identified the ages o f students whom he was discussing

and included information relevant to school age children’s language in the chapter on

early childhood. He described reasoning in relation to Piaget’s stages of cognitive

development.

As a part of conversational development, Lefrancois (2001) focused on bullying.

He described a bully as

an aggressive, quarrelsome person who appears to take pleasure in infliction of

pain or harm, or in terrorizing people who are weaker. . . . Bullying. . . includes a

wide range of behaviors from very mild (verbal taunts, for instance) to extreme

. . . ” (p. 436).

He addressed bullying without mention o f age.


190

Table 67

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Lefrancois


Lefrancois Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

3 2,(1) 2,(1) - 9

7 - 7

Table 68

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Lefrancois



Developmental

Acquired

1 - I

Table 69

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Lefrancois



Developmental

Acquired

2 2

2 - 2


191

Lefrancois (2001) also included a long section concerning Selman’s

developmental progression o f social cognition. Selman’s social cognition descriptors for

the early adolescent ages as cited by Lefrancois are listed below:

• Self-reflective. Ages 6-12. Actually, we can have different points of view.

There’s hers and there’s mine. I can see mine; she can see her’s. (Cooperators)

• Mutual. Ages 9-15. Well, maybe I can see hers and she can see mine. We can

even talk about or different points o f view. (Intimates and mutual supporters)

• Ages 12 to Adulthood. Actually, within the context of discombobulism, and

taking into consideration the teachings o f MUMU and the charter of personal

delimitations, her point o f view is totally philanthropic, (p. 424) (Dependent but

autonomous) (p. 430)

For clarification, after each age division from Lefrancois’ textbook this researcher

inserted the label that Selman (1981) had for the age group from his developmental

progression of friendships. Lefrancois added “Note that this progression of stages

reflects children’s ability to verbalize their perspectives and their understanding of other

perspectives” (p. 424). Lefrancois did not address negotiation, persuasion, problem

solving, slang, idioms, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm.


Lefrancois (2001) had one selection regarding discourse. That selection was

addressed developmentally. See Table 68 for depth of selection in regard to how

selection was addressed.


192

Lefrancois (2001) gave two examples of humor in the naming of pet cats that

contrasted the understanding o f humor at different ages. Lefrancois did not address

proverbs, essays, letters or story telling beyond the example of humor.


Lefrancois had four selections regarding communicative competence. Two

selections were addressed descriptively and two were addressed developmentally. See

Table 69 for depth o f selections in regard to how selections were addressed.

Lefrancois (2001) described communicative competence through social

interactions. He stated,

Social competence—reflected in children’s ability to sense what is happening in

social groups, in a high degree of responsiveness to others, and in an

understanding that relationships develop slowly over time—is important for peer

acceptance, (p. 461)

He did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar, vocabulary,

or the rules of speaking or writing.

Semantics—Concepts, (Tl)

Lefrancois (2001) had one selection that addressed concepts. That selection was

written from a developmental perspective. See Table 70 for depth of selection in regard

to how selection was addressed.

Lefrancois (2001) did not describe concepts during early adolescence but did

discuss concepts during early childhood and compared these early concepts with those of

adults when he stated.


193

Table 70

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Lefrancois


Lefrancois Descriptive - - -

Developmental I - 1

Acquired - - -

Table 71

Depth of Coverage (Length o f Selections) for Voice for Lefrancois


Lefrancois Descriptive . . . i - 1

Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -


194

“Internalizing by means o f symbols is what allows preschoolers to begin to relate

objects and events in terms of their common properties. That is it allows them to

form concepts. But these concepts are not as complete and logical as adults’ and

are therefore referred to as preconcepts.” (p. 298)


Lefrancois (2001) did not address meanings.


Lefrancois (2001) did not address clauses.


Lefrancois (2001) did not address conjunctions.

Syntax—Grammar. (S3)

Lefrancois (2001) did not address grammar during early adolescence. He focused

only on grammatical development during early childhood. He stated, “More complex

sentences and adultlike grammatical structures are usually present by age 4” (p. 325). He

offered no further discussion of grammatical development.

Lexicology—Vocabulary Size, (LI)

Lefrancois (2001) did not address vocabulary size or increase.


Lefrancois (2001) did not address the effect of written text.


Lefrancois (2001) did not address morphological analysis.



195

Lefrancois (2001) had one selection about voice change, addressed from a

descriptive perspective. See Table 71 for the depth o f this selection.

Lefrancois (2001) stated, “The boy’s voice changes much more dramatically than

the girl’s; and he also grows rapidly, particularly in height and length o f limbs” (p.473).

Lefrancois did not elaborate about the nature or impact of the voice change.


Lefrancois (2001) did not address inflection.


Lefrancois had 23 selections where the quality was identified. All 23 selections

(100% of the selections) were coded as being adequate. None were coded for being

unclear, misinformation or being best information available.


Lefrancois had eight selections where a theoretical perspective could be

identified. Of the eight selections, four were written from the cognitive perspective and

four from a social/environmental perspective. Seven selections were associated with a

theoretical framework were descriptive. Table 72 identifies the sub-component of the

selection, how the selection was addressed and the theoretical framework was identified.

Summary o f Selections by Lefrancois

Lefrancois had 23 selections, 12 were addressed descriptively, 11 were addressed

developmentally and none addressed language acquisition. Lefrancois addressed five of

13 sub-components. The depth of the selections included no isolated items, three

vignettes, eight sentences, 12 paragraphs and no sections Figure 7 provides a summary o f

Lefrancois’ selections.


196

Table 72

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Lefrancois

Component Sub-

Component

How Behavioral

Addressed

Cognitive Soc/Environ Total

Pragmatics Descriptive 4 3 7

Conversation, UI Developed - I 1

Totals 0 4 4 8

Descriptive = 7; Developmental = I; Acquired =0


197

Figure 7

Summary o f Lefrancois’ Selections

Lefrancois

Eo9a3

CO

Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Clauses

Conj

Grammar

Vocab

Written

Morph A.

Voice

Inflection

10

Selections

15 20

a Description ■ Developmental □ Acquisition i


198

Educational Psychology - Ormrod

Textbook: Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (2000). Educational psychology, developing learners,

(3rd ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.


Ormrod had SI selections that addressed four of the six components of language

and ten o f the 13 sub-components o f language.


In the textbook by Ormrod (2000) there were six selections regarding

conversation, two were about concrete and abstract reasoning (indicated by parentheses

in Table 73). Four of the six selections were written from a descriptive perspective.

Ormrod (2000) used research to describe early adolescents’ actions and

behaviors: Kohlberg’s (1984) stages o f moral reasoning; Selman's (1980) levels of

perspective taking; Erikson’s (1962, 1972) role identity vs. role confusion; and Elkind’s

(1981) imaginary audience and personal fable. In a review of Kohlberg’s stages of

moral reasoning Ormrod stated, ’’Many junior high school students are capable o f taking

an outside perspective of a two-person relationship; thus they appreciate the need for

cooperation, compromise, and mutual trust” (p. 108). In a discussion about Selman’s

(1980) levels of perspective taking, Ormrod identified the need for compromise, an

element necessary in negotiation.

Students not only see the ‘outside’ perspective of the two-person relationship.

They appreciate the need to satisfy both oneself and another simultaneously and


199

Table 73

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive 1 I. (2) - 4

Developmental I 1 - 2

Acquired - - - -

Table 74

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive I - - I

Developmental - 2 - 2

Acquired - - - -

Table 75

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence


Ormrod Descriptive 3 4 - 7


Acquired - - I 1


2 0 0

therefore understand the advantages o f cooperation, compromise, and trust

(P- 105)

In regard to Elkind’s imaginary audience. Ormrod stated, “First, many adolescents

believe that in any social situation, everyone else’s attention is focused squarely on

themselves” (p. 87). In discussing Elkind’s personal fable, Ormrod stated that, “By

sharing their thoughts and feelings with one another, students may discover that they

aren’t as unique as they once thought, thereby poking holes in the personal fable I spoke

of earlier” (p. 91).

Ormrod addressed reasoning and “social problem solving” (p. 93), but did not

address persuasion, or negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, ambiguity or metaphors.


Ormrod had three selections about discourse including proverbs, two from a

developmental perspective. See Table 74 for depth of coverage.

Ormrod (2000) discussed what she referred to as proverbs and stated that,

Children in the early grades take the words they hear at face value “tied-up or

hitting the roof.” And they have little success drawing generalizations from such

proverbs as “look before you leap” or “Don’t put the cart before the horse.”

Students’ ability to interpret proverbs in a generalized, abstract fashion continues

to develop even into the high school years, (p. 62).

Ormrod (2000) also discussed written discourse and gave the following example,

We see several changes as students move through the secondary grades. First,

students are more capable of analyzing and synthesizing their thoughts when


201

they write, and so they are better able to write research papers and argumentative

essays (p.359).

Ormrod made several suggestions for expanding writing ability. She did not expand

further on the changes seen in writing during the school years. Ormrod (2000) discussed

proverbs, and writing essays, but did not address storytelling, oral reports, or letters.


Ormrod (2000) had 15 selections regarding communicative competence,

including the rules for speaking, only one from an acquired perspective with the other

selections split between descriptive and developmental perspectives. See Table 73 for

details as to the depth of coverage.

Ormrod (2000) provided a general overview of development o f communicative

competence. She stated.

By the time they begin school, at five or six years o f age, they use language that

seems adult-like in many respects. Yet students’ language capabilities continue

to develop and mature throughout the school years. Numerous changes occur in

both receptive language—students’ ability to understand what they hear and

read—and expressive language—their ability to communicate effectively

through speaking and writing, (p. 59).

Ormrod (2000) used linguistic vocabulary when she identified skills as

pragmatic:

Children continue to refine their knowledge o f pragmatics throughout the

elementary grades; my own observation has been that this process continues into

the middle and high school years as well. When students haven’t mastered


202

certain social conventions—for instance, when they interrupt frequently or

change the subject without warning—others may find their behavior irritating or

strange; a lack of pragmatic skills, then, can seriously interfere with students’

relationships with peers” (p. 63).

The “social conventions” Ormrod referred to fall under rules o f speaking and are part of

communicative competence. She included Eisenberg’s pro-social behavior in regard to

empathy. Ormrod stated.

By late elementary school years, students may also begin to feel empathy for

people they don’t know.. . Empathy may be especially instrumental in the

development of pro-social behavior students are more likely to act on someone

else’s behalf if they share that person’s feelings of sadness or frustration” (p.

97).

Empathy is a pragmatic skill that is included in communicative competence. Ormrod

addressed many o f the rules for speaking but did not address rules for writing. She did

not address how early adolescents use or respond to different types of speech acts, and

she did not address the knowledge o f grammar or vocabulary needed for communicative

competence.


Ormrod (2000) had seven selections about concepts. Two of the selections were

sections, one about the construction o f concepts, and the second on the use of concepts.

All but one of the selections was from the acquired perspective. See Table 76 for depth

of coverage.


203

Table 76

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive 1 - 1

Developmental - - -

Acquired I 3 2 6

Table 77

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive - - -


Acquired I - 1

Table 78

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Ormrod



Developmental I - 1

Acquired 1 - 1


204

Ormrod (2000), stated, “In addition to learning concepts, students also leam how

concepts are interrelated” (p. 274). She went on to discuss super-ordinate and sub

ordinate categories of concepts. Later she described “concept maps” and gave two

examples o f concept maps made by fifth graders. She further defined concepts as

having seven possible traits and listed how they were related. One example, over

generalization, was described as, “over generalization is a case of incorrectly identifying

negative instances as examples o f a concept, and a concept is easier to learn when its

defining features are salient” (p. 327). Ormrod also addressed misconceptions. Her

writing about concepts was unusually clear and detailed. She addressed both learning

concepts and using concepts.


Ormrod (2000) had three selections regarding meanings of words and phrases,

two from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table

77 for the depth of coverage.

In regard to upper elementary students, Ormrod (2000) stated, “They are more

adept at drawing inferences, and they become increasingly able to leam new

information from what they read” (p. 350). She also stated that as students move into

secondary grades, “they become more cognizant of the subtle aspects of fiction—for

example, the underlying theme and symbolism o f a novel” (p. 350). Ormrod’s

definition o f secondary students included all students who were not in elementary

school. This definition, then, includes the latter half o f early adolescence.

Ormrod (2000) also discussed inferred meanings of words. She did not,

however, address metaphorical meanings.


205


Ormrod (2000) had two selections about clauses, one from a developmental

perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 78 for depth of coverage.

In reference to secondary students, Ormrod (2000) stated.

When asked to write about a particular topic, they retrieve and generate many

more ideas than students in the elementary grades do. Their sentences are more

likely to vary in structure and frequently contain one or more dependent clauses,

(p. 359)

Ormrod also stated that teachers must “introduce various kinds of simple and complex

sentences” (p. 356). Ormrod did not elaborate further on the kinds o f clauses used.

Syntax—Conjunctions. (S2)

Ormrod (2000) had two selections regarding kinds of conjunctions used, one

descriptive and one developmental. See Table 79 for depth o f coverage.

Ormrod (2000) stated.

Children in the upper elementary and junior high grades have trouble with many

connectives—words such as but, although, yet, however, and unless, [example]

...Even 12 year-olds have trouble identifying the correct sentence in pairs like

these reflecting only a vague understanding o f the connectives but and although.

(p. 60)

The research cited by Ormrod asked the children to identify the correct sentence of two,

both containing conjunctions, one used improperly. She also attributed the ability to use


206

Table 79

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive 1 - 1

Developmental I - 1

Acquired . . . - -

Table 80

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Ormrod



Developmental 3 - 2 - 5

Acquired 2 - 2

Table 81

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Ormrod




Acquired _ - -


207

more abstract conjunctions on a child’s ability to use abstract thinking. Ormrod did not

address other conjunctions or their use.


Ormrod (2000) included seven selections about grammar, most (five o f the

seven) from a developmental perspective and the rest from an acquired perspective. See

Table 80 for depth of coverage.

Ormrod (2000) stated.

As they move into the upper elementary and middle school grades, they begin to

analyze speech in terms of its component parts, (nouns, verbs, adjectives) such

growth is almost certainly due, at least in part to the formal instruction they

receive about parts of speech” (p. 63).

Grammar was discussed in regard to written language and oral language: “Our students

are more likely to improve their speech and writing when they .. receive direct feedback

about ambiguities and grammatical errors in their speech and writing” (p. 61). Ormrod

did not expand upon how learning might occur beyond formal instruction.


Ormrod (2000) had two selections about the size o f vocabulary and how students

increase their vocabularies, both from a developmental perspective. See Table 81 for

depth of coverage.

Ormrod (2000) stated,

It has been estimated that the average first grader knows the meaning o f 8,000 to

14,000 words, whereas the average high school graduate knows the meanings of

at least 80,000words. Children leam some words through direct vocabulary


208

instruction at school, but they probably learn many more by inferring meaning

from the context in which the words are heard or read.” (p. 59).

Although she did not directly address the number of words in an early adolescent’s

vocabulary, it was certainly implied by including early adolescent ages within the span

of years included in the example. She also identified ways in which vocabulary is

increased. Ormrod elaborated on the contexts in which words are learned when she

described how students “play” with language. Many slang words begin as “word-play.”

In a chapter summary, Ormrod (2000) addressed how a teacher might increase

vocabulary when she stated, “ ... for instance, we can explicitly teach vocabulary and

grammar, give students many opportunities to practice oral communication skills, and

teach them one or more foreign languages” (p. 72). She did not, however, address the

kinds o f words (abstract, compound, with affixes) early adolescents leam.


Ormrod (2000) had three selections about the effect of the written text on

vocabulary or other aspects o f language, two from a developmental perspective and one

from an acquired perspective. See Table 82 for depth of coverage.

Ormrod (2000), stated, “Furthermore, they begin to think about how their

readers might respond to what they have written and so are more likely to proofread and

revise their work” (p. 359). Awareness o f an audience or reader, in this case, is a

pragmatic skill. Ormrod also stated, “Avid readers leam many more new words than do

students who read infrequently” (p. 61). Ormrod addressed the idea that written text can

influence vocabulary acquisition and other aspects of language.


209

Table 82

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Effect of Written Text for Ormrod


Ormrod Descriptive - - - -

Developmental - - 2 2

Acquired - 1 - 1


210

Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M)

Ormrod (2000) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology—Voice, (01)

Ormrod (2000) did not address voice.


Ormrod (2000) did not address inflection.


All of Ormrod’s (2000) 51 selections (100%) were coded as adequate. None

were coded as misinformation, unclear information, or best information.


The theoretical framework could be identified in only nine o f the selections in

the Ormrod (2000) textbook. Four were behavioral, one cognitive, and four were

written from the social/ environmental perspective. One selection was descriptive and

two were written from a developmental perspective, while six were written from the

acquired perspective. See Table 83 for components where theoretical perspectives were

located and the manner in which the selections were addressed.

Summary o f Selections fo r Ormrod

Ormrod (2000) had 51 selections, 14 from a descriptive perspective, 25 from a

developmental perspective and 12 from an acquired perspective. Ormrod addressed ten

of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included four isolated hems, three

vignettes, 12 sentences, 29 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 8 provides a summary

of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub

component was addressed.


2 1 1

Table 83

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Ormrod

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics Descriptive - I 1

Competence, U3 Acquired 1 - I

Semantics

Concepts. Tl

Acquired I 1 2

Syntax

Conjunctions

Developmental 1 I

Syntax

Grammar

Acquirede I I 2

Lexicology

Vocabulary. LI

Developmental I 1

Lexicology

Written, L2

Acquired I 1

Totals 4 I 4 9

Descriptive = 1; Developmental = 2; Acquired = 6:


2 1 2

Figure 8

Summary o f Ormrod’s Selections

Ormrod

Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Grammar

vocab

written

Moron A

voice

Inflection

6 8 10

Selections12 14 16

[ m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired


213

Educational Psychology - Eggen

Textbook: Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak (2001). Educational psychology windows on

classrooms, (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.


Eggen and Kauchak had 46 selections related to early adolescent language. Five

o f the six components o f language and seven o f the 13 sub-components were addressed.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 13 selections regarding conversation, seven of

which addressed reasoning. Four of the selections described language, five addressed

language developmentally and four addressed language from an acquired perspective.

See Table 84 for information on depth of coverage.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) addressed early adolescent conversation in regard to

gender differences and social problem solving. They stated,

Differences in participation become greater as students move through school

with an especially significant decrease in girls’ participation during the middle

school years. In 7th grade, they [girls] initiated 41% of the student-teacher

interactions, but by 8th grade this number decreased to 30%. (p. 150)

Later they returned to the issue o f gender separated schools and classes and stated, “One

study found girls more likely to ask and answer questions in a girls-only middle school

math class than in coeducational classes” (p. 152). These authors did not attempt to

explain the presence or absence of language participation in gender separated classes.


214

Table 84

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Eggen


Eggen Descriptive - - - 3,(1) - 4

Developmental - (1) (1) 2,(1) - 5

Acquired - - (1) L(2) - 4

Table 85

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Eggen


Eggen Descriptive - - I I - 2

Developmental - - - I - I

Acquired - - - - - -

Table 86

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Eggen


Eggen Descriptive 2 - 6 8

Developmental 2 3 5

Acquired 6 6


215

In regard to social problem solving, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) commented:

“Research indicates that social problem solving develops gradually... Older children

realize that persuasion and compromise can result in solutions that are beneficial to all

and they’re better at adapting when initial efforts aren’t successful.” (p. 86)

Social skills classes were described: “Programs to teach social problem solving

skills... have improved [the children’s] ability to talk about and analyze social

problems” (p. 87). Specific language skills, however, were not mentioned.

In addition, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described self-reflective perspective

taking and also listed Selman’s stages of moral reasoning. Neither topic, however, was

developed in relation to language skills.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address other aspects of conversation,

including negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had three selections about discourse. Two selections

were addressed from a descriptive perspective and one was addressed from a

developmental perspective. See Table 85 for information regarding depth o f coverage.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) focused on written discourse. For example, they

stated, “a teacher has students write letters to friends and relatives and compose stories

about their own experiences” (p. 58). They also stated,

.. .eight to 12 year-olds can generate ideas but have trouble organizing and

evaluating them. Attempts to consciously eliminate some of these hurdles have

proven successful. For example, to bypass the graphic challenge, researchers


216

allowed fourth and sixth graders to dictate rather than write their essays,

resulting in products that were twice as long and better in quality, (p. 375)

Eggen and Kauchak also discussed essays as part of assessments: “Essay items require

students to make extended written responses to questions or problems” (p. 607). They

continued by saying that essays are valuable because they can be used to see if the

student can defend an argument, organize an idea, or describe understanding. Eggen

and Kauchak presented this information on early adolescents from a teacher’s point of

view and stated what the teacher should have the students produce.

Eggen and Kauchak did not mention other aspects of discourse, such as

proverbs, storytelling, or oral reports.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 19 selections about communicative competence,

eight were addressed descriptively, five developmentally and six by how

communicative competence is acquired. See Table 86 for information regarding the

depth o f selections and how each was addressed.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) discussed the ability to know what is important and

what is not important in communication. In part they stated,

Researchers found, for example, that a third of 5th graders couldn’t differentiate

between more and less important ideas, seventh graders were beginning to

develop some proficiency, and high school students were quite good at it (p.

368).

In other aspects o f communication Eggen and Kauchak discussed writing

strategies, perspective taking, shared understanding, and social skills but they did not


217

address what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the

rules of speaking or writing.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had five selections about concepts, two were

addressed descriptively and three were about the acquisition of concepts. Table 87

contains information on the depth of coverage and how selections were addressed.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) stated,

Understanding language development is important for several reasons: I . As

shown in the preceding discussions o f Vygotsky and Piaget, language is a

catalyst for developmental change. As children interact with peers and adults,

they construct increasingly complex and accurate schemes and ideas about the

world (p. 63).

Eggen and Kauchak added, “Conceptually driven views [of reading] suggest that the

meaning learners take from text is determined by individual expectations and prior

knowledge” (p. 365). Eggen and Kauchak addressed the formation and use of concepts

but only tied concepts to language through reading.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address meanings.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address clauses.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address conjunctions.


218

Table 87

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Eggen

Textbook How Addressed hem Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total

Eggen Descriptive 2 - 2

Developmental . - -

Acquired . 3 3

Table 88

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Eggen


Eggen Descriptive - - -

Developmental . - -

Acquired 3 - 3

Table 89

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Effect of Written Text for Eggen

Textbook How Addressed hem Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total

Eggen Descriptive - - - -

Developmental I - 1

Acquired 1 - 1


219

Syntax— Grammar, (S3)

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had three selections for grammar, all addressed from

an acquired perspective. Table 88 contains information regarding the depth of

selections for grammar and how the selections were addressed.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) provided a short passage composed o f nonsense

language to be read, then stated, “The aspect of linguistic knowledge that you used to

make sense of the wuggen passage was syntax, the way words in larger units make

sense” (p. 361). Later they added, “to bypass the syntactic challenge, young writers

can be allowed to initially make grammatical errors and use invented spellings, saving

corrections for the revising stage” (p. 375).

Eggen and Kauchak also addressed strategies for writing. They stated, “ For,

example, sixth graders who were taught to add, delete, substitute, and rearrange their

written products did significantly more revisions, and their stories improved more than

the stories written by students who did not receive strategy instruction” (p. 375).

Eggen and Kauchak did not mention specific rules of morphology or syntax or how

words or sentences were constructed, but they did address how student compositions

could be constructed.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address vocabulary size.

Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text on Vocabulary, (L2)

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had two selections o f the effect o f written text on

vocabulary or other aspects o f language, one was addressed developmentally and the


220

other from an acquired perspective. See Table 89 for information regarding the depth of

selections and how each was addressed.


The development oflanguage is closely tied to learning to read and write. As

you’ll see in Chapter 9, these processes provide learners with essential learning

and communication tools, (p. 63)

The reader was referred to Chapter 9. While Chapter 9 did discuss techniques for

teaching reading and writing, it did not address early adolescent language or its

development.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology— Voice (Ol)

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had one selection about voice that was addressed

from a descriptive perspective. See Table 90 for information regarding the depth of

selection.


It is not easy being a student who talks differently. In communicating with these

students, a teacher should be patient and refrain from correcting their speech,

which calls attention to the problem” (p. 180).

They did not identify the voice problem (articulation, voice quality, voice volume, etc.)

but what was stated could be applied to the early adolescent male whose voice was

changing.


221

Table 90

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Eggen


Eggen Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

1 1



Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address inflection.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 46 selections on early adolescent language. Of

the 46 selections, 43 were coded adequate (or 93 .5% o f the selections) and three were

coded as being unclear. None were coded as having misinformation or best

information.


Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 18 selections that were coded for theoretical

framework. Five of the selections were coded as being written from a cognitive

perspective and 13 were written from a social / environmental perspective. None were

coded for being written from a behavioral perspective. Table 91 identifies the sub

component and how theoretical framework was addressed for each of the selections.

Summary o f Selections by Eggen and Kauchak

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 46 selections; 17 selections described language,

12 addressed language deveiopmentally and 17 addressed language from the perspective

of acquisition. Eggen and Kauchak addressed seven o f the 13 sub-components. The

depth of selections included no isolated items, three vignettes, seven sentences, 33

paragraphs and three sections. Figure 9 provides as summary o f the number of

selections under each sub-component along with the perspective by which each sub



Table 91

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Eggen

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics Descriptive - I I 2

Conversation, U1 Developed - - I I

Acquired - - 1 I

Pragmatics Descriptive - t I 2

Competence, U3 Developed - 2 - 2

Acquired - - 3 3

Semantics Descriptive - - I I

Concepts. T1 Developed - - 1 2

Syntax

Grammar

Acquired 1 1

Phonology

Voice

Descriptive I

Totals 0 5 13 18



224

Figure 9

Summary o f Selections for Eggen and Kauchak

Eggen and Kauchak

Eoo

CO

Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Clauses

Grammar

vocab

Written

Morph A

Inflection

10

Selections

15 20

m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired


225

Educational Psychology - Elliott

Textbook: Stephen N. Elliott, Thomas R. Kratochwill, Joan Littlefield Cook, and John

F. Travers (2000). Educational psychology: effective teaching, effective

learning, (3rd ed.).


Elliott et al. (2000) had 26 selections. Four of the six components of language

and six of the 13 sub-components were addressed.


Elliott et al. (2000) had 13 selections regarding conversation, of which six were

about reasoning (see Table 92). Of the 13 selections seven were addressed descriptively

and six were addressed develop mentally. The section was about concrete and abstract

reasoning.

Elliott et al. (2000) tied language to Piaget’s stages:

The early childhood years see the slow and steady disappearance of egocentrism,

except in verbal thought, where traces of egocentrism remain until children are

about 11 or 12 years old. Usage and complexity o f language increase

dramatically as children pass through the four stage o f cognitive development.

(p. 47)

The authors gave no examples of early adolescent language while discussing Piaget’s

stages. Elliott stated that in language three types o f changes take place at the middle

childhood level (6-10). The changes identified were: I . Students, from age seven on,

use language for their own purposes, such as remembering and planning; 2. Students


226

Table 92

Elliott’s Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive L (I) 1.(3) (1) 7

Developmental L (I) 4 - 6

Acquired . - - -

Table 93

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive I - I 2

Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -

Table 94

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive - - - -


Acquired - - - -


227

use language less literally and more figuratively; and 3. Students are more able to

communicate effectively with others.

In regard to language development these authors stated; “Although refinements

are made between the ages of 5 and 10, most children have completed the greater part of

the process of language acquisition by the age o f 4 or 5” (p. 58). A table titled “Typical

Language Accomplishments” (p. 67) listed only accomplishments for children six

through ten. For the ten-year-old they listed; “Describes situations by cause and effect;

writes fairly lengthy essays; likes mystery and science stories; masters dictionary skills;

good sense of grammar” (p. 67). Elliott et al. only briefly described some aspects of

language that might be seen in the ten-year-old and they did not address language past

the age o f 10.

Elliott et al. did not address other aspects of conversation, including persuasion,

negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity.


Elliott et al. (2000) had two selections that described discourse. The section,

under assessments, addressed oral classroom presentations that included a list of

expected behaviors or skills and scoring criteria. See Table 93 for information

regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

In a table, Elliott et al. (2000) listed the language achievements for the middle

childhood years; “Age 10. Describes situations by cause and effect, writes fairly lengthy

essays; likes mystery and science stories;...” (p. 67).

Elliott et al. did not address other aspects of discourse, such as proverbs,

storytelling, or letters.


228


Elliott et al. (2000) had one selection about communicative competence

addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 94 for information regarding

the depth of the selection.

In a section devoted to language development in middle childhood, Elliott et al.

(2000) listed changes that occurred during this age.

Students are able to communicate with others more effectively. They understand

relationships; they can also express these relationships accurately, using

appropriate language. In a sense, more effective communication is the product of

the interaction of many developmental forces: physical growth as seen in the

brain’s development; cognitive development as seen in the ability to use symbols

and to store them; and language development as seen in vocabulary development

and usage. Language has not become an effective tool in adapting to the

environment especially the classroom, (p. 66)

In this selection Elliott et al. did not address what early adolescents need to know about

communicative competence regarding grammar, vocabulary, or the rules o f speaking or

writing.


Elliott et al. (2000) had five selections about concepts, one addressed concepts

descriptively and four addressed concepts from the acquisition perspective. See Table

9S for information regarding the depth o f selections and how each was addressed.

Elliott et al. (2000) advised teachers to structure learning around primary concepts. The

authors stated that good teachers, to teach concepts, “consistently give


229

Table 95

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive - I - 1


Acquired - 3 1 4

Table 96

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive I I I I - 4

Developmental . - - -

Acquired - - - -

Table 97

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Effect of Written Text for Elliott


Elliott Descriptive I - - 1


Acquired - - - -


230

examples, and they compare the concept to other categories that do not include it” (p

278). They continued by discussing the importance and use of concepts.

Concepts are vital to thinking, reasoning, and perceiving relationships. The

quality of a student’s concepts is the best measure of probable success in

learning, because meaning is basic to learning. Also, concepts determine what

we know, believe, and do... Meaningful concepts are also a great aid to memory.

(P- 278)

They gave many suggestions as to which concepts to present, how to present them, as

well as, how to help student learn concepts. Elliot et al. did state “Now the teacher may

attempt to expand the concepts that the pupils experienced in their literature and

simultaneously work on vocabulary using various techniques” (p. 65). They did not,

however, state the link between word meanings and concepts. Instead, they associated

concepts with thinking, reasoning, and perceiving relationships.


Elliott et al. (2000) did not address meanings of words or phrases.


Elliott et al. (2000) did not address clauses.


Elliott et al. (2000) did not address conjunctions.


Elliott et al. (2000) had four selections about grammar, one was addressed

descriptively and three were addressed developmentally. See Table 96 for information



231

Under assessments, Elliott et al. (2000) included criteria for grading a written

paper. The criteria included evaluating a paper’s format, mechanics, usage, sentence

structure and organization. The mechanics, usage, and sentence structure criteria each

addressed elements o f grammar including: sentence fragments, word agreement,

punctuation, capitalization, and sentence structure. They also stated, “Grammar seems

to be designed to convert ideas into word combinations” (p. 59). Elliott et al. did not

address rules of syntax or morphology or include how words or sentences are

constructed.


Elliott et al. (2000) did not address vocabulary size for the early adolescent.


Elliott et al. (2000) had one descriptive selection about the effect o f written text

on vocabulary or other aspect of language. See Table 97 for information regarding the

depth of selections and how each was addressed.

In a table, Elliott et al. (2000) identified that by age 10 a child masters dictionary

skills. No further elaboration was provided in the text.

Morphology, Morphological Analysis, (M)

Elliott et al. (2000) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology—Voice, (O l)

Elliott et al. (2000) did not address voice.


Elliott et al. (2000) did not address inflection.


232


Elliott (2000) had 26 selections, all o f which were coded as adequate (100%).

None were coded as misinformation, as being unclear, or as best information.


Elliott et al. (2000) had seven selections coded for theoretical framework, all

from a cognitive perspective. Table 98 identifies the components where the selections

were identified and how the selections were addressed.

Summary o f Selectionsfor Elliott et aL

Elliott et al. (2000) had 26 selections, 15 were addressed descriptively, seven

developmentally and four addressed acquisition o f language skills. Elliott et al.

addressed six o f the 13 sub-components. The depth o f selections included one isolated

item, five vignettes, three sentences, 14 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 10

provides a summary of the number o f selections under each subcomponent along with

the perspective by which each sub-component was addressed.


233

Table 98

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Elliott


Component Addressed

Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 - 2

Conversation, UI Developed - I - I

Pragmatics Descriptive - I - 1

Competence, U3 Developed - 2 - 2


Concepts, T1 - -

Syntax Developmental - 1 - 1

Grammar - -

Totals 0 7 0 7



234

Figure 10

Summary o f Selections for Elliot et al.

Elliott « t al.

Conversation

D iscourse

C om petence

C oncepts

Meanings

C lau ses

Con]

Grammar

Vocab

Written

Morph A.

Voice

Inflection

0 5 10 15Selections

Q Descriptive ■ D evelopm ental □Acquired i


235

Educational Psychology - Sternberg

Textbook: Robert J. Sternberg and Wendy M. Williams (2002). Educational

psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.


Sternberg and Williams had 26 selections that addressed early adolescent

language. Four of the six components and seven o f the 13 sub-components were

addressed.


Sternberg and Williams (2002) had seven selections; two addressed reasoning

(see Table 99). Three o f the seven selections were addressed descriptively and four were

addressed by how language skills are acquired. The sections were on Reasoning (p. 314-

318,) Problem Solving (p. 319-328), and Development o f Perspective Taking (98-99).

Sternberg and Williams (2002) included a chapter (Chapter 9) on thinking,

concept formation, reasoning, and problem solving. The text stated, “When children

argue, they can often be fast and loose in monitoring the validity o f their arguments” (p.

314). Sternberg has conducted research on the reasoning o f children. Although this

textbook was very detailed in three sections on reasoning it did not discuss the linguistic

vocabulary needed for reasoning or the syntax necessary to develop logical arguments.

The textbook listed and discussed the rules o f reasoning, the types of reasoning

problems, repairing fallacious reasoning, developing reasoning skills, and insight

problems. It also addressed “perspective taking” (p. 98)


236

Table 99

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Sternberg


Sternberg Descriptive 2 (I) 3

Developmental - - -

Acquired I - I U D 4

Table 100

Depth of Coverage (length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Sternberg


Sternberg Descriptive - - - 2 - 2

Developmental 2 - 2

Acquired 1 1 2

Table 101

Depth of Coverage (length of Selections) for Concepts for Sternberg


Sternberg Descriptive 3 - 3

Developmental 1 - 1

Acquired I 2 3


237

Sternberg and Williams (2002) included information on reciprocal teaching, an

instructional strategy that can be used to improve reading comprehension. While

discussing 19 studies on reciprocal teaching it was stated, “the approach works best

when the comprehension strategies are taught explicitly before the actual reciprocal

teaching begins” (p. 454). In reciprocal teaching students are taught, among other

things, to question each other about events found in stories to find the main theme. In

questioning each other, students help each other clarify the meaning of events and

vocabulary in the story.

Sternberg and Williams (2002) in their discussion of social economic status

(SES) and language use stated that.

Lower SES children often use language with a focus on the present; this

language is more concrete, less descriptive and flowery, and more simple and

basic ... Middle-class children often speak in more elaborate sentences, using

more words overall, (p. 216)

In the quote above, Sternberg and Williams cited Basil Bernstein’s 1961 and

1971 studies. This statement was also somewhat contradicted by W. Labov (1997) that

was also cited in Sternberg & Williams (2002). Labov found that lower SES children

use more elaborate language under certain circumstances and that this elaboration was

found both in speaking and writing.

In their textbook. Sternberg and Williams did not include information about

other topics o f conversation, including persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm,

or ambiguity.


238


Sternberg and Williams (2002) did not address discourse.


Sternberg and Williams (2002) had six selections about communicative

competence, including one section regarding The Relationship between Language and

Thought. Of the six selections, two selections were addressed descriptively, two

developmentally and two from an acquired perspective. See Table 100 for information


Sternberg and Williams (2002) stated, “Language is related not only to thought

but also to the social context of its use” (p. 69). The text did not expand on the social

context. In discussing Kohlberg’s theory o f moral development, Sternberg and

Williams stated.

At level H individuals think in terms o f conventional morality, a level of moral

reasoning that reflects a person’s internalization of social rules. An individual

conforms to social rules because he or she believes it is right to do so. (p. 104)

After an example they continued, “In stage 3, the first stage at this level, people’s

reasoning is guided by mutual interpersonal expectations and interpersonal conformity”

(p. 105). Although Sternberg and Williams mentioned social rules they did not tie them

to language or rules of speaking or writing.

Comprehension is also necessary for communicative competence and “Ellen

Markman (1977) has studied verbal comprehension at the level o f paragraph

understanding” (p. 62). Following a paragraph that included an example of a

contradictory remark, Sternberg and Williams (2002) continued, “Amazingly, almost


239

half o f the children between 8 and 11 years o f age that Markman tested did not notice

the contradiction, even when warned in advance that such contradictions might exist”

(P- 62).

Stenberg and Williams (2002) did not address knowledge of grammar or

vocabulary in regard to communicative competence.


Stenberg and Williams (2002) had seven selections about concepts including two

sections, one on Defining Features o f Concepts and the second one on Characteristic

Features o f Concepts. Of the seven selections, three were addressed descriptively, one

developmentally, and three from an acquired perspective. See Table 101 for

information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

Stemberg and Williams (2002) defined and listed the characteristics of concepts

in two sections, discussed implications for teaching and included information on

building concept maps. Elsewhere they discussed Frederic Bartlett’s research from

1932 related to memory. The authors stated, “

Bartlett suggested that people bring into a memory task, schemas, or cognitive

frameworks for organizing associated concepts, based on previous experience,

which affect how we leam and remember” (p. 294).

Stemberg and Williams also stated, “Students use concepts and reasoning to solve

problems and through this process, leam about and make sense of the world” (p. 319).

Prior experience was a primary consideration in the formation of concepts for Stenberg

and Williams. This was brought out in yet another part o f the textbook when in a

summary it was stated,


240

We now know that children’s inability to think at a high level is due not to

immaturity of higher order cognitive operations, but to lack of an experiential

knowledge base. ... Once children acquire a knowledge base in an area, they can

often think at a higher level in that area than in other areas in which they do not

have the same amount o f knowledge (Wellman & Gelman, 1998)” (p. 53).

Stemberg and Williams addressed concept formation and use of concepts but failed to

explicitly tie concepts to language.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection about meanings that was

addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 102 for information regarding the

depth of the selection.

Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated, “Middle-class children typically use more

metaphorical expressions and speak in less concrete terms” (p. 216) than lower-class

children. Stemberg and Williams, however, did not address multiple meanings of words

or expand on metaphorical expressions beyond this sentence.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address clauses.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address conjunctions.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection about grammar that was




241

Table 102

Depth of Coverage (length of Selections) for Meanings for Sternberg


Sternberg Descriptive I - 1

Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -

Table 103

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Stemberg


Stemberg Descriptive - - -

Developmental 1 - 1

Acquired - - -

Table 104

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary


Stemberg Descriptive I - I

Developmental 1 - I

Acquired 1 - 1


242

Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection about grammar that was



Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated: “However, by about age 10, the structure

of children’s language differs little from that of a typical adult, although their

vocabulary is likely to be lesser and their knowledge o f formal grammar still lacking”

(p.67). Formal grammar instruction does include knowledge o f the rules of syntax and

morphology Stemberg and Williams did not elaborate further.

Lexicology—Vocabulary. (LI)

Stemberg and Williams (2002) had three selections, one was addressed

descriptively, one was addressed developmentally, and one addressed the acquisition of

vocabulary. See Table 104 for information regarding the depth of selections and how

each was addressed.

Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated,

Hypothesis testing is illustrated in children’s acquisition of the meaning of

words. For example, meanings of many words are learned in context, as

described earlier, through hypothesis testing. ...Stemberg and Powell (1983)

found a high correlation between students’ ability to figure out meanings of

words and the context, suggesting this ability is crucial to the formation of

vocabulary” (p. 68).

They also stated, “Robert Stemberg and several other researchers have suggested that

most vocabulary is learned from context” (p. 62). Stemberg and Williams did not


243

address the size o f the vocabulary of the early adolescent or what kinds o f words

(compound words, words with affixes) that were learned by the early adolescent.

Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text

Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address the effect of written text on

vocabulary or other aspect of language.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection that addressed voice.

See Table 105 for information regarding the depth o f the selection and how it was

addressed.

Stemberg and Williams (2002) described voice problems:

Voicing problems are characterized by hoarseness, inappropriate pitch, loudness,

or intonation (as when one speaks in a monotone). Often, children merely need

to be made aware o f such problems and with a little help from the teacher can

correct them. (p. 184)

Stemberg and Williams did not elaborate on the help the teacher might give. These

authors did not address the voice change that occurs in early adolescence.


Stenberg and Williams (2002) did not address inflection.


Stemberg and Williams (2002) had 26 selections of which 24 (92.3%) were

addressed adequately or better. Four selections were addressed with best information

and two selections were unclear. None were coded as having misinformation.


244

Table 105

Depth of Coverage (length of Selections) for Voice for Sternberg


Sternberg Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

I 1


245

Table 106

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Sternberg

Component Sub

component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics Descriptive - I 1 2

Conversatioa,Ul Acquired - - I I

Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 I 3

Competence, U3 Developed - 1 1 2

Acquired 1 t I 3

Semantics

Concepts, TI

Acquired 3 3

Syntax

GramarT2

Descriptive I I

Phonology

Voice

Acquired I 1

Totals 2 5 9 16

Descriptive =5; Developmental = 3; Acquired = 8


246


Sternberg and Williams (2002) had 16 selections in which a theoretical

framework was found. Two were from the behavioral perspective, five from the

cognitive perspective and nine from a social/environmental perspective. See Table 106

for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

Summary o f Selections by Sternberg and Williams

Sternberg and Williams (2002) had 26 selections, 11 were addressed

descriptively, five were addressed developmentally and ten addressed the acquisition of

language skills. The 26 selections addressed seven o f the 13 sub-components of

language. Eight of the 16 selections that reflected a theoretical perspective were about

how language is acquired. The depth of selections included no isolated items, two

vignettes, two sentences, 16 paragraphs and six sections. Figure 11 provides a summary

o f the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub



247

Figure 11

Summary o f Selections by Sternberg and Williams

Sternberg

oa.Eo9n3

CO

Conrersation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Clauses

Conj

Grammar

Vocab

VWitten

Morph A

Voice

Inflection

- _ L _ E E E E

5 10

Selections15

0 Descrptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired


248

Educational Psychology - Woolfolk

Textbook: Anita Woolfolk (2001). Educational psychology, (8th ed). Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.


Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections regarding early adolescent language. Four of

six components and nine of the 13 sub-components of language were addressed..


Woolfolk (2001) had four selections regarding conversation, two of these

selections were about reasoning (and are found in parenthesis in Table 107). Of the four

selections, two were addressed descriptively and two addressed acquisition of language.

See Table 107 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was

addressed.

Woolfolk (2001) addressed negotiation when she stated.

Many constructivists share Vygotsky’s belief that higher mental processes

develop through social negotiation and interaction, so collaboration in learning is

valued. The Language Development and Hypermedia Group (1992) suggests

that a major goal o f teaching is to develop students’ abilities to establish and

defend their own positions while respecting the positions of others and working

together to negotiate or co-construct meaning. To accomplish this exchange,

students must talk and listen to each other, (p. 335)

In this selection Woolfolk stated what students need to do and she described the

outcome of negotiated social interaction, but she was not explicit in describing the

language to be used.


249

Table 107

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive U D - 2

Developmental (1) 1 - 2

Acquired I - 1

Table 108

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive 1 - I

Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -

Table 109

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive I - 1

Developmental I - 1

Acquired I - 1


250

Regarding perspective taking, a skill necessary for negotiation, Woolfolk (2001)

stated “perspective taking ability develops over time until it is quite sophisticated in

adults” (p. 77). Regarding sarcasm Woolfolk stated, “Many children are in their

preadolescent years before they are able to distinguish between being kidded from being

taunted or before they know that a sarcastic remark is not meant to be taken literally” (p

54). Woolfolk did not address persuasion, slang, idioms, or ambiguity.


Woolfolk (2001) had one selection about discourse and it was addressed from a

descriptive perspective. See Table 108 for information regarding the depth of the

selection.

Woolfolk (2001) discussed story grammar, sometimes referred to as schema for

story or story structure. “To comprehend a story, we select a schema that seems

appropriate. Then we use this framework to decide which details are important, what

information to seek, and what to remember” (p. 254). She continued to demonstrate

how students use schema to remember events, but she did not explain how students use

schema to write or tell a story. She did not discuss proverbs or story-telling.


Woolfolk (2001) had four selections about communicative competence, one

addressed descriptively, one developmentaily and two that addressed how language is

acquired. See Table 109 for information regarding the depth of selections and how

each was addressed.

Regarding general communicative competence, Woolfolk (2001) stated, "By

about age 5, most children have mastered the basics o f their native language” (p. 53). In


251

addition, she stated, “as children mature, they are more able to assess and consider the

intentions o f others” (p. 77). Woolfolk also mentioned social conventions, but only as a

criticism o f Kohlberg’s theory o f moral reasoning. She did not address the rules of

speaking or writing that contribute to communicative competence, or vocabulary or

grammar in regard to communicative competence.


Woolfolk (2001) included five selections regarding concepts, one was addressed

developmentally and four from an acquisition perspective. She had four sections

regarding concepts: Views o f Concept Learning, Strategies fo r Teaching Concepts,

Teaching Concepts through Discovery, and Teaching Concepts through Exposition. See

Table 110 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was

addressed.

Woolfolk (2001) addressed schema early in her textbook and referred to schema

often. She discussed story schemas, but only in reference to understanding events, and

not in relation to writing or telling stories. Woolfolk (2001) stated,

Within each domain children move from grasping simple schemes during the

early preschool years, to merging two schemes into a unit (between ages 4-6), to

coordinating these scheme units into larger combinations, and finally, by about

ages 9 to 11, to forming complex relationships that can be applied to many

problems (p. 43).

In addition, Woolfolk described a concept attainment model, wherein concepts are

identified, tested and analyzed. Finally, she discussed extending concepts to larger


252

Table 110

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive - - - -

Developmental I - 1

Acquired _ 4 4

Table 111

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Woolfolk



Developmental . - -

Acquired - - -

Table 112

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive 1 - 1

Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -


253

schema. Woolfolk did address the formation of concepts and the use o f concepts, but

she did not explicitly tie concepts to language.


Woolfolk (2001) had one selection about meanings and it was addressed

descriptively. See Table III for information regarding the depth o f the selection.

Woolfolk (2001) stated, “They may also take statements literally and thus

misunderstand sarcasm or metaphor” (p. 54). Woolfolk did not address the multiple

meanings of words.


Woolfolk (2001) had one selection regarding clauses that was addressed from a

descriptive perspective. See Table 112 for information regarding the depth o f the

selection.

Woolfolk (2001), stated, “Other accomplishments during elementary school

include first understanding and then using complex grammatical structures such as extra

clauses, qualifiers, and ...”(p. 53). Woolfolk did not elaborate as to the kind or location

of clauses. In addtion, Woolfolk’s definition of elementary school went to age 11. an

age also within the definition o f early adolescence. Use o f clauses later in early

adolescence was not discussed.


Woolfolk (2001) had one selection regarding conjunctions that was addressed

from a descriptive perspective. See Table 113 for information regarding the depth of

the selection.


254

Table 113

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Woolfolk



Developmental - - -

Acquired - - -

Table 114

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive - - -

Developmental 3 - 3

Acquired I - 1

Table 115

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Woolfolk


Woolfolk Descriptive - - -

Developmental I 2 3

Acquired - - - -


255

Woolfolk (2001), stated, “Other accomplishments during elementary school

include first understanding and then using ... conjunctions” (p. 53). This mention of

conjunctions acknowledged the use of conjunctions but did not tell the reader which

conjunctions might be used or how.


Woolfolk (2001) had four selections about grammar, three were addressed

developmentally and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 114 for information


In regard to grammar and early adolescents Woolfolk (2001) stated.

The important point is that children develop language as they develop other

cognitive abilities by actively trying to make sense of what they hear and by

looking for patterns and making up rules to put together the jigsaw puzzle of

language (p. 53).

Later Woolfolk continued.

They have knowledge about language itself. They are ready to study and extend

the rules that have been implicit—understood but not consciously expressed.

This process continues throughout life, as we all become better able to

manipulate and comprehend language (p. 54).

Woolfolk did not elaborate further. She did address the passive voice and mentioned

syntax as the basic word order that is mastered early in life with more complicated

forms taking much longer to master. Woolfolk did not address the rules of grammar or

how words or sentences are constructed.


256

Lexicology— Vocabulary Size, (L1)

Woolfolk (2001) had three selections related to size of vocabulary. All

selections were addressed developmentally. See Table 115 for information regarding

the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

Woolfolk (2001), stated, “The average 6-year-old has a vocabulary o f 8,000 -

14,000 words, growing to about 20,000 by age 11” (p. 54). Woolfolk did address

vocabulary increases and touched on one end o f the early adolescent age group (ages

10-11), but she did not address vocabulary development o f older students. She further

stated, “Cazden (1988) suggests that word meanings are most easily learned through

interactions and conversations with an adult in which the adult introduces new words”

(p. 55). Woolfolk did not address other ways by which the early adolescent might leam

vocabulary (reading, word-play) or the kinds o f words that are learned during early

adolescence.


Woolfolk (2001) did not address effect o f written text on vocabulary or other

aspects o f language.


Woolfolk (2001) did not address morphological analysis.


Woolfolk (2001) did not address voice.


Woolfolk (2001) did not address inflection.


257

Research Question 2: Quality o f Selections

Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections and all (100%) were coded as being adequate

information. None were coded as having misinformation, unclear information, or best

information.


Woolfolk (2001) had eight selections coded for theoretical framework. Two

were coded as being from a behavioral theoretical perspective, two were from a

cognitive theoretical perspective and four were from a social/environmental theoretical

framework. See Table 116 for a distribution o f selections across components and how

each was addressed.

Summary o f W oolfolk’s Selections

Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections, seven were addressed descriptively, ten were

addressed developmentally and seven addressed acquisition of skills. Woolfolk

addressed nine of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included two isolated

items, no vignettes, three sentences, 15 paragraphs and four sections. Figure 12

provides a summary of the number o f selections under each sub-component along with

how each sub-component was addressed.


258

Table 116

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Woolfolk

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics

Conversation, UI

Descriptive I 1

Pragmatics

Competence. U3

Acquired 2 2

Syntax

Grammar. S3

Acquired 2 I I 4

Lexicology

Vocabulary. L1

Developmental I I

Totals 2 2 4 8

Descriptive = I: Developmental = I: Acquired =6


259

Figure 12

Summary o f Selections for Woolfolk

Conversationi

DiscourseiiCompetence

Concepts

M Meaningse• Clausesog Conjunctions01 GrammarA340 Vocab

Written

M. Analysis

Voice

Inflection

0 5 10 15 20tSelections

! m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired

Woolfolk


260

Educational Psychology - Snowman

Textbook: Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler (2000). Psychology applied to teaching,

(9th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections and addressed two of the six

components o f language and three o f the 13 sub-components of language. About

language the textbook stated. “Kindergartners are quite skillful with language” (p. 77).

Language was not directly addressed for older children.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 13 selections regarding conversation, three of

the selections had to do with reasoning (noted in parenthesis in the Table 117). Of the

13 selections, nine were addressed descriptively, three were addressed developmentally,

and one addressed how language skills are acquired. There were two sections, one on

Social Characteristics: Elementary Grades (p. 84) (which included grades 5 and ages

included in the definition o f early adolescence) and one on Cognitive Characteristics:

M iddle School (p. 92).

Snowman and Biehler (2000) described the logic that the early adolescent uses

as being constrained and inconsistent.

But general and abstract ideas often escape the [late] elementary age child. For

example, sarcasm, metaphor, and allegory are usually lost on the concrete stage

thinkers. A similar fate usually befalls the idea that knowledge is often the

product of inferential reasoning and may therefore be rejected as untrue if flaws


261

in the reasoning can be shown. The knowledge base o f^ -S ^ grade children

contains many misconceptions, and they may behave illogically. (p. 36)

The textbook continued with an example o f a debate between classmates, w!*ere one

student may “red off a string o f facts, some o f which reflect authoritative soloes, some

o f which are exaggerations, and some o f which are invented on the spot” (p 86).

Snowman and Biehler (2000) discussed how children describe them^Ives 10

early adolescence this self-portrait was “described for the first time in terms of emotions

(pride, shame, worry, anger, happiness) and how well they can be controlled” (P 85).

Snowman and Biehler listed the emotions—the abstract vocabulary—as whf* early

adolescents used to communicate with others.

Snowman and Biehler (2000) stated. "Early adolescents find it reassuring to

dress and behave like others, and they are likely to alter their own opinions to coincide

with those o f a group (p. 89). They omitted information about how their language will

also conform to group norms, whether their group uses slang, a dialect, or Standard

English.

Snowman and Biehler (2000) continued to discuss early adolescents stated,

They are deeply concerned about such things as ...with whom they should should

not be seen in public, and how they greet and talk with various people” (p. 02). These

authors discussed aspects o f linguistics without using linguistic vocabulary. In

linguistic terms this was an example o f early adolescents who are beginning to shift

registers.


262

Table 117

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Snowman


Snowman Descriptive 6. (2) 1 9

Developmental 2.(1) - 3

Acquired . I 1

Table 118

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Snowman


Snowman Descriptive - - 3 - 3

Developmental - - -

Acquired 1 1 2

Table 119

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Snowman


Snowman Descriptive

Developmental

Acquired

2

2

2

2


263

Snowman and Biehler (2000) quoted a study by Harter, Waters, and Whitesell

(1997) who gave questionnaires to students in grades 6-12. The main findings of this

research were that students were:

most likely to speak their mind when they are with close friends, classmates and

same gender, but less likely to do so when they are in the presence of members

of the opposite gender, parents, and teachers, (p. 128)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) called ordinary conversation the "‘public” or

“restricted” language and stated, “low SES children are much less proficient than

middle-class children in the use o f the ‘formal’ or ‘elaborated’ language of the

classroom” (p. 146). These authors did not elaborate but acknowledged that there were

different dialects that the early adolescents might have.

Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address slang, idioms, ambiguity,

persuasion, or negotiation. They did mention sarcasm but they did not elaborate.

Pragmatics—Discourse. (U2)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address discourse.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had five selections regarding communicative

competence, three were addressed descriptively and two addressed the acquisition of

skills. The section was on Research on Learning Strategy Training (p. 275).

See Table 118 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was

addressed.


264

Snowman and Biehler (2000) mentioned aspects of communicative competence

in the context of peer interaction, special groups, and gender differences. In regard to

peer interactions they stated:

The conflict that arises over differences of opinion, for example, can be

constructive if it is used as a stimulus to search for more information or to

rethink one’s conclusions. But it can destroy group cohesion and productivity if

it results in students stubbornly clinging to a position or referring to one another

as “stubborn,” “dumb”, o r“nerdy.” (p. 360)

Snowman and Biehler were describing one aspect of communicative competence when

they discussed conflict management.

Snowman and Biehler (2000, p. 275) also discussed reciprocal teaching (RT),

developed by Palincsar and Brown (1984), where students with reading comprehension

problems teach each other by using summarizing, self-questioning, clarifying and

predicting strategies. Snowman and Biehler continued with,

Positive interdependence and promotive interaction are not likely to occur if

students do not know how to make the most of face-to-face interactions. And

you can safely assume that the interpersonal skills most students possess are

probably not highly developed. As a result, they have to be taught such basic

skills as leadership, decision-making, trust building, clear communication, and

conflict management, (p. 360)

Snowman and Biehler addressed the lack of language skills but referred to them as

“face-to-face interactions” and “interpersonal skills.”


265

Snowman and Biehler did not address other rules for speaking or writing. They

also did not address the grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative

competence.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had four selections about concepts: two were

addressed descriptively and two addressed the acquisition of concepts. See Table 119

for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

Snowman and Biehler (2000) discussed what Vygotsky called spontaneous

concepts (facts, concepts and rules learned from everyday experiences) and scientific

concepts (learned through academic experiences). Vygotsky considered concepts to be

psychological tools that “allow us to consciously and systematically manipulate our

environment” (p. 53). Snowman and Biehler stated that scientific concepts need to be

taught in schools and that such teaching is the role of instruction. Later they discussed

classroom research conducted by Knapp, Shields and Turnbull in 1995.

Knapp and his colleagues found that children whose instruction emphasized

conceptual understanding and problem solving performed better on mathematics,

reading comprehension, and writing text items that measured advanced skills

than their counterparts whose instruction focused on mastery of basic skills, (p.

154)

In this research, students from classrooms that emphasized concepts scored better on

examinations than did those from classrooms that stressed mastery learning. To achieve

conceptual understanding, Snowman and Biehler stated that the teachers

used classroom discussions to let students work out the reasons behind


266

mathematical procedures or to explore alternative solutions to math problems,

required students to read longer passages and gave them opportunities to discuss

what they had read, taught them reading comprehension strategies, and gave

them more extended writing assignments, (p. 154)

Each of these procedures, (discussing, exploring alternative solutions, reading and

writing lengthy passages, learning strategies for comprehension) can be used to clarify

and further define concepts. Snowman and Biehler linked language to concepts by

attributing discussions and other language activities to the formation and clarification of

concepts. They also used research to described how concepts might be developed in

classrooms. Snowman and Biehler (2000) addressed both the formation and the use of

concepts.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address meanings.

Syntax—Clauses. (SI)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address clauses.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address conjunctions.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address grammar.

Lexicology—Vocabulary (LI)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address vocabulary.


267


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address the effect of written text on

vocabulary or other aspect of language.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology— Voice, (Ol)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address voice.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address inflection.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections o f which 21 selections (95 .5%)

were coded adequate and one was coded as being unclear. None were coded as being

misinformation or best information.


Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 13 selections that could be identified as being

written from a theoretical perspective. Of the 13, one was written from a behavioral

perspective, five were written from a cognitive perspective and seven from a social /

environmental perspective. Table 120 identifies the sub-components associated with

each o f the theoretical selections along with how each selection was addressed.


268

Table 120

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Snowman

Component Sub-

Component

How Behavioral

Addressed

Cognitive Soc/Environ Total


Conversation, III Developed I I 2

Acquired I - - 1


Competence, U3 Acquired - 2 2

Semantics

Concepts. Tl

Acquired 1 I 2

Totals I 5 7 13



269

Summary o f Selections by Snowman and Biehler

Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections, 14 were addressed descriptively,

three were addressed developmentally and five were about the acquisition of language

skills. Snowman and Biehler addressed three of the 13 sub-components. The depth of

selections included no isolated items, no vignettes, no sentences, 19 paragraphs and

three sections. Figure 13 provides a summary o f the number of selections under each

sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed.


270

Figure 13

Summary o f Selections for Snowman and Biehler

Snowm an & Biehler

Discouise

Competence

Concepts

Meanings

Clauses

Conj

Grammar

Vocab

Written

Morph A.

Voice

Inflection

Selections

m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired


271

Educational Psychology - Slavin

Textbook: Robert E. Slavin (2000), Educational psychology, theory and practice, (6th

ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.


Slavin (2000) had 21 selections that addressed four o f the six components of

language and six o f the 13 sub-components. Slavin discussed the language development

of preschool children but did not discuss language beyond that age. Half o f Slavin's

early adolescent language selections came from his chapters on Learners with

Exceptionalities and Student Diversity.


Slavin (2000) had 10 selections about conversation of which four were about reasoning

(noted in parenthesis in Table 121). Eight o f the selections were addressed as

descriptive, one was addressed developmentally and one addressed how language skills

are acquired. See Table 121 for information regarding the depth o f selections.

Slavin (2000) while discussing students with emotional and behavioral disorders,

stated, “Unlike children who are aggressive, who may appear quite normal when they

are not being aggressive, children who are withdrawn and immature often appear odd or

awkward at all times. They almost always suffer from a lack o f social skills” (p. 424).

Slavin (2000) described conversations that took place between early adolescents

and their teachers:

Sometimes students will tell teachers personal information they would not tell

their parents. ... At the same time,... some preteens talk back to teachers in ways


Table 121

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Slavin

272


Slavin Descriptive - (1) 5, (2) - 8

Developmental - - (I) - I

Acquired - - I - 1

Table 122

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Slavin


Slavin Descriptive - - 2 - 2


Acquired - - 2 1 3

Table 123

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Slavin


Slavin Descriptive - - I - 1


Acquired - - - I 1


273

they would never have considered several years earlier, and some openly

challenge teachers, (p. 95)

Slavin described the teacher-child interaction, but he did not explain the verbal behavior

of these preteens—what they said or how they said it. He did not use linguistic terms to

describe these social interactions.

Addressing research by Sadker, et. al (1997), Slavin (2000) reported when

teachers were asked who talked more, boys or girls, “Most teachers responded that the

girls talked more even though in fact the boys participated more than the girls by a ratio

o f 3 :1” (p. 128). Slavin did not draw conclusions for the reader.

Slavin (2000) said in regard to peer relationships:

As with elementary school-aged children, popular and well-accepted adolescents

tend to display positive conflict resolution and academic skills, pro-social

behavior, and leadership qualities, whereas rejected and low-accepted

adolescents tend to display aggressive and antisocial behavior and low levels o f

academic performance, (p. 95)

Slavin did not say whether the well-accepted adolescents have a different level of

linguistic skills than those with Iow-levels o f acceptance, skills such as: vocabulary,

sentence structures, ability to read emotions, awareness of the needs o f others, etc.

Slavin (2000) did not address persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or

ambiguity.


Slavin (2000) did not address discourse.


274


Slavin (2000) had five selections about communicative competence, two were

addressed from a descriptive perspective and three addressed how language skills were

acquired. Slavin’s section was titled Helping Children Develop Social Skills (p. 89).

See Table 122 for information regarding the depth o f selections and how each was

addressed.

Slavin (2000) discussed social skills and their acquisition during middle

childhood. He promoted teacher reinforcement o f positive skills with an entire group of

children. “It draws attention of the peer group to the target child’s positive rather than

negative actions” (p. 89). He also stated,

Adolescents who have satisfying and harmonious friendships also report higher

levels o f self-esteem, are less lonely, have more mature social skills, and do

better in school than do adolescents who lack supportive friendships, (p. 95)

Slavin did not explain what he meant by more mature social skills.

Slavin (2000) did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about

grammar, vocabulary, or the rules o f speaking or writing.


Slavin (2000) had two selections regarding concepts. One selection was

addressed descriptively and one selection was addressed from an acquired perspective.

See Table 123 for information regarding the depth o f selections and how each was

addressed. The one section was titled Concept Learning and Teaching (p. 236).

Slavin (2000) stated.


275

Long term semantic memory contains the facts and generalized information that

we know; concepts, principles, or rules and how to use them, and our problem

solving skills and learning strategies, (p. 181)

Slavin addressed both the memory of concepts and the transfer o f concepts to everyday

living situations. Slavin further stated that concepts can be teamed by observation and

definition and are best taught by using examples, and by comparing and contrasting

those examples with non-examples. Slavin addressed formation and use of concepts,

and tied concepts to words through meanings.


Slavin (2000) did not address meanings.


Slavin (2000) did not address clauses.


Slavin (2000) had one selection regarding conjunctions that was addressed from

a developmental perspective. See Table 124 for information regarding the depth of the

selection.

Slavin (2000), stated,

For young thinkers, this [if... then statements] is often presented in the form of a

promise such as, ‘If you finish all your dinner, then you can have some dessert.’

Piaget proposed that this form of expression is a major characteristic of

adolescent and adult thinking” (p. 198).


276

Table 124

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Slavin


Slavin Descriptive - - - - -

Developmental - - I - 1

Acquired - - - - -

Table 125

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Slavin


Slavin Descriptive - -• - - -

Developmental - I - - 1

Acquired - - - 1 1

Table 126

Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Slavin


Slavin Descriptive 1 - - - 1


Acquired - - - - -


277

“If” is a conjunction often used by early adolescents when they consider new ideas and

the perspective o f others. Slavin was very clear and wrote this selection as part of his

discussion of Piaget.


Slavin (2000) did not address grammar.

Lexicology— Vocabulary, (LI)

Slavin (2000) did not address vocabulary.


Slavin (2000) did not address the effect o f written text on vocabulary or other

aspects of language.


Slavin (2000) did not address morphological analysis.

Phonology— Voice, (Ol)

Slavin (2000) had two selections regarding voice, one addressed from a

developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 125 for

information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed.

The section was on Students with Communication Disorders (p. 420).

Slavin (2000) advocated supporting the child by accepting voice problems. He

went on to say that, “The lasting damage is more often psychological than

phonological...” p.420. Slavin addressed the secondary problem (psychological

problem) that sometimes occurs when a primary (speech) problem is not addressed. He

also advocated not pointing out the problem.



278

Slavin (2000) had one selection on inflection addressed from an acquired

perspective. See Table 126 for information regarding the depth o f the selection.

Slavin (2000) stated in a theory into practice section entitled Teaching Adaptive

Behavior Skills it was suggested that “every student needs to .. develop language skills.”

Listed below was: “Developing language skills: Understanding directions,

communicating needs and wants, expressing ideas, listening attentively, and using

appropriate voice modulation and inflection” (p. 412). These suggestions were not

expanded upon in the text. Slavin did not address placement of stress within words or

inflected meanings.


Slavin (2000) had 21 selections that were coded for quality. Of the 21

selections, 18 were coded as adequate (85.7%) and three were coded as unclear. None of

the selections was coded as misinformation or best information.


Slavin (2000) had 13 selections that were coded for having a theoretical

perspective. One selection was addressed from a behavioral perspective, while six were

addressed cognitively and six were written from a social/environmental perspective.

Table 127 identifies the sub-components and how the selections were addressed for the

selections found to have a theoretical perspective.


279

Table 127

Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Slavin

Component Sub-

Component

How

Addressed


Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 - 2

Conversation, U1 Developed - I - I

Acquired - - 1 I

Pragmatics Descriptive - - I 1

Competence, U3 Acquired 1 I 3 5

Semantics

Concepts. T1

Descriptive I 1

Syntax

Grammar

Descriptive I I

Phonology

Voice

Acquired I 1

Totals I 6 6 13

Descriptive = 5; Developmental = I; Acquired = 7


280

Summary o f Slavin’s Selections

Slavin (2000) had 21 selections* 12 addressed descriptively, three

developmental^ and six addressed from an acquired perspective. Slavin addressed six of

the 13 sub-components. The depth o f selections included no isolated items, one vignette,

2 sentences, 15 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 14 provides a summary o f the

number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component

was addressed.


281

Figure 14

Summary o f Selections for Slavin

S lav in

Conversation

Discourse

Competence

Concepts

JS Meaningsec Clausesog ConjoV Grammar.oco Vocab

Written

Morph A.

Voice

Inflection

0 5 10 15Selections

; n Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired i


282

Comparison o f Textbooks within Child Development

The total number o f selections for child development textbooks was 303. The

number of selections per textbook ranged from 23 selections to 67 selections. The

average number of selections was 50.5 selections.

No child development textbook addressed all 13 sub-components. The range

was from four sub-components to 12 sub-components. The average number of sub

components addressed was eight.

Child development textbooks presented 100 selections from the descriptive

perspective, 152 from the developmental perspective and 51 from the acquired

perspective. The average for each was 16.7 from the descriptive perspective, 25.3 from

the developmental perspective and 10 from the acquired perspective. See Table 128 for

a comparison of textbooks regarding how sub-components were addressed.

In the child development textbooks eight selections were coded as being unclear.

This figure represents 2.6% of all o f the selections. There were two selections rated as

best information. This represents less than one percent of the selections. One selection

was rated misinformation.

The behavioral theoretical framework was found in two textbooks (Meece 2002;

Berk 2000), while the cognitive and social/environmental frameworks were found in all

child development textbooks. The range o f selections found with a theoretical

framework were four to 13 for cognitive, and four to 18 for social/environmental.

Meece had the most selections where a theoretical perspective was found (30) and

Lefrancois (2001) the least with eight selections. See Table 129 for a comparison of

textbooks regarding theoretical framework.


283

Table 128

How Child Development Textbook Selections Were Addressed

Textbook Descriptive Developmental Acquired Total

Schickedanz 24 20 23 67

Meece 25 27 15 67

Berk 9 46 9 64

Santrock 22 28 I 51

Bee 8 20 j 31

Lefrancois 12 11 - 23

Totals 100 152 51 303

Table 129

Theoretical Framework by Child Development Textbook

Textbook Behavioral Cognitive Soc./Env. Total

Schickedanz - 9 12 21

Meece 2 10 18 30

Berk 2 11 7 20

Santrock - 7 7 14

Bee - 5 5 10

Lefrancois - 4 4 8

Totals 4 46 53 103


284

The quality of selections for child development textbooks ranged from no

unclear or misinformation in two textbooks to one with three unclear selections and one

with two unclear selections and one with misinformation. See Table 130 for a

comparison of child development textbooks.

The length of selections ranged from none to three isolated items, one to 14

vignettes, eight to 25 sentences, 12 to 35 paragraphs, and none to three sections. See

Table 131 for a comparison of textbooks.

Comparison of Textbooks within Educational Psychology

The total number of selections for educational psychology textbooks was 216.

The number of selections per textbook ranged from 21 selections to 51 selections. The

average number of selections was 30.8 selections.

No educational psychology textbook addressed all 13 sub-components. The

range was from three sub-components to 10 sub-components. The average number of

sub-components addressed was 6.7 sub components.

Educational psychology textbooks presented 90 selections from the descriptive

perspective, 65 from the developmental perspective and 6 1 from the acquired

perspective. The average for each was 12.8 from the descriptive perspective, 9.3 from

the developmental perspective and 8.7 from the acquired perspective. See Table 132 for

a comparison of textbooks regarding how sub-components were addressed.

In the educational psychology textbooks nine selections were coded as being

unclear. This figure represents 4.2% of all o f the selections for educational psychology

textbooks. There were four selections rated as best information. This represents 1.8%

of the selections. No selections were rated misinformation.


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Table 130

Quality o f Child Development Selections

Child

Development

Misinformation Unclear Adequate Best

Information

Schickedanz I 2 64 -

Meece - I 66 -

Berk - 2 62 -

Santrock - - 49 2

Bee - 3 28 -

Lefrancois - - 23 -

Totals 1 8 292 2

Table 131

Depth (Length) of Selections for Child Development Textbooks

Textbook Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total

Schickedanz 3 3 25 35 I 67

Meece 3 8 25 31 - 67

Berk - 14 21 29 - 64

Santrock 2 9 12 25 .> 51

Bee - I 8 22 - 31

Lefrancois - 8 12 - 23

Total 8 38 99 154 4 303


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The behavioral theoretical framework and the social/environmental framework

were found in six o f the seven textbooks, while the cognitive perspective was found in

all textbooks. The range of selections found with a theoretical framework were none to

four for behavioral, one to seven for cognitive, and none to 13 for social/environmental.

Eggen (2001) had the most selections where a theoretical perspective was found (18)

and Elliott et al. (2001) had the least with seven selections and they only addressed the

cognitive perspective. See Table 133 for a comparison of textbooks.

The quality of selections for educational psychology textbooks ranged from no

unclear or misinformation in three textbooks to one with three unclear selections in two

textbooks. See Table 134 for a comparison of educational psychology textbooks

The length of selections ranged from none to four isolated items, none to 5

vignettes, none to 12 sentences, 14 to 33 paragraphs and three to six sections. See Table

135 for a comparison of textbooks.

Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks

The number of selections ranged in the child development books from Bee

(2000) with 31 selections to Schickedanz et al. (2001) and Meece (2002) with 67

selections. Among the educational psychology textbooks the number of selections

ranged from Slavin (2000) with 21 to Ormrod (2001) with 51 selections. See Table 136

for a comparison o f the number of selections o f both child development and educational

psychology textbooks. Table 138, also a comparison o f the number of sub-components,

lists in the total column the number o f sub-components addressed by each textbook and

in the bottom row the number o f textbooks that addressed each sub-component.


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Table 132

How Selections Were Addressed for Educational Psychology Textbooks

Textbook Descriptive Developmental Acquired Total

Ormrod 14 25 12 51

Eggen 17 12 17 46

Elliott 15 7 4 26

Sternberg 11 5 10 26

Woolfolk 7 10 7 24

Snowman 14 3 5 22

Slavin 12 6 21

Totals 90 65 61 216

Table 133

Theoretical Framework by Educational Psychology Textbook

Textbook Behavioral Cognitive Soc./Env. Total

Ormrod 4 I 4 9

Eggen I 5 13 19

Elliott - 7 - 7

Sternberg 2 5 9 16

Woolfolk 2 2 4 8

Snowman I 5 7 13

Slavin 3 6 5 14

Totals 13 31 42 86


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Table 134

Quality of Educational Psychology Selections

Educational

Psychology

Misinformation Unclear Adequate Best Information

Ormrod - - 51 -

Eggen - 3 43 -

Elliott - - 26 -

Sternberg - 2 20 4

Woolfolk - - 24 -

Snowman - 1 21 -

Slavin - •> 18 -

Totals - 9 203 4

Table 135

Depth (Length) of Selections for Educational Psychology Textbooks

Textbook Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Sectiont Total

Ormrod 4 3 12 29 3 51

Eggen - 3 7 33 3 46

Elliott 1 5 3 14 3 26

Sternberg - 2 2 16 6 26

Woolfolk 2 -■> 15 4 24

Snowman - - - 19 3 22

Slavin - 1 2 15 3 21

Total 7 14 29 141 25 216


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Table 136

Number of Selections for All Textbooks by Sub-Components

Sub-Components I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 T

Schickedanz 11 6 12 2 8 I I 8 6 7 2 - 3 67

Meece 26 j 20 2 6 2 - 5 - 2 - I - 67

Berk 16 I 13 6 9 - - 9 4 - - - 6 64

Santrock 18 4 9 .> I - - 6 -* 5 1 1 - 51

Bee 20 1 9 I 31

Lefrancois 16 I 4 I 1 - 23

Ormrod 6 3 15 7 3 2 2 7 3 - - - 51

Eggen 13 19 5 - - - 3 - 2 - 1 - 46

Elliott 13 2 I 5 - - - 4 - I - - - 26

Sternberg 7 - 6 7 1 - - I 3 - - I - 26

Woolfolk 5 1 ** 5 I I I 4 .> - - - - 24

Snowman 13 - 5 4 22

Slavin 10 - 5 2 - - I - - - - 2 1 22

Totals 174 25 121 50 29 6 5 47 22 20 3 7 10 519

T = total selections. Sub-components (SC)1. Conversation2. Discourse3. Communicative Competence4. Concepts5. Meanings6. Clauses7. Conjunctions

numbered in table:8. Grammar9. Vocabulary Size t Increase10. Effect of written text on vocabulary11. Morphological analysis12. Change in voice13. Inflection


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Table 137

Number of Sub-Components for all Textbooks by Sub-Component

Sub-Components I Child Development

2 **j 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 T

Schickedanz 11 6 12 I 8 I I 8 6 7 2 - 12

Meece 27 20 2 6 1 - 5 - 2 - 1 - 9

Berk 16 1 13 6 9 - - 9 4 - - - 6 8

Santrock 17 3 10 3 3 - - 6 3 5 1 1 - 10

Bee 20 1 9 I 4

Lefrancois 16 1 4 1 I - 5

Ed Psychology Ormrod 4 2 14 5 3 2 2 7 2 3 - - - 10

Eggen 13 2 19 5 - - - j - 2 - - - 6

Elliott 13 - 1 5 - - - 4 1 1 - - - 6

Sternberg 7 - 9 7 1 - - I - - - I - 6

Woolfolk 4 I 4 5 I I 1 4 3 - - - - 9

Snowman 13 - 5 4 3

Slavin to - 5 - - I - - - - 2 I 6

Totals 13 9 13 13 7 4 4 9 6 6 2 5 3

T = total selections. Sub-components (SC) numbered in table:1. Conversation S. Grammar2. Discourse 9. Vocabulary Size / Increase3. Communicative Competence 10. Effect of written text on vocabulary4. Concepts 11. Morphological analysis5. Meanings 12. Change in voice6. Clauses 13. Inflection7. Conjunctions


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Chapter Summary

This chapter has included the data obtained from the three research questions for

the 13 textbooks examined. It also included summary data for each category of

textbooks. Chapter five, next, will provide a discussion o f the data, the conclusions, and

implications, and suggestions for further study.


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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCISSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS

Introduction

In the following sections each research question is addressed for each textbook.

Child development textbooks are presented before educational psychology textbooks.

Both categories of textbooks are presented in order of the number of selections, from

most to least. For a more cohesive discussion, the components of syntax, lexicology,

morphology, and phonology were grouped together and treated as foundational

components of language that support a reader’s understanding of pragmatics and

semantics. After the discussion o f each individual textbook there is a comparison of

textbooks between categories followed by conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for

further research.

Child Development—Schickedanz

Textbook: Judith A. Schickedanz, David I. Schickedanz, Peggy D. Forsyth and G. Alfred

Forsyth (2001). Understanding children and adolescents, (4th ed.). New York:

Allyn and Bacon.


Pragmatics (UI, U2, U3)

In conversation Schickedanz et al. (2001) addressed persuasion and negotiation in

part by discussing some of the supporting language skills, such as perspective taking and

strategies for presenting information. Although this textbook addressed slang in detail

and described early adolescent language used in many academic, social, and peer

situations, slang was not compared to either the social or academic language. Language

was primarily described with only three selections addressing the acquisition of


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conversation skills and two addressing developmental aspects of conversation. This

textbook also minimally addressed reasoning with two sentences, mentioned but did not

elaborate on idioms and sarcasm and did not mention similes. Even with these

omissions, the range and depth o f topics with explanations, examples and background

information were helpful to the reader in understanding the importance of language

development to the early adolescent.

Discourse was, likewise, presented descriptively with a list o f suggestions for

increasing discourse skills in writing, a discussion of proverbs, and an explanation of

story telling. There was no mention of developmental skills in the area of discourse so

the reader would not learn about sequences o f language skills that might occur or need to

be taught. Oral reports and letter writing were not mentioned, leaving the reader with

limited information on the variety of changes that occur in discourse.

Communicative competence was thinly covered in discussions of communication

strategies, social feedback and perspectives that included besides descriptions both

developmental and acquisition information. However, the textbook did not address the

rules for speaking or writing, leaving the reader with descriptions o f some skills but few

rules for construction or application o f linguistic events. The lack o f awareness of the

rules associated with speaking and writing (including changing registers, and using

appropriate vocabulary and grammar) would be problematic for the reader, for without an

understanding of the rules, competence would be difficult to obtain. Without knowledge

o f pragmatics the reader might not have appropriate expectations o f the language that

students are capable of using and understanding.

Semantics (TI. T2)


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Schickedanz described reading comprehension as the construction of mental

representations of ideas in a text. These mental representations could be either schemas

or concepts. Concepts were only addressed as mental representations created by the

written text. This textbook did not address the construction of concepts in other contexts

or the use of concepts, such as to see relationships. The reader would have a limited

knowledge of concepts with this one descriptive example, and would lack a foundation

for understanding the role that concepts play in constructing meaning in other contexts.

Without appropriate concepts in place, early adolescents would probably not be able to

remember new vocabulary words.

Multiple meanings of words and metaphors were addressed both for how they

were developed and acquired. Metaphors were mentioned in one area of the text and

elaborated on in another area that listed suggestions for increasing metaphorical

reasoning. From these passages the reader would be aware that early adolescents are still

learning the multiple meanings of words and metaphorical meanings, that early

adolescents might use some figures o f speech but still not understand others.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (01, 02)

The reader of this textbook will have some awareness of the building blocks of

language—words and sentences—and how that knowledge is constructed, because

clauses were addressed developmentally with some detail, with background information

regarding their uses. The types o f clauses (adverbial, noun) were not identified which

might be problematic for some readers, leaving them without knowledge of when and

how the changes in clause use and understanding occurs. Conjunctions were not

addressed in as much detail as clauses, but the need to subordinate information was


295

clearly stated. Because and was addressed developmentally and conjunctions other than

and were not addressed the reader might not understand why some early adolescents do

not use conjunctions correctly as they attempt to communicate with more complex

sentence structures. How early adolescents acquire the skills to use and understand

clauses and conjunctions was not addressed.

Early adolescents’ developmental knowledge o f grammar was acknowledged

along with means by which grammar is acquired in written language but grammar was

not discussed in detail (no rules were discussed) or in relation to oral language. The

reader would not know the importance of the rules o f grammar and their application.

The construction of complex words using morphological rules (morphological

analysis), an aid to vocabulary development, was not addressed which would leave the

reader without an important tool to help early adolescents learn new words and their

meanings.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated that there differences exist between listening,

speaking, reading, and writing vocabularies and advocated that for a child to obtain a

precise meaning o f a word in different contexts the child must read broadly. This

textbook stressed the interplay between words and their meanings, identified the number

of words early adolescents typically have in their vocabulary, and how their vocabulary

increases over the years. These authors suggested that students learn new words by

hearing them used in meaningful contexts, such as in conversations, discussions, and

reading. Reading and writing also refine the meanings and uses of words. The authors

also acknowledged the ability o f early adolescents to learn word meanings from formal

definitions. The reader of this textbook, however, would not know the kinds of words


296

being learned by early adolescents, but the reader would have several ideas for increasing

vocabulary

This textbook did not address voice change, voice problems or their impact on

early adolescents. Not having this information might be problematic for teachers who are

unprepared for the cracking voice and embarrassment that some early adolescents

experience.

Schickedanz et al. (2001) described the acquisition o f inflected meanings when

they addressed ambiguity at the phonological level derived from word stress. They did

not address sarcasm that is often signaled by exaggerated inflection. A reader of this text

might assume early adolescents understand sarcasm when they often do not.


Although Schickedanz et al. (2001) had one selection out o f 67 that was coded

misinformation, and two that were coded being unclear the overall quality of information

was adequate. This textbook provided extended examples with background information

tn most instances. The misinformation, a theory presented as fact instead of as an

unproven theory, did not detract from the presented material. The unclear selections

were not specific and were ambiguous in meaning. There was a preponderance of good

information that was well written. The reader could learn much about early adolescent

language from the many detailed selections that did not require additional background

knowledge.


Most o f the selections where theoretical perspectives were found examined the

acquisition o f pragmatic skills from a social/environmental perspective. All theoretical


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perspectives try to account for the development and acquisition o f language skills. The

reader in this textbook is primarily exposed to one theory where acquisition is concerned.

The reader of this textbook would know how some language skills might be acquired but

would not be as informed theoretically as to the developmental sequences of those skills.

The reader also would not be exposed to the behavioral perspective o f development or

acquisition of skills, as no behavioral perspective was identified. Knowing the theoretical

perspective allows the reader to make more associations with prior experience and other

aspects of that theory.

Conclusions

Schickedanz et al. (2001) acknowledged the many ways language plays an

influential part in the lives o f early adolescents. Their explanations and descriptions that

provided background information did not require the reader to assume information or

need to make inferences. The reader of this textbook would not have a complete picture

of early adolescent language, but they would be aware that linguistic changes do occur,

what many of those linguistic changes would be, factors that might increase linguistic

skills, and the progression o f some linguistic skills. The reader would have the most

difficulty in understanding the importance o f concepts and morphological analysis in

building vocabulary and meaning.

The information presented in this textbook was adequate and there was a balance

overall in the presentation o f material from developmental (20 selections) and acquired

perspectives (23 selections). A reader working with early adolescents needs both the

developmental information that would alert the reader to a sequence o f skills and

acquisition information on how the early adolescent might learn linguistic skills in order


298

to be most effective. Without the developmental information the reader might skip skills

that are important developmentally as often one skill builds upon another, and without

information on acquisition the reader probably would not know methods that have shown

to be successful with early adolescents. The behavioral perspective was not addressed at

all in regard to language and that might prevent the reader from understanding how it

might play a role in language development.

Child Development - Meece

Textbook: Judith L. Meece (2002) Child and adolescent development fo r educators,

(2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.


Pragmatics, (ill. U2, U3)

In conversation Meece (2002) described problem solving skills, concrete and abstract

reasoning, slang, metaphors and similes, but she did not address persuasion and negotiation,

idioms, ambiguity, or sarcasm which limited the breath of language activities to which the

reader was exposed. Meece discussed the creative nature of language in regard to slang,

humor, and play with words. Meece displayed an attitude toward language that she hoped

the reader would assume—that language was creative and could be fun. Language registers

and styles were also mentioned with a few examples. Acquisition of conversation skills was

only mentioned three times, which gave the reader very limited information.

Related to the development of discourse skills, Meece (2002) described humor,

listed many different types o f written discourse including poetry, essays and letters, gave

examples and discussed the purpose or features of each type of discourse. Meece


299

acknowledged that early adolescents add descriptors, abstract words, and sub-plots that

are not used by younger children but she did not suggest any other developmental aspects

of discourse skills. She did not, however, suggest how these types o f discourse were

acquired. A reader working with early adolescents would find it helpful to know not only

the development o f skills but how they are acquired. Without knowing how language

skills are acquired the reader is left to either assume that it is not important because it was

not included, or that these discourse skills are acquired without assistance and on their

own.

Meece (2002) addressed both oral and written communicative competence by

giving some of the rules for conversation and writing. She mentioned vocabulary in

connection with competence, and discussed changing of language registrars. This author

advocated the use of reading groups specifically to help students understand and acquire

empathy, but did not discuss the potential use of such groups to develop other language

skills. Some of the selections were general and without detail or specifics such as the

statement, “Thus language development through adolescence entails expanding

communicative competence,” (p. 260), which may have little meaning for the reader who

lacks background knowledge of communicative competence and might not know how the

early adolescent can demonstrate such competence.

Semantics (TI, T2)

Meece (2002) described what the early adolescent can infer to form mental

constructs and relationships (concepts), but she did not address the importance of

concepts in learning, how concepts can be used, or situations which can promote their

acquisition. Not knowing these things would severely limit the reader’s ability to teach


300

vocabulary and academic material. For example, concept maps give students ways to

graphically represent relationships, follow story lines or processes, and arrange events.

Meece (2002) called age 11 or 12 a linguistic benchmark for learning multiple

meanings o f words and metaphorical meanings, but she did not address how these

meanings are acquired. Knowing that meanings o f words are learned in context might

encourage a teacher candidate to provide many contexts to support new vocabulary.

Without this information the teacher candidate might ask early adolescents to memorize

definitions that they would soon forget because the word’s meaning would not be

associated with a context or an activity.

Syntax (SI. S,2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), M orphology (M), Phonology (Ol, 02)

Meece (2002) described embedded dependent clauses used by early adolescents

but she did not address how they might be acquired. The information on clauses given

could give the reader an indication that grammatical changes occur during early

adolescence, but because clauses were not reinforced with any information about

conjunctions and only general information about grammar, the reader might discount

their importance.

Meece (2001) mentioned in brief isolated items or table entries that “grammatical

development is fairly complete” (p. 261), that the passive voice is sometimes not

understood, and that the purposes and styles of writing change but she did not address

how these skills were acquired. Without more explicit information about grammar the

reader may not understand that sentences and paragraphs are constructed using rules of

the language.


301

Meece stated that written text can be used to increase vocabulary and pragmatic

skills, such as empathy. The reader was given no further information about vocabulary

or morphological analysis so the reader may not know how words are learned or

constructed during early adolescence. Without knowledge o f syntax, lexicology, and

morphology the reader might incorrectly assume that the early adolescent has already

mastered these aspects of language and would have no trouble understanding them.

Phonology was not addressed so the reader might assume that the change o f voice

and inflection are not important to the early adolescent. The reader might assume that the

early adolescent knows much more than they do know and not understand when they take

sarcastic remarks literally.


The selections found in Meece (2002) regarding early adolescent language were

adequate. The writing was usually clear, organized so that the reader could find

information and often had applications aimed at a teacher.


Meece (2001) identified the cognitive perspective ten times, mostly to describe

development of language skills. The social/environmental perspective was identified 18

times, primarily in discussion o f the acquisition o f language skills. The reader of this text

might be influenced toward the perspective that the acquisition o f language skills takes

place in a social context or environment, and is supported by aspects of cognitive

development.


302

Conclusions

Meece (2002) was inconsistent in her coverage. Her areas o f strength were her

clear and detailed descriptions of slang and written discourse. The reader of this textbook

will know about some kinds of conversations and discourse but will have a limited

understanding of how early adolescents may reach communicative competence because

of the limited information in the areas o f syntax, lexicology and morphology and limited

information on the acquisition of some language skills.

Meece compared oral language to written language and stated that these language

processes were the same. She did not, however, provide further background for the

reader to understand the nature o f that reciprocal relationship. The reader of this text

might infer that acquisition of some language skills might occur naturally, provided

opportunities to practice were available to the early adolescent.

Little information was provided about the basic building blocks of language

including semantics, lexicology, morphology and syntax. Without this information the

reader might not have the tools to help early adolescents reach communicative

competence.


Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). Child development, (5th ed ). Boston. Allyn and Bacon.


Pragmatics (U l, (72. U3)

In Berk (2000) most of the selections in regard to conversation were presented

developmentally. Selections often were broad, not specific, and there were few


303

supporting examples. Berk attributed the increases in language ability during early

adolescence to cognitive growth. She ascribed linguistic abilities to the early adolescent

in descriptions, such as understands subtle linguistic and situational clues, uses intricate

grammatical forms, comprehends metaphor and humor, and grasps word meanings from

definitions. These descriptions did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, or

ambiguity and mentioned, but did not discuss, irony, sarcasm and slang. Berk did

describe, in terms of development reasoning, problem solving and slang. Only reasoning

was addressed in terms of acquisition of skills. From this textbook the reader would

have limited knowledge of the variety of conversational skills that change during early

adolescence and no information on how any of the conversational skills, other than

reasoning, are learned.

In discourse, the reader would only know descriptively about story telling through

age ten. Story telling past the age o f ten was not addressed. Berk did not address

proverbs, essays, letters, or rules of writing. Berk only addressed oral language so the

reader would be unaware of the written discourse abilities and changes that occur in early

adolescence. Without this information the reader might make assumptions regarding

ability that might not be true, and believe that discourse skills are fully developed by

early adolescence.

In communicative competence, Berk (2000) outlined components of the social

problem-solving process and in doing so briefly mentioned some of the rules for

speaking, which were referred to as social norms. Berk did not address any rules for

writing or mention any kinds o f writing, how early adolescents might respond to different

speech acts, or discuss any grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative


304

competence. From the brief descriptions given, the reader would not understand what

communicative competence might include, how it might change during the early

adolescent years or how competence might be acquired. For the reader this might

translate into ignoring language skills in the curriculum

Semantics (TI, T2)

Berk did not make clear the development or acquisition of concepts among early

adolescents. Most o f her examples were o f earlier ages, even when older students were

being discussed. For the reader, not understanding the importance, use, or acquisition of

concepts for early adolescents might result in failure to recognize when concepts are

missing, when they need to be inserted into the curriculum, and their value in learning

new academic material. Without an understanding of a concept in which the meaning of a

word can be imbedded, a new word probably will not be remembered. As concepts

become clear, vocabulary can be added to work with or describe that concept.

In regard to meanings. Berk stated that meanings of words are grasped on the

basis of definitions. Berk also mentioned but did not elaborate on non-literal word

meanings, multiple meanings, and metaphors. With no examples and limited background

information provided in the textbook, prior knowledge would be necessary to understand

the author's intended meanings. Knowing what early adolescents know about meanings

of words and phrases might make the difference between a successful lesson and a lesson

that fails because the teacher uses words, phrases, metaphors, idioms, and similes that are

unfamiliar to early adolescents.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (01, 02)


305

Berk (2000) discussed the development of grammar wherein she included syntax,

lexicology, and morphology but for the early adolescent she only described application of

the passive voice with an example. Other grammatical achievements were broadly

described developmentally such as “Older children can deal with more complex

relationships and are more attentive to subtle linguistic and situational clues”(383). Here,

“grammatical achievements” and “subtle linguistic clues” probably would mean little to a

person without background knowledge about language. Specific parts of speech, such as

clauses and conjunctions; rules of syntax and morphology; types of words, such as

compound words and words with affixes; and morphological analysis were not

mentioned, leaving the reader with vague generalities which only imply changes rather

than specifically identify those changes.

Berk (2000) also addressed the size o f vocabulary and stated that new words can

be learned when students are given the definition of a word. Berk only identified abstract

words as being added to the vocabulary. Sources in the literature review state that

compound words and words with affixes are primary sources of new vocabulary during

early adolescence, not abstract words. The reader of this textbook might believe that

students need only to read the dictionary to learn new words, without an understanding

that concepts should be in place before words are remembered or learned. The reader

might also focus only on abstract vocabulary after reading this textbook and not pay

attention to the other types of words that are also added to vocabulary during early

adolescence.

Regarding phonology. Berk’s example of inflected changes and syllabic stress in

words was clear and detailed. In contrast her comment about sarcasm (an exaggerated


306

voice is necessary for younger children to understand something sarcastic) implied that

an early adolescent might understand sarcasm. Voice change was mentioned.


Most of the selections in Berk (2000) were adequate (96.9%) and the two unclear

selections did not significantly detract from the other selections. Berk, however,

duplicated information in 18 of the selections (28%). Such duplications did reinforce the

information that she had for the reader, but may have prevented other content from being

addressed.


Most of the selections in which a theoretical framework could be identified were

from the cognitive perspective (11 of 20 selections). Most of the selections identifying a

theoretical framework were also addressed from a developmental perspective, consistent

with the proportion of overall selections that were addressed developmentally. The

theoretical framework was only identified in components o f pragmatics and semantics.

From this textbook the reader would have some knowledge of the development of

language use from a cognitive perspective. The reader would have limited awareness of

the impact of social/environmental influences on the pragmatics o f language use.

Conclusions

Berk used a broad range o f ages, from 11-adulthood in tables, so that it was

difficult for the reader to know specifically to what age group she was referring. In a

section on adolescents, she illustrated her point by giving an example using preschoolers.

This broad range and mix o f ages leaves the reader with confusion as to what linguistic

skills early adolescents possess and what skills they are learning. To add to this confusion


307

Berk stated that older children (presumably early adolescents) would have already

mastered language skills, when according to the literature review many early adolescents

still may not have mastered the skills she addressed, such as subtle linguistic clues. Some

of the statements made by Berk (2000) were without supporting examples or background

information.

An author should identify specific language skills before the author can address

the acquisition o f those skills. Berk seldom identified specific skills in early adolescence

and did not address the acquisition of specific language skills outside o f reasoning and

vocabulary. Berk was also particularly articulate in describing inflections that affect

meanings but she did not address the acquisition o f this skill.

The reader o f this textbook would have a very limited knowledge of changes that

occur in language during early adolescence, particularly in syntax, lexicology and

morphology. Without these fundamentals, the reader would be limited in knowing the

building blocks o f language that are necessary for communicative competence. The

reader might over estimate the language skills of early adolescents, in response to overly

generalized descriptions, such as “grammatical achievements.”


Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). Child development, (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.


Pragmatics (U I, U2, (J3)

In Berk (2000) most o f the selections in regard to conversation were presented

developmentally. Selections often were broad, not specific, and there were few


308

supporting examples. Berk attributed the increases in language ability during early

adolescence to cognitive growth. She ascribed linguistic abilities to the early adolescent

in descriptions, such as understands subtle linguistic and situational clues, uses intricate

grammatical forms, comprehends metaphor and humor, and grasps word meanings from

definitions. These descriptions did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, or

ambiguity and mentioned, but did not discuss, irony, sarcasm and slang. Berk did

describe, in terms of development reasoning, problem solving and slang. Only reasoning

was addressed in terms of acquisition o f skills. From this textbook the reader would

have limited knowledge of the variety o f conversational skills that change during early

adolescence and no information on how any of the conversational skills, other than

reasoning, are learned.

In discourse, the reader would only know descriptively about story telling through

age ten. Story telling past the age of ten was not addressed. Berk did not address

proverbs, essays, letters, or rules of writing. Berk only addressed oral language so the

reader would be unaware o f the written discourse abilities and changes that occur in early

adolescence. Without this information the reader might make assumptions regarding

ability that might not be true, and believe that discourse skills are fully developed by

early adolescence.

In communicative competence. Berk (2000) outlined components of the social

problem-solving process and in doing so briefly mentioned some of the rules for

speaking, which were referred to as social norms. Berk did not address any rules for

writing or mention any kinds o f writing, how early adolescents might respond to different

speech acts, or discuss any grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative


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competence. From the brief descriptions given, the reader would not understand what

communicative competence might include, how it might change during the early

adolescent years or how competence might be acquired. For the reader this might

translate into ignoring language skills in the curriculum

Semantics (TI, T2)

Berk did not make clear the development or acquisition of concepts among early

adolescents. Most o f her examples were of earlier ages, even when older students were

being discussed. For the reader, not understanding the importance, use, or acquisition of

concepts for early adolescents might result in failure to recognize when concepts are

missing, when they need to be inserted into the curriculum, and their value in learning

new academic material. Without an understanding o f a concept in which the meaning of a

word can be imbedded, a new word probably will not be remembered. As concepts

become clear, vocabulary can be added to work with or describe that concept.

In regard to meanings, Berk stated that meanings of words are grasped on the

basis of definitions. Berk also mentioned but did not elaborate on non-literal word

meanings, multiple meanings, and metaphors. With no examples and limited background

information provided in the textbook, prior knowledge would be necessary to understand

the author's intended meanings. Knowing what early adolescents know about meanings

of words and phrases might make the difference between a successful lesson and a lesson

that fails because the teacher uses words, phrases, metaphors, idioms, and similes that are

unfamiliar to early adolescents.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02)


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Berk (2000) discussed the development of grammar wherein she included syntax,

lexicology, and morphology but for the early adolescent she only described application of

the passive voice with an example. Other grammatical achievements were broadly

described developmentally such as “Older children can deal with more complex

relationships and are more attentive to subtle linguistic and situational clues”(383). Here,

“grammatical achievements” and “subtle linguistic clues” probably would mean little to a

person without background knowledge about language. Specific parts o f speech, such as

clauses and conjunctions; rules of syntax and morphology; types of words, such as

compound words and words with affixes; and morphological analysis were not

mentioned, leaving the reader with vague generalities which only imply changes rather

than specifically identify those changes.

Berk (2000) also addressed the size of vocabulary and stated that new words can

be learned when students are given the definition of a word. Berk only identified abstract

words as being added to the vocabulary. Sources in the literature review state that

compound words and words with affixes are primary sources of new vocabulary during

early adolescence, not abstract words. The reader of this textbook might believe that

students need only to read the dictionary to learn new words, without an understanding

that concepts should be in place before words are remembered or learned. The reader

might also focus only on abstract vocabulary after reading this textbook and not pay

attention to the other types o f words that are also added to vocabulary during early

adolescence.

Regarding phonology. Berk’s example o f inflected changes and syllabic stress in

words was clear and detailed. In contrast her comment about sarcasm (an exaggerated


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voice is necessary for younger children to understand something sarcastic) implied that

an early adolescent might understand sarcasm. Voice change was mentioned.


Most of the selections in Berk (2000) were adequate (96.9%) and the two unclear

selections did not significantly detract from the other selections. Berk, however,

duplicated information in 18 o f the selections (28%). Such duplications did reinforce the

information that she had for the reader, but may have prevented other content from being

addressed.


Most of the selections in which a theoretical framework could be identified were

from the cognitive perspective (II of 20 selections). Most o f the selections identifying a

theoretical framework were also addressed from a developmental perspective, consistent

with the proportion of overall selections that were addressed developmentally. The

theoretical framework was only identified in components of pragmatics and semantics.

From this textbook the reader would have some knowledge o f the development of

language use from a cognitive perspective. The reader would have limited awareness of

the impact of social/environmental influences on the pragmatics of language use.

Conclusions

Berk used a broad range o f ages, from 11-adulthood in tables, so that it was

difficult for the reader to know specifically to what age group she was referring. In a

section on adolescents, she illustrated her point by giving an example using preschoolers.

This broad range and mix o f ages leaves the reader with confusion as to what linguistic


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skills early adolescents possess and what skills they are learning. To add to this confusion

Berk stated that older children (presumably early adolescents) would have already

mastered language skills, when according to the literature review many early adolescents

still may not have mastered the skills she addressed, such as subtle linguistic clues. Some

of the statements made by Berk (2000) were without supporting examples or background

information.

An author should identify specific language skills before the author can address

the acquisition of those skills. Berk seldom identified specific skills in early adolescence

and did not address the acquisition o f specific language skills outside of reasoning and

vocabulary. Berk was also particularly articulate in describing inflections that affect

meanings but she did not address the acquisition o f this skill.

The reader of this textbook would have a very limited knowledge of changes that

occur in language during early adolescence, particularly in syntax, lexicology and

morphology. Without these fundamentals, the reader would be limited in knowing the

building blocks of language that are necessary for communicative competence. The

reader might over estimate the language skills of early adolescents, in response to overly

generalized descriptions, such as “grammatical achievements.”

Child Development—Santrock

Textbook: Santrock, J. W. (2000). Child Development. Boston: McGraw Hill.


Pragmatics, (Ul, U2, U3)


j I j

Santrock (2001) reported on the differences between report and rapport—a

complete and in depth description that compared discourse and conversation, identified

how each were used, by whom, and where. Santrock described the adolescent’s verbal

problem solving abilities, concrete and formal reasoning abilities, and narration, and book

reports. These discussions exposed the reader to a variety of early adolescent language

situations and uses. Perspective was identified as an isolated skill and not addressed as a

skill necessary for problem solving or negotiation. This failure to link skills for the

reader made it harder for the reader to see the many places where a language skill could

be applied. Santrock (2001) did not address persuasion, negotiation, proverbs,

storytelling, essays, letters idioms, slang, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Failure to

mention these topics limited the reader’s exposure to places where there are changes that

occur during early adolescence. Metaphor and satire were mentioned but not discussed

leaving the reader to drawing on prior knowledge to understand the author’s meaning.

Santrock (2001) described the social cognitive perspective, which views children

who are maladjusted as “lacking social cognitive skills to interact effectively with others”

(p. 493). Santrock did not recognize language problems at the early adolescent age and

so he attributed possible language problems to other causes, such as hostility. The social

cognitive perspective does not use linguistic vocabulary or look at language skills in

social interactions. Instead behavior is observed. The reader would miss seeing language

problems or deficits and treat behaviors rather than address language skills that may be

missing (such as organizing information, or reading facial expressions). Santrock also

promoted social skills training while he omitted telling the reader about the verbal skills

necessary in social interactions.


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Santrock did not address the acquisition o f conversation, discourse, or

communicative competence skills with the exception of reasoning and mention of social

skills training. For the reader this would be problematic for the reader might assume that

language skills can only be acquired through social skills training or that the language

skills develop on their own. Discourse and writing skills are not usually addressed in

social skills training while conversation and social customs regarding conversation are

usually included. Santrock also did not include the rules for speaking or writing,

vocabulary or grammar necessary for communicative competence.

Semantics, (TI, T2)

For Santrock (2001) concepts continued to develop from the concrete concepts of

the child to the abstract concepts of the adult who can fully consider the intentions o f

others. Knowing one’s own mind and the mind of others appeared to be the ultimate (or

only) concept to be achieved. Santrock (2001) did not address how concepts are formed

or other uses of concepts beyond his one example. He also did not address multiple

meanings of words or phrases and mentioned metaphors but did not discuss or describe

metaphorical meanings. Without these foundations for language—concepts and

meanings—the reader might try to achieve communicative competence without having a

foundation or understanding of what drives communication.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (Ol, 02)

Santrock (2001) referred to grammatical rules as a body of knowledge. He

associated early adolescents with “more sophisticated” syntax and grammar without

defining or explaining syntax or grammar. Santrock indicated good instruction is

necessary for the increase in language and cognitive skills but failed to identify how


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language skills are acquired. Without examples, definitions, and more explicit

explanations, Santrock made it difficult for the reader to understand what changes occur in

syntax, lexicology and morphology. Without this information the reader had no

information on the building blocks that contribute to communicative competence.

Santrock stated that vocabulary increases with the addition of more abstract words

but he did not mention compound words or words with affixes that are also added, the size

of the vocabulary or how words are learned. Santrock stated that students read to learn but

did not indicate whether new vocabulary or complex syntax were included in what

students might learn. In phonology this textbook stated that the early adolescent male’s

voice changes but it did not mention inflected meanings or word stress changes that are

important for language understanding in early adolescence. This textbook also stated that

there is great variation in the development o f language which might account for his lack of

mention of specific skills for early adolescents.


All of the selections found in Santrock (2001) were of adequate or better quality.

Some selections may have required prior knowledge to understand but this was not taken

into account in defining quality. The reader might have to consult other sources, such as a

dictionary, to find meaning.


The selections in Santrock (2001) that had a theoretical perspective were evenly

divided between a cognitive perspective and a social environmental perspective (7

selections each). Most o f these selections were descriptive (9 of 14 selections). The one

selection that had to do with the acquisition of skills was written from a


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social/environmental perspective and was about reasoning. The reader was given both

cognitive and a social/environmental descriptive perspectives oflanguage skills. The

reader would have a limited theoretical perspective of development.

Conclusions

Santrock (2001) did not address any linguistic rules—conversation, discourse, or

grammar. All communication follows rules. Without an awareness o f rules the reader

might be lost in constructing communication. Although most of the selections were

addressed developmentally, the textbook seldom identified specific skills to place in a

continuum. Instead “increased understanding” or “continues to improve” were used. The

descriptions were exceptionally broad and lacked specificity, such as, “Understanding of

complex grammar forms.” (p. 328). Unless the reader is familiar with complex grammar

forms the reader would need to rely on prior knowledge, something pre-service teachers

might not have, to understand the intent of the author. It was difficult to read Santrock

(2001) for language skills because the book did not use linguistic vocabulary, did not

discuss language acquisition issues, was primarily descriptive of the behavior o f early

adolescents and gave few examples.

Santrock (2001) stated several times that only with good instruction would a

student’s cognitive skills and language improve. It is telling that only one selection, one

on reasoning, was coded as addressing the acquisition oflanguage skills. Other

selections might have been coded but they only stated that the teacher must provide good

instruction, and the text never mentioned a strategy, technique, or action that could be

identified that would increase the language skill.


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The lack o f citations in regard to early adolescent language might lead the reader

to believe that there is very little research in the area o f early adolescent language or that

Santrock did not research early adolescent language. The one exception to this is the

section on rapport and report which was detailed, with examples, and very clearly

written.

The behavioral orientation o f the author might have prevented him from viewing

language or using linguistic terms with school aged children, although linguistic terms

were defined and used in discussing preschoolers. Santrock (2001) only made a side note

to the fact that there is great variation in language development, but this one factor may

also have limited him in being more specific as to what skills are developed during early

adolescence. The reader of this textbook would have a limited view of the changes that

occur in early adolescent language and no understanding o f how early adolescent

language skills are acquired.

Child Development - Bee

Textbook: Helen Bee (2000). The developing child, (9th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.


Pragmatics (JJl, U2. U3)

Bee (2000) used the research of others to describe early adolescents. She

examined the use of reasoning which she found depends on experience, expertise and

environmental demand. Although most o f the selections on reasoning were described

developmentally, the reader was given some insights as to what might increase reasoning

skills as well as two selections on how reasoning skills are acquired. Bee examined the

content o f conversations and the content o f essays but failed to describe other aspects of


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conversation. Bee (2000) did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang,

metaphors, similes, ambiguity, sarcasm, story telling, oral reports, or proverbs. By not

addressing these other aspects oflanguage where changes are known to occur the reader

is given only a very limited view oflanguage—one that will not prepare a pre-service

teacher to know about or be prepared for the language changes that occur in early

adolescents.

Communicative competency was described using a social cognition perspective

that included intimacy, emotional knowledge, and mention o f socially defined scripts or

rules. Because no examples were given, the reader would have to have prior knowledge

to understand what scripts or rules Bee (2000) was referring to. Without knowledge of

the rules of communication, both written and oral, the reader would not be in a position to

foster communicative competency.

Semantic, (Tl, T2)

Bee (2000) mentioned the importance of schemas to the early adolescent, but

included little detail. The reader would not understand why Bee called schemas important

to the early adolescent, would not know what concepts or schemas are, how concepts are

acquired, or how they are used. Concepts are fundamental to language for without

concepts words are not necessary. Concepts are needed for meaning and language and

new concepts build new language.

Bee (2000) did not address multiple meanings o f words or metaphorical

meanings. Not knowing about meanings o f words and phrases might lead the reader to

believe that early adolescents already know this information, or that this information is

not important. Either assumption on the part o f the reader would prevent the reader from


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recognizing when the early adolescent does not know multiple or metaphorical meanings.

Meaning is what is transmitted in communication. When metaphorical or alternative

(double meanings) meanings are used by one and not understood by another, meaning is

not transmitted. The reader working with early adolescents who does not know about

multiple meanings might recognize when meaning is not transmitted but not know why.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02)

None of these components (and their sub-components) of language were

addressed at the early adolescent age. The reader would not be aware that these sub

components exist from this textbook, nor would the reader be aware o f the changes that

take place in these aspects of language during early adolescence. Without this

information it might be assumed, as Bee might have, that language is complete before

this age and that no changes take place in language during early adolescence. This false

assumption might lead someone to believe that early adolescents have more language

skills than they actually do have. Without this information the reader has no tools with

which to improve language skills

Bee (2000) stated that the patterns of developmental change:” from outer to inner

characteristics, from observation to inferences, from definite to qualified, and from

egocentric to a general view. (p. 360)” referred to language, and in some respects they do.

But these developmental patterns do not address the early adolescent's use of clauses, the

use of conditional and transitional conjunctions, the addition of compound words and

words with affixes to the vocabulary, the use of morphological analysis, or the

understanding of inflected meanings. Identifying general developmental patterns is not

enough o f an explanation for a pre-service teacher who will be teaching early


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adolescents. Language changes need to be identified, described by sequences in which

they are learned developmentally, and associated with factors that encourage acquisition.

Without this knowledge the pre-service teacher will not be prepared to understand the

language of the early adolescent or be in a position to foster language growth.


Three selections o f the 3 1 selections found were coded as being unclear. This is

about 10% of the selections. This number of unclear selections might impact the reader’s

understanding of the selections that were offered.


Bee (2000) split the ten selections that were coded for theoretical framework

between cognitive theoretical perspective and social/environmental perspective (five

selections each). None of the selections indicating a theoretical perspective were written

from the behavioral perspective. The implications for the reader are that the reader

would not know how the behavioral perspective views language. Because the child

development course is a foundation class that lays down fundamentals, not knowing

about other theoretical perspectives (such as the behavioral perspective) might limit the

reader’s understanding o f early adolescent language and behavioral analysis in other

courses.

Conclusions

The reader o f Bee (2000) would be exposed to very little information about early

adolescent language. The reader’s exposure is restricted to several pieces of

developmental research that reflect the use o f language in conversation in early

adolescence. Bee mentioned discourse and concepts but did not address other sub

Re produced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.

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components or areas of language. The reader would not know the breadth of language

usages for the early adolescent, what changes occur in semantics, syntax, lexicology,

morphology, or phonology, or how language skills in these areas are acquired. This lack

of information would be problematic for a pre-service teacher that would eventually work

with early adolescents unless the fundamentals of early adolescent language were

addressed in another course.

There were only 31 selections in all and three were very vague and unclear. This

is 10% of the selections, an amount that would leave the reader with even less

information than clearly written material with examples. Because of this and the lack of

sub-components addressed, this is not a desirable textbook for learning about early

adolescent language.

Child Development - Letfancois

Textbook: Guy Lefrancois (2001). O f children, (9th ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Wadsworth.


Pragmatics (UI, U2, U3)

Lefrancois (2001) gave an example of humor, described, social cognition,

mentioned one aspect of social competence, and discussed aspects of perspective taking.

Lefrancois did not address negotiation, persuasion, problem solving, slang, idioms,

metaphors, similes, ambiguity, sarcasm, proverbs, essays, letters or story telling (beyond

the example of humor), what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar,

vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Developmental sequences were lacking

as well as explanations for the acquisition of skills. Because Lefrancois addressed so few


issues o f language use, the reader would be unable to identify any linguistic skills at the

early adolescent age from the brief descriptions and incomplete information given.

Semantics (TI, T2)

Lefrancois (2001) discussed concepts when he related objects and events in terms

of their common properties, but did not identify these related properties as concepts. He

did not address the formation or use o f concepts. In addition, he did not address multiple

meanings of words and phrases or metaphorical meanings. The reader of this textbook

would be unaware of the formation and use of concepts, the multiple meanings and

metaphorical meanings of words, and the importance of these linguistic skills for the

early adolescent. Without knowledge of concepts, the reader would lack the

understanding that communicative competence is based on exchanges of meaning that

come from shared views of concepts.

Syntax (SI. S2. S3). Lexicology (LI. L2). Morphology (M). and Phonology (OI. 02)

Lefrancois (2001) addressed the boy's voice change. He did not address clauses,

conjunctions, grammar, vocabulary size or increase, the effect of written text on

language, or inflection of voice. The reader would be unaware of the basics of language

(words, morphemes, rules for making sentences or essays) or how they affect the early

adolescent’s use of language. The reader would not know if or how the early adolescent

learns new words and sentence structures. Without knowledge of language and its

structure teaching anything having to with language could be problematic for a pre-

service who works with early adolescents.



All o f the 23 selections in the textbook by Lefrancois (2001) were coded as

adequate. His selections, however, seldom mentioned language. Instead he focused on

social cognition, social competence, or behaviors. These other terms that described

linguistic activity did not lower the quality rating but did require the researcher to infer

linguistic skills.


Lefrancois only had eight selections in which the theoretical framework could be

identified. The selections were split between cognitive and social/environmental (four

selections each). Seven of the eight selections were addressed descriptively. Most

significant is that the only place the theoretical framework could be identified was in

conversation (pragmatics. Lfl), although the textbook had selections in five of the sub

component areas. The reader would have limited exposure to theoretical perspectives, not

only because there were few (eight) selections where theoretical frameworks could be

identified, but because theoretical framework was only found in one sub-component.

Conclusions

The reader of this textbook would have insufficient background knowledge in

language to be aware of the role that language plays in the life of an early adolescent.

Acquisition of skills was not addressed in any o f the selections, so the reader would not

know how early adolescents learn language skills. Conversation was the only sub

component that was addressed with more than four selections and most o f these

selections were either the results o f research or descriptions of abnormal behaviors.

Lefrancois did acknowledge the wide variations in abilities at the early adolescent age.


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This textbook would not give the pre-service teacher the information necessary to either

recognize or address the linguistic needs o f early adolescents.

Educational Psychology - Ormrod

Textbook: Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (2000). Educational psychology, developing learners,

(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Research Question I: Sub-Components o f Early Adolescent language

Pragmatics (JJl, U2, U3)

In conversation Ormrod (2000) described reasoning, perspective taking, problem

solving, and slang; did not address persuasion, or negotiation, idioms, sarcasm, ambiguity

or metaphors. The reader was given descriptive knowledge of some of the language

changes that take place in early adolescents. The reader was not exposed to how

conversational skills are acquired.

Ormrod (2000) described written discourse, proverbs, research papers, and

argumentative essays. The use of storytelling, oral reports, letters or rules for writing

were not addresses. The reader was not given information on the acquisition of discourse

skills.

Ormrod (2000) addressed communicative competence in terms of social

conventions, empathy, and some of the rules for speaking. Ormrod did not address how

early adolescents use or respond to different types of speech acts, rules for writing, or the

knowledge of grammar or vocabulary needed for communicative competence. The


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reader would have a limited view of the extent of communicative competence but would

have some suggestions for acquisition of competency

Semantics (TI. T2)

In two sections Ormrod (2000) addressed the construction and use of concepts.

She also addressed misconceptions. She mentioned drawing inferences, inferred

meanings of words and multiple meanings of words. The reader would have an

understanding of how concepts are formed, used, and connected to word meanings. The

reader would not know about the uses o f metaphorical meanings in language. The reader

might assume that early adolescents understand language when they do not, and this

could lead to misunderstandings, frustrations, and miscommunications.

Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI. L2), Morphology (kf). Phonology (Ol, 02)

Ormrod (2000) only mentioned dependent clauses, but described and compared

use of the conjunctions but and although. The reader would understand that some early

adolescents do not understand the difference between using but and although, but the

reader would not know about other conjunctions and that they too might cause the early

adolescent problems in understanding the communication of others, especially adults.

Grammar was discussed in terms of acquisition and development for both written and

oral language. Ormrod mentioned analyzing speech in terms of its component parts,

(nouns, verbs, adjectives), but she did not address morphological analysis. The reader

would know that early adolescents are still learning language and that they might not

understand the syntactic uses or meanings of some words in oral and written language.

The reader would not have the benefit of morphological analysis to determine meanings

of new words.


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Ormrod described the size of the vocabulary and that vocabulary might be learned

by inferred meanings from the context in which words are heard or read. The reader,

however, would not know the kinds of words that might be added to the vocabulary.

Ormrod addressed that written text can influence vocabulary acquisition and other

aspects o f language. She did not expand upon how language learning might occur

beyond formal instruction although she did state that peer interactions are important for

learning in general.

Both voice change and inflected meanings were not addressed and these might

cause someone working with early adolescents some problems, particularly if they use

sarcasm. The reader would have some ideas for increasing and supporting linguistic

knowledge.


All of Ormrod’s (2000) 51 selections (100%) were coded as adequate. Ormrod

was organized and well written and organized, which made it easy to find information.


Although Ormrod did not have many selections that could be identified as having

a theoretical perspective (nine selections), those that were identified addressed a broad

range o f sub-components and three theoretical perspectives: behavioral, cognitive and

social/environmental. This would give the reader some exposure to different theoretical

perspectives (nine selections), but only for a few skills considering the total number of

selections (51 selections). What was most interesting was that a large number of the

selections were written from an acquired perspective (six of the nine selections) and these

were found in either the behavioral perspective or the social/environmental. Most of the


327

behavioral theory and acquired perspective selections stated that the teacher needed to

reinforce the language skills before they would be learned. Most o f the

social/environmental theory and acquired perspective selections required social

interaction with peers or an activity in the environment for the language skills to be

learned or practiced.

Conclusions

Ormrod (2000) made the reader aware that language continues to develop throughout

adolescence and informed the reader of a few of the developmental changes. Because

Ormrod did not address language acquisition skills for either conversation or discourse,

the reader would know little about how the early adolescent learns these language skills.

All o f social interaction falls under these two categories from negotiating time for a date

to writing an essay for social studies. Without information on the acquisition o f these

skills the reader probably would not see opportunities where language skills could be

learned outside of the formal grammar class. Clauses were only mentioned and the use of

two conjunctions was addressed with some detail so the reader would know that some

changes do occur but would not know the extent o f the changes that take place in syntax

and lexicology. The reader would not know about morphological analysis as a means of

identifying meaning in an unfamiliar word.

Because of the many sub-components discussed and the theoretical perspectives

presented, the reader would have an overview that was not complete but was

comprehensive enough to provide some foundation for further study and information.

The most encouraging features o f this textbook were that language was addressed at the


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early adolescent age and that language was not isolated but permeated other topics in the

text.

Educational Psychology - Eggen

Textbook: Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak (2001). Educational psychology windows on

classrooms, (5th ed ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Research Question I: Sub-Components o f Early Adolescents

Pragmatics (U I. U2, U3)

In conversation Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described persuasion, social skills,

gender differences in participation, and perspective taking but did not mention

negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. In discourse they

described writing letters and essays with some developmental information but they did

not mention proverbs, storytelling, or oral reports. Acquisition of oral skills and

discourse skills were not addressed. In communicative competence they did not address

the rules of speaking or writing or what the early adolescent needs to know about

grammar or vocabulary. The reader will not be aware of very many applications of

language where changes occur in early adolescence.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described few areas of change related to early

adolescents and limited their discussion to the formal academic setting while social and

peer interactions were ignored. Social skills were not described in linguistic terms and

the authors did not elaborate on the content of the social skills classes. Since there are

numerous social skill curriculums, and some teach more linguistic skills than others, the

reader would be unaware of the ways that social skills might be related to language

development for early adolescents.


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Semantics (TI, T2)

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) briefly addressed the formation (through experience)

and use of concepts (in problem solving) and tied concepts to language through reading

and interactions with others. The reader will leam some basic information but may have

difficulty applying the information due to limited discussion and few examples. The

brief references to concepts and schemas did not stress the importance of concepts in

learning new vocabulary and developing interconnections between topics and ideas.

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address multiple meanings or metaphorical

meanings. For the reader, not knowing what the early adolescent does not understand

yet, and is in the process of learning might be problematic for the reader might assume

comprehension of word and phrase meanings that the early adolescent does not have.

This is particularly true in regard to metaphorical meanings and sarcasm. Semantics was

not addressed developmentally so the reader will not know either the capability or the

prerequisite skills early adolescents may have.

Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (OI, 02)

Under Syntax (S3, Grammar), Eggen and Kauchak (2001) addressed acquisition

o f strategies for improving students’ written compositions. Under phonology (OI,

Voice), the authors described the child who talks differently. This textbook did not

address clauses, conjunctions, grammar, vocabulary size, how words are learned,

morphological analysis, the change in voice, or inflected meanings. Without these

building blocks of language the reader might not understand how a teacher would help

students rephrase thoughts more concisely; or break apart unknown words to find

meaning; or learn to speak or write about situational, conditional, or transitional topics.


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Three of 46 selections or 6.5% were coded as unclear. Unclear selections make it

difficult for the reader to follow the authors’ thinking and often require the reader to

make inferences that may lead to incorrect interpretations. To infer meaning requires

background information that the reader o f an introductory textbook might not have.


Theoretical perspectives were found in five of seven sub-components addressed in

Eggen and Kauchak (2001) giving the reader theoretical perspectives on several different

topics. O f the 18 selections that were coded for theoretical framework, 13 came from the

social/environmental framework and o f these nine were about language acquisition. From

these selections the reader might infer that the environment is the primary way in which

language skills are acquired, which is true in most cases. Behavioral and cognitive

theories also describe the acquisition o f language skills but with the exception of one

selection these perspectives were not presented in this textbook. The remaining five

selections were from the cognitive perspective split between descriptive (two selections),

developmental (two selections) and acquired (one selection in grammar), with no

selections written from the behavioral perspective. If the reader missed the one selection

on grammar acquisition, the reader might get the impression that the social/environmental

perspective offered the only way in which language was acquired.

Conclusions

The reader o f this textbook would be aware of very few o f the changes that occur

in language in early adolescence. Although the textbook lists four important points for

understanding language development it did not give the reader the information necessary


J J I

to understand language changes at the early adolescent level. The textbook did not use

linguistic vocabulary or inform the reader o f developmental sequences in language in

early adolescence. Specific examples o f how language skills are learned, particularly in

regard to syntax, morphology, and lexicology were not included. A lack o f knowledge

about language would greatly hinder a teacher who wanted to teach a topic to early

adolescents that included new concepts, new vocabulary, and required expression of

ideas, either orally or written.

Educational Psychology - Elliott

Textbook: Stephen N. Elliott, Thomas R_ Kratochwill, Joan Littlefield Cook, and John F

Travers (2000). Educational psychology: effective teaching, effective

learning, (3rd ed.).


Pragmatics (U l. U2. U3)

Elliott et al. (2000) described early adolescents as being able to accurately express

relationships and cause and effect, write essays, use more appropriate language and

communicate more effectively than younger children. Elliott et ai. did not address

persuasion, negotiation, slang, metaphors, similes, idioms, ambiguity, sarcasm, proverbs,

story telling, oral reports, letters or the rules used in conversation or discourse.

So few situations were described where the language o f early adolescents changes

that the reader would have little knowledge of the types o f discourse and conversation

used, the developmental changes in language, or how pragmatic skills are acquired.

Since these authors did not mention any language changes beyond the age of ten, the


reader of this textbook would be unaware o f any specific changes or know what to look

for regarding early adolescent language. The broad descriptions o f early adolescents

contained no specific descriptive, developmental or acquisition information regarding

language.

Semantics (TI, T2)

Elliott et al. (2000) addressed acquisition and use of concepts but did not, link

word meanings and concepts. Instead, they associated concepts only with thinking,

reasoning, and perceiving relationships. Without making an explicit tie to language,

concepts may be perceived to be separate from and not necessary for vocabulary

development.

Elliott et al. (2000) did not address multiple meanings or metaphorical meanings

although they did mentioned but did not define figurative language. Without knowing

about meanings the reader may expect early adolescents to know more metaphorical and

multiple meanings than they actually do know. This might become problematic for

teachers if they set goals and created activities beyond the language capabilities of their

students.

Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI. L2). Morphology (ki), and Phonology (O I, 02)

Elliott et al. (2000) described the early adolescent as having a good sense of

grammar, using complex language, and mastering dictionary skills. These broad

statements might be interpreted in a number of ways depending on the background

knowledge of the reader. The reader of this textbook might assume that with a “good

sense of grammar” all situationaL, transitional and conditional conjunctions would be


fully understood. That would be a mistake because the early adolescent often confuses

the use o f even but and although. The reader might assume because the early adolescent

might be able to speak using complex language with clauses that writing skills would be

equal, or the reader might not have prior knowledge that speaking skills precede writing

skills sometimes by several years. Mastery o f dictionary skills might mean to one reader

that the early adolescent is able to look up a word in the dictionary, to another reader it

might mean that the early adolescent would understand the use o f affixes and how they

change the part of speech of a word.

In addition, Elliott et al. did not address clauses, conjunctions, vocabulary, effect

of the written text, morphological analysis, voice or inflection. Without these building

blocks the reader will not have knowledge o f the parts of language that are necessary to

create competent writing and speaking.


All of the selections in Elliott et al. (2000) were coded as adequate. These

authors took great care to make clear what was stated, although fewer broad statements

and more examples would have been helpful to the reader.


The authors of this textbook were consistent in their use o f the cognitive

perspective as their only theoretical framework. By getting only one theoretical

perspective, the reader would not see that other perspectives also have merit and are

better at explaining some aspects o f language acquisition and development than others.

Because this is a foundational course that is expected to give fundamentals that are used

in other courses, the lack of information regarding other theories o f language


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development might be problematic when a pre-service teacher is expected to know about

behaviorism or the social/environmental perspective in another course. In addition, the

selections were presented from only a descriptive or developmental perspective. Both the

behavioral and social/environmental theoretical perspectives also describe how language

develops and how language skills are acquired, but the reader of this text will not know

about acquisition.

In addition the cognitive theoretical perspective was only associated with

descriptions and development o f language skills. This gave the reader no theoretical

perspective associated with the acquisition o f language skills. The reader would have

difficulty recognizing how language skills are acquired and probably would not recognize

situations that might foster language development.

Conclusions.

These authors view language “as unimportant in adapting to various

environments, especially the classroom” (p. 66). This view might explain the lack of

attention to language, and the lack of detail when language was mentioned. Formation of

concepts was the only skill that was addressed from an acquisition perspective. The

information in Elliott et al. (2000) would not give a pre-service teacher an understanding

of changes in, the developmental progression o f or the acquisition o f skills in early

adolescent language.

Educational Psychology - Sternberg

Textbook: Robert J. Sternberg and Wendy M. Williams (2002). Educational psychology.

Boston: Allyn & Bacon


j j 5


Pragmatics. (Ul. U2. CJ3)

Sternberg and Williams (2002) described perspective taking, reciprocal teaching,

reasoning, and problem solving but did not describe persuasion, negotiation, slang,

idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity. With this information the reader was given a limited view

of the language use of early adolescents. Sternberg and Williams mentioned the social

context of language but when social rules were mentioned they were not tied to language

or the rules of speaking or writing, leaving the reader to infer meaning.

The authors did not address discourse (proverbs, story telling, essays, and oral

reports) that further limited the reader’s knowledge of linguistic situations. With few

linguistic situations under consideration the authors probably saw no purpose for

discussing changing language registrars, how early adolescents use or respond to speech

acts or what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar and vocabulary in regard

to competence. The reader o f this textbook would be exposed to few situations where the

early adolescent uses language, and therefore would not be aware of the places where

language changes occur during this stage o f development. Language changes beyond the

age of ten were not discussed, perhaps leading the reader to believe that by age ten

language development was complete. Reasoning was addressed in depth but reasoning

was not tied to the language (vocabulary and syntax) necessary for reasoning, such as

conditional conjunctions.

Semantics, (Tl, T2)


V

336

Sternberg and Williams (2002) described concept formation and use but failed to

tie language to concepts. The reader might think that concepts are not necessary to learn

new vocabulary and that concepts are separate from word meanings.

Metaphorical expressions were mentioned but not elaborated on or defined

leaving the reader to draw on prior knowledge to create meaning. The reader might

believe that the meanings o f words and phrases are already in place because they were

not addressed. This might lead the reader to assume that the early adolescent knows and

understands more than they do.

Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (hi). Phonology (OI, 02)

Grammar was only referred to as a body of knowledge. Sternberg and Williams

(2002) did not address clauses, conjunctions, rules for syntax or morphology (grammar),

vocabulary, morphological analysis, voice changes, or inflection. From this textbook the

reader would not learn about the changes that occur in the language of the early

adolescent in syntax, lexicology, morphology or phonology. The reader probably would

not have the background necessary to recognize the developmental levels o f early

adolescent language, or even be aware o f what activities foster language acquisition.

Where a speech problem was detected these authors suggested that the teacher

call the problem to the attention o f the student. Broad advice, such as this, without

examples or clarifying information can create problems for a teacher who might apply the

advice indiscriminately. The reader might point out a voice problem (change in voice)

that the early adolescent is already acutely aware of, can do nothing about, and is

embarrassed by it, only to increase the embarrassment.



j j 7

The two selections (7.4% of the selections) rated as unclear were somewhat offset

by four selections that were rated as best information. There was evidence that in some

areas o f language, such as reasoning, Sternberg and Williams (2002) had extensive

research knowledge, but that in other areas of language such as syntax, lexicology,

morphology and phonology—areas they did not address—they had very little background

knowledge.


Of the 16 selections where a theoretical perspective could be identified, Sternberg

and Williams (2002) gave the reader some exposure to each of the perspectives, two were

from the behavioral perspective, five from the cognitive perspective and nine from a

social/environmental perspective. There were more theoretical selections (eight) from an

acquired perspective than a developmental perspective (three), giving the reader more

information about how and in what manner language is acquired and less information on

how developmental sequences might be viewed.

Conclusions

Reasoning was a preoccupation in Sternberg and Williams’ (2002) textbook, and

almost every topic was tied to reasoning and Sternberg’s research on student reasoning

abilities. But even reasoning was not addressed linguistically. Stenberg and Williams

often used broad, vague statements when referring to language, such as “more elaborate

sentences” that called for the reader to infer meaning. This textbook stated that children’s

language differs little from adult’s language, which might be interpreted by a reader that

there is little growth or change left to occur, so little that one working with early

adolescents does not need to think about or be concerned with any language changes.


338

With this implication, the reader might assume language need not be taught except for the

formal rules. Unfortunately, Sternberg and Williams appear not to be familiar with

current language research.

Educational Psychology - Woolfolk

Textbook: Anita Woolfolk (2001). Educational psychology, (8th ed ). Boston: Allyn and

Bacon.


Pragmatics. (U l. U2. U3)

In conversation Woolfolk (2001) described reasoning, sarcasm, negotiation, and

perspective taking. In discourse she discussed story structure. In communicative

competence she mentioned but did not discuss or define social conventions and the

intentions of others. Woolfolk (2001) did not address persuasion, slang, idioms, or

ambiguity, proverbs, oral reports, essays, letters, story-telling, the rules of speaking or

writing, or vocabulary and grammar that contribute to communicative competence. With

only nine selections in the three sub-components of pragmatics and four of those just

descriptive of language, the reader is given few opportunities to know where language is

used in early adolescence, what developmental changes take place (three selections), and

how these skills are acquired (two selections). The impact of language changes on the

early adolescent would not be possible to understand with so little space given to

language.


339

Semantics, (TI, T2)

Woolfolk (2001) addressed development o f schema and described a concept

attainment model. The reader would have an understanding of what concepts are, how

they develop over time and how they can be used. However, concepts were not tied to

language and the reader would have to infer a connection between words and concepts.

Woolfolk (2001) did not address multiple meanings of words or describe

metaphors but she mentioned metaphor. The reader also might assume, because multiple

meanings of words were not mentioned, that the early adolescent knows more meanings

for words and phrases than they actually do know.

Syntax, (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02)

Woolfolk (2001) mentioned complex grammatical structures, extra clauses,

syntax as word order, and conjunctions but she did not mention the kinds or uses of

clauses or conjunctions that early adolescents use, or the rules of syntax or morphology

She did describe the use of passive voice with some detail. Woolfolk described the size

of vocabulary, and how word meanings might be learned. She did not address the effect

of written text on vocabulary development, voice change, or the relationship of inflection

and meaning. Because Woolfolk (2001) mentioned many linguistic items but usually did

not describe with detail, define, or give examples, the reader needed to rely on prior

knowledge, something a pre-service teacher might not have, to understand the author’s

intent. Words without the rules, is like having building blocks but no glue to assemble

them. The reader of this textbook would have limited exposure to a number of linguistic

skills.



340

Because ail o f Woolfolk’s (2000) 24 selections were coded adequate, the reader

would find information on early adolescent language clearly written. The reader would

also find that there were few selections for each of the sub-components and the selections

did not contain a lot o f detail.


The reader would have a weak balance o f theoretical frameworks with two

selections from the behavioral perspective, two from the cognitive perspective, and four

from the social/environmental perspective. With only eight selections identified for

theoretical framework, it is difficult to say that the reader is really getting very much

exposure to theoretical perspectives o f language. However, six o f the eight selections

were from an acquired perspective, which might give the reader some different ideas

about how language is learned.

Conclusions

Because Woolfolk (2001) tried to cover all ages at the same time it was difficult

for the reader to know which examples she intended to be used for a particular age group.

By not addressing language past age 11, Woolfolk made it appear that all language

development is complete by this age and that no further language learning takes place. A

reader o f this textbook would have a glimpse of many changes that take place, but not

have the depth to understand the impact of those changes, how those language skills are

acquired in early adolescence or know many o f the developmental sequences of language

skills. The reader would be very limited in knowledge o f early adolescent language. In


341

addition, Woolfolk emphasized the impact o f adults on language learning, something that

might be more appropriate for preschoolers than early adolescents.

Woolfolk (2000) had 24totaI selections and addressed nine sub-components.

Four sub-components had just one selection each. One selection is usually not enough to

address both development and acquisition. Overall, Woolfolk did have a balance o f

selections between developmental progressions (seven selections) and the acquisition of

language (10 selections), but she only addressed both development and acquisition of

skills in four sub-components (conversation, competence, concepts, and grammar). In

these four sub-components the reader might recognize both a developmental sequence

and how a language skill might be acquired. Because there are many skills in each sub

component, it is obvious that Woolfolk did not address many skills. In the other nine

sub-components the reader would not have access to either developmental sequences,

acquisition of skills or both, and have just a description of a skill. This would severely

limit the reader’s ability to recognize the sequence of language skills and to foster

language development in early adolescents with more than a very few skills.

Educational Psychology - Snowman

Textbook: Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler (2000). Psychology applied to teaching,

(9th ed ). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.


Pragmatics. (Ul. U2, U3)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) described the register shift, reciprocal teaching and

conflict management. They mentioned reasoning, sarcasm, metaphor, and allegory,


342

stating that they are usually lost on the concrete stage thinkers. They did not address

slang, idioms, ambiguity, persuasion, or negotiation, oral reports, essays, story telling and

proverbs rules of speaking or writing or the grammar or vocabulary necessary for

communicative competence. The reader may not understand “face-to-face interactions”

and “interpersonal skills” to be language skills. Although Snowman and Biehler

described some conversational situations, few were related developmentally and only one

was addressed from a skill acquisition perspective. The reader would have a limited view

of the extent of pragmatic skills and no information on how pragmatic skills are acquired

other than reciprocal teaching.

Semantics, (Tl, T2)

Snowman and Biehler (2000) used research to describe how concepts might be

developed in classrooms and linked language to concepts by attributing discussions and

other language activities to the formation and clarification of concepts. They emphasized

procedural tasks. The reader o f this text might have enough knowledge to assist early

adolescents in the formation and use of concepts.

Meanings of words and phrases were omitted. The reader would not know that

early adolescents do not always understand multiple meanings o f words or metaphorical

meanings and might assume that they know more than they do. By assuming that early

adolescents understand multiple meanings or metaphors when they do not might lead to

frustration on the part of both the student and the teacher.

Syntax (SI. S2, S3), Lexicology (LI. L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI. 02)

Without knowing what skills early adolescents use in pragmatics it is hard to

make a case for describing the building blocks that support existing and new skills. This


343

might be most easily seen in discourse where no skills were addressed. When writing an

essay (discourse), students sometimes need to use syntax and words that are not always

used in social communication that is oral. Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not mention

any discourse skills so they had no reason to support those skills with syntax or

vocabulary Because syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology were not addressed,

the reader might assume that they are not important and can be ignored or that they are

already in place and assume that the early adolescent has more skills than they actually

do.


The one selection coded unclear represented only 4.5% of the selections and did

not detract significantly from the overall quality o f the selections.


The 13 selections where a theoretical perspective could be identified were divided

between frameworks; behavioral with one selection, cognitive with five selections, and

social/environmental with seven. The reader would at least be exposed to different

perspectives. The cognitive and social/environmental theoretical perspectives were also

associated with selections that were descriptive, developmental, and about language

acquisition. Such balance would give the reader a broader view of the theoretical

perspectives. The behavioral perspective was only associated with the acquisition of

skills so the reader might have a more limited view of this theoretical perspective.

Conclusions

Snowman and Biehler (2000) described few conversational and no discourse

situations did not address any rules necessary for constructing words, sentences or essays


344

and did not address any of the building blocks (syntax, lexicology, morphology,

phonology) that are the supporting language skills for communicative competence.

These authors appear to be concerned with some aspects of conversation, but prefer to

call language anything but language. The reader of this textbook would have a very

limited knowledge of linguistic skills and the capability o f early adolescents, few

developmental sequences and one suggestion to teach a language skill other than

concepts.

A Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks

Most noticeably the child development textbooks had more to say about early

adolescent language than educational psychology textbooks. They covered more

components, and sub-components. They had more total selections and more selections

where the theoretical frameworks were found than educational psychology textbooks.

In contrast the educational psychology textbooks had more selections about

concepts than did the child development textbooks and addressed concepts more

completely. They also gave broader coverage to the different theoretical perspectives.

All textbooks addressed some selections using the cognitive theoretical perspective.

Most of the educational psychology textbooks (six o f seven) had selections from a

behavioral perspective, whereas the child development textbooks did not (only two of the

six textbooks).

Conclusions and Implications for Teacher Candidates

Teacher candidates would significantly lack information about early adolescent

language with any o f the textbooks examined in this research study. None o f the


345

textbooks covered the sub-components of language with the depth and quality needed by

teachers o f early adolescents. All o f the textbooks would need to be supplemented with

information on early adolescent language development before teacher candidates could

understand the developmental sequences of language development. Most of the

textbooks would have to be supplemented with linguistic vocabulary; connections

between thinking, talking, writing and reading; and acknowledged differences in

structures of language (such as those necessary for conditional and positional statements),

and uses of language (academic and social), before teacher candidates would have a

scaffolding that would support further information on tanguage.

M ost Complete Textbook

While no criteria for adequacy were established at the outset of this study, review

o f the selected texts did reveal great diversity in breadth and depth o f coverage for early

adolescent language. For a text to be able to fully contribute to building background

knowledge for teacher candidates, a textbook would need to address each sub-component

o f language in some manner. Of the textbooks examined in this study, no text met that

criteria. The textbook with the most complete coverage, however, was Schickedanz, et al

(2001), with attention to 12 of 13 subcomponents.

Child Developmen—Schickedanz. The textbook that covered the sub-components

o f language most completely was Schickedanz et al (2001). The teacher candidate using

this textbook would probably be able to recognize that oral language in the classroom can

promote friendships, joint discovery, and increase vocabulary when students hear words

in context. The teacher candidate would probably see writing as a form of discourse,

whereby students might practice subordination of ideas using clauses, conjunctions, and


346

rules of grammar and reading as a source o f knowledge as well as a place where

meanings of new words and multiple meanings of words might be inferred. The teacher

candidate would also probably know written form and content are influenced by the

literature the early adolescents read.

In contrast, the teacher candidate would have a poor idea of what concepts are, the

relationship between concepts and language, or that concepts precede language and

promote learning. This textbook would leave the teacher unknowing about the kinds of

words (compound and with affixes) and parts (affixes and roots) of words early

adolescent learn during this period of life. Not knowing these aspects of language would

leave the teacher candidate unfamiliar with knowledge necessary for taking words apart

(morphological analysis) to discover meaning. This textbook only touched on

phonological ambiguity and sarcasm. Without this information the teacher candidate

may use inflections that the student may not understand.

In addition, communicative competence was thinly covered through discussions

o f communication strategies, social feedback, and perspectives. The teacher candidate

would not know how students change language registers when addressing different

people. The teacher candidate would not know about the early adolescents’ persuasion

and negotiation skills, or the idioms that they learn during this time. Without this

knowledge the teacher candidate might expect more or less from the students than what

they are capable of understanding and doing.

While this textbook did not mention the change in voice, this is one of the less

important parts of language as it is not an issue for girls and usually affects only a few

boys whose voice changes rapidly. Once the change occurs and the boy adjusts to the


347

new voice it also is no longer a problem for anyone. For a teacher, this would be

something that they could learn on the job. It would not make dramatic changes in how

they teach or behave towards the students, but knowledge o f the profound embarrassment

it causes some boys would lead to an understanding when this did occur in their

classroom.

Other Worthwhile Textbooks

If criteria for textbook adequacy had been identified for attention to early

adolescent language from both a developmental and an acquired perspective through age

14 and addressed at least one sub-component of each of the components pragmatics,

semantics, and syntax addressed, then the following two textbooks, in addition to

Schickedanz (2001), would meet this criteria.

Child Development—Meece. Meece’s strength was concepts. The teacher

candidate would be aware of the connection between talking and writing. This classroom

would be concept based with oral language as important as the writing aspects of

language. The weaknesses would be a lack o f knowledge o f the building blocks of

language, morphological analysis, grammar, conjunctions, and clauses. Without this

aspect, part of the strength of her writing would be missing. There were still items

missing in every component o f language, but teacher candidates with background from

this text would have some fundamentals to start with.

Educational Psychology—Ormrod. This textbook addressed listening

comprehension, and the need for teacher to match their language to the ability and

understanding o f their students. This textbook discussed discourse along with the

mechanics of language: grammar, clauses conjunctions and vocabulary. Formal writing


348

was important. The teacher candidate would be missing word meanings, conversation, and

communicative competence. A teacher candidate using this textbook might have a variety

of formal language activities, but would be unaware o f the conversational and journaling

aspects of language development.

If the criteria for being an adequate textbook in regard to early adolescent

language rested on other less specific and more general characteristics, several

other textbooks would qualify. If only a developmental approach was desired

Berk’s (2000) textbook might be considered. If a brief exposure of a number of

sub-components were desired, then Woolfblk’s (2000) textbook might be

considered. If reasoning was most important, then Sternberg’s (2001) textbook

might be considered. If some knowledge of both oral and written language were

desired, then Santrock’s textbook might be considered.

Child Development—Berk. This textbook did not address adequately any oral

aspects o f language and therefore the teacher candidate using this textbook would not be

aware of the importance of oral language or communicative competence. Meanings of

words, vocabulary size and inflection were addressed, so a teacher candidate might

concentrate on these aspects o f language. This textbook attributed abstract reasoning to

increased vocabulary, and stated that children get meanings from definitions. The

syntactic and semantic aspects were severely neglected. A teacher candidate using this

textbook might feel that having students read a dictionary would be all that was necessary

for language learning. Without the oral language being developed students will not meet

their full potential in literacy.


349

Educational Psychology—Woolfolk. Woolfblk had four sections on concepts that

were tied to content material. This textbook also addressed the size of vocabulary. A

teacher candidate might ask the same question that Woolfolk asks “What remains for he

school-age child to accomplish?” (... “since by about age 5, most children have mastered

the basics o f their native language” p. 53). A teacher candidate would have an

understanding of concepts and schemas but not of what to do with them with language.

The language of the early adolescent may be misunderstood or not tolerated by the teacher,

the mechanics (use of grammar, clauses, and conjunctions, morphological analysis) would

be neglected. Neither conversation nor discourse were adequately covered, so the teacher

candidate might feel that ditto sheets on concepts are all that is necessary

Educational Psychology—Sternberg. Stemberg discussed cognitive development

and language in relationship with thinking, problem solving and concepts. This textbook

discussed language development only in relation to children to age 10. A teacher

candidate using this textbook would know about reciprocal teaching associated with

reading comprehension, and logic associated reasoning, but would be missing knowledge

of the syntax and morphology and lexicology of language. In addition, conversation,

discourse, and communicative competence were ignored. Consequently, a teacher

candidate using this textbook would be unaware of social language development. They

would not know about strategies or rules necessary for conversation or discourse or

understand the elements o f competence.

Child Development—Santrock. This textbook emphasized the difference

between report talk and rapport talk as well as book reports and conversational skills, but

it did not adequately address competency. This textbook omits the basis for language,


350

and understanding of language: meanings, clauses, conjunctions, grammar and

morphological analysis. Santrock looks only at the end use o f language, but is not

concerned with competency. A teacher candidate using this textbook might try to have

students write essay and give reports without providing support or instruction. A teacher

candidate might expect students to have acquired all language skills necessary for writing

at an adult level in elementary school and thus assume that any writing or language skills

would be at an adult level.

Textbooks That Should Not Be Used

The remaining textbooks would not be considered as adequate accofding to any of

the criteria stated above and, consequently are not recommended for use according to the

analysis of this research study:

Child development - Lefrancois (2001) and Bee (2000)

Educational psychology - Eggen, (2001), Elliott, (2001), Slavin, (2000), and

Snowman, (2000).

The textbooks identified above do the education profession a disservice by either

implying or stating that language is essentially complete before early adolescence. The

qualifying words used to extend a few language skills into and beyond early adolescence

(almost finished, except for refinements, lesser vocabulary) are never defined or

elaborated with examples. These textbooks offer little or no research on language

acquisition that includes all o f the early adolescent years. By omission, language might

be assumed to be unimportant in learning and teaching, not something the teacher

candidate needs to be aware of, and that the language o f students is already at the adult

level and completely developed.


351

If any o f these assumptions are not reversed somewhere in teacher education

programs, a teacher candidate may make erroneous assumptions about the language of

early adolescent students. These teachers could have unrealistic language expectations,

not understand the value of literacy and oral language activities, and might use language

that is not understood by students. Learning and language are intertwined and without

appropriate language learning is severely limited.

Limitations

Limitations of this study include the selection o f textbooks, the criteria for

evaluation, the author's style, and the potential biases o f the researcher and errors.

Textbook Selection

The textbooks chosen for content analysis may not represent a cross section o f aii

textbooks currently available for use in the classroom. Textbook publishers that published

only one or two textbooks for child development or educational psychology courses were

not considered. Only textbooks issued by major publishing houses were selected. The

five publishers chosen by this researcher produce over 80% of the titles o f textbooks for

child development and educational psychology courses.

As previously noted, textbooks are only one source o f information available to

teacher candidates in educational psychology and child development courses. The

textbook author may supplement the textbook with information from a compact disc,

Internet sites, materials for the instructor, as well as suggested articles and books.

Although these supplementary sources and materials may have information on early

adolescent language, they were not considered in this content analysis o f the textbooks.


352

Criteria fo r Evaluation

Information on early adolescent language will be evaluated for the theoretical

point of view taken by the author, the component(s) o f language considered, the quantity

of information give, and the quality o f information given. The author’s theoretical

perspective may not be explicitly stated and may be subject to misinterpretation. An

author may use a different vocabulary to discuss language than the components defined

in this report. In this case some of an author’s meaning may become lost or

misinterpreted if the author’s words are compared with a textbook that uses a different

vocabulary to describe language. Some authors may be more succinct than others. A

comparison o f quantity of text devoted to a subject may not be relevant as to whether the

subject was covered completely. The quality o f the textbooks was compared to facts

uncovered by this researcher as the standard. Authors may have used their own research,

unpublished research, or research not uncovered by this researcher to provide a different

view of language.

Author's Style

In the context analysis, only language at the early adolescent age was considered.

Potentially this constitutes a limitation on the part of the researcher, because the author of

the textbook may feel that language for another age may be applicable to early

adolescence. Unless the textbook explicitly stated that a language description for a

younger or older age applies to early adolescents, it was assumed that the description was

only for the age group in the section in which it appeared. The author’s style of writing

may not have communicated all that the author knows about early adolescent language.


353

The author may also not have arranged information on language so that it is easily

accessible to the reader.

The Biases o f the Researcher

The researcher may have been biased, may not have grasped the intent of the

author, and may have missed the intent o f the textbook in regard to early adolescent

language. The author’s style of writing or the organization of the textbook may have

contributed to the researcher missing items by imbedding language in issues that were not

language oriented. For example, sections on classroom management in the educational

psychology textbooks may have tried to express the author’s concern for oral language,

and this researcher may not have interpreted the author’s intent properly or adequately.

Errors

The researcher may have missed sections or mentions of language that were not

identified in the index, table of contents or chapter summaries. All discussions of early

adolescent language that were found were considered and evaluated. A conscious effort

was made to carefully evaluate presentations of language information that did not refer to

the components o f language, such as soda! skills. Further, those comments of authors

which were made about language but not assigned to an age group, (i.e., early

adolescence), were assumed to apply to early adolescents only if the comments were

developmentally appropriate for early adolescents. If comments on language occurred in

a chapter that covered only a particular age group, for example early childhood, it was

assumed that the comments about language were only for the age group covered in the

chapter. Errors also may have occurred when a section was not read, for instance, the


354

chapters on infancy in the child development textbooks. If these chapters discussed early

adolescent language by comparing it to the infant’s language, these sections were not

read and these references may have been missed if they were present.

Suggestions for Future Research

Research that would extend the knowledge about early adolescent language in the

teacher preparation courses might come from three sources: Textbooks for methods

courses, professors’ and teachers’ attitudes toward language, teacher candidate’s

knowledge, and observation o f actual classroom teaching.

Methods Textbooks

A study, similar to this study, which would analyze the content of methods

textbooks, would extend the information discovered in this study. It is in methods

textbooks that content material is learned along with how teacher candidates can most

effectively present the material to students. Methods textbooks may be one place that

teacher candidates may extend their knowledge about the language o f their students. For

example, knowledge o f the content of textbooks from courses such as “Teaching Middle

School Students”, course work that is designed specifically to address the needs of

middle school teachers, might also add to the information o f what we know about how

teachers learn about early adolescent language. Textbooks that are intended for methods

of teaching literacy may address early adolescent language, however, the breadth and

scope of these textbooks is unknown to this researcher at this time.

Attitudes Toward Language


355

How might the knowledge and attitudes of teachers, including college professors,

influence what they teach? A study might be made o f the attitudes and knowledge about

early adolescent language among those professors who conduct courses for teacher

candidates, as well as teachers who actually work with early adolescents.

Teacher Candidates' Knowledge

It is unknown what prior knowledge teacher candidates may have about

linguistics, literacy, reading, writing, oral language, concepts and schemas, thinking,

syntax, or other aspects o f early adolescent language and how that knowledge may

influence their teaming in teacher preparation courses. A survey of this knowledge and

level of skills could be source of information for professors to know where to begin in

instructing teacher candidates about early adolescent language.

Classroom Practices

Broader questions, such as “What do teachers know about early adolescent

language?” or “How does a teacher’s attitudes toward and knowledge of early adolescent

language impact their interactions with early adolescents in the classroom?” might be

answered by surveys of teachers, followed by in-depth interviews and classroom

observations. An associated question, “What are school districts doing about teachers’

lack o f knowledge about early adolescent language development?” might also be worth

investigating, especially as it might be associated with student achievement in the middle

grades.

In Conclusion

It is hoped that this study will prompt more interest and awareness regarding the

importance of teacher candidates’ background knowledge o f early adolescent language


356

and the need for greater attention to its inclusion in teacher preparation course work.

When teachers recognize the language development of their students, seek professional

assistance for those that they cannot help, and help those that they can, then there may be

fewer misinterpretations of students’ actions.


357

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ission of the

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ner. Further

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permission.

Appendix A

Data SlieelTitle of Textbook: Theoretical

FrameworkManner of Writing

Sub-Component

Length / Depth

Quality of Information

Comments

Author:Chapter Title: Heading:Pages: beginning, end.

E = environmental / Social

F = behavioral G = cognitive N = innate

1 Description2 Developmental3 Acquired

0 = phonology M=morphology L = lexicology T= semantics S= syntax U= pragmatics

1 = isolated V = vignette R = sentence P ^paragraph W = section

X = mis-info. Y = poor A = adequate B = very good

exceptional

Page, Paragraph Selection

Page, Paragraph Next selection

Page, Paragraph Next selection

37

7

378

Appendix B

List o f Topics Examined in Textbooks

Adolescents

Ambiguity

Assessment

Book Reading

Bound Morphemes

Cause and Effect

Child Development

Classes

Classification

Clauses

Cognition

Cognitive Abilities

Cognitive Development

Cognitive Processes

Communication

Comprehension

Concept Formation

Concrete Operational Thought

Conformity

Conjunctions

Constructivism

Conversation

Cooperative Learning

Correlational Statements

Creative Thinking

Crowd

Cultural Competence

Dating

Decoding Skills

Development

Dialectical Thinking

Discourse Development

Discourse Knowledge

Elaboration

Empathy

Expository Writing

Expressive Style

Facial Expressions

Feedback

Formal Operational Thought


3 7 9

Frame of Reference

Games

Gestures

Grammar

Grammatical Morphemes

Graphemes

High School

Horizontal Decalage

Imaginative writing

Imitation

Idioms

Indirect Feedback

Information Processing

Intentions, Understanding

Interests, Writing About

Interpretive writing

Intersubjectivity

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Invented Spelling and Words

Irregular Forms

Joint Attention, Discovery

Jokes

Junior High School

Knowledge Acquisition

Language Acquisition

Language Based Play

Language Comprehension

Language Development

Learning

Level o f Development

Lexical Ambiguity

Linguistic Intelligence

Listening

Literacy

Locative Expressions

Masking Emotions

Metacognition

Metacommunication

Metalinguistic awareness

Middle Schools

Mnemonics

Moral Development

Morphemes

Morphological rules

Narrative Writing

Needs-Pro-social Reasoning


Oral Language Development

Past Tense

Peer Collaboration

Peer Interactions

Peer Teaching, Tutoring

Perceived Competence

Perceptually Based Thinking

Personal Narrative, Story Telling

Phonemes

Phonological Development, Awareness

Phonology

Piaget

Play

Polarized Thinking

Popular Status

Practical Thinking

Pragmatics

Problem Model Strategy

Pro-Social Behaviors

Proverbs

Questions

Reading

Reading Comprehension

Reasoning

Reciprocal Teaching

Reflective Writing

Retelling

Riddles

Rhymes

Root Words

Sarcasm

Schema

School Age Children

Script Knowledge

Scripts

Self Disclosure

Self-Regulation

Self Talk

Semantic Meanings

Shared Meanings

Slang

Social Behavior

Social Cognition

Social Information Processing

Socialization

Social Learning


381

Social Perspective

Social Referencing

Social Skills

Social Theory of Language

Sounds

Speech Comprehension

Speech Perception

Spelling

Story

Syntactic ambiguity

Syntax

Thinking

Under Extended Words

Unique Grammatical Structures

Verbal Ability

Verbs

Vocabulary Development, Size

Voicing

Vygotsky

Word Comprehension

Word Learning, Meaning

Word Recognition Skills

Word Stress

Word

Writing

Written Language Development


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