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Contents
Degraded Forest Rehabilitation and Management in Bangladesh ............................................. 1
The Forest Restoration and Rehabilitation in Damrey Chakthlork Community Forest,
Kampang Speu Province, Cambodia ........................................................................................ 13
The Natural Forest Protection Project to Restore China’s Forestland and The Analysis of Its
Achievements in Southwest China ........................................................................................... 23
Efforts on Rehabilitation / Restoration of Fiji’s Degraded Forest Ecosystems ........................ 34
Forest and Land Rehabilitation in Indonesia: A Case Story of Restoration of Sandalwood
(Santalum Album Linn) in Nusa Tenggara Timur Province, Indonesia .................................... 52
Forest Rehabilitation and Restoration Project in Sabah, Malaysia .......................................... 62
Myanmar Rehabilitation and Reforestation Program ............................................................... 74
Forest Rehabilitation and Management in Nepal ..................................................................... 86
Enhanced National Greening Program in The Philippines .................................................... 105
Degraded Forest Rehabilitation and Management in PNG .................................................... 112
Forest Rehabilitation --- Case Study in Ihala Puliyankulam Degraded Forest in Dry Zone of
Sri Lanka ................................................................................................................................ 121
Forest Rehabilitation in Thailand ........................................................................................... 132
Impacts of Slash and Litters Management on Soil Nutrients and Growth of Acacia
Auriculiformis Plantation after Three Rotations in Southern Vietnam .................................. 155
Participant Paper for APFNet Workshop on Degraded Forest Rehabilitation and Management (12-25 July 2019 Yunnan, China)
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Degraded Forest Rehabilitation and
Management in Bangladesh
Abu Yousuf
Assistant Conservator of Forest, Forest Department, Bangladesh
Abstract: Bangladesh is a small country with a total area of 147, 550 square kilometer. Only
17% of the total land cover is forest area which includes rubber gardens also. A huge number
of people are fully or partially dependent on forests for their livelihood. Forest resources are
supporting not only the villagers living in and around the forest lands but also the whole
population of the country in direct or indirect way. While supporting this vast population,
forests are losing resources in a high rate. Degradation of forest area has become a common
phenomenon in a developing country like Bangladesh.
In Bangladesh most of the forest dwellers are tribal people who are in the forests there for
centuries. Those people are fully dependent on forest for their survival. Rehabilitation of these
communities is tough in a small country like Bangladesh. In order to rehabilitate these
communities not only government has to ensure their safety but also government has to
ensure their proper living. Alternate income sources must be ensured. So to reduce the
degradation as well as ensure safety, social forestry was introduced in many parts of
Bangladesh. In this process people are involved to protect the forest lands and also to increase
the forest land area. Since total rehabilitation of these communities is a long process and
limitations are huge so social forestry practice is playing an important role in this process.
Different national and international organizations are also involved in this process.
Forest is a natural resource. In order to maintain this vast resource, a huge man power is
needed. But it is sad but true that in a developing country like Bangladesh, it’s not easy to
properly maintain both the resource and the people living depending on that resource. In
many cases which results encroachment, illegal felling or poaching. To minimize that
rehabilitation is must. But without international support it’s tough and also lengthy process.
Forest department is trying their best to minimize the problem but the main issue is less man
power and minimum knowledge. If proper training and support is available then this issue
might be minimized in near future.
Introduction
Bangladesh has undergone a major shift in its economic philosophy and management in
recent years. Forestry has manifold contributions towards the welfare of mankind. The
multiple uses of forest resources have been recognized from the advent of civilization. The
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forestry sector contributes about 1.79% of the total GDP of Bangladesh. This does not reflect
the true contribution of this sector. The rural population uses fuel wood and other minor forest
products practically free of cost. Forest and tree resources also play an important role in
protecting watersheds, irrigation and hydraulic structures, also in keeping the rivers and ports
navigable. They also play key roles in protecting the coastal areas from natural calamities.
The role of forest in protecting the environment from pollution and its contribution towards
biodiversity is immense.
The participatory social forestry contributes towards rural poverty reduction significantly.
Social Forestry Rules have been framed to provide the legal basis for a benefit sharing
system. Tree farming funds have been created from the 10% of the sale proceeds to create
new resources on the same pieces of land involving the same participants, to ensure
sustainability. TFF operating committees have been established involving local government
and Local Community Organizations (LCO). Apart from the sale proceeds, participants also
get money from the Forest Department for their labor input into plantation activities. They
also get periodic income from agriculture crops grown between trees both in forest and
marginal land. The participants also enjoy the thinning and pruning outputs in many areas
which also contribute to improving the livelihoods of the participants.
Employment Generation
Many people benefited directly from forestry-related activities e.g. in the wood based
industry, saw milling, furniture making, establishing and operating private nurseries, logging,
and in afforestation programs. Besides this, in the Sundarban region, millions of people
depend on the mangrove forest for their livelihood (e.g. mawali, bawali, fishermen, etc.).
Fuel wood and Non-wood Forest Products
Fuel wood is the major wood product required today in Bangladesh. The country needs over
8.0 million of fuel wood every year. Domestic cooking uses an estimated 63%, which is 5.1
million annually. Industrial and commercial use is also significant, which is 2.9 million
annually. According to the Forestry Master Plan, village households supply about 75% of the
fuel wood in the country, whereas government forests provide the remaining 25%. Due to
limited alternative sources of energy, rural people are mainly dependent on fuel wood for
cooking and other household activities. Of the total fuel wood, nearly 85% is used in rural
areas and 15% in urban areas. The Government of Bangladesh took many initiatives to
provide the consumer an additional supply of fuelwood for the future. In addition, some of the
non-wood forest products (bamboo, cane, sungrass, patipata etc) are also significantly
contributing to the economy and livelihood of the poor.
Environmental Status
Bangladesh has only recently created institutional mechanisms for environmental
management through the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Department of
Environment. A major issue is how to build the institutional capacity and use existing national
level expertise efficiently in environmental impact assessment, monitoring, and evaluation of
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the forest sector. Environmental issues in Bangladesh differ depending on ecosystems,
habitats, and type of land uses. Major environmental issues in urban and industrial areas are
air pollution of smokes from industries and motor vehicles. Effluents of industries are also
regarded as a serious environmental problem. Erosion of hill soils, silting up of water bodies,
drying up of streams coming from hills, and flush floods are some of the environmental
hazards arising from degradation of forested lands in the hills. Indiscriminate use of chemical
fertilizers and insecticides is another environmental issue and threat to water bodies. Drying
up of water bodies, downing of ground water tables and erratic behavior of monsoons are
some of the indicators of change in climate with likely impact on the environment.
An experience with environmental impact assessment is limited in Bangladesh, and
legislation and policy are weak. Significant training and national capacity building is needed,
within both the Forest and Environment Departments. Effective policy, legislation, and
implementation mechanisms for conservation, protected area management, wildlife
management and biodiversity are poorly developed in the country. Owing to large population
and limited resources, Bangladesh cannot afford not to fully utilize its limited resources. The
problem is how to manage renewable resources without depleting them or their productive
capacities. Past and present forest resource use and exploitation patterns, if allowed to
continue, will result in further severe depletion of the growing stock and reduce flora and
fauna resources. These past exploitation patterns are not sustainable. The remaining natural
forests in the country may be exploited without causing irreversible and permanent damage to
the natural heritage of the country.
Agricultural Situation
Agriculture remained the driving force behind the economic growth of Bangladesh during the
20th Century and would continue to remain for years in the 21st Century. Agriculture is the
single largest producing sector of the economy since it generates about 30% of the country's
GDP and employing around 60% of the total labor force. The performance of this sector has
an overwhelming impact on major macroeconomic objectives like employment generation,
poverty alleviation, human resources development and food security. Meeting the nation's
food requirements remains the key-objective of the government and in recent years there has
been substantial increase in grain production. However, due to calamities like flood, loss of
food and cash crops is a recurring phenomenon which disrupts the continuing progress of the
entire economy.
Agricultural holdings in Bangladesh are generally small. Through cooperatives the use of
modern machinery is gradually gaining popularity. Rice, jute, sugarcane, potato, pulses,
wheat, tea and tobacco are the principal crops. The crop sub-sector dominates the agriculture
sector contributing about 72% of the total production. Fisheries, livestock and forestry sub-
sectors have a share of 10.33%, 10.11% and 7.33%, respectively.
Bangladesh is the world’s largest producer of jute. Rice being the principle staple food, its
production is of major importance. Rice production stood at 20.3 million tons in the 1996-97
fiscal years. Crop diversification programs, credit, extension and research, and input
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distribution policies pursued by the government are yielding positive results. The country is
now at the threshold of attaining self sufficiency in food grain production.
Present Forest Management
Forest management today is almost totally different from the past in respect of its objectives
and philosophy. Present-day forest management objectives are not only to produce timber but
also to provide clean air, clean water, and a healthy habitat for wildlife and to act as a major
harbor of biodiversity and nature based tourism. The present philosophy is to involve people
in the management of forest resources and create an environment so that people can feel that
they have also a share on trees growing on forestland as well as to improve the living standard
of people residing in the vicinity of the forest.
Present-day forest management is primarily guided by the Forestry Master Plan (FMP)
completed in 1993 with the assistance of ADB, UNDP and FAO. The objectives of present-
day forest management are adopted following the FMP and include:
• Enhancing environmental preservation and conservation;
• Introducing rational forest land use;
• Increasing public participation and benefit from the forest;
• Creating forests on marginal and private lands;
• •Institutional strengthening;
• Improving management practices;
• Improving the efficiency of resource utilization.
Recent Improvement in Management Practices
Inventories were carried out of all major forest formations in the country except the forests in
Chittagong Hill Tracts. This has provided the necessary database for using quantitative
information for preparing more comprehensive management plans for different forests. Small
units of uniform tree crops have been identified and information on these units was recorded
and processed by the Forest Department with the help of a computer based Resources
Information Management System (RIMS).
It has been possible to develop volume and yield functions for all major plantation species
and volume functions for major species in natural forests. Based on these data long-term yield
forecasts were made possible. A new working plan format has been devised in order to
incorporate available information in the future management plans. An annual plan of
operation is included as part of the management plan. In recent years, there has been a
substantial shift in emphasis in forestry and forest management from maximizing yield
towards maximizing sustainability through increased participation of local population,
conserving biodiversity and maintaining forest services (www.bforests.gov.bd). Present
management systems have evolved from the past ones through various modifications in order
to incorporate present objectives into forest management. Some new forest management
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systems have also been added to address new concepts in forest management such as agro-
forestry, homestead plantation, strip plantation, participatory forestry on encroached forest
land, mangrove afforestation on newly accreted land in the coastal areas, and conservation
area management to preserve wildlife habitat and biodiversity.
Degradation of Forests of Bangladesh
There are many forces responsible for forest degradation, collectively and individually and the
trends of these forces are very complex. The major causes of forest degradation in Bangladesh
are agricultural expansion, over-extraction of wood and non-wood resources, infrastructure
development, population growth, deforestation, settlement, urbanization and wrong
management practices.
Deforestation
Deforestation results mainly from agriculture land clearing, principally shifting cultivation.
Other causes include land use changes, encroachments, grazing, fire, uncontrolled and
unscientific commercial logging, and clear felling for plantations, illegal felling and fuel
wood collection, erection of brick fields and expansion of tobacco cultivation in the vicinity
of forests in some hill district. The direct causes are the symptoms or effects of a wide malaise
– poverty, landlessness, economic under-development, implementation of regulations, lack of
land use planning, uncertainties in land tenure system and socio-political instability. The
annual deforestation rate is estimated to be 3.3%. Consequently, per capita forest land is
declining. The impacts and manifestations of such alarming rates of deforestation are
multifaceted.
Forest Degradation Control Mechanisms
Linkage to National and Regional Forest and Land Use Policies
The first National Forest Policy of Bangladesh, which emerged as an independent nation in
1971, was announced in 1979. The salient features of the Forest Policy of 1979 were as
follows:
• Government forests should not be used for non–forestry purposes,
• Timber resources should be increased by establishing large scale plantations,
• Modern technology should be employed for extraction and utilization of forest
products,
• Forest based industries should be set up,
• A cadre of officers should be constituted for managing the forestry sector,
• Steps should be taken to conserve forests and wildlife and utilize the recreational
potential of the forests, and
• Mass motivation should be initiated and technical assistance extended to those
interested in forestry.
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The forest policy was revised in 1994. This policy is extensive, versatile and dynamic in
nature. The issues considered in formulating the Forest Policy of 1994 are as follows:
• People’s welfare principles inscribed in the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of
Bangladesh,
• Long-term and specific roles of the forest sector in the overall socio-economic
development of the country including the environment,
• National policies for the development of agriculture, cottage industries and other
related sectors,
• Decisions and recommendations taken in different international conferences and
conventions,
• The target of 20% of the country’s land under forest cover by the year 2015,
• The importance of urban forestry in reducing pollution in the cities,
• The target of the country’s protected area at 10% of the reserved forest by the year
2015,
• The need to involve women in homestead and farm forestry and participatory
afforestation programs,
• The importance of ecotourism, related to forest and wildlife, and
• Promotion of Government, NGOs and local people working together in order to
achieve self-reliance in forest products and maintenance of the ecological balance.
Hill Forest Planting
The magnitude of deforestation, soil erosion and degradation in the hill forest areas is quite
acute. Immediate steps should therefore be taken to bring such denuded and degraded areas
under vegetation cover in the shortest possible time in order to safeguard the area from utter
ruination. The main aims of the hill forest plantations are to control soil erosion, enhance
watershed and biodiversity, as well as to supply industrial raw materials.
The soil in these hills varies from sandy-loam to coarse sand, acidic and has low base
exchange and water holding capacities. Conspicuous retrogression of the ecosystem is the
result of uncontrolled felling, shifting cultivation and fire leading to large tracts of hills. In
such a situation, plantations of multipurpose tree species can play an important role in
restoring productivity, ecosystem stability and biological diversity of the degraded hills. There
is also increasing evidence that forest plantations can play an important role in harmonizing
long-term forest ecosystem rehabilitation with socio-economic development objectives. Also,
these plantations provide timber, poles, fuel wood and pulpwood and also help to conserve
biodiversity and the environment.
People-oriented Forestry
In order to restore degraded forest lands of Bangladesh, people-oriented forestry was
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introduced as an alternative to traditional forest management. Active participation in the
management of forest resources was encouraged through these programs. Participation was
successfully created in different degraded forest zones. The Tangail Forest Division is one of
them which belongs to about 49,748 ha or 42% of the moist deciduous forests of Bangladesh.
Stabilization of Newly Accreted Land and Coastal Afforestation
The coastal belt of Bangladesh is about 710 km long, extending along the Bay of Bengal from
the mouth of the Teknaf River in the Southeast to the mouth of the Raimongal River in the
West. Given the protective role of the natural mangroves, the Sundarbans led the Forest
Department to try the establishment of mangrove plantations. Bangladesh is a pioneer country
in coastal afforestation programs. The Forest Department started intensive mangrove
plantations in 1965 with the following purposes:
Protection of coastal life and property from tidal surges and cyclones;
• Conservation and stabilization of newly accreted fragile coastal lands, and
acceleration of further accretion with the ultimate aim of transferring a large part of
this stable land to agriculture;
• Production of timber for fuel wood and industrial use;
• Creation of employment opportunities for isolated rural communities, and
• Development of a suitable environment for wildlife, fish and other estuarine and
marine fauna.
Afforestation programs under different projects funded by ADB and World Bank were
accelerated in 1974 and, by 2001; about 148,526 ha of plantation were established in four
coastal forest divisions. While the potential contribution of coastal plantations towards
mitigating the damages from tidal and storm surges are not disputed, their financial success
will depend on a viable program for utilizing wood products. These mangrove plantations are
sources of timber, poles and firewood, as well as different intangible benefits. They are also
acting as ideal filter of the coastal environment, disaster protector, habitat and breeding
ground for fish and shrimps, pastureland for cattle, habitat for wildlife and locations for
ecotourism.
Unfortunately, destruction and exploitation of mangroves have become an alarming concern
in Bangladesh. Many established plantations have been destroyed due to over exploitation,
conversion to agricultural land, shrimp culture, salt pans, urbanization and other human
interventions and about 50,000 ha of successful plantations are reported to have been
destroyed. Of the coastal plantations, 27% of the area has been eroded and 12% of the area
has been encroached.
Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests through Social Forestry
Social Forestry Programs have been initiated with a view to meet the forest product
requirements of the local population and to reverse the process of ecological and climatic
degradation through proper soil and water conservation and to improve the socio-economic
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conditions of the rural people. More specifically, the Social Forestry Programs had the
following objectives:
• To meet the needs for fuelwood, small timber, bamboo, fodder and other minor forest
produces on a sustained basis;
• To empower local communities by involving them in the planning, implementation
and benefit distribution of forestry activities in order to cater for local needs;
• To promote self reliance and social equity among local people;
• To provide employment opportunities to the rural population;
• To develop the cottage industries in rural areas;
• To utilize the available land to the best advantage according to its production
capacity;
• To provide efficient soil and water conservation;
• To improve aesthetic value of the area and to meet the recreational needs of the
population.
The ADB funded Community Forestry Project implemented in the seven northern districts
from 1981 to 1987 paved the way for participatory forestry in Bangladesh. Following this
project other ADB funded projects such as the ‘Thana Afforestation and Nursery
Development Project’, and the ‘Green Belt Project’ was implemented. Currently, a country-
wide project funded by WB ‘Sustainable Forests and Livelihood’ (SUFAL) is being
implemented. Major components of this project are: coppice management, Assisted Natural
Regeneration, PA & Wildlife Corridor plantation, Enrichment Plantation, Stand Improvement
with line sowing, Rare & Endangered spp plantation, NTFp, Bamboo plantation, Medicinal
plants etc..
Agroforestry
Agroforestry as a scientific and planned approach to land use has emerged recently. It is a
sustainable management system for land that increases overall production, combines
agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and/or animals simultaneously or sequentially,
and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural practices of the local
population. The potential land available for agroforestry in the country has been identified to
be about 1.51 million ha including 0.27 million ha homesteads land.
Participatory Buffer Zone Plantation
The Forest Department has undertaken a program to conserve and develop about 8,288 ha of
national parks, game reserves and wildlife sanctuaries with local community participation
throughout the country. This program will help in conserving biodiversity, environment, soil,
water and wildlife. The participatory buffer zone plantation is one of the major components of
this program. These plantations will meet the local demand of forest products and also help to
reduce poverty.
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Livelihood Improvement of Tribal People through Participatory Forestry in the CHT
This is an ambitious program of the Forest Department in improving the livelihood of the
tribal people. This is a new program and 124 families were involved under this program. Each
household was provided with 2 ha of land where they developed silvi-agri-horticultural farms.
In addition, 820 ha of block plantations were raised in highly degraded forest areas through
people’s participation in Lama and Bandarban Forest Division.
Homestead Plantation
Under this afforestation program, seedlings of fruit and timber species are distributed at a
subsidized rate to the rural households. This homestead afforestation program earned
widespread popularity in the country. As a result, a huge amount of tree resources was created
at the rural household level. In addition to providing shelter for birds and environmental
conservation, these are supplying families with food, necessary fuel wood and timber.
Bamboo, Cane and Murta Plantation
Bamboo, cane and murta are important raw materials for the cottage industries in Bangladesh.
For this reason, the government raised participatory bamboo, cane and murta plantations
under a development project. About 2,010 ha of bamboo plantations, 3,992 ha of cane
plantations and 784 ha of murta plantations were raised between 1989 and 2005.
Plantation of Medicinal Plants
The demand for herbal medicine has been increasing over the years, as it has very little side
effects. As the country possesses a huge variety of medicinal plants, their conservation and
promotion can contribute tremendously in meeting the future demand of herbal medicine.
More than 500 medicinal plants are naturally found in forests. The Government of
Bangladesh places much emphasis on the afforestation and conservation of medicinal plants.
So far, more than 300 ha have been planted with medicinal plants. The wild source of such
plants is also protected through definite policy guidelines. The medicinal plant marketing in
Bangladesh reported that the total size of the medicinal plant market at wholesale prices was
estimated at some $14 million per annum corresponding to 17,000 tons of products.
Tree Plantation Movement
Tree plantation has now become a social movement. The Government of Bangladesh started
the Tree Planting Movement in 1991 with a huge awareness program consisting of leaflets
and posters, massive print and electronic media campaigns and other activities. In addition,
banks were asked to establish credit lines for setting up nurseries. Since then, every year, tree
planting is carried out nation–wide for three months from 1st June to 31st August.
Rehabilitation Techniques of the Degraded Forest Areas
Plantation Species: Attempts to raise plantations in Bangladesh started in 1871 with Tectona
grandis but remained confined to the CHTs until 1920. In 1921, plantations were extended to
the Cox´s Bazar and Sylhet Forest Divisions.
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The total planted area until 1948 was 4,140 ha with an annual planting rate of 100 to 300 ha.
Tectona grandis was the main species planted because of its high value. Lagerstroemia
speciosa, Swietenia macrophylla, A. chaplasha, Cedrela toona and Syzygium grande were
introduced several years later. The planted area gradually reached 72,000 ha in 1968. The
Forest Department started planting fast-growing species, e.g. Gmelina arborea,
Paraserianthes falcataria and Anthocephalus chinensis in 1974. The plantations were
established on a large scale in the Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet Division to produce
fuelwood. Coastal afforestation was also accelerated by four divisions. Annual planting has
continuously increased and reached a peak of 22,800 ha in 1985, of which coastal plantations
were about 10,000 ha.
Teak has dominated the plantations for industrial wood in the CHT, Cox´s Bazar and Sylhet.
More than 70% of the total plantation in hill forests is composed of teak and has always been
the principal species in plantation programs of Bangladesh. Besides teak, other long-rotation
species planted for industrial purpose are Dipterocarpus turbinatus, Swietenia macrophylla,
Lagerstroemia speciosa, Cedrela toona, Artocarpus chaplasha, and Syzygium grande.
Short-rotation species planted for fuelwood and pulp are Acacia auriculiformis, A. mangium,
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gmelina arborea, Paraserianthes falcataria and Anthocephalus
chinensis. Species used in coastal afforestation include Sonneratia apetala, Aviccenia
officinalis, Rhizophora gymnorhiza and Casuarina equisetifolia.
Pulpwood, veneer wood and fuel wood plantations have been established recently. The use of
quality planting material, site preparation and post-establishment maintenance has not been
given adequate attention. Due to budgetary and legal constraints adequate protection of
plantations from fire, grazing, illegal removal and encroachment has not been provided. There
is no clear policy to support homestead plantations.
Increasing Productivity: Unless productivity is dramatically improved, Bangladesh has little
chance to retain its natural forest areas. The correct way to achieve this goal involves several
processes:
• Increase forest productivity on existing and new plantations on barren land;
• Increase productivity by planting open and sparsely covered areas with multipurpose
and non wood species, e.g. fodder, legumes and nitrogen-fixing species;
• Keep coastal areas and char lands in mangroves, creating plantations on accreting
areas, rather than allowing conversion into agricultural land; and
• Prohibit low-technology shrimp farming from further expansion on forest lands.
Recommendations
The following actions are recommended to arrest deforestation and promote sustainable
development of forest resources in the CHTs. The recommended actions also aim at strategic
policy and legal reforms.
• Raising Awareness
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• Land Use Zoning
• Development of Private Forestry
• Restoration and Enrichment Plantation
• Linking Demand and Objective Oriented Planting
• Strengthening of Institutional Capacities
• Development and Promotion of Eco-Tourism
• Promotion of Alternative Income Generation Activities
• Involving Local People in Decision-making Processes
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Yusuf, M., J.U. Chowdhury, M.A. Wahab and J. Begum. 1994. Medicinal plants of
Bangladesh. Bangladesh Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Dhaka. 340 p.
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The Forest Restoration and Rehabilitation in Damrey
Chakthlork Community Forest, Kampang Speu Province,
Cambodia
Meng Loth
Institute of Forest and Wildlife Research and Development
Forestry Administration, Cambodia
I Introduction
Damrey Chakthlork Community Forest have a project under Integrated Forest Ecosystem
Management Planning and Demonstration Project in Greater Mekong Sub-region (Cambodia)
aims to rehabilitate ecological services and product provision of forests in Cambodia through
improvement of community forest management and strengthening state-owned forest
conservation, so as to contribute to sustainable forest management in the Greater Mekong
Sub-region. Improvement of community forest management will be achieved through
developing restoration technologies and demonstrating integrated management models in
Damrey Chakthlork Community Forest (CF), which covers a total CF area of approximately
1,452 hectors.
Community forests, though expected to play important roles in both ecological maintenance
in Lancang-Mekong watershed and product provisions for local communities, are degraded at
different extent due to historical reasons such as shifts of tenure, unclear responsible parties
and unordered uses. To achieve the sustainable community forests management, it is
necessary and urgent to test and develop replicable technologies of reforestation and
silviculture. This project aims to develop specific models and relevant technologies for each
type of degraded forests. A different technique will serve as a model to those who wish to
implement reforestation in a certain type of degraded forest. All 4 models of reforestation
give an integrated technical guidance for community forests management in the region.
The proposed project site for community forest management will be situated in Damrey
Chakthlork Community Forestry (CF). Damrey Chak Thlork is located in Phnom Srouch
district, Kampong Speu province, a national permanent reserved forest and within Prek Thnot
Watershed, one of the tributaries of the Lancang-Mekong basin. Poverty is located mostly in
the northernmost part of Prek Thnot watershed. The downstream part is located in the
southeastern part of the watershed where most of the residential areas are located. This part is
highly urbanized and the most are vulnerable to erosion and flooding. The risks to flooding
increase as surface runoffs increase due to deforestation in the upland areas.
The Community Forestry of Dokpor Village are tropical dry forests comprising of deciduous
and evergreen tree species, such as Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Pterocarpus macrocarpus,
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Phyllanthus emblica, Antidesmaghaesembilla in the tree/top layer, Melienthessuavis,
Diospyros ehretioides, Mesuaferrea, Memecylonedule, Catunaregamtomentosa in the shrub
layer, and Curcuma alismatifolia, Scopariadulcis, Ludwigiaadscendens, Costosspeciosus,
Morindatomentosa in the herbaceous layer. Due to intensified harvesting during/after the civil
war, reclaiming land for rice production by destroying forests, continuously cutting of big
trees in normal times, and interrupted grazing, the community forest is degraded. There are
some regenerated seedlings in the forest, but a big proportion of them are root suckers
genetically deteriorated.
Restoration of degraded forestland is one of the most important components for the APFNet
supported project. General objective of Restoration and Sivilcuture Operation Plan is to
formulate detailed operational approaches in both technical and management aspects on forest
restoration and forest management, which can help to generate sustainable flow of benefit to
closely related stakeholders.
Whereas the specific project objectives are:
• to indicate tree species used for rehabilitation of degraded forest;
• to develop appropriate plantation patterns for different site conditions;
A variety of methods can be used to overcome forest degradation. The most common
approach is to simply restore economic productivity. Other alternatives are attempt “complete”
ecological restoration; or have the goal of production gains together with improvements in
biodiversity and ecosystem function.
The specific approaches has advantages and disadvantages, depending on the prevailing
ecological and socio-economic circumstances. To recover ecological functions and forestland
productivity of community forest, it is suggested by consultants that forests need to be
classified into different grades of degradation at first, and then species composition and stand
structure need to be adjusted through reforestation and silviculture treatments. Based on plant
community appearances and internal species compositions, the CF is classified into 4 grades:
• Deforested areas/open areas (which is so degraded that forest regrowth has not
occurred and which is now mostly occupied by grasses and shrubs)
• Severely Degraded forest (resulting from excessive and damaging timber
exploitation);
• Moderately Degraded forest (spontaneously regrowing on land that had been largely
cleared e.g. shifting cultivation);
• Dense forest
For the deforested areas/open areas, new plantation establishment has to be applied to
accelerate restoration process.
The second and third type of degradation is major part in the project site. Land occupied by
woody regrowth that has developed on a site after an earlier disturbance of shifting cultivation.
The site now has some of its former diversity although it is dominated by early succession
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species and usually has fewer plant or animal species representative of mature forest. The
major forest restoration and rehabilitation activities of the project e.g. enrichment planting
will be carried out in these types of degradation.
For dense forest, it is no more the major problem, but needs tending and thinning so the
natural regrowth will be well performed.
The project will, based on such classification, develop restoration and silviculture models by
using different tree species and technologies. A trial of 16 hectares will be developed for
reforestation demonstration. Each treatment will cover 4 hectares, in which about 1000 m2
are remained as a control.
Fig.1 The layout of four types sites
II Tree Section
2.1 Criteria for Species Selection
1) In accordance with management objectives. Species used for the project should be support
to fulfill the project objectives of exploring and demonstrating effective approaches on
forest restoration and forest management, which can help to generate sustainable flow of
benefit to closely related stakeholders. Therefore, selected tree species should have dual
functions of ecological and economic benefits.
2) Site adaption must be guaranteed. Native species is encouraged. While some exotic
species with high market value are also preferred. For water-logged ground, it is
suggested to plant water-resistant native species.
3) Quality of plant material must be secured. Height of the seedling for transplanting must be
greater than 40cm.
4) Container seedling is required to ensure survival rate of young trees.
2.2 Introduction to Tree Species Selected
Based on the landscape situation and in line with criteria mentioned above, tree species of
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Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Dalbergia oliveri, Cassia siamea,
Tectona grandis, Dalbergia bariensis, Dipterocarpus intricatus and Dipterocarpus
obtusifolius were selected for restoration and sivilculture treatment.
1) Pterocarpus macrocarpus
P. macrocarpus, is a tree native to the seasonal tropical forests of southeastern Asia: in
Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. It has been naturalized in India and the
Caribbean.
P. macrocarpus is a medium-sized tree growing to 10–30 m (rarely to 39 m) tall, with a trunk
up to 1.7 m diameter; it is deciduous in the dry season. The bark is flaky, grey-brown; if cut, it
secretes a red gum. The leaves are 200–350 mm long, pinnate, with 9–11 leaflets. The flowers
are yellow, produced in racemes 50–90 mm long. The fruit is a pod surrounded by a round
wing 45–70 mm diameter, containing two or three seeds. The seasonal padauk flowers bloom
annually around April.
The wood is durable and resistant to termites; it is important, used for furniture, construction
timber, cart wheels, tool handles, and posts; it is listed as rosewood.
Pterocarpus macrocarpus leaves & flowers, collected Chonburi, Thailand
2) Dalbergia cochinchinensis
Dalbergia cochinchinensis, the Thailand rosewood, Siamese rosewood, or tracwood is a
species of legume in the Fabaceae family.
It is a threatened tree yielding valuable hardwood found in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and
Vietnam. Conservationists project that the species could be extinct within 10 years (by 2026).
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Dalbergia cochinchinensis seedlings
3) Dalbergia oliveri
Dalbergia oliveri is a species of legume in the Fabaceae family which grows in tree form to
15 – 30 meters in height (up to 100 ft.). The fruit is a green pod containing one to two seeds
which turn brown to black when ripe. The trees are found in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, and Vietnam. It's threatened by habitat loss and over-harvesting for its valuable red
lumber.
The wood of this rosewood-family tree is valuable for ornamental work including
Woodturning and furniture. The sapwood is yellowish-white with dark brown heartwood. The
heartwood is very hard and heavy. The lumber is sold under the names Burmese rosewood,
Laos rosewood, Asian rosewood.
4) Cassia siamea
Senna siamea, also known as Siamese cassia, kassod tree, cassod tree and Cassia tree is a
legume in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. It is native to South and Southeast Asia, although
its exact origin is unknown.
It is a medium-size, evergreen tree growing up to 18 m with beautiful yellow flowers. It is
often used as shade tree in cocoa, coffee and tea plantations. In Thailand it is the provincial
tree of Chaiyaphum Province and some places in the Thailand are named after it.
Leaves are alternate, pinnately compound, with slender, green-reddish, tinged axis and 6 to 12
pairs of leaflets on short stalks, rounded at both ends.
This plant has medicinal value and it contains a compound named Barakol. The leaves, tender
pods and seeds are edible, but they must be previously boiled and the water discarded. They
are used in Burmese and also in Thai cuisine where one of the most well-known preparations
is Kaeng khilek (Thai: แกงข้ีเหล็ก).
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Other uses include as fodder plant, in intercropping systems, windbreaks, and shelter belts. As
a hardwood, it is used for ornamentation on instruments (ukeleles and guitars) and decorative
products. In this capacity it is known as Pheasantwood or Kolohala, named for the similarity
of the grain to pheasant feathers. It is sometimes used in Chinese furniture (known as
Jichimu) interchangeably with wood from the Ormosia species.
Kassod(Senna siamea) in Kolkata, West Bengal, India
5) Tectona grandis
Tectona grandis(teak) is a tropical hardwood tree species placed in the flowering plant family
Lamiaceae. Tectona grandis is a large, deciduous tree that occurs in mixed hardwood forests.
It has small, fragrant white flowers and large papery leaves that are often hairy on the lower
surface. It is sometimes known as the "Burmese teak". Teak wood has a leather-like smell
when it is freshly milled. It is particularly valued for its durability and water resistance, and is
used for boat building, exterior construction, veneer, furniture, carving, turnings, and other
small wood projects. Tectona grandis is native to south and southeast Asia, mainly India, Sri
Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar and Bangladesh but is naturalized and
cultivated in many countries in Africa and the Caribbean. Myanmar's teak forests account for
nearly half of the world's naturally occurring teak. It produces small, white flowers arranged
in dense clusters (panicles) at the end of the branches. Flowers contain both types of
reproductive organs (perfect flowers)
Teak is a large, long, deciduous tree up to 40 m (131 ft) tall with gray to grayish brown
branches. These are mostly known for their finest quality wood. Leaves are ovate-elliptic to
ovate, 15–45 cm (5.9–17.7 in) long by 8–23 cm (3.1–9.1 in) wide, and are held on robust
petioles which are 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long. Leaf margins are entire. Fragrant white flowers
are borne on 25–40 cm (10–16 in) long by 30 cm (12 in) wide panicles from June to August.
The corolla tube is 2.5–3 mm long with 2 mm wide obtuse lobes. Tectona grandis sets fruit
from September to December; fruits are globose and 1.2-1.8 cm in diameter. Flowers are
weakly protandrous in that the anthers precede the stigma in maturity and pollen is shed
within a few hours of the flower opening. The flowers are primarily entomophilous (insect-
pollinated), but can occasionally be anemophilous (wind-pollinated). A 1996 study found that
in its native range in Thailand, the major pollinator were species in the bee genus Ceratina.
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Heartwood of teak is yellowish in color. It darkens as it ages. Sometimes there are dark
patches on it. There is a leather-like scent in newly cut wood. Sapwood is whitish to pale
yellowish brown in color. It can easily separate from heartwood. Wood texture is hard and
ring porous. Density is 720 kg/m3.
Sagwan Tectona grandis in Kolkata, West Bengal, India Teak leaves.
6) Dalbergia bariensis
Dalbergia bariensis is a species of rosewood tree in the Fabaceae family. It is found in
lowland and sub-mountain broadleaved forests in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam. It
has been called "Burmese rosewood" but has not been recorded from that economy.
As with other rosewoods, this species is threatened by overexploitation for its valuable timber.
Dalbergia bariensis
7) Dipterocarpus intricatus
Dipterocarpus intricatus (Khmer: tra:ch, tra:chsa, tra:chsnaèng, tra:chsra) is a species of tree
in the family Dipterocarpaceae found in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The tree,
itself deciduous, is found in dense deciduous forests and clear forests. It is often met in pure
stands in deciduous, periodically flooded lowland forests, but can also be found in dense
forest at up to 1300m altitude. In Thailand it sometimes occurs growing gregariously with D.
obtusifolious, D. tuberculatus, Shorearobustaand S. siamensis, sometimes in pure stands
forming the climatic dry deciduous dipterocarp forest. This forest type covered a large area of
eastern, north-eastern and northern Thailand, from peneplain at 150-300m elevations to slope
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and ridges up to 1300m above sea level. It does also occur in lowland dipterocarp forest (0-
350m) in Thailand. In Vietnam, it is described as common in dry forests. The tree prefers
poor, sandy and lateritic soils derived from granitic and sandstone formations. Seedlings
develop hardy rootstock and thick rough bark on the stout stem, affording fire-protection in
the ground-fire prone early hot dry season. Coppicing occurs freely up to a moderate size. In
Thailand leaves are shed from November, defoliation is complete by February, with leaf
starting at this time, or sometimes a little before. Flowering occurs from February to April,
fruiting from April to May, though in certain areas or some years with a late rainy season
these periods start up to 3 months earlier. The species grows from 15 to 30m tall.
The fruit has 2 prominent, elongated, netted wings, 6–8 cm long x 1.5–2 cm wide, on top of
an ovoid or ellipsoid fruit-body, 1.5–2 cm long x 1-1.5 cm wide, with undulate ribs, 2-3mm
wide.
In Cambodia the resin is mainly used in torch-preparation, while the red-brown wood is
"appreciated" for cart and house construction. Sold as "fancy wings" in the potpourri
trade.The genus Nanophyes is associated with seed predation of D. intricatus.
Dipterocarpus intricatus
8) Dipterocarpus obtusifolius
Dipterocarpus obtusifolius is a common species of tree in the family Dipterocarpaceae found
throughout Southeast Asia, including AndamanIslands, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos
and Vietnam. Three varieties have been published: var. subnudus Ryan & Kerr; var.
glabricalyx Smitinand; and var. vestitus (Wall. ex Dyer) Smitinand. While legitimate, these
varieties are as yet of low confidence level. The variety D. obtusifolius var. subnudus differed
by having completely hairless leaves and is found only in the south of Cambodia, Vietnam
and Thailand.
Trees are large, up to 30m tall, grow in dry Dipterocarp forest, and the red brown wood is
used in general construction. In Cambodia, the resin from the tree is used to make torches,
drinking water was obtained by cutting young stalks and the wood gave boards regarded as
non-durable in construction, while in some areas of the Kompong Chhnang Province it is an
important firewood source.
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Dipterocarpus obtusifolius
III Restoration and Sivilculture Design
3.1 Restoration of Deforested Area/Open Area
In this area, the project will plant with native valuable timber tree species of Pterocarpus
macrocarpus, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Dalbergia oliveri, and Tectona grandis.
Each tree species is planted with a total area of 1 hectare, in total of 4 hectares or 4 blocks.
Planting density for above tree species is 2×3 m, 3×3 m, 3×3 m, and 3×4 m, respectively. That
means seedlings of each tree species required is 1,667 seedlings of Pterocarpus macrocarpus,
1,111 seedlings of Dalbergia cochinchinensis, 1,111 seedlings of Dalbergia oliveri, and 833
seedlings of Tectona grandis. Though a total of 4,722 seedlings are required in the deforested
area, a ground total of 6,000 seedlings will be produced considering the allowance for
mortality.
For low-lying land, it will plant water-resistant species such as Dipterocarpus intricatus and
Dipterocarpus obtusifolius scatterly, according to the landscape. The two species requires
about 1880 seedlings planting in the low-lying land, and 2260 seedlings in total considering
the allowance for mortality.
3.2 Restoration of Severely Degraded Forest
Firewood plantations will be practiced in Severely Degraded Forest using tree species of
Cassia siamea.
For original forest, dominant trees with straight trunks in the tree layer will be remained,
while small trees, shrubs and weeds under remnant trees are cleared out. The size of pit for
planting is 40×40×30 cm. The density for planting is 1×2 m, which means a total of 20,000
seedlings or 5,000 seedlings per hector or per block. (i.e. at 5,000 seedlings/ha) required. Each
pit is applied with 50g of compound fertilizer. A technical manual for firewood plantation
management in the CF will also be produced at the end of the project. Field planting will be
carried using 1-year-old seedlings.
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3.3 Restoration of Moderately Degraded Forest
The management of moderately degraded sites will involve multistory management using
pepper and other rosewood tree species such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus and Dalbergia
cochinchinensis.
For the site preparation, vigorous high-value trees with straight trunks will be maintained
while untargeted trees will be cleared out in the moderately degraded forest.
The seedlings of premium timber (Dalbergia and Pterocarpus) will be planted at 4m x 4m.
This will require a total of 2,500 rosewood seedlings (at 625 seedlings/ha).
3.4 Silviculture treatment in Dense Forest
Overly crowded or clustered trees, such as Dipterocarpus, rosewood tree species, etc., should
be thinned, and root sprouted suckers of Dipterocarpus species should conduct tending. For
enrichment planting in forest gap, tree species such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia
cochinchinensis, and Diptercarpus species will be planted.
The management of forest ecosystem in Dense Forest is mainly about tending, thinning and
enrichment planting, so as to speed up the succession progress of forest community and exert
its due functions.
3.4.1 Technical Parameters
1) Thinning the overly crowded or clustered trees, such as Dipterocarpus, rosewood tree
species, etc., so as to keep the spacing in 4×3m;
2) Tending on the root sprouted suckers of Dipterocarpus species, through which each
cluster will be kept with a top edge and the strongest sprout seedling;
3) Enrichment planting in forest gap with an area more than 15 m2, using tree species such
as Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergiacochinchinensis, and Diptercarpus species. The
planting density is 3×3 m;
4) Tending on naturally regenerated rosewood saplings such as Pterocarpus macrocarpus
and Dalbergia cochinchinensis, through clearance of surrounding shrubs and application
of 100 g of compound fertilizer for each sapling. The estimated number required is 2,000
seedlings (at 500 seedlings/ha).
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The Natural Forest Protection Project to Restore China’s
Forestland and The Analysis of Its Achievements in
Southwest China
Qingli Han
Associate Professor, College of Biodiversity Conservation
Southwest Forestry University, China
Abstract: Natural forests are an important part of the forest ecosystem. China's natural forest
area accounts for 80% of its total forest resources, comprising the main body of China's forest
resources. Before 1998, China's natural forests were seriously damaged and degraded. After
that, China implemented the Natural Protection Project (NFPP, Tianbao for short), aiming to
protect and restore natural forests in many ways, including improving the service function of
the forest ecosystem and promoting the improvement of the whole ecological environment.
Tianbao Phase I Project has achieved remarkable results. The natural forest area has steadily
increased year by year. Other achievements include the successful transformation of forest
management ideas, the diversification of the forest industrial structure, the pace of ecological
construction, and the broadening of forest employment channels. This paper also analyzes the
effect of the Tianbao project in Southwest China, which provides the theoretical and practical
basis for the efficient implementation of the second phase of the Tianbao project.
China is located in the east of Asia and west of the Pacific Ocean, with a land area of
960×104km
2, making it the largest economy in Asia. According to the eighth national
inventory of forest resources (2014), China's forest area is 2.08×108hm
2, and the forest
coverage rate is 21.63%, ranking fifth in the world in terms of forest area, sixth in terms of
forest stock volume, and first in terms of plantation area. However, the forest coverage rate,
per capita forest area and stock volume are lower than the world average.
Natural forest is a zonal forest vegetation with trees as the main component under the
comprehensive action of certain climate and soil conditions. Natural forest is the main body
of the forest ecosystem. The natural forest area of China is 12.184 million hm2, accounting for
80% of the total forest area and 12.296 billion m3 forest accumulation which accounts for 92%
of the total forest accumulation (State Forestry Administration, 2005). Before 1998, long-term
excessive logging and unreasonable management led to a sharp drop in natural forest
resources, ecological function degradation and serious ecological economic consequences.
After the devastating floods of 1998, China began to carry out a pilot of the Natural Forest
Protection Project in the key state-owned forest region. In October 2000, the state council
approved the “Implementation plan of the Natural Forest Resources Protection Project in the
upper reaches of the Yellow River and the middle reaches of the Yangtze River” and the
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“Implementation plan of the Natural Forest Resources Protection Project of key state-owned
forest regions in the Northeast Region and Inner Mongolia”. The original plan was to carry
out the whole Natural Forest Resources Protection Project from 2000 to 2010.
I Overview of Natural Forest Protection Project
The Natural Forest Resources Protection Project (NFPP), is an important forestry effort in
ecological engineering with great significance for safeguarding national timber security and
ecological security, tackling climate change and ensuring forest region social stability, and it
has been carried out through actions including setting orderly limits on cutting, banning
logging of natural forest resources, protecting the cultivation of natural forest, and improving
and protecting people’s livelihood in the forest region.
(1) Project scope
The forestry area of the engineering district covers an area of 124 million hm2, including 68
million hm2 of forestland (state forestry administration, 2005), which covers 734 counties and
167 forestry bureaus in 18 provinces (districts and cities) of key state-owned forest areas of
the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River and
northeast Inner Mongolia. The upper reaches of the Yangtze River are bounded by the Three
Gorges Reservoir Area, including 6 provinces (districts and cities) of Yunnan, Sichuan,
Guizhou, Chongqing, Hubei and Tibet. The upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River are
bounded by Xiaolangdi Reservoir Area, including 7 provinces (districts) of Shaanxi, Gansu,
Qinghai, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi and Henan, Northeast Inner Mongolia and other
key state-owned forest areas including Jilin, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Hainan and
Xinjiang.
(2) Project objectives
Short-term targets (by the year 2000) : Reduce the output of natural forests.Strengthen the
construction and protection of ecological public welfare forests and settle and disperse
redundant laborproperly. Stop the forest cutting of ecological public welfare forests
designated in the middle and upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the Yellow River.
Adjust and reduce the amount of natural forest resources in the state-owned forest areas in
Northeast China and Inner Mongolia. Strictly control the consumption of timber, and put an
end to excessive logging. Through the development of forest management and protection,
afforestation and conversion projects, the surplus labor caused by the reduction of timber
production will be settled, and all retirees will be included in the social pooling of provincial
endowment insurance, so that the existing natural forest resources will be initially protected
and restored, and the deterioration trend of ecological environment will be alleviated.
Medium-term goal (by 2010): Develop and protect ecological public welfare forests,
implement conversion projects, cultivate reserve resources, improve timber supply capacity,
restore and develop the economy. Facilitate the transition of wood-produce form based on
harvesting and utilization of natural forests to artificial forests. The contradiction between
population, environment and resources will be mostly alleviated.
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Long-term goal (by 2050) : Natural forest resources will be fundamentally restored, wood
production will basically be based on artificial forests, and a relatively complete forest
ecological forestry system and reasonable industrial forestry system will be established in
forest areas giving full play to the important role of forestry in the sustainable development of
the national economy and society.
(3) Progress of the project
The Tianbao project has a huge scale of investment, with a total investment of 180.21 billion
yuan by 2014, of which 88.2% is from the state. After nearly 18 years of project construction,
it has exerted a far-reaching impact on the restoration and protection of natural forest
resources, ecological construction and sustainable economic and social development of state-
owned forest areas in China.
By 2005, the project to protect natural forest resources had been implemented for seven years,
with a total of 4.3282 million ha of barren mountains afforested and 8.8496 million ha of
newly closed mountains cultivated. The annual forest management area has remained at about
90 million ha. The accumulatively less wood was cut: 138.025 million m3 (calculated
according to the starting year within the scope of the project, 1997, 32.0554 million m3), and
less forest stock was consumed: 252.0713 million m3. Of 740,000 surplus workers, 660,000
surplus workers have been resettled by redistribution accounting for 89.19% of the total
number of resettled workers. The social and economic benefit monitoring results of 44
Natural Forest Protection Project sample counties and 30 sample forest industry enterprises
showed that the forest resources in the project area continued to increase, the area of soil
erosion continued to be reduced, and the ecological control achieved initial results. From
1997 to 2004, the forest area of 44 sample counties increased from 4.8534 million ha to
5.2888 million ha, with an increase of 8.97%. The area of soil erosion decreased by 17.53%
from 6.9212 million ha to 5.7078 million ha. The forest area of 30 forest industry enterprises
increased from 6.7672 million ha to 8.0636 million ha, with an increase of 19.15%. Forest
accumulation showed a trend of first decline and then growth. In 2004, it increased by
13.6883 million m3, or 1.46% more than that in 2003.
At present, with the completion of nearly half of the second phase of the Tianbao project
(2011-2020), the policy of stopping the cutting of natural forest resources in the key state-
owned forest region of Northeast China and Inner Mongolia has been fully implemented, the
revitalization of the state-owned forest region and economic and social transformation have
been carried out, the plans for ecological protection and economic transformation in the
greater and lesser Xingan mountains are making steady progress.
The state forestry administration of China has specially formulated several sets of industrial
standards for the evaluation of the Tianbao project, and relevant departments regularly issue
monitoring reports on the economic and social benefits of the Tianbao project. In recent years,
Chinese academic circles have also carried out extensive studies evaluating the significant
ecological, social and economic benefits of the Tianbao Project.
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II Achievements of the Tianbao Project
(1) Changes in the forestry business model
The forestry management in the project area is changing from wood production to forest
protection and development, and the restoration and growth of forest resources are
accelerating. 13 provinces (districts and cities) in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and
the upper middle reaches of the Yellow River had completely stopped commercial logging of
natural forests by 2000. The timber production of key state-owned forest areas in Northeast
China and Inner Mongolia was reduced from 18.53 million m3 in 1997 to 11.98 million m
3 in
2000.The annual net growth of forest resources in the project province reached 277 million
m3, accounting for 62% of the total growth in China. The ratio of total growth to total
consumption has changed from 1:0.83 in 1997 to 1:0.73 now. Through the implementation of
the project, forestry management began to implement strategic adjustment, forest resource
recovery and rapid growth, ecological priority, the forestry management model of three
benefits and these practices are becoming the consensus of the whole society.
(2) Adjustment of the industrial structure in forest areas
The economy of forest areashas changed from timber management to diversified management.
Many places make full use of the rich natural resources in forest areas, actively developing
non-forest and non-wood industries, implementing comprehensive development and
utilization, vigorously cultivating new economic growth points, and diversifying the forestry
economy. The Qinghe Forestry Bureau of Heilongjiang Province has vigorously promoted
forest management and protection contracting, carried out diversified management, extended
the timber industry chain, and actively developed the tertiary industry. The total social output
value has increased from 1.5 billion yuan in 1997 to 240 million yuan in 2000, and the
average annual income of employees has increased from 1,700 yuan to 4,800 yuan. The
Xiaolongshan Bureau of Experimental Forestry of Gansu province strengthened the
development of a forest eco-tourism base, with an investment of more than 13 million yuan,
established Maiji National Forest Park, and improved service facilities for tourism. In 2000,
tourism income reached more than 4 million yuan.
(3) Accelerating the pace of ecological restoration
The pace of ecological restoration has been greatly accelerated by the transformation of
vegetation restoration from simple afforestation to planting with management. In recent years,
many provinces (districts) have seized the opportunity to the implement the Tianbao Project
and the speed of afforestation has obviously increased. In just a few years, environmental
conditions have significantly improved with formerly barren mountains now covered with
green trees, further ecological deterioration curbed effectively and soil erosion reduced. The
Tianbao Project of Hainan is an example of the successful adoption of the operation mode of
"company + forest farm.” The company provided afforestation funds, technology and
management, and the forest farm provided land and labor.
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(4) Expanding employment channels in forest regions
After the implementation of the Tianbao Project in their forest areas, all regions have been
making full use of regional advantages and resource advantages, vigorously developing
tourism, planting, breeding, processing and other industries, and actively developing the
individual economy, private economy and other non-public economies. Now, the channels of
employment and income of forest area workers has been expanded and got great progress
have been made by changing from a reliance on "big wood" to seeking economic benefits
through multivariate pathways.
(5) Transforming of the enterprise system in forest regions
The Natural Forest Protection Project has promoted the transformation of enterprises from the
traditional management system to the modern enterprise system and injected vitality into the
development of enterprises. The implementation of Tianbao Project forced forest industry
enterprises to change the traditional management system centered on timber production, and
provided opportunities for forest industry enterprises to accelerate the establishment of the
modern enterprise system. In accordance with the principles of maintaining clearly-
established control, clarifying responsibilities, separating government functions from
enterprise management and employing scientific management, enterprise gradually became
independent, self-financing, self-developed, self-restrained legal entity and market-oriented
operation by intensifying reform, asset restructuring, transforming management mechanisms,
and carrying out market-oriented operations. By separating enterprise from administration,
Jilin Logging Industry Group seized the opportunity of the Tianbao project by giving full play
to the advantages of the group and strengthening the enterprise economy by establishing a
system for investors and by implementation a listing, financing and brand strategy.
III Effectiveness Analysis of Tianbao Project in Southwest Region
As the key areas of the Tianbao Project, the four provinces of the Southwest, based on the
provincial boundaries, from west to east and north to south, include Sichuan, Chongqing, the
central and northern forest areas of Guizhou, the north, central and eastern forest areas of
Yunnan as well as Xishuangbanna and Wenshan forest areas, with a total area of 930,000 km2,
account for about 1/10 of China's territory (figure 1). In the Southwest forest region, the
second-largest forest area in China, the plants Anemoclema, Dipoma, Davidia involucrate,
Cycas panzhihuaensis and Alsophila spinulosa have been included in the state council's list of
national key protected wild plants. In addition, rare animals such as the Yunnan golden
monkey (Pygathrix roxellanae), the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), the green peacock
(Pavo muticus) and the Indian bison (Bos gaurus) are also endemic. Importantly, Yunnan is
an international distribution center of magnolias, and the northwest and southeast of Yunnan
are two distribution centers of endemic genera of seed plants in China. The four provinces
and cities of Southwest China are research hotspots of international biodiversity. Correct
achievement assessment of natural forest protection in this region is of great scientific
significance to further improve regional ecological protection and management
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Fig. 1 Geographic position of the natural forest protection project areas in Southwest China
(1) Changes of vegetation coverage distribution pattern in southwest Tianbao Project
area
Vegetation coverage is not only the most important index to measure vegetation conditions on
the ground, but also an important index to reflect the environmental change of the regional
ecosystem. The average annual vegetation coverage in the Tianbao engineering area increased
from 60.70% in 2000 to 61.18% in 2014, maintaining a fluctuating climb. The average annual
vegetation coverage in the Tianbao engineering area was over 60%, making it a relatively
high vegetation coverage area (figure 2).
Fig. 2 Trend of the annual mean vegetation coverage in the natural forest protection
project areas in Southwest China from 2000 to 2014
During the implementation of the first phase of the Tianbao Project (2000-2010), the
vegetation coverage increase was not significant. Except for over 60% in 2000, the other
years were all less than 60%, and the lowest was 56.42% in 2005. During the implementation
of phase ii of the Tianbao project, vegetation coverage increased significantly, reaching the
maximum value (63.13%) in 2013. On the whole, the conservation effect in this area was
remarkable.
The proportion changes of vegetation cover areas of different grades in the southwest region
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are shown in table 1.Vegetation growth was good in the region, dominated by medium and
high vegetation coverage areas, and the annual growth rate was the highest, with the
proportion of medium and high vegetation coverage areas reaching 55.89% at the end of the
study. The proportion of the area covered by medium vegetation decreased significantly, from
29.36% at the beginning of the study to 24.21% at the end of the study. The proportion of
areas covered by high vegetation increased significantly, especially 12.14% in 2013, but
decreased in 2014. During the study period, the area of low and medium vegetation cover
increased, accounting for 12% of the area of the engineering area.
Table 1 Proportion of vegetation covered area in the natural forest protection project
areas in southwest China relative to grade of protection
year proportion of vegetation cover areas of different grades
low low to medium medium medium to high high
2000 1.93 8.25 29.37 53.4 7.05
2001 3.81 11.88 33.5 46.8 4.01
2002 3.59 12.98 27.41 50.79 5.23
2003 3.57 12.22 30.06 49.43 4.72
2004 3.74 11.34 28.09 52.43 4.4
2005 4.41 12.71 32.27 48.15 3
2006 3.41 11.9 27.82 52.09 4.77
2007 3.65 12.75 23.1 54.48 6.02
2008 4.27 12.72 24.53 53.95 4.53
2009 3.31 11.74 27.1 53.68 4.17
2010 3.19 10.55 28.46 53.68 4.12
2011 3.25 10.61 25.52 51.3 9.32
2012 3.51 11.25 31.1 49.56 4.58
2013 2.59 8.81 22.65 53.81 12.14
2014 2.87 9.65 24.21 55.89 7.38
The rate of annual area change in low, medium low, medium,medium high and high
vegetation cover areas was 0.06, 0.09, 0.34, 0.17 and 0.02 respectively
The spatial distribution of vegetation coverage of all levels in southwest China is shown in
figure 3: (1) The vegetation coverage distribution at all levels is distinct, and some areas in
Sichuan basin and western Chongqing are mostly artificial land. (2) The overall vegetation
coverage in Chongqing and Guizhou forest areas is relatively high, and there are few areas
with low vegetation coverage; (3) The vegetation coverage of the Yunnan forest region is the
second highest, and some low-vegetation coverage areas can be seen sporadically , especially
some forest regions in western and central Yunnan; (4) The distribution of vegetation cover
in the Sichuan forest area is the most complex. Around the Sichuan basin in south and
northeastern Sichuan, forest vegetation conditions are good, but there are large areas of low
vegetation cover in central and western Sichuan. Because western and northwestern Sichuan
belong to the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, most of the vegetation is grassland and desert grassland
and the vegetation coverage is inevitably weaker. However, the overall vegetation distribution
in the Tianbao engineering area is dominated by high vegetation coverage.
It can be seen that during the implementation of the Tianbao Project, vegetation coverage in
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the Southwest forest area generally has been moving in a good direction, with a decrease in
the medium vegetation coverage area and a significant increase in the medium and high
vegetation coverage areas. The Tianbao Project has achieved remarkable results, but there is
still room for the development of vegetation coverage in the region.
Fig. 3 Spatial distribution of vegetation cover in the natural forest protection project
areas in Southwest China in the end of the study period relative to grade of protection
(2) Change trend of vegetation coverage in Southwest Tianbao Project area
Researchers used correlation analysis to simulate the variation trend of annual vegetation
coverage in Tianbao Project area during the study period, and counted the variation area and
the proportion of different variation trend area to the total area of Tianbao Project area (table
2).
Annual average vegetation coverage in Tianbao project area increased significantly, and the
growth condition and quality of vegetation in most areas were improved to a large extent. The
area where the annual average vegetation coverage has increasesd significantly is about
126,000 km2,
accounting for 17.90% of the total changing area of the whole region.
Meanwhile in nearly 50% of the areas in the Tianbao Project area, the annual average
vegetation coverage is in a state of no significant increase. The annual average vegetation
coverage of the Tianbao Project area during the study period is 66.92%.
Table 2 Proportion of the area with changed annual mean vegetation coverage to the
total of the natural forest protection project areas from 2000 to 2014
annual coverage change area /km2
proportion of total area of NFPP
/%
significant increase 126045.6 17.9
insignificant increase 345091.8 49.02
no change 1793 0.26
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insignificantly decrease 200172.1 28.51
significant decrease 30368.4 4.31
As can be seen from figure 4, the areas where the annual average vegetation coverage
increased significantly during the study period were wide, but the distribution was uneven.
Fig. 4 Spatial distribution of significant changes in annual mean vegetation coverage in
the natural forest protection project areas in Southwest China from 2000 to 2014
The regions with significantly increased annual mean coverage are mainly distributed in the
forest areas of northeast Chongqing, the border forest areas of southern Chongqing and
northern Guizhou, the forest areas of northeast Sichuan and some areas south of Sichuan, the
forest areas of northern Yunnan and central Yunnan, and especially the border forest areas of
Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan.
Regarding changes of vegetation cover in each province, more than 17% of the regions in
Chongqing and Guizhou have significantly increased coverage. Yunnan province followed
with 9.7 percent. On the one hand, Sichuan province has a large forest area; on the other hand,
in Sichuanonly 8.9% of the forest areas have achieved a significant increase in annual
vegetation coverage which is not as dense as Chongqing, Guizhou and Yunnan.
Meanwhile, during the study period, only 4.31% of the total area of the Tianbao engineering
area had a significant reduction in annual vegetation coverage. In terms of spatial distribution,
significantly enlarged areas were relatively concentrated, mainly in the forest areas of the
Hengduan Mountains in southwest Sichuan, northwest and central Yunnan, and the Wenshan
region in south Yunnan. The surrounding areas of Wenchuan in Yunnan are areas where the
average annual coverage has decreased significantly, while the areas where the vegetation
coverage has decreased significantly in the forest areas of Chongqing and Guizhou are very
small. The significantly reduced forest areas in Chongqing and Guizhou accounted for only
0.90% of their forest areas respectively, while those in Sichuan and Yunnan accounted for
4.20% and 7.13% respectively.
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An analysis of the Tianbao annual average area and its proportion and the spatial distribution
of vegetation coverage change shows a remarkable increase on the whole in average
vegetation coverage in the Tianbao Project area, especially in the provinces border area,
which has a significant increase in the average vegetation coverage area, and a significant
improvement in the quality of vegetation growth and in the overall situation. In particular, the
forest areas bordering the provinces are the areas where the annual vegetation coverage has
increased significantly, with prominent conservation results and enhanced ecosystem stability.
However, there are still areas in Southwest China where the average vegetation coverage
decreased significantly. These areas are not large in scope but are concentrated in distribution.
Therefore, attention should be paid to the implementation of the Natural Forest Protection
Project in the future.
(3) Landscape pattern index changes in southwest Tianbao Project area
Based on landscape ecology principles, before the implementation of the project in 1990-2000,
without human intervention, plaque in the Southwest forest region was going to develop in a
complicated manner with uneven distribution and fragmentation. After first phase of the
Tianbao Project was finished, the distribution pattern of forest plaque has markedly improved
with reasonable distribution, good organization and equalization, decreased patch
fragmentation, and high-connectivity direction of development. Comparison and analysis
shows that the first phase of the Tianbao Project had a significant ecological effect
Table 3 Landscape index of the natural forest protection project area in Southwest
China during the study period
year
the density of patch/km-
2
maximum patch index
patch shape index
aggregation index
spread degrees
simpson diversity
simpson uniformity
1990 2.1644 2.6628 972.0483 0.5080 44.2718 0.8354 0.8702
2000 2.1615 2.0972 969.0678 0.5077 44.0536 1.8352 0.8700
2010 2.1627 2.7020 970.7560 0.5084 44.2741 0.8353 0.8701
On the whole, the annual vegetation coverage of the Tianbao engineering area in the
Southwest four provinces increased significantly, and the ecological protection effect
improved significantly. The distribution of terrestrial patches is more reasonable, balanced
and orderly, and the patch connectivity was enhanced and the degree of fragmentation was
reduced. The quality of landscape habitat is continuously improving, which is conducive to
the maintenance and improvement of species diversity.
Conclusion
The protection of natural forests in the Natural Forest Protection Project is an important
measure of restoration of forest restoration which fundamentally curbs the deterioration of the
ecological environment, protects biological diversity, and promotes social and economic
sustainable development. We should continue to promote the implementation of the plan to
achieve further forest restoration.
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References
Liu S R , Ma J M, Miao N.Achievements in Natural Forest Protection, Ecological
Restoration, and Sustainable Management in China. Acta Ecologica Sinica,2015,35( 1) :
0212-0218.
Tao W Z, Lv Y H, Li F Q, Hu J, Zhang K, Li T, Ren J Y. Assessment of Ecological Effect of
the Natural Forest Protection Project in Southwest China. Journal of Ecology and Rural
Environment. 2016, 32 (5) : 716-723 Journal of Ecology and Rural Environment
Ma J M, Liu S R, Shi Z M, Liu X L, M L. Review on Ecosystem Restoration Evaluation of
Degraded Forests. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 2010,30( 12) : 3297-3303.
Liu S R. Ecological Restoration Principle And Techniques Of natural forest. Beijing: China
forestry press, 2011.
Liu S R, Shi Z M, Ma J M, Zhao C M, Zhang Y D, Liu X L. Ecological Strategies for
Restoration and Reconstruction of Degraded Natural Forests on the Upper Reaches of the
Yangtze River. Forest Science, 2009, 45( 2) : 120-124.
Chen P. Natural Forest Protection: An Overview Abroad and a Review at Home. Journal of
Beijing forestry university (Social Sciences Edition), 2004,3( 2) : 50-54.
Zhou B. Study on Comprehensive Benefits Evaluation of Natural Forest Proection Programe
in Southwest China[D]. Beijing: Chinese academy of forestry, 2011
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Efforts on Rehabilitation and Restoration of Fiji’s
Degraded Forest Ecosystems
Mere Tagilala Vukialau
Senior Scientific Officer, Ministry of Forestry, Fiji
Purpose
The purpose of this report is the provide information to the participants of the Asia-Pacific
Network (APFNet) for Sustainable Forest Management and Rehabilitation Workshop and
other interested stakeholders on the status of Forest degradation in Fiji , the interventions
made to rehabilitate it, lessons learnt and the way forward.
Economy Background
The Republic of the Fiji islands consists of approximately 330 islands which is located in the
southwest pacific within the tropic of Capricorn. The estimated extent at which these islands
are scattered is between longitudes 174°East and 178°West and latitudes 12° South and 22°
South making Fiji to have a total territory of 65, 000 km2 of which 18, 000km2 is land area
(1.83 million ha). Fiji land mass is mostly concentrated on its two main islands, i.e 56% of
land mass area in Viti Levu and 30% in Vanua Levu.
Fig.1 Fiji Islands on the World Map ( Source: www.kijkjeinmijnhuis.n)
Fiji experiences a tropical climate with minor seasonal temperature changes of a minimum of
22°C in July and 26°C in February. The total rainfall measured per year is on average 2000-
3000 mm with over 5000 to 10000 mm in mountainous regions (Ash 2000). Fiji’s
mountainous interior acts as a rain barrier, resulting in the windward southeast part of the
island to receive high rainfall and extensive areas of tropical rainforest, while the leeward
northwest is much drier and has tropical dry forests. (Fiji Meteorology, 2008).
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Fig.2 Fiji's Orographic Process (NaDraki, 2009)
Forest cover
In order to clearly define the term forest, this report uses the FAO definition: “Land spanning
more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10
percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is
predominantly under agricultural or urban land use
Fiji’s total forest cover is approximately 1,054,419 hectares which covers 58% of the land
area which comprises of:
• 899,229 ha is native forest
58% is Closed Native Forest (with over 40% canopy cover)
42% is Open Native Forest (with 10-40% canopy cover)
It is estimated that native forest make up 91% of Fiji’s forest cover, with a mean
carbon stock estimated at 175 tCO2e/ha or 157,325,000 tCO2e (Payton and
Weaver 2011).
• 94690 ha of plantation forest (remaining 12% is predominantly mahogany (51,490 ha)
and pine plantations (43,200 ha)
• 38,742 ha is mangrove forest (5%)
Forest Types:
The following is a list of the forest types present in Fiji:
Cloud forest: this forest ecosystem is limited to mountain tops and ridges at elevations above
850m with high Precipitation rates high and reduced temperatures, trees generally that grow
here are stunted and heavily covered with bryophytes (Mueller-Dombois & Fosberg, 1998).
However, due to the Massenerberg effect, this forest type can also be sometimes found at
lower elevations particularly on mountain tops in close proximity to the sea.
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Upland rainforest: found at elevations around 650-850 m and is usually found in rugged
terrain located between lowland rain forest and cloud forest (Mueller-Dombois & Fosberg,
1998). On the southeast coast of the main island of Viti Levu this forest type can be observed
at round 400m.
Mixed upland rain forest: found above 400 m near the coast and above 600 m inland
Temperatures are cooler and rainfall is generally higher, except that some upper elevation
areas experience seasonal droughts, such as the high mountain ranges on the lee side of Viti
Levu. Thus, a wet-zone forest with more than 3,750 mm annual rainfall can be distinguished
from an intermediate-zone forest with 2,000 to 3,750 mm rainfall.
Lowland rainforest: A forest system that occurs mainly on flatland and gentle slopes on the
windward side of the main islands, ranging from near sea-level up to about 650 m elevation.
Dry forest: This vegetation type is highly threatened once common throughout the coastal
fringes of dry zone areas. Due to burning, grazing and conversion to agricultural land with
only less than 10% of it remains. This vegetation type is also home to the critically
endangered Fijian Crested Iguanas (Brachylophus vitiensis). Much of Fiji’s tropical dry
forests have been lost due to repeated burning, and replaced by degraded grasslands, shifting
agricultural gardens, pastureland and pine plantations.
Talasiga (sun burnt) grasslands: This ecosystem is found in the dry zone areas of Fiji and
covers one third of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu and is dominated by introduced grasses such
as Pennisetum polystachyon (mission grass), Sporobolus spp. (wire grass) Miscanthus
floridulus, (gasau or reed) and ferns Dicranopteris spp., (qato or bracken ferns), Pteridium
esculentum (Mueller-Dombois & Fosberg, 1998).
Mangrove Forest: Fiji is home to the third most abundant stands of mangroves in the Pacific
Island region; however, while estimated at nearly 38,000 ha in 2010, this extent is decreasing
(MESCAL, 2013)
The Mangrove forest occurs at the mouths of major river deltas around mud-covered stream
banks in the tidal zone. Seven mangrove species are represented. Rhizophora stylosa and R. x
selala form a scrubby seaward fringe, replaced further inland by a mixed forest of Bruguiera
gymnorrhiza, Excoecaria agallocha, Lumnitzera littorea and Xylocarpus granatum.
Rhizophora samoensis is scattered throughout.
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Fig. 3 Forest Types on Viti Levu (Source: CI, 2018)
Fig. 4 Forest Types on Vanua Levu (Source: CI, 2018)
About 90% of Fiji’s forested land is communally owned by indigenous people under
customary ownership through the iTaukei Land Trust Board (TLTB), 8% is private freehold
land, and 4% is state land. (Source: CI, 2018)
Change in Forest Cover
Fiji’s development over the years has resulted in a significant change in land use due to the
intensive utilisation of its natural resources and unsustainable land use practices such as clear-
cut logging, and burning and clearing of forest for agricultural and development purposes
(Ash 2000; FCPF 2013).This has resulted in a lot of socio-economic issues whereby the
affected communities have to bear both the direct and indirect costs e.g. erosion and also
environmental issues such as environmental degradation and decreased resilience to the
effects of climate change (Waqainabete-Tuisese, Rounds and Kennedy 2016).
Change in Forest Cover: Between 1990 and 2000:
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Studies carried out between the year 1990 and 2000 showed a trend in which Fiji’s forest
cover increased at an average rate of 2,100 hectares per year equating to an average annual
reforestation rate of 0.21%.
However, between 2000 and 2005, although, Fiji gained 2.2% of its forest cover, or around
21,000 hectares, it lost -1,000 hectares—0—of its primary forest cover. Deforestation rates of
primary cover have decreased 0.1% since the close of the 1990s. (FAO, 2010)
Change in Forest Cover Between 1990 and 2010:
Fiji lost an average of 3,050 ha or 0.32% per year between 1990 and 2010 but it gained 6.4%
of its forest cover or around 61,000 ha. ( FAO, 2010)
Forest Degradation Conditions: an overview of the Problem of
Rehabilitation
Forest degradation refers to the reduction of the capacity of a forest to produce goods and
services (ITTO, 2002). Capacity includes the maintenance of ecosystem structure and
functions (ITTO, 2005). A degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services
from a given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. It has lost the structure,
function, species composition and/or productivity normally associated with the natural forest
type expected at that site (ITTO, 2002)
In order to analyze the Forest degradation in Fiji, the Driver, Pressure, State Impact,
Response (DPSIR) framework that was proposed by the European Union was used to map
out the cause and effect relationship of degraded Forest in Fiji and the current response to
address it.
Drivers
Drivers are changes in the economic, social and ecological system that directly or indirectly
exert pressure on the state of the environment. The EEA defines drivers as ‘the social,
demographic and economic developments in societies and the corresponding changes in
lifestyles, overall levels of consumption and production patterns’ (EEA, 2007).
Drivers for Forest degradation considers long term reduction of potential supply of benefits
from the forest which often results from poorly regulated or managed extractive activity
carried out at a small-scale by many actors, which is further intensified by the general
undervaluation of forest ecosystems and the non-tangible benefits they provide
(BarqueroMorales, et al., 2014; Skutsch, Torres, Mwampamba, Ghilardi, & Herold, 2011).
The four non-hierarchal but interacting driving forces to Forest degradation that will be
analysed are the Economic, social – cultural, technological and environmental drivers.
Economic Drivers
Fiji’s forestry and logging sectors contribute 0.6% to the GDP. However, the product from the
sector is also used as a valuable primary input into manufacturing processes which includes
sawmilling and planning of wood as well as the manufacture of wood products – and this has
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a share of 0.7 %. Therefore, the total share of GDP comes to around 1.3 % of GDP. ( RBF,
2018).
Fiji’s main timber related exports are woodchips followed by mahogany and other wood
products. From 2012-2015, there was an increase in the total timber exports averaging at
$84.0 million as shown in figure 5.
The year 2015 alone recorded the highest total timber export earnings at $93.2 million;
however this figure fell by 31.5 % to $63.8 million in 2016. Woodchips remains the major
forestry export earner for Fiji to date except for the years 2011 and 2012 when mahogany
receipts were higher. This was driven by increased demand for locally branded mahogany by
the United States (US) market, coupled with improved supply of mahogany. ( RBF, 2018).
Fig. 5: Fiji's Main Timber Exports 2012-2016 ( Source: RBF, 2018).
Due to the value adding processing and production line from the Mahogany and Pine
plantation forests, the Forestry sectors’ contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is
expected to dramatically increase to $100 million within the next 5 years. ( FAO,2010)
Furthermore, the attractive local and international market prices for agricultural products,
wood products and minerals have provided much motivation for maximizing extraction and
utilization of forest products.
Socio- Cultural Drivers
Social factors include: population growth, food security, improved housing conditions with
better living standards, improved energy source for cooking, and urban drift.
Fiji’s population has increased from around 200,000 in the 1940s to more than 800,000 today
and this has taken its toll on Fiji’s forests, as more areas are cleared for agriculture and
housing and urban development .
Furthermore, the increase in population growth has resulted in the removal of Mangroves
Forests at an accelerating rate as a major source of fuel wood and this intensified by urban
development for hotel construction. Studies show that during the period 2008-2012, a total of
16 licensees produced between 256-956 m3/year (Watling, 2013), while in 2013 harvesting of
mangroves for fuel accounted for only 39 m3 (DoF, 2015).
Culture also plays a crucial role in the use, management and development of forest areas and
factors like traditional obligations, consumption preferences, and gender roles dictate the
continuous use of forest resources.
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Technological Drivers
Technological factors include: the integration of agro-technology to increase productivity and
improved communication technology as well as the use of forest technology for value adding
end products.
Fiscal tax incentives directly support the modernization of agriculture and forest-based
technologies.
Environmental Drivers
Climate Change has given rise to the increase in intensity and frequency of extreme weather
events e.g. droughts, storms, floods, hurricanes and cyclones and other natural phenomena
(e.g. fire, outbreaks of animal and plant pests, earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic
eruptions).This events can also be a driver for forest degradation as it disrupts the supply of
forest products and environmental services and in turn threatens the subsistence and
livelihoods of local communities and forest industries. (FAO, 2015).
Pressures
Pressures include both anthropogenic factors and natural processes that induce environmental
change or impact. (Pinter et al 2009). These pressures usually result from drivers but also can
be affected by societal responses to environmental problems. In order to grasp the full extent
of these pressures, five distinct areas that will be explored are the pressures exerted from the
Agricultural sector, Logging activities, Tourism, Relevant Institutions and Natural Disasters.
Agriculture
The conversion of forest land into agriculture has always been the viewed as the better option
for most communities as agricultural products has faster and short term returns compared to
the long growth cycle of forest species. In 2017, the Ministry of Agriculture (2017) produced
a data which showed that the high levels of semi-commercial cultivation of kava, taro, and
cassava cultivation are leading to encroachment into the native forests. Furthermore, by the
time these crops are harvested, the soil is depleted of its fertility, causing farmers to continue
to seek new farm lands in the native forests (MOA, 2017)
Agricultural expansion has generally been driven by national efforts towards food security
(in terms of self-sufficiency and import substitutions) in addition to commercial production
for export. In addition, the demand for agricultural products is rapidly increasing, as a result
of rural-urban drift along with change in diet and food preferences, the growth of the
hospitality and tourism sector, and government pressure for more exports and import
substitutions.
Logging
In the last six years, around 40,961 cubic meters (m³) of native, 60,163m³ of mahogany and
338,575m³ of pine logs have been produced on average per year (Figure 6). However, there
remains potential to increase production further without affecting sustainability. (RBF, 2018)
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Fig. 6: Logging production trends between 2011-2016 ( Source: RBF, 2018)
Rapid turn-around of logging activities in native forest after commercial logging exacerbates
forest degradation in the absence of restocking or restoration, and these extremely degraded
forests.
Tourism
Within the last two decades Fiji’s tourism industry has grown dramatically, with over 650,000
tourists visit Fiji annually (ADB, 2014a). The increasing influx of tourists coming into the
economy pose increasing pressure on and competition for natural resources between
agriculture, industry, housing and tourism (Narayan, 2015).
Furthermore there has been an increase in the Development of port facilities on delicate
coastal ecosystems in Fiji is also increasing, with large areas of mangrove swamps being
drained and cleared for reclamation for this purpose (UNCCD , 2007).
Institutional Pressure
Fiji has a complex system of natural resource management rules and regulations across a
number of government agencies and applying those inter-agency rules and regulations in any
given location towards sustainable conservation and forest management is challenging, as
processes are not yet very clear or well-understood by the parties involved and there is no
national reporting framework to synchronize knowledge and understanding across ministries
and levels with respect to forest management (Scherl & Hahn, 2017).
It has also been identified that there is a gap in capacity for effective monitoring and
enforcement of existing policies and regulations related to any commercial and sustainable
management practices.
Natural Disasters
In February, 2016, Fiji was hit by a category 5 cyclone – TC Winston –which affected 62% of
Fiji’s population resulting in an estimated total damage and loss across all sectors at FJ$2.85
billion (Esler, 2016). It claimed forty four lives and left a trail of destructed Forest, crops, and
infrastructure, such as houses, hospitals, and schools in its wake.
State
State corresponds to a range of features highlighting the quantity and quality of resources,
living conditions for humans, exposure to the effects of Pressures on humans, to even larger
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socio-economic issues. The combination of the current State and the existing Pressures
explains Impacts.
1. Change within the forest:
Structure
Crown cover
Species composition and
Stocking
2. Soil compaction
3. Loss of habitat
Impacts
Impacts can be defined as the changes in environmental functions affecting social, economic
and environmental dimensions, which are caused by changes in the State of the system.
Impacts also include changes in environmental dynamics and the services it provides and the
socio economic impacts that are linked to it (Maxim et al., 2009).
There are generally three commonly proxy indicators used when identifying degraded forests
or forest degradation.
• Reduction in biomass for volume and carbon
A decrease in canopy cover is often leads to the reduction in biomass for volume and carbon.
Despite the data that shows that conventional logging is more sustainable due to the high
growth rates in the remaining forest stand compared to lower intensity logging, this
incremental growth was concentrated in the smaller trees, indicating a heavily degraded forest
and decreasing proportion of commercial trees. Due to severe degradation and high mortality
from damage during felling and extraction it was proven that the remaining forest stands have
only 40% of their initial biomass density (Kaitani & de Vletter, 2007).
• Reduction in biological diversity
Fiji has an unusually high number of endemic species of plants and animals, most of which
are found in the rainforests. Of the approximately 1,600 native plant species, over half are
endemic. Deforestation and Forest Degradation poses a very serious threat to many of Fiji’s
endemic species. Others are known to have already gone extinct, for example, Fiji has lost
three bird species since the arrival of Europeans (the whistling tree duck, the grass owl and
the barred-wing rail) and another seven prior to this time. (SPC, 2011).
• Reduction in soil as indicated by soil cover, depth or fertility
Deforestation, intensive sloping, flat farming and reclamation of mangrove swamps are the
main drivers of forest degradation in Fiji. Fiji is losing over 50 tons of soil per hectare each
year through run-off, four times the average in tropical areas.
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Response
Responses are the policy actions which are directly or indirectly triggered by the perception of
Impacts. It is an approach that is aimed at preventing, eliminating, compensating or reducing
their consequences. Responses can come from different levels of the society, such as groups
of individuals, governments or non-governmental sectors. These responses can in turn
influence trends in the Driving Forces, Pressures, State and Impacts.
Laws and Policies
Rural Land Use Policy 2006
The policy’s vision calls for Fiji’s obligation to address the following broad strategies:
• Protecting the integrity of ecological systems and biodiversity;
• Reducing the rates and areas of land degradation;
• Protecting natural resources;
• Reducing damage to fragile ecosystems;
• Maintaining and extending indigenous forest and plantation forest coverage;
• Promoting sustainable farming systems;
• Improving rural environmental conditions;
• Encouraging the formation of land husbandry groups;
• Preventing and controlling pollution; and
• Implementing international environmental accords to which Fiji is a signatory (Leslie
& Ratukalou, 2002a; 2002b).
MoF, whose role is to regulate, develop, and enforce restrictions within the logging industry.
• The Department of Environment, who is required to conduct an EIA for any commercial
logging activity.
• The Department of Lands and Ministry of Fisheries, who together – along with the Minister
of Forestry and Department of Environment – manage Fiji’s mangrove resources;
Department of Land for native logging in State Land as well as the establishment of Protected
Area or
Conservation Leases on all types of land tenure on behalf of the MoF
• The 2020 Agriculture Sector Policy Agenda – “Modernizing Agriculture” 2014
The 2020 Agriculture Sector Policy Agenda focuses on a balanced approach to sustainable
agriculture development (MoA, 2014).
• Land Conservation and Improvement Act, 1953 (Cap.141)
The Act’s aim was to make provisions for the conservation and improvement of land and
water resources. However, it lacked the necessary personnel and financial resources to be
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effectively enforced (UNCCD National Focal Point, 2007). This Act will be replaced by the
2016 Land and Water Resources Management Bill if endorsed by Government
• The Agricultural Land and Tenant Act (ALTA), 1976 (Cap.270)
ALTA the amended 1960 Agricultural Landlord and Tenant Ordinance (ALTO) covers
agricultural leases and outlines the rights and responsibilities of both landlord and tenants
(USP, 2017).However, there is lack of enforcement by the relevant government ministries
namely; Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Lands, Ministry of Fisheries, Ministry of
Forestry , Department of Environment, Ministry of iTaukei, iTaukei Land Trust Board and
Fiji Sugar Corporation due to constraints in human, financial and technical capacity.
• Forest Decree 1992
the Forest Decree makes reference to 2 types of timber licences, in practice, there are four
types of license issued out to logging companies which include timber concessions (15 to 30
year period), long term license (10 years), annual licenses and other licenses usually for land
clearing (Whiteman, 2005
EMA Subjects Commercial Logging to a Mandatory EIA:
The EIA process has sufficient flexibility to assess logging plans against the standards defined
in EMA. If approved development could be subject to conditions derived from the FFHCP as
part of the conditions of approval. Effectively, the monitoring, compliance and enforcement
of EIA conditions will be undertaken by the Department of Environment under the provisions
of EMA and provides additional support towards ensuring sustainability of the project if well
implemented and enforced. It is important to note that the EIA. Aside from considering
whether logging practices meets sustainable standards, must also consider other aspects of
logging that may impact on other resources including native species, protected and
endangered species, water-sources, protected forests, sites of cultural and historical
significance and controversial developments from an environmental standpoint, issues which
if relevant should be part of the terms of reference for the EIA study.
Fiji Forest Harvesting Code of Practice 2013:
Although the Forest Decree itself is less focused on sustainable harvesting, in October 2010;
Cabinet endorsed the FFHCP for implementation in January 2011. The FFHCP is
administered by the MoF together with the Forest Decree and its accompanying regulations
Fiji Forest Certification Standard
The development of the Fiji Forest Certification Standard adopted the Forest Stewardship
Council Principles and Criteria for good forest management between 2006 and 2013.
The Standard covers all FME forest operations (e.g. nursery, planting, maintenance and
harvesting) that may have an impact on the environment (forest management unit and
landscape levels); the relationship that the FME has with local and indigenous communities in
the vicinity of its Forest Management Unit(s) as well as its workforce and contractors/sub-
contractors. The Standard also covers all relevant local and international laws and
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agreements/conventions that Fiji is a party to; in addition to areas of social or environmental
significance
National Disaster Management Act (NDMA) of 1998
The NDMA establishes a National Disaster Management Council tasked to develop suitable
strategies and policies for disaster mitigation and preparedness; training and capacity building
for disaster response and management; recommend policies and strategies to the government
as well as the ability to form sub-committees to execute specific tasks relevant for national
disaster mitigation.
Projects and Initiatives
2015- Reforestation of Degraded Forest Project
In 2015, the Government of Fiji made a strategic move to contribute in the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Clean Development Mechanism
(CMD) by providing funding to the Reforestation of Degraded Forest Project.
The Project’s main objective is to rehabilitate degraded forest areas by planting of trees along
grasslands and barren lands and previously harvested forest and degraded areas. The main
activities carried out involved approaches that strengthen the department through the
provision of necessary tools and equipment’s while building the capacity for seed collection,
seedling production and establishment of forest restoration activities with key strategic
partners. It is also designed to involve community from the beginning in terms of species
selection, site selection, site preparation, planting phase and the maintenance of the planted
site after the establishment of forest areas with the intention of having the local communities
taking ownership of the project as they will reap the benefits in the future.
Tab. 1 Number of seedlings planted by the RDF project since 2015
Species Number of seedlings Area covered (ha)
Mahogany 199,860 718.92
Native 34,233 123.14
Sandalwood 14,485 13.03
Pine 107,502 96.76
Food security 8,145 29.29
Fuel wood 4,000 14.38
Total 368,225 995.72
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Fig. 7 Total species of trees planted during the Restoration of Degraded Forest Project
Fiji Land Degradation Project (UNCCD National Action Program) 2015-2019.
Action Against Desertification (AAD) Project which has a 4 years duration period was
funded by the European Union in the context of the ACP/EU programme that was launched
in 2015. This project supports the UNCCD National Action Programme for Fiji, which aims
to build the resilience and increase the productivity of forest landscapes, while improving the
livelihoods of the local population through the restoration of degraded land and the
sustainable management of natural resources.The followings areas highlighted in blue for
figure 8 shows the degraded areas project site :
Fig. 8 Areas highlighting degraded areas project
The activities that were successfully executed during the AAD Project were:
Land restoration: restoration of 2 000 hectares of communal lands.
Training on utilization of Non-timber forest products: 2 000 farmers, of whom half are
women, were given assistance and training on bee farming for honey production ,crop
pollination, sandalwood and wild ginger production, nutritional gardens and the production
and marketing of handicraft made of forest materials to enable them to increase their income.
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
28,766
7,806 224
29,685
1,365 6672
85,852
14,616 11,036
56,040
4,000
78,570
11,811 3,225
21,777
2,780 4,000
201520162016-20172017-2018
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Capacity development: 240 farmers and 540 community members were trained in the areas
of forest seed collection and handling, nursery and restoration techniques, sustainable land
and forest management practices and market analysis and development. In addition, about 150
government agents are being trained in specialized fields, such as tree breeding, farm soil
testing, land use planning and resource.
The Planting of 4 Million Trees for 4 years Initiative ( 2019-2022)
As an initiative to mitigate and adapt climate change, enhance watershed area management,
boost timber and other wood production, reduce degradation of forest areas, improve
opportunities for carbon financing, biodiversity conservation, reduce soil erosion and siltation,
support food security and improve agriculture production and practice the government of Fiji
through the Ministry for Forestry has launched the 4 Million Trees For 4 years (4M4T) . The
Ministry of Forestry also has four projects namely REDD+, Reforestation of Degraded Forest,
Reforestation of Indigenous Species and Sandalwood Development that can be utilized to
drive the 4MT4Y initiative.
The main objectives of the 4M4T initiative are:
• Identify and collaborate with development partners, government agencies,
communities, civil society organizations, NGO’s, industries and corporate
organisations in the delivery of project.
• Establish a multi-sectoral steering committee to coordinate and monitor the
implementation of the project.
• Create awareness and promote the project to all Fijians
• Mobilize divisional working groups to implement and supervise tree planting
activities.
• Secure funding sources for the implementation of the project
• Engage schools, youth groups, women groups, resource owning communities,
municipalities and farmers in tree planting programs
In order to achieve this target for each year, the three main divisions of the Ministry of
Forestry must strive to plant 1 million trees per year till 2022 i.e Northern , Central Eastern
and the Western must target to plant 3333 per year.
Fig. 9 Reforestation of degraded areas tree planting in Fiji
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Fig. 10 The DPSIR Framework for degraded forest in Fiji
Economic
Agriculture
Change in Forest :
1. Structure
2. Crown Cover
3. Species Composition
Reduction in Biomass
Fiji Forest Decree
Fiji Forest Harvesting Code
The 2020 Agriculture Sector Policy Agenda –
“Modernizing Agriculture” 2014
Rural Land Use Policy 2006
Reduction in Biological Diversity
National biodiversity
Endangered and Protectected Species
Act: 2002
Endangered and Protected Species
Regulations of Fiji. 2003
Soil compaction Reduction in Soil cover,
depth and fertility
Logging Loss of Habitat
Loss of endemic species
Socio-cultural
Technological
Institutional Pressure
Uncordinated approach by relevant authorities
Lack of monitoring Lack of monitoring
uncordinated approach Environment
Climate change Natural Disasters
Drivers Pressures State Impact Response
Forest Rehabilitation Projects:
2015-Resoration of degraded Forest 2015-2019- Fiji Land Degradation Project (UNCCD National Action Program) 2019-2022- Planting of 4 Million Tree for 4 Years Initiative
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The Way forward
Over the last three decades, it has been identified that most of the policies did not achieve the
intended agriculture development and this has led to increased deforestation and land
degradation. (CI,2018). The following are three areas that will help address the gap:
1) Need to have an Integrated National Land Use Plan
In order to have a clear demarcation for urban development and infrastructure so that its
related activities not encroach into areas meant for agriculture and forestry, Fiji must have an
Integrated National Land Use Plan (INLUP) . To make it a holistic approach, it should
include the Rural Land Use Plan (as a major output in the implementation of the 2005 Rural
Land Use Policy) to plan the boundaries for the management of forest and agricultural areas.
2) Sustainable Forest Management
Production
• Biodiversity conservation must be incorporated into the management regimes of
natural and plantation forests, as stipulated in the Fiji Forest Certification Standard
• Mangroves must be gazette as Protected Areas in order to priorities its conservation
and sustainable management
• forest-based economy to be established , which should incorporate economic activities
relating to all forest ecosystem services (and also mangroves), ranging from forest
biomass to tourism, recreation and non-wood products
• The Fiji Government needs to seriously consider the provisions in ALTA and provide
improved resources (human, financial, technical capacity, etc.) to relevant institutions
to protect and conserve Fiji’s Forest sustainably.
• Effective monitoring and harsh penalties to be issued to those that don’t comply with
it.
References
ADB. (2014b). Fiji country Partnership Strategy (2014-2018): Poverty Analysis Summary.
Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank.
Barquero-Morales, L., Skutsch, M., Jardel-Pelaez, E. J., Ghilard, A., Kleinn, C., & Jealy, J. R.
(2014). Operationalizing the Definition of Forest Degradation for REDD+ with Application to
Mexico. Forests, 5, 1653-1681. doi:10.2290.f5071653
Boucher, D. H., Elias, P., Lininger, K., May-Tobin, C., Roguemore, S., & Saxon, E. (2011).
The Root of the Problem: What's Driving Tropical Deforestation Today? Cambridge, MA:
Union of Concerned Scientists.
Conservation Internation, (2018). Analysis of Drivers of Deforestation and Forest
Degradation and Identification of Response Strategies
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DoF. (2011). Fiji REDD-Plus policy: reducing emissions from deforestation and forest
degradation in Fiji. Suva, Fiji: Government of Fiji / Ministry of Primary Industries -
Department of Forestry & Secretariat of the Pacific Community. Retrieved from
https://theredddesk.org/sites/default/files/fiji_redd_policy.pdf
DoF. (2015). Annual Report, Parliamentary Paper #19. Suva, Fiji: Government of Fiji /
Department of Forestry
Esler, S. (2016). Post-Disaster Needs Assessment: Tropical Cyclone Winston, February 20,
2016. Suva, Fiji: Government of Fiji.
FAO, 2015 FRA 2015 Terms and Definitions http://www.fao.org/3/ap862e/ap862e00.pdf
ITTO (International Tropical Timber Organization). 2002.ITTO Guidelines for the restoration,
management and rehabilitation of degraded and secondary tropical forests. ITTO Policy
Development Series 13. ITTO, Yokohama, Japan. [online] URL
http://www.itto.int/direct/topics/topics_pdf_download/topics_id=1540000&no=1&disp=inline
Kaitani, V., & de Vletter, J. (2007). Technical Report: Structure and dynamics of indigenous
Fijian forest following different intensities of controlled selection logging – An analysis of
observations in the NFMPP Permanent Sample Plots over the period 1991. Suva, Fiji:
Government of Fiji / Department of Forestry Research Division & SPC/GT-Pacific German
Regional Forestry Project.
Maxim, L., Spangenberg, J. & O’Connor, M. 2009. An analysis of risks for biodiversity under
the DPSIR framework. Ecological Economics 69: 12–23
MESCAL. (2013). Review of Policy and Legislation Relating to the Use and Management of
Mangroves in Fiji. Suva, Fiji: IUCN/Mangrove Ecosystems for Climate Change Adaptation
and Livelihood (MESCAL) Project. Retrieved from
https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/fiji_policy_and_legislative_review_re
port.pdf
MoA. (2017). Crop Extension Division Quarterly Report: Crops Data. Suva, Fiji:
Government of Fiji / Ministry of Agriculture.
Mueller-Dombois, D., & Fosberg, F. R. (1998). Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands (1
ed.). New York: Springer.
Narayan, P. K. (2015). Fiji's Tourism Industry: A SWOT Analysis. Journal of Tourism Studies,
11(2).
RBF, (2018),Fiji’s Forestry Sector – Developments in Recent Years
https://www.rbf.gov.fj/getattachment/c6c9ef57-9eaf-428d-9f65-8af3bed6cd1c/Fiji-s-Forestry-
Sector-Developments-23-September
Skutsch, M. M., Torres, A. B., Mwampamba, T. H., Ghilardi, A., & Herold, M. (2011).
Dealing with locally driven degradation: A quick start option under REDD+. Carbon Balance
and Management, 6(16).
SPC,( 2011). Forests of the Pacific islands Foundation for a sustainable future
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Acronyms
ALTA The Agricultural Land and Tenant Act (ALTA), 1976
APFNet Asia-Pacific Network for Sustainable Forest Management and
Rehabilitation
CI Conservation International
DPSIR Driver, Pressure, State Impact, Response Framework
EEA European Environment Agency
EIA Environment Impact Assessment
EMA Environment Management Act
FFHCP Fiji Forest Harvesting Code
ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoF Ministry of Forest
TLTB iTaukei Land Trust Board
REDD Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
REDD+ REDD “plus” forest conservation, sustainable management of forests,
and the enhancement of forest carbon stocks
UNCCD United Nations Conventions to Combat Desertification
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Forest and Land Rehabilitation in Indonesia: a Case Story
of Restoration of Sandalwood (Santalum Album Linn) in
Nusa Tenggara Timur Province, Indonesia
Abdul Malik Solahudin
Trainer on Forest Planning and Conservation, Kupang Education and Training Agency
of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Indonesia
Abstract: Sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) is an endemic species of Nusa Tenggara
Timur (NTT) Province and has high economic value. Its population is declined extremely
because of over-exploitation without sustainable management and unfair policy
implementation in the past. There are several obstacles in rehabilitating this species including
low participation of communities due to mismanagement in the past and cultivation technique
of sandalwood that is relatively difficult. Various efforts have been done to solve these
challenges, among others is by implementing forest and land rehabilitation program . The
results of the program begins to be seen after the provincial government of NTT province and
Ministry of Environment and Forestry promoted Gerakan Cendana Keluarga (GCK, a
sandalwood preservation project with family as its target) and Gerakan Cendana Pelajar (GCP,
a sandalwood preservation project with students as its target). Public awareness both to
preserve and to cultivate sandalwood tree increases and it is relatively easy to find
sandalwood trees in this province.
Keywords: forest and land rehabilitation, sandalwood, Nusa Tenggara Timur Province,
Gerakan Cendana Keluarga (GCK), Gerakan Cendana Pelajar (GCP)
Introduction
Nusa Tenggara Timur is located in the southern part of Indonesia. This province is famous for
its sandalwood timber and oil. Sandalwood tree (Santalum album Linn.) is believed as an
endemic species of Nusa Tenggara Timur (Timor Island, Flores, Sumba and Alor). Even
though sandalwood tree can be cultivated in other regions, but its quality is not as best as
sandalwood cultivated in NTT.
Economically, sandalwood is an important species for Nusa Tenggara Timur people because
of its superior oil content and high terrace wood production (Kementerian Kehutanan, 2010).
The demand for sandalwood product is always high since sandalwood oil and timber are
needed for many purposes, such as raw material for parfume and cosmetic, sculpture, and
religious and cultural purpose. Sandalwood also contributes regional income significantly.
During 1986/1987 to 1990/1990, sandalwood timber contributed 28.20 – 47.60 percent of
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NTT Province income (Suripto, 1992 in Kementerian Kehutanan, 2010).
Unfortunately, sandalwood population in NTT Province has declined dramatically due to
unsustainable exploitation without being followed by its preservation. International Union for
Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN) has categorized Santalum album Linn as a
vulnerable species in 1997. Meanwhile, CITES has groupped this species into Appendix II
categorries (WWF Indonesia, 2008 in Kementerian Kehutanan, 2010).
Sandalwood exploitation has been going on for a long time since the Dutch colonial era until
the time of independence (after 1945) and continued in the reformation era (after 1998).
Based on the results of the study of Pua Upa (1991) in Pello (2001), it was stated that the
number of sandalwood trees produced by natural stands throughout NTT Province was only
702,642 trees.
The exploitation of sandalwood plants is not accompanied by community conservation efforts.
This is due to the history of the management of sandalwood in the past which didn’t take side
with the community. The trade of sandalwood began in the Dutch colonial era. At that time,
all sandalwood trees both in the forest and on community land was controlled by the
authorities (the Dutch government). People who are caught stealing or damaging sandalwood
will get a severe sentence.
After Indonesia gained its independence, the exploitation of sandalwood continued.
Meanwhile, sandalwood management policies did not change. During the New Order Era (the
era before year 1998), the government determined that all sandalwood in the NTT Province
belonged to the government. This is regulated in the NTT Provincial Regulation which was
applicable at that time (Pello, 2001 in Rumboko and Raharjo, 2016). The enactment of
Regional Regulation number 16 year 1986 and the decision of the Governor of NTT Province
number 82 year 1996, which ignored the community’s rights and justice, triggered social
protests. At that time, people didn’t want to plant sandalwood on their land because they were
afraid of the consequences.
Considering the sustainability of sandalwood plants that are increasingly threatened, the
government then changed its policy by revoking Regional Regulation number 16 year 1986 in
1997. However, because of lack of socialization, many people haven’t known yet about this
new regulation, especially for whom living in the remote area. As a results, many of them
were still afraid to plant sandalwood and it caused community participation in conserving
sandalwood is very low.
The lack of knowledge and skills in cultivating sandalwood plants are also another problem.
Many people are reluctant to plant sandalwood because they do not know how to cultivate
sandalwood properly. The majority of sandalwood trees planted by the community did not
succeed in surviving because sandalwood is a plant that requires special treatment starting
from the process of germination to planting in the field. As a result, sandalwood population
continued to decline.
To deal with that situation, the local government of Nusa Tenggara Timur Province and
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central government (Ministry of Forestry) tried many efforts to restore sandalwood population
in NTT. The governments also have already made a master plan of sandalwood development
and preservation in Nusa Tenggara Timur Province year 2010 – 2030.
The master plan has its vision “to restore Nusa Tenggara Timur as a province of sandalwood
in 2030”. To gain that vision, five missions have been set. One of its missions is “developing
a sandalwood-planted forest with community-based management system”. Since cultivating
sandalwood plants requires as many as human resources, the government realized that it will
be difficult to succeed because of their limited budget and human resources. So that,
communities involvement is very important to realize that mission.
To implement that mission, furthermore, the local government launched a sandalwood
conservation project that was started from a family (called Gerakan Cendana Keluarga or
GCK) in 2012. The target of this project was families that had a concern to preserve
sandalwood. The procedure of the project is that the government appoints religious
institutions (churchs or mosques) as the party responsible for coordinating families under
those institutions. After being formed, the government then provided training in sandalwood
cultivation techniques for members who joined the project. The government also provides
seeds and seedlings for them to be planted on their lands.
After success with the GCK project, the government then developed a sandalwood
conservation project targeting students of elementary school and junior high school (called
Gerakan Cendana Pelajar or GCP) in 2016. The procedure is similar to the GCK project. The
ones responsible as coordinator and evaluator are headmaster and teachers. Through the GCK
and GCP project, the government also provides thousands of seedlings every year. The
amount of Seedlings provided by government to be distributed can be seen in the following
table.
Tab. 1 The number of seedlings distributed for GCK and GCP project
Name of Project Year of Seedling Distribution
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Total
GCK 55,000 55,000 50,000 50,000 45,000 65,000 31,500 351,500
GCP
10,500 27,500 31,500 69,500
Total 55,000 55,000 50,000 50,000 55,500 92,500 63,000 421,000
Source : Dinas Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur, 2018
(data is processed)
Key Elements
Technical Aspects
Cultivating sandalwood has many obstacles. First, to germinate sandalwood seeds requires
special treatment and technique. Many people do not know how to treat sandalwood seeds to
germinate and how to treat seeds during the nursery until the seeds are ready to be planted in
the field. So that, at the beginning of the project implementation, many seeds did not succeed
to grow. For this reason, human resource capacity needs to be improved through training and
technical guidance.
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To transfer sandalwood cultivation science and technology from the research findings and
empirical experience from local wisdom in the community, training on how to rehabilitate
forest and land and how to cultivate sandalwood plants has been widely held. Kupang
Education and Training Institute of Environment and Forestry (BDLHK Kupang), for
example, has made the sandalwood cultivation training as the one of the leading trainings.
Through the training, it is expected that the need of skilled and reliable human resources to
support the sandalwood rehabilitation program can be fulfilled.
Second, the germination rate of sandalwood seed is still low. This is caused by the
procurement of seeds that are not in accordance with the principles of silviculture. Probably,
the seeds germinated are not yet ripe, come from young trees or inbreeding. So that, the
quality of sprouts and saplings produced is very low.
Actually, the governments, communities and educational institutions have tried to preserve
sandalwood and to develop sandalwood cultivation. According to Haniin (1998) in
Kementerian Kehutanan (2010), sandalwood plants have been developed in Indonesia, among
others in 1958 in Ba'at (TTS) covering an area of 15 ha, in 1967 at BKPH Buleleng covering
an area of 103.25 ha, in Gunung Klotok and Sanggrahan (Kediri) covering an area of 177
hectares, in Jantur (Batu, Malang) covering an area of 4 hectares, in Songgoriti covering an
area of 20 hectares, in Gunung Kidul Karangmojo covering Forest area of 80 hectares. The
development of sandalwood activities is still ongoing.
Based on information from the Belu District Forestry Service, about 2000 - 3000 sandalwood
seedlings are prepared annually to be distributed to the community. Efforts to conserve
sandalwood have also been done by building seed gardens since 2002 covering 4 ha. While
the Center for Biotechnology Research and Forest Plant Breeding (B2PBPTH) Yogyakarta
has built a collection of sources of seed and tissue culture. Indonesia Institute of Science (LIPI)
also made several sandalwood development plots in the community on Sumba Island.
Third, after sandalwood saplings are planted in the field, many of them cannot survive during
the dry season due to extreme climate and drought. Only 30 percent of saplings can survive
(Sumanto, et al., 2011). To overcome the problem, several years ago the Kupang Research
and Development Center of Environment and Forestry suggested drip irrigation system in
order to keep sandalwood saplings humid and avoid them from drought.
Efforts to preserve and to develop sandalwood have received a lot of valuable information
from research results. The research institutions (both regional and central institutions) has
done many findings related to sandalwood development and cultivation including the
selection of the type of planting media and the types of primary and secondary hosts, the
identification of mycorrhiza which can increase the growth and endurance of sandalwood
against drought, the implementation of drip irrigation techniques to increase the life
percentage and many more.
Last, when the young plants are planted in the field, there are several disturbances. The
common disturbances for plants in NTT Province are livestock grazing, forest fires and other
human activities. Fencing the rehabilitation area and making firebreaks is a solution that can
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be sought to reduce the disturbance.
Policy, Legal and Institutional Issues
As mentioned above, the government realizes that sandalwood conservation efforts cannot be
carried out without community participation. Therefore, the government revokes the old
regional regulations and creates new regional regulations that are more pro-people in 1997.
Moreover, the government of Nusa Tenggara Timur Province have made a provincial
regulation no 5 year 2012 concerning on sandalwood management in 2012. This new policy
returns the right to the sandalwood owners. The owners, has rights to have benefit from
selling their sandalwood trees.
Even so, many people of NTT province still has traumatic experiences because of the past
policies applied during several decades. As a result, the rehabilitation of sandalwood plants
has not succeeded. To overcome this problem, both central and regional governments
continue to try to convince the public through various socialization efforts. The socialization
activities regarding the new sandalwood management policies were carried out including
through campaigns in various media (mass media and social media), workshops, training, etc.
Financial Issues
Most of the funds used for forest and land rehabilitation programs in Nusa Tenggara Timur
Province from 2014 to 2018 are for sandalwood management project, as shown in Table 2.
The sustainable sandalwood management project is one part of the forest and land
rehabilitation programs. From the table, it can be seen that most of the forest and land
rehabilitation program funds are used to support sustainable sandalwood management projects.
This shows the seriousness of the local government to restore sandalwood populations in NTT
Province.
Tab. 2 Target and Realization of Forest and Land Rehabilitation Program in Nusa
Tenggara Timur Province
Year Program / Project Target
(Rupiah) Realization
(Rupiah)
Percentage
(%)
2014
Forest and land Rehabilitation Program 7.558.696.600 5.151.345.557 68,15
Sustainable Sandalwood Management
Project 5.491.116.600 3.282.930.180 59,79
2015
Forest and land Rehabilitation Program 9.519.785.750 7.957.361.885 83,59
Sustainable Sandalwood Management
Project 8.671.427.250 7.207.015.485 83,11
2016
Forest and land Rehabilitation Program 7.891.894.000 6.311.859.445 79,98
Sustainable Sandalwood Management
Project 7.039.779.000 5.478.085.645 77,82
2017
Forest and land Rehabilitation Program 15.316.652.560 12.170.291.246 79,46
Sustainable Sandalwood Management
Project 14.214.624.560 11.134.973.296 78,33
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Source : Dinas Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur (data is
processed)
All funds used for the GCK and GCP projects come from the Nusa Tenggara Timur
Provincial Revenue and Expenditure Budget (APBD), the Ministry of Environment and
Forestry's general allocation funds, and the National Revenue and Expenditure Budget
(APBN) sourced from the Watershed Management Center of Benain Noelmina NTT.
Sustainability of The Project
Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) is the driest province in Indonesia. This province has a semi arid
climate and its land cover dominated by shrubs and savanna. The precipitation intensity in
this province is very high but its duration is very short (68 days in average). This situation
causes the soil surface to become damaged and easily eroded. The data taken in 2006 shows
that 72.19 percent of forest and land in NTT Province was categorised as critical and very
critical. So that, the government of the Republic of Indonesia has apointed this province as the
targeted areas for national forest and land rehabilitation program.
Because it has become a target area, the forest and land rehabilitation program in NTT
province will continue. However, the GCK and GCP projects have not been continued for
policy change reason after the new governor of NTT Province was elected in the early of
2019. The new elected governor is currently more focused on tourism activities and
cultivation of Moringa oleifera. Recently, sandalwood restoration activities are no longer the
main priority, because they are included in the general forest and land rehabilitation program.
This means that sandalwood will be treated the same as other types of forestry plants. There is
no special budget for sandalwood conservation activities. However, the spirit of the
community to develop and preserve sandalwood is believed to continue. The reason is due to
economic motives or to save this species from extinction.
Lesson Learnt
Master plan of of sandalwood development and preservation in Nusa Tenggara Timur
Province year 2010 – 2030 stated that Nusa Tenggara Timur Province should be the
sandalwood province in 2030. To achieve this goal, the government approved a forest and
land rehabilitation program. The aim of establishment of this program is to restore forest and
land health to its original condition. Regarding to sustainable sandalwood management
activities, the objective to be achieved is to restore sandalwood which used to be abundant
and common to find in the forest and land of NTT Province.
The GCK and GCP are suitable projects to realize that vision. The short-term goal of GCK
and GCP project is to cultivate and keep sandalwood seedlings in the community both in the
family and in the school environment. This project is one of the short cuts that the
government can do to achieve the goal of restoring sandalwood with their limited budgets and
human resources. The success of growing sandalwood plants is believed to increase if they
are planted and treated intensively by the community as long as they have the knowledge and
technology. Meanwhile, the long-term goal of GCK and GCP is the availability of abundant
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amounts of sandalwood in the future so that the sandalwood extinction can be prevented,
besides of course it will improve the economy of the community.
Since the projects takes account the community involvement, it can be said that the projects
are quite successful in persuading the public to be aware and willing to preserve sandalwood.
The community has not been traumatized to plant sandalwood. Even, the community has
started to cultivate sandalwood plants on their land. Moreover, they have also been able to
produce sandalwood saplings on a small scale, considering that the request for sandalwood
saplings is quite high. The enthusiasm of the community to plant these species is also quite
high because every time there is a free seed distribution program, sandalwood is a favorite
plant that is sought after by the community.
Even, for some people, planting sandalwood has also become a kind of social pride. They feel
they have become saviors of sandalwood from extinction. In addition, social status will also
increase because it is considered as the new rich man to have this wood for future investment
that its benefits can be obtained when sandalwood plants are harvested. Whereas, a few years
ago, sandalwood was called as the trouble wood (Hau Lasi in local language) or the evil wood
(Hau Nitu).
At that time, every sandalwood tree owner or land owner with sandalwood trees inside their
lands would get into trouble if the trees died or was stolen. Even if sandalwood trees are ready
to be harvested, the owner of the tree or land gets nothing because the money from the trade
belongs to the government. But now, after a fundamental policy change, sandalwood is called
as “the green gold” because of its high selling value due to the scarcity of its availability.
Forest and land rehabilitation programs through planting sandalwood which have been carried
out for quite a long time have also begun to show results. The sandalwood plants planted in
the field have started to grow even though they are still limited in number, especially in
intensively managed forest or land areas. It can be said that to find sandalwood trees is easy
now, they grow in many places from the backyard to the small scale plantation owned by
private.
Planting sandalwood is actually not so difficult as long as it is treated intensively. There is an
interesting story behind the launching of GCP (sandalwood preservation project with students
as the target) in 2016. When the forest and land rehabilitation program with sandalwood was
implemented, not all available sandalwood seedlings were planted because the rainy season
has passed. The remaining unplanted sandalwood seedlings were ignored. Then came an
elementary school boy who saw the seedlings then took home some of the seeds. He planted it
in the yard and watered it every day until the sandalwood plant grew well.
Later, this true story of the child caring for the sandalwood plant was found out by the head of
the Forestry Service of NTT Province. After hearing the story, the official then got the idea to
make a similar project to GCK (sandalwood preservation project with family as the target)
with student as the basis and was named GCP. He believes that school students (junior high
school and lower level) can do the same thing with the kid in the story above as long as it is
encouraged to treat sandalwood plants intensively. For this reason, the implementation of
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GCP involves principals and teachers as motivators and evaluators for their students.
From this story, we can learn that community involvement has an important role in the effort
to rehabilitate and restore sandalwood. Even if a survey of the distribution of sandalwood
plants is carried out, there may be more sandalwood plants on community lands than the
sandalwood in the forest area.
The Way Forward
The forest and land rehabilitation program in NTT Province through the GCP and GCK
projects has generally had a positive impact on the future sustainability of sandalwood in this
province. Many indicators have proven that this project is successful, especially in awakening
public awareness. This also can be seen from the communities’ demand for sandalwood
seedlings which continue to increase from year to year. Even, The Environmental and Forest
Service of Nusa Tenggara Timur Province, responsible for this program, are not able to fulfill
all the communities’ requests for seedlings. The causative factor is due to the limited number
of seeds circulated in the community. People who has sandalwood seeds will sell to those who
buy their seeds with higher price. So that, the government finds it difficult to get seeds from
the community. Before 2012, the price of sandalwood seeds was only 75,000 rupiah per
kilogram. But now it reaches 500,000 rupiah per kilo gram. This is because the demand for
seeds from both inside and outside the NTT province is quite high, while the number of
parent trees is still limited.
At this moment, the local government has not been able to regulate the trade and circulation
of sandalwood seeds since they are afraid public will return to apathy after prolonged trauma
after the adoption of unfair past policies. For this reason, efforts are needed to ensure that the
seeds that come out can be monitored and the needs of seeds in the province remain available,
for example by inventorying parent tree owners, establishing partnerships in buying and
selling sandalwood seeds and buying seeds at higher prices from the community.
The problem of failure to grow sandalwood plants caused by low quality seeds, needs serious
attention. The government must inventory the remaining sandalwood stands and conserve
them. If the sandalwood stand is on community land, the government must provide incentives.
The government must also build ex situ conservation plots planted with high-quality
sandalwood plants and high genetic diversity. Sandalwood seeds can be imported from other
regions if the sandalwood genetic diversity in the area is very low.
The problems of sandalwood cultivation which are quite complicated have been studied,
especially by the Kupang Research and Development Center of Environment and Forestry.
However, the transfer of information and technology has not yet reached the community. This
is due to the lack of interest of the community to read the scientific papers. People considers
those research products are complicated and not easily understood. For this reason, the
government must simplify the results of this research into easy-to-digest daily language and
then publish it to the public through printed media (brochures, pamphlets, posters) or social
media.
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The demand for products produced from sandalwood plants (wood and oil) will continue
along with increasing community needs, while the natural resources of sandalwood are still
limited. By involving community in cultivating sandalwood, it is expected to increase the
stock and also conserve it. However, the cycle of harvesting sandalwood is relatively long
(around 30 years). The community, especially those who work as farmers, need regular
income to meet their daily needs. If they only rely on sandalwood plants, their daily needs
will not be fulfilled. Fortunately, sandalwood is a type of plant that can be intercropped with
other plants, such as seasonal plants and intercrops. The government must continue to
promote this chance, so that farmers can grow sandalwood on their land without losing their
main livelihood as farmers.
Summary
Managing forest involves many parties, especially the government as policy makers and the
people who live around the forest area. Therefore, these parties should cooperate each other.
The case of sandalwood rehabilitation in NTT Province is one example of how non pro-
people policies have led to forest and land rehabilitation programs not working properly.
Considering that sandalwood plants must be conserved from their extinction, the government
changed its policies by creating new regional regulations that were more pro-people. By
promoting GCK and GCP Project, the forest and rehabilitation program within its focus on
restoring sandalwood plant has been seen and sandalwood population has begun to be
recovered gradually.
Technical factors in sandalwood cultivation are also important factors for the success of forest
and land rehabilitation program. For this reason, the central and regional governments have
begun to socialize and spread information about sandalwood cultivation technique to the
public. By doing this, the community will not find it difficult to cultivate sandalwood and the
success of growing sandalwood can increase. As a result, the availability of sandalwood will
continue and the threat of its extinction can be avoided.
Refferences
Balai Pengelolaan DAS Benain Noelmina, 2011. Membumikan RHL DAS Benain Noelmina
Berbasis Rencana Teknik RHL.
Kementerian Kehutanan, 2010. Masterplan Pengembangan dan Pelestarian Cendana Nusa
Tenggara Timur Tahun 2010 – 2030. Balai Penelitian Kehutanan Kupang. Kupang.
Pello, J., 2001. Aspek Hukum Cendana Dan Perilaku Masyarakat NTT. An Article in Berita
Biologi Vol. 5, No 5, August 2001. Edisi Khusus Masalah Cendana NTT. Pusat Penelitian
Biologi, LIPI. Bogor.
Raharjo, A.S. in Balai Litbang LHK Kupang, 2015. Kebijakan Pengelolaan Cendana Pasca
UU 23/2014 Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah. An Article in Prosiding Diskusi Ilmiah Sinergitas
Peneliti, Widyaiswara dan Peneliti Kehutanan dalam Desiminasi Informasi Guna Mendukung
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Pembangunan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan NTT, Page 20 – 23. 8 December 2015.
Balai Penelitian dan Pengembangan Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan Kupang. Kupang.
Rumboko, L and Raharjo, A.S., 2016. Cendana Nusa Tenggara Timur. Gadjah Mada
University Press. Yogyakarta.
Sumanto, S.E., Sutrisno, E. and Kurniawan, H., 2011. Analisis Kebijakan dan Strategi
Litbang Kehutanan dalam Pengembangan Cendana di Nusa Tenggara Timur (Policy Analysis
and Forestry Research Strategy on Sandalwood Development in East Nusa Tenggara). Jurnal
Analisis Kebijakan Kehutanan, Vol. 8 No. 3, Desember 2011, p. 189 – 209
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Forest Rehabilitation and Restoration Project
in Sabah, Malaysia
Valeria Linggok
Head of Information Management and Geospatial Data Section
Sabah Forestry Department, Malaysia
Abstract: In Sabah, degraded area defines as areas where secondary forest elements exceed
50% of vegetation cover. Degraded area occurs due to the past excessive log extraction and
natural disaster. Secondary forests maybe degraded but they hold biological treasures that
have been recognized as vitally important. Therefore, the government is strongly support the
forest rehabilitation and restoration in Sabah.
The forest rehabilitation and restoration project in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve is a success
story of rehabilitation project in Sabah. The project aims to restore forest for Orang Utan or
Pongo pygmaeusmorio habitat in area of 11,612 hectares. The planted trees enrich the
richness of the forest and creates orang utan source of foods.
Forest rehabilitation in temporarily unstocked or degraded land is proven to give a significant
impact to the forest conservation and protection of the flora and fauna in Sabah. This initiative
is constantly and continuously given a top priority towards sustainable forest management.
Forest rehabilitation is in line with the state government policy to increase the totally
protected areas (TPAs) to 30% or 2.2 million hectares by year 2025.
A total of 248,116 hectares of forest reserve categorized as temporarily unstocked and
degraded area inside. Whereas, a total of 61,635 hectares of Totally Protected Areas (TPAs) is
categorized a degraded or poor stocked forest. Poor forest stands needs intervention.
Therefore, Sabah Forest Policy 2018 was regulated to strengthen the commitment and
direction in managing forest reserve areas and tree cover through sustainable forest
management. This policy takes into account environmental, social and economic
sustainability, through good forest governance and best management practices, to ensure
forestry remains an integral and competitive land use in Sabah.
1. Introduction
Sabah is one of the states in Malaysia and it is the second largest state in Malaysia. It situated
at the northern tip of Borneo Island which hosts some of the world's oldest and biodiversity-
richest tropical rainforest. Its position is at latitude of 4o2’-7o2’ and longitude 115o15’ -
119o15’, with a landmass of 7.40 million hectare, approximately. It experiences an equatorial
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climate with the annual temperature ranging from 26o C to 32o C, relative humidity ranging
from 85% to 95% and total rainfall ranging from 1500 mm to 4500 mm.
Map 1: Location of Sabah, Malaysia
The Sabah Forestry Department (SFD) is entrusted to manage forests and regulate forestry
activities in Sabah since it was established in 1914 when the state was still under the rule of
the British Borneo Chartered Company.
Sabah's forests are managed for a broad range of uses and to conserve economic, social,
environmental and cultural values. The Sabah Forestry Department's forest management
planning ensures that the forest resources will remain healthy in the future. Hence sustainable
benefits such as timber and other forest products, recreation opportunities and wildlife
conservation, are generated for the State.
The past functions of the department focused primarily on the collection of royalty.
Commercial logging in Sabah first started in 1879, and in 1914, the Sabah Forestry
Department was established in response to rapid increase in logging activities. The
department however has evolved over the years and later assumed broader responsibilities
covering the protection and conservation of forest reserves based on the concept of
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM). The objectives are as follow:
• To ensure that the management and development of Sabah's forest reserves are in
accordance with the principles of Sustainable Forest Management;
• To optimize the utilization of forest resources in order to sustain socio-economic benefits
to the State;
• To ensure that the development of forest industry corresponds with the long term
productive capacity of the state's resources;
• To ensure sufficient trained manpower and expertise to implement Sustainable Forest
Management efficiently and professionally;
• To intensify the R&D programmes and efforts toward the development and
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implementation of Sustainable Forest Management;
• To conserve sufficient natural forest areas for the protection and maintenance of the
environment, water resources, soils and biodiversity;
• To enhance enforcement strategies to safeguard the forest resources;
• To increase public awareness on the importance of forests and Sustainable Forest
Management;
• To ensure that sufficient financial resources, technology, and logistical supports are
available for the implementation of sustainable Forest Management; and
• To promote the rehabilitation of natural forests and the establishment of forest plantations.
1.1 Forest Reserve and Tpas in Sabah
The department has established forest reserves throughout the state, and is currently the
custodian for about 3.6 million hectares or 49.1% of the state’s land mass. In order to achieve
the dual objectives of economic utilization and environmental conservation, the forest
reserves in Sabah are classified into seven(7) classes based on their specific functions. Seven
(7) classes are (1) Class I for Protection, (2) Class II for Commercial, (3) Class III for
Amenity, (4) Class IV for Amenity, (5) Class V for Mangrove, (6) Class VI for Virgin Jungle
and (7) Class VII for Wildlife Reserve.
Map 2: Forest Reserves and Other Lands in Sabah, 2019
The State Government policy also emphasizes on conservation of its natural ecosystems
through protected areas. To date, more than 26% of the state’s land area (about 1.9 million
hectares) have been gazette as Totally Protected Areas (TPAs), and this figure represents the
largest network of totally protected areas in the Malaysia.
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Map 3: TPAs in Sabah, 2018
1.2 Degraded Forest
In 2018, SPOT6 and SPOT7 images of year series 2015 to 2016 were used to update the cover
of forested area in Sabah. It was found that a total of 4,558,367.97 hectares of Sabah is
covered by forest. National threshold used to define forest is a forest land spanning more than
0.5 hectares with tree height at maturity is 5 meter and a crown cover of more than 30%.
Based on the exercise, we had identified that about 248,116 hectares of forest reserve
categorized as temporarily unstocked and degraded area inside. Degraded area occurs due to
the past excessive log extraction and natural disaster. Forest fire occurrence during drought
season is a main cause of tree loss.
Map 4: Temporarily unstocked and degraded area inside forest reserve, 2016
Basically, degraded area in Sabah defines as areas where secondary forest elements exceed 50%
of vegetation cover. Secondary forests maybe degraded but they hold biological treasures that
have been recognised as vitally important.
Common pioneer species that contribute most of the total basal area of secondary forest in
previously mixed dipterocarp forest, importance sorted in decreasing order, are Macaranga
spp., Mallotus spp., Homalanthus spp., Croton spp., Cloaxylon spp. and Endospermum spp.
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from the tree family Euphorbiacea; Neolamarckia cadamba, Nauclea spp., Neonauclea spp.,
Diplospora spp., Timonius spp., Pleiocarpidia spp., Mytragyna speciosa and Ludekia
borneensis from the tree family Rubiaceae; Pterospermum spp., Pterocymbium spp. and
Brownlowia spp. from the tree family Malvaceae; Tristaniopsis spp., Syzygium spp. and
Decaspermum from the tree family Myrtaceae; Alstonia spp. (Apocynaceae); Octomeles
sumatrana (Datiscaceae); Duabanga mollucana (Lythraceae); Cratoxylon spp. (Hypericaceae);
Trema spp. (Cannabaceae); and Dillenia spp. (Dilleniaceae).
Meanwhile, temporarily unstocked is area with trees shorter than 1.5 meters that have not yet
reached but expected to reach a canopy cover at least 30% and tree height of at least 5 meters.
2. Forest Rehabilitation Project
In Sabah, forest rehabilitation has several aims such as to create connectivity or to enrich
forest stands to absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
A total of 61,635 hectares of Totally Protected Areas (TPAs) in Sabah is categorised a
degraded or poor stocked forest. Therefore, poor forest stands needs intervention. It will
create wildlife source of foods. Cost of forest restoration is ranging from MYR5,000 to
MYR10,000 per hectare, includes maintenance. Whereas, cost of silviculture is ranging from
MYR350 to MYR500 per hectare. Cost depends on the poor stocked forest condition and
types.
A project of forest rehabilitation that aims to enrich forest stands to absorb carbon dioxide
(CO2) namely rehabilitation of logged over forest was undertaken by the Innoprise-FACE
Foundation Rainforest Rehabilitation Project (INFAPRO). The project was initiated in 1992
as a pilot carbon-offset project. The overall objective is to rehabilitate about 25,000 hectares
of degraded mixed dipterocarp forests with native trees as a means of absorbing atmospheric
carbon. The project site is within Ulu Segama Forest Reserve (USFR) in the Sabah
Foundation Concession area. Forest rehabilitation by INFAPRO includes both enrichment
planting and stand tending. Tending refers to treatments such as the cutting of vines, the
cutting of climbing bamboos and the removal of belukar trees in order to promote the
regeneration of climax forest species such as dipterocarp. To ensure that the restored forests
provide suitable habitat for wildlife, about 10% of planted trees are of selected wild fruit trees.
Now, the project is looking for a carbon market trading mechanism for forest financing.
Second example of the forest rehabilitation project is the reforestation of Bukit Piton Forest
Reserve (BPFR). The project aims to restore forest for Orang Utan or Pongo pygmaeusmorio
habitat in area of 11,612 hectares. It a part of the state government’s Ulu Segama-Malua
Sustainable Forest Management (USMSFM) project established on 15 March 2006 covering a
total area of 241,098 hectares.
Part of the project area was a collaborative partnership between the Sime Darby Plantation
Sdn. Bhd. (SDP) and the Sabah Forestry Department. It was initiated began in 2008 to restore
about 5,400 hectares of the forest reserve for orang utan habitat.
Other collaboration which was initiated in year 2010 was the Yayasan Sime Darby (YSD).
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Yayasan Sime Darby was roped in to facilitate and to accelerate the achievement of the forest
rehabilitation project’s target in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve. The Yayasan Sime Darby
committed about MYR25 million over 10 years to reforest areas which was completed in
2018.
The Sabah Forestry Department, with the assistance of Yayasan Sime Darby and Sime Darby
Plantation Sdn. Bhd.. The Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd., still continues to monitor the
project to ensure that the planted trees are in optimum condition for growth in order to create
a vital and healthy habitat for the orang utan.
2.1 Forest Rehabilitation in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve
The largest forest rehabilitation project is in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve. The restoration
works had received full supports from Sabah Foundation, WWF-Malaysia, and Sime Darby
Plantation Sdn. Bhd.. The area was logged extensively and harvested using unsustainable
practices in year 1980s to 2007. This, combined with drought that induced forest fires in 1983
and 1997 to 1998, resulted in a degraded forest.
Initially, Bukit Piton Forest Reserve with 11,612 hectares in size was gazetted as a forest
production area in 1961. In 2012, it was reclassified as protection forest with aiming to totally
protect its forest resources specifically as a home of wildlife or Orang Utan and home of the
globe's richest stand of Dipterocarps and other biodiversity. The change in classification is a
significant one as it meant that the forest is protected by law from any form of land
conversion, timber exploitation or extraction of any forest products.
Estimated about more than 300 Orang Utan can be found in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve
(Alfred et al.,2010). The Orang Utan population in the area is completely isolated due to the
distribution of the palm oil plantations to the north and east of the area and the Segama river
to the south prevents the Orang Utan from migrating out of this isolated area for food and
breeding purposes.
Fig. 1 Location of Bukit Piton Forest Reserve
Bukit Piton Forest Reserve
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Planting of pioneer species, dipterocarps, common species and fruit trees are essential to
avoid forest simplification and improve ecosystem structure and community assemblages,
similar to pristine conditions.
2.1.1 Implementation of the Forest Restoration Activities
Poorly stocked areas either for rehabilitation or enrichment planting are selected by diagnostic
ground surveys supported by aerial photo. Planting line or clusters spaced at 12.5 meters are
marked in the field with a planting density of approximately 240 plants per hectares.
The maintenance activity plays an important role in the restoration projects to ensure survival
of the planted seedlings from creepers and shrubs especially in the open area. In 2017, about
10,767.14 hectares were successfully maintained by carrying out line, point clearance,
resupplying of dead seedlings and fertilizing.
In 2016, Bukit Piton Forest Reserve had undergone the 5th surveillance audit (Forest Re-
Certification) by the Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) since it was certified as a Well
Managed Forest by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) in June 2011. Therefore,
application of herbicides, is strictly in compliance with FSC guidelines and Standard of
Procedures (SOP).
The range of mortality varies from 6% to 17% which was recorded three to five years after
planting. The mortality rate is caused by the seedlings quality, technique of planting, wildlife
disturbance, weeds competition, wildlife disturbance and weather condition.
Photo 1: Planted and Maintained seedlings in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve. (From Left)
Seraya Majau and (Right) Kapur Paji.
2.1.1.1 Cost of Forest Rehabilitation
Below are the cost of activities for conducting forest rehabilitation in Sabah:
No. Activities Rate
1 Seedling MYR 5 per seedling
2 Site Preparation MYR 500 per hectares
3 Maintenance MYR 400 per round per hectares
4 Planting MYR 2 per point
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Other cost of components to be considered are the supervisor allowances, capacity building, road
maintenance, field works facilities and monitoring & reporting.
2.1.2 Key Challenges in Strengthening the Forest Rehabilitation Efforts
Based on the Bukit Piton Forest Reserve experience, the most critical challenges in forest
rehabilitation are a) insufficient funding, b) insufficient seedling supply, c) forest fire, and d)
wildlife disturbance. These challenges should be tackled in a way to make the forest
rehabilitation success and achieve the targeted aims.
Below are some of the strategies to strengthen the forest rehabilitation project:
1) To encourage the villagers or local community to establish more nursery by the Sabah
Forestry Department supervision.
2) An adequate training to be given to all staffs and project personnel The quality of human
resources either in laboratory or in field must competent.
3) Engagement of other stakeholders and look for sponsorship or donation for the
conservation efforts.
4) Forest fire tower construction for hourly fire occurrence monitoring during drought
season.
5) State and federal fund must be allocated and sufficient to cover the forest rehabilitation
cost.
3. Lessons Learnt
3.1 Overall Outcome of the Forest Rehabilitation Efforts
Forest rehabilitation is in line with the government policy to increase the totally protected
areas (TPAs) to 30% or 2.2 million hectares by year 2025. This percentage has far exceeded
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) target of 10% and even
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 17% of various types of ecosystems.
While do the forest rehabilitation, the department do the protection of orang utan. Increment
of the size of the totally protected areas could ensure the conservation of orang utan habitat
and other wildlife in Sabah’s forest. By the way, 70% of our orang utan are in totally
protected areas or Forest Stewardship Council Certified forests.
Forest restoration is also the fastest, the cheapest and most effective way in mitigating against
climate change and the department is fully takes advantage of this initiative.
3.2 Accomplishments
3.2.1 Extent of Area Restored
A habitat once ravaged by forest fires and acute timber harvesting practices, is now slowly
experiencing the presence of orang utan population in the area. Today, trees are seen to thrive
in the area, growing and maturing at its expected pace.
But the mark of a true success of reforestation is when wildlife begins to make use of
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replanted trees, be it for food or for shelter.
BPFR has become one of the largest restoration works being implemented in Sabah since it
was kick started in 2007. The efforts were fully supported by three main stakeholders such as
Yayasan Sabah, WWF-Malaysia, and Sime Darby Plantation Sdn. Bhd. which provide
sufficient funds to restore habitat and enough food sources for orang-utans which are trapped
in the degraded forest and surrounded by small oil palm estates. The restoration projects have
successfully planted about 11,253 hectares or 97% out of its total area.
3.2.2 Orang Utan Population
In 2011, after years of careful observation on the field, WWF-Malaysia’s Orangutan
Conservation Team have found that the orangutans have indeed utilised the replanted trees in
Bukit Piton Forest Reserve. Nests can be found on the Laran and Bayur trees that lined the
forest. Individual orang utan have also been observed to be eating on fruiting trees.
Photo 2: Orang Utan Nest
Orang utan nest census in 2016 found that the orang utan densities range in Bukit Piton
Rehabilitation Project area is between 1.03 to 3.25 individual per square kilometers. Most
nests detected are on the medium size trees and lower crowns of dominant trees for example
pioneers species.
Orang utan population in Bukit Piton Forest Reserve considered as a stable population as no
major catastrophe such as forest fire, habitat conversion or killing have been reported. Instead,
more sightings of mother and dependent young were seen roaming around Bukit Piton Forest
Reserve in the recent years
3.2.3 Establishment of Nursery by Local Community
It shows positive cooperation from the local community surrounding the project area. Segama
community successfully supplied 11,100 seedlings for restoration at Bukit Piton Forest
Reserve. Continued protection and establishment of canopy from fast growing trees through
the current forest restoration project will likely continue to increase orang-utan populations in
Bukit Piton Forest Reserve.
The forest rehabilitation is directly gives opportunity to the Sabah Forestry Department to
engage the local people in forest management. Engagement of the natives in forestry can also
make them benefit from forest rehabilitation. It is our duty to make them to understand on
how to implement and to apply doable method. Based on the Bukit Piton Forest Reserve
project, they have earned household incomes about MYR2,000 or more per month. Indirectly,
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the Sabah Forestry Department helps to reduce poverty rate among the villagers.
Sabah Forestry Department constantly engaged closely with the local communities which are
located adjacent to the Bukit Piton Forest Reserve area. This effort has received positive
response from the community as they obtained their side income and are aware of their
contribution to be part of the project to restore the wildlife habitat in Bukit Piton Forest
Reserve.
As to increase relations with the community, a series of consultation activities and awareness
programme under the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification were carried out with
the Segama and Silam communities, as well as contractor and plantation workers adjacent to
the project area. These efforts are very crucial to give communities awareness on conservation
efforts and how the project area was certified by the international standard, FSC under good
forest practices.
4. The Way Forward
4.1 Priority Given to the Forest Rehabilitation and Restoration of Degraded Land
Forest rehabilitation in temporarily unstocked or degraded land is proven to give a significant
impact to the forest conservation and protection of the flora and fauna in Sabah. This initiative
is constantly and continuously given a top priority towards sustainable forest management.
Stakeholders shows consistent support by providing funding and technology. Identification
and monitoring of degraded land supported by more advance technology for an example,
using of higher resolution of reference data.
The government of Sabah is more transparent with regard to the conservation. Banned notice
on conversion of forest reserves land for oil palm cultivation was published and oil palm
plantation maps are made available for public access. The governance is more supportive by
undertaking efforts to ensure that the totally protected forests will be 30% while also stepping
up reforestation activities, seriously.
4.2 Key Directions of Change
Nowadays, oil palm company is financing much of conservation by get directly involve in
forest restoration works and operation. Recently, the Sabah Forestry Department is proposing
a new forest rehabilitation project borne by the Ministry of of Primary Industries (MPI) of
Malaysia. It will be soon under the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) of The State
Government of Sabah as represented by the Sabah Forestry Department and Malaysian Palm
Oil Council (MPOC). The restoration project area size is 6,500 hectares and located at Lower
Kawag, Ulu Segama Forest Reserve (LKFR). It is situated at southern part of BPFR and
categorised as degraded land which is due to unsustainable logging practices in the past and
burnt twice in year 1983 and 1997.
The project objectives are (i) to identify areas for forest rehabilitation and restoration work; (ii)
Jointly develop the Forest Rehabilitation and Restoration Work Plan; (iii) to finance the forest
rehabilitation and restoration project; and (iv) to develop educational programmes for the
promotion of environmental and conservation awareness. The federal government will help
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Sabah in its restoration of degraded forests as well as carry out fresh surveys on the
population of orang utans and Borneo pygmy elephants in the state.
Other key direction of change is to look further for the new degraded forest reserve area to be
rehabilitated to restore and to enrich forest stands. Getting more local people involve in
managing forest resources throughout the state.
5. Summary
Land use conversion is a crucial issue that could change the entire landscape of forest area
and the status of the land. Changing of land use in alienated land is beyond the Sabah Forestry
Department authority. Alienated land is owned by individual holder or villager. Therefore,
forested area could be anytime logged for other purposes. It could broken of the wildlife or
forest connectivity and unproductive land becomes abandon land.
The government should gazette more state land to be a forest reserve to secure its forest
biodiversity richness. State land forest must be conserved for social, environmental, cultural
values and for its wide range of invaluable benefits to the people.
Forest rehabilitation has reached its objective by improving the breeding of orang utan in a
previously degraded and burnt forest. This activity is one of the strategies to move quickly
into Sustainable Forest Management, conservation and sustainability. Enforcement of the
Sabah Forest Policy 2018 and other land related laws could avoid any land use conversion
activities that cause loss of biodiversity. The Sabah Forestry Department strongly believe that,
under the Sabah Forest Policy 2018, the department is committed to ensure that at least 50%
of Sabah’s land mass is designated and protected for sustainable forest use and tree cover for
environmental protection, biodiversity conservation, and socio-economic well-being. Under
the thrust number 2, the objective number 3 states that to ensure all degraded forests are
restored to enhance their ecological functions. The strategy action plans are (a) to identify
areas of degraded forests in need of restoration, (b) to formulate and implement restoration
plan for degraded forests, (c) to monitor the effectiveness of the restoration activities and (d)
to map out and record the restored forest areas.
The Sabah Forest Policy 2018 rationale strengthens the commitment and direction in
managing designated forest areas and tree cover through sustainable forest management. This
policy takes into account environmental, social and economic sustainability, through good
forest governance and best management practices, to ensure forestry remains an integral and
competitive land use in Sabah. The aim is for institutionalized good governance of forest
management.
Furthermore, based on the powers vested under the Forest Enactment 1968 and Forest Rules
1969, the department has undertaken various efforts to protect and to manage the state’s
forests.
Good governance and smart partnership in forest management is encouraging and assist most
in forest rehabilitation initiative inside forest reserve. Restore damaged ecosystems in Sabah
is a massive effort that involves the Federal Government, the State Government, Non
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Government Organization (NGO) such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Sime Darby
Plantation Sdn. Bhd. (SDP).The government should encourages more non government
agencies to invest in forest rehabilitation and management in Sabah. Local and international
contribution could ensure the sustainability of forest management in long term.
References
Alfred et al. 2010. The importance of maintaining a proper database on forest restoration
program for orangutans in Borneo. American Journal of Environmental Sciences 6 (2): 137-
151.
Annual Report 2017. Sabah Forestry Department.
http://www.forest.sabah.gov.my
https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2019/04/02/federal-government-to-help-wildlife-
conservation-and-reforestation-efforts-in-sabah/
Normah Abdul Latip, Azizan Marzuki, Mohd Umzarulazijo Umar, Nadiatul Sarah Rais., Land
use and Forestry Management in Sabah: Review of Literature. Aust. J. Basic & Appl. Sci.,
9(7): 317-322, 2015.
Nilus, R.,Chung, A.Y.C.,Pereira, J.T.,Sugau,J.B.,Tangah, J.,Sabran, S.. et al. (2010).
Mangroves of Sabah: An Introduction to the Flora and Fauna. Sabah Forestry Department,
Sandakan.
Sabah Forest Policy 2018. Sabah Forestry Department.
Violini,S.,2013.Deforestation:Change Detection in Forest Cover Using Remote Sensing
Applications. Mario Gulich Institute, CONAEUNC and CONAE, Argentina.
WWF Malaysia. January 2018. Bukit Piton: A Case of Reforestation Success.
WWF Malaysia. January 2017. Orang Utan Population Estimates in Bukit Piton Forest
Reserve, Sabah.
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Myanmar Rehabilitation and Reforestation Program
Min Maung Maung
Staff Officer, Natural Forest and Plantation Division, Forest Department
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, Myanmar
Introduction
Myanmar, located in Continental South East Asia, is an economy largely endowed with
natural forest resources. 58.66% of the total area of the economy was covered by forests in
1990. However, the total forest area of the economy has been reduced to 42.92 % in 2015
(FRA 2015). Obviously, forest resources are dwindling due to many political, economic and
social factors, and consequently, the economy is now ranked as the third most deforested
economy in the world. Therefore, the reforestation and rehabilitation program is thus prepared
to prevent deforestation and forest degradation. Moreover, the program intends to fulfill
international commitments on climate change mitigation and to enhance forest cover of the
economy through reforestation and rehabilitation.
Vision
The reforestation and rehabilitation program is implementing as follows:
• To restore biodiversity and ecosystem in the areas affected by deforestation and forest
degradation to its original condition by using proper silvicultural operations, as well as to
mitigate climate change and
• To support national socio-economic development and sustainable forest management.
Objectives
The objectives of rehabilitation and reforestation are as follows:
• To establish forest plantation by appropriate silvicultural measures and operations,
• To encourage investment of private sectors and smallholders in reforestation activities,
• To support community forestry, home gardens, and agroforestry
• To develop rehabilitation and reforestation policy of Myanmar through multi-
stakeholders’ participation, and
• To encourage participation of stakeholders in planning, implementation and monitoring
of reforestation and rehabilitation activities.
Forest Policy in Myanmar
With the approval of the Cabinet Meeting (27/95) of the Government committee held on 20
July, 1995, the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation identified six
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imperatives as follows:
• Protection of soil, water, wildlife, biodiversity and environment;
• Sustainability of forest resources to ensure perpetual supply of both tangible and
intangible benefits accrued from the forests for the present and future generations;
• Basic needs of the people for fuel, shelter, food and recreation;
• Efficiency to harness, in a social-environmentally friendly manner, the full economic
potential of forest resources;
• Participation of the people in the conservation and utilization of the forests; and
• Public awareness of the vital role of the forests in the well-being and socio-economic
development of the nation.
Forests Conditions in Myanmar
The forest cover in Myanmar is about 42.92 %, whereas closed forest and opened forest
account for 21.56% and 21.36% of the economy’s total area, respectively (FAO 2015).
Average annual deforestation rate is about 1.72% (1,348,620 acres) of the economy’s total
area. In addition, degraded forests accounts for 22.29% (37,250,000 acres) of the economy’s
total area.
Fig. 1. Forest cover status of Myanmar
21.56%
21.36%
22.29%
31.98%
2.81% Closed forest
Open forest
Degraded forest with shifting
cultivation
Other land
Water
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Tab. 1 Lists of Forest cover and soil type in states/ regions as of 2015
No. States/ Forest Cover Low forest/
Others Total Regions Closed Open Total Taung-ya
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1 Kachin 7.67 7.6 15.27 2.74 3.99 22
2 Kayar 0.53 0.53 1.06 1.19 0.65 2.9
3 Kayin 1.67 1.65 3.32 2.41 1.77 7.5
4 Chin 2.77 2.74 5.51 1.64 1.75 8.9
5 Sagaing 5.47 5.42 10.89 4.97 7.51 23.37
6 Thnintharyi 3.49 3.47 6.96 2.17 1.58 10.71
7 Bago 1.43 1.42 2.85 2.16 4.27 9.73
8 Magway 0.95 0.94 1.89 3.02 6.16 11.07
9 Mandalay 0.66 0.19 0.85 1.76 4.81 7.42
10 Mon 0.56 0.56 1.12 1.04 0.87 3.03
11 Rakhine 2.56 2.54 5.1 1.21 2.78 9.09
12 Yangon 0.06 0.06 0.12 0.29 2.1 2.51
13 Shan 7.47 7.41 14.88 10.3 13.32 38.5
14 Ayeyarwady 0.54 0.54 1.08 1.41 6.2 8.69
15 Naypyitaw 0.19 0.64 0.83 0.49 0.4 1.72
Total 36.02 35.71 71.73 37.25 58.16 167.14
Source: Planning and Statistics Division (2016)
Forest Department plans to extend Reserved Forest and Protected Public Forest to be 30 % of
total land area of the economy and protected areas to be 10 % of total land area of the
economy. 827 Reserved Forests and 346 Protected Public Forests of 4,133,765 acres (24.70 %
of total land area of the economy) and 39 protected areas system of 9,607,490 acres (7.75 %
of total land area of the economy) had been established at the end of September,2018.
Forest management and implementation of forest conservation activities
Scientific forest management in Myanmar was initiated by Dr. Dietrich Brandis since his
arrival in 1856. The first Forest Management Plan was prepared for teak forests of Bago
Yoma in order to ensure sustainability. Myanmar Selection System (MSS) was initiated in
1881 and the system was scaled up in most District Forests in 1920. Under MSS, trees which
have marketable girth limit are selected and extracted. Meanwhile, enumeration of future
yield and tending operations activities were carried out. Currently, forest conservation
activities are being implemented by drawing District Forest Management Plan from 2016-
2017 to 2025-2026.
Forest operations such as teak girdling, selection marking and felling, plantation
establishment, natural regeneration, improvement felling, weeding, thinning, repairmen of
forest roads, repairmen of reserved boundaries, repairmen of compartment boundaries and fire
protection were carried out in order to enhance quality of forests. Climber cutting, Nyaung-
bat felling and of Reservation of forest areas were later included into the operations while
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enrichment planting, pruning and community forestry were also included in 2013.
Unsystematic extraction which often exceeds official annual allowable cuts (AACs) greatly
damage the composition of forests which subsequently degraded into forest with less teak,
pyinkado and padauk and other valuable species.
East Pago Yoma Project-EPP was implemented from 1979 to 1984 by financial support of
Word Bank in order to fulfill the basic-needs of people and to fulfill demand of timber and
non-timber forest products by the people, Moreover, ADB project was also implemented with
the financial support of ADB. FD established 62, 3000 acres of forest plantations annually.
The highest annual plantation area was 80,000 acres in 1985 the lowest annual plantation area
was 7,600 acres in 2015. By 2016, FD has established 2,180,811 acres of plantations which
accounted for 1,211,695 acres of commercial plantation, 338,009 acres of watershed
plantation, 179,121 acres of industrial plantation, 449,586 acres of village-used fuelwood
plantation and 2,400 acres of mangrove plantation.
Special teak plantation program was initiated in 1998 with high expectation. It was planned to
grow 8,100 ha of teak plantation annually until 2037 and projected to harvest 1.8 mil m3
annually from the final year but the program stopped now. During 8 years (1998-1999 to
2005-2006), about 160,000 acres of teak plantation were established. However, the return
from many plantations is found to be low because of shortage of manpower, limited budget,
weak governance, insufficient maintenance, weak monitoring limited follow-up timely
tending operations, and so on.
Private plantation program was initiated in 2006. The total plantation (Teak, Hardwoods and
Industrial plantation and long term crop plantation such as Rubber, Palm - oil, Sugarcane,
Tapioca) area have reached up to 297,004 acres by 2015-2016. Community forestry was
started in 1995 and 282,432 acres of community forests have been established throughout the
economy by 2016. Private sector and community involvement in plantation establishment are
encouraging situations. However, profits and returns are still found to be low as final harvest
is still long way while intermediate yield could only be harvested from the plantations.
Drivers for Deforestation and Major Reasons of Reforestation and
Rehabilitation
Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Myanmar are as follow: -
Direct drivers
Excessive timber extraction
• Illegal logging
• Over cutting of fuel wood
• Land-encroachment for agriculture
• Shifting cultivation
• Mining
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• Dam construction
• Infrastructure construction for urban development
• Expansion of ponds for breeding of fishes and prawns in mangrove forests
• Natural disaster (forest fire, storm, floods, pest, diseases, landslides)
Indirect drivers
• Corruption
• Poverty
• Limited job opportunity
• High demand of forest products
• Lack of land use policy
• Weak monitoring and evaluation
• Limited budget
• Weak law enforcement
• Population pressure
• Poor stakeholders’ engagement
• Weak political support
Myanmar has total population of 51,486,253 with 10,877,823 households. Urban population
accounts for 29.6% (15.24 million) while rural population accounts for 70.4% (36.25 million).
81% of total households use fuel wood, charcoal and briquettes. 86% of rural household use
fuel wood and charcoal while 52% of urban household use fuel wood, charcoal and briquettes.
Thus, forest rehabilitation and reforestation call for due actions in order to provide basic
needs such as food, shelter and fuel to the present and future generation.
Forest rehabilitation and reforestation activities in the past were not fully effective due to the
following reasons
Organizational issues
Insufficient staff limited budget, weak governance, weak monitoring and evaluation, limited
skilled staff, weak stakeholder engagement.
Technological issues
Limited availability of good quality seeds, weak nursery practice systems, weak seasonal
practice (work) for silvicultural and forest management, limited accessibility to advanced
technology, lack of modern techniques, equipment and laboratory.
Policy issues
Lack of national land use policy, lack of forest plantation policy and land tenure, inconsistent
sectorial policy, weak policy support for policy
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Therefore, Myanmar rehabilitation and reforestation program will be implemented in a
systematic way and the program will be designed to reflect existing condition and developed
based on lessons learnt from the past. The program is intended to increase forest cover, to
reduce deforestation and forest degradation.
Expected Outcomes
The rehabilitation and reforestation program is expected to deliver the following outcomes-
• Development of plantation policy
• Practice of suitable silvicultural operations based on degree and level of forest
degradation and deforestation
• The development of Forest Management Committee in respective Districts, Regions
and States.
• The development of coordination mechanism between FD and relevant ministries
• Reviewing and comparing the national (30) year master plan in accordance with the
current status and revising the new reforestation plan.
• Combating illegal logging with participation of local people and relevant line
ministries.
• Fulfilling the basic needs of the local for forest products.
• Phytoremediation of land affected by mining
• Use of proper seed collection methods for reforestation program.
• Job opportunities for local people.
• Enhancement of awareness of local people concerning the value of forests.
• Promotion of applied research
• Promotion of collaboration with international organizations
• Climate change mitigation and adaptation
Project Period
Reforestation program will be conducted based on two project phases. The first project phase
will be (2017-2018) – (2021-2022) and the second phase will be (2022- 2023)- (2026-2027).
Project Area
Three regions included 13 districts under the Dry Zone Greening Department.
• Naypyitaw Region
• Forest Regions and States including 68 districts under Forest Department.
Implementing Institution
With the participation of local people, Forest Department implementing reforestation program
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with financial and technical assistance of national and international organizations. If
necessary, suitable and interested organizations are allowed to implement reforestation
program and Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation will monitor
their implementation.
Implementing Activities
The following rehabilitation and reforestation activities in line with national forest policy are
implementing:
1) Development of plantation policy; Plantation Policy will be developed during the phase II
of the rehabilitation and reforestation program with close cooperation with national
experts as well as by assistance of international experts.
2) Assisted Natural Regeneration; implement where natural regeneration is insufficient. The
following activities are conducted: Coppicing of unsound trees
• Nyaung-bat felling
• Pruning
• Thinning
• Weeding
• Seeding
• Fire protection
Natural Regeneration; an important activity of forest rehabilitation and restoration to enhance
the quality of degraded forest where there are less than 300 trees per acres growing.
Enrichment Planting; one of the most important activities which intend to enrich natural
forests where natural regeneration is insufficient. In first year, there will be not only planting
of locally adaptable and economically important tree species but also implementation of
normal plantation operations such as weeding, patching, fertilizing and fire protection.
Moreover weeding and fire protection will be carried out for the first 3 years of plantation.
Establishment of forest plantation; Artificial regeneration are conducted in areas where there
is serve forest degradation and deforestation, in areas which cannot be rehabilitated by means
of natural regeneration and by enrichment planting. Forest plantation includes commercial
plantation, watershed plantation, mangrove plantation, village supply/ fuel wood plantation,
others greening plantation and hill green plantation.
Private plantation; Teak (private owned) and other hardwood plantation are allowed in order
to develop the economic sector of the private plantations, to supply the desired raw material
for wood based industrial consumption and for domestic uses and export purposes.
Community forests; in order to supply the development of national economic potentials, to
reduce poverty of rural community, to reduce dependency on natural forest, to stabilize
environment and ecosystem, to provide basic needs of local people and to promote
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participation of local people in environmental conservation activities.
Agroforestry; a practice which integrates planting of forestry and agricultural crops with aim
to conserve water, soil and ecosystem while fulfilling livelihood of local people and
promoting income generation from the practice.
Old Commercial plantation; The condition of old commercial plantation, which was
established between 1981-1982 and 2009-2010, are assessed by actual ground observation.
Based on existing condition of old plantation, plantation standards will be graded.
Distribution of seedlings; distributed to the general public in order to assist housing estates of
rural community, to supply timber, post, pole and fuel for husbandry and animal breeding
purposes, to develop awareness of people on trees and forests.
Tending operation on 5-year old plantations; Pruning and cleaning intends to upgrade the
quality of plantation in the first 5 years. Thinning is a operation on removal of undesirable,
dead and old trees to get growing space in monoculture plantation and natural forests.
Clonal Seed Orchards (CSOs) and Seed Production Areas (SPAs); aimed at conserving good
genetic quality and producing good quality timber by using improved seeds. CSOs and SPAs
will be established for commercial tree species such as of teak, pyinkado, padauk, tamalan
and reserved tree spp.
Seed and Seedling Centers (SSCs); aimed at producing locally and commercially important
superior species using seeds from different provenances of Myanmar while providing
technical assistance and seedlings in reforestation program. To produce sufficient qualified
seedlings in reforestation program, eight research stations and eight seed and seedling centers
(SSCs) and 100000-seedlings nursery are established.
Extension of reserved forests/ protected public forests; According to Myanmar Forest Policy
(1995), it is planned to extend 30% of the total area of the economy as reserved forest and
protected public forest and 5% in short-term and 10% in long term as protected areas.
Currently, 24.79% and 5.75 % of the areas have been established as reserved forest, protected
public forest and protected areas, respectively. Thus, more areas will be extended for
designation as reserved forests, protective public forests and protected areas in States and
Regions.
Water supply; Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD) implements making small ponds,
construction of the small reservoir, tube wells and preparing reservoir for drinking water for
villages and for animals and for nurseries in central dry zone of Myanmar.
Special greening activities; conducted in drought and dry areas where there is little forest
using fast growing big saplings by Dry Zone Greening Department (DZGD).
Promotion of fuel wood substitutes; 80 % households in Myanmar are using the firewood
according to Myanmar population census in 2014. About 18 million cubic tons of firewood
per year will be needed if calculated using firewood for each township household as 1.4 cubic
tons and for each rural household as 2.5 cubic tons. For the implementation of the project,
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30000 A1 cook-stoves, reducing about 40% the use of firewood, will be distributed with the
aim to contribute and to reduce harvesting of firewood in the natural forests. The local people
who are aware of advantages of these cook-stoves will be trained the methods of making the
cook-stove to contribute and sell by themselves. Dry Zone Greening Department implement
activities by developing action plans in order to reduce deforestation by using efficient
cooking stoves, by-products, fuel-wood substitutes, and by establishment of model village, by
conducting public awareness activities and by establishment of extension camps.
Training; Department staff, workers and villagers of the Forest Department and Dry Zone
Greening Department who implement reforestation activities are trained in different groups to
improve capacity for conducting administration and forest activities.
Applied research; promoted with close collaboration between Forest Research institute and
international organizations. Research related to silvicultural practices, nursery practices,
spacing, physical and chemical characteristics of the species are conducted in different
planting zones. Practical results will be applied.
Extension activities; the following activities are implemented by organizing extension groups
in cooperation with project implementing units. Moreover, participation of CSO and NGOs
plays a vital role in sustainable forest management, environmental conservation, biodiversity
conservation, soil and water resources conservation in extension stations of project zones.
1) Informing and reporting project implementing activities and programs to the district
and township administration departments, relevant departments and CSO.
2) The activities on forest, soil and water conservation, village-owned forest
management, reduced impact logging, establishment of SPA, training program,
research and public awareness will be conducted in close collaboration with
enterprises and departments under Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental
Conservation.
3) For raising public awareness, pamphlet, poster, documents, cartoons videos and
article will be published.
4) Public awareness activities for illegal activities, encroachment and shifting
cultivation and for terrace farming to eliminate traditional shifting cultivation system
and for land preparation method in permanent plots.
5) Public education about village owned plantations as the rural public movement as
firewood and charcoal requirements for rural and urban use are beyond the
productivity of natural forests.
6) Public awareness for establishment of fuel wood plantations according to forest law
section (5), in “establishment of different types of plantations”, village supply fuel
wood plantations are concerned only with local people and private sector can also
have the right to manage and own the firewood plantations under the permission of
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation.
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7) Public awareness on natural environment, social and environmental development
relating to sustainable forest development.
8) Awareness raising about the role of agroforestry, community forestry and private
plantation.
9) Provision of planting techniques to the general public and establishment of
demonstration plots.
Organizational Arrangement
Organizational arrangement plays an important role for effective and successful
implementation of the project. Institutional capacity is one of the most important elements to
generate sustainable and successful project outcomes. In order to successfully implement
forest rehabilitation and reforestation projects (that have been described), the project is
conducted by forming project monitoring committees and implementation units. The
project is well structured with regards to responsibilities of project committees, classification
of different project zones, developing detail plans for implementing annual project activities,
calculating staff requirements, finding availability of labor force for projects, calculating the
needs of buildings, machines and tools, and estimating budget for forest operations
implemented and tools.
Project Steering committee, Central Project Monitoring Committee, Regional/ State Project
Monitoring Committee, District Project Implementing Unit, Township Project Implementing
Unit and Basic Project Implementing Unit are organized with respectively responsible person
and Terms of reference (TORs) are designated for each committee and implementation unit.
Classification of Plantation Zones
Plantation zones are classified in order to successfully accomplish objectives of rehabilitation
and reforestation program based on management and accessibility. The plantation zones are
classified as follows:
Sr Zone Number Region/ State
1 Zone-1 Tanintharyi/ Mon / Kayin
2 Zone-2 Ayeyarwady/ Rakhine
3 Zone-3 Bago/Yangon/Naypyitaw
4 Zone-4 Sagaing/Kachin/Chin
5 Zone-5 Mandalay/Magway
6 Zone-6 Shan/Kayar
Annual Action Plan
Based on the activities which will be implemented in the respective project zones, Regional
& state level project monitoring committee submit Annual Action Plan to Central Project
Monitoring Committee after preparing the Plan in cooperation with township and basic
project implementing unit level.
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Number of Required Staff
National Rehabilitation and reforestation is conducted into six project zones in regions and
states. On behalf of central project monitoring committee, supervision is led by the director
(Natural forests & Plantation Division under Forest department), one deputy director
(Reforestation Project), one assistant director & staff officer. Apart from the reforestation
activities, the routine forest operations are carried out by the respective township staff of
Forest Department. Within townships in six project zones, reforestation and rehabilitation will
be implemented by basic project implementing units. New staff, totally 1696 staff, (between
ranks ranging from Range officers to nursery workers) are proposed to appoint.
Labor
Since reforestation works have to be usually carried out in reserved forests and protected
public forests, it is important to have permanent and temporary labor. Forest operations will
be successfully done only if the permanent and temporary labor are sustainably available
within the project period. The following measures will be carried out in order to obtain
sufficient labor for operations.
a) Recruitment of labor from 50 & above-household-villages of which settlements were
deserved from forest land.
b) Recruitment of labor from homeless and jobless local people from the villages
nearby the reserved forests.
c) Recruitment of labor from the forest villages which will be established by the forest
department on accessible areas within the project period.
Budget
Within the fiscal years from 2017-2018 to 2026-2027, the budget required for forestry
operations, infrastructure, vehicles, fuel, other necessitates & staff salary are abuout
(573,581.86) million kyats.
Monitoring and Evaluation
In order to assess the expected outputs while implementing Myanmar Reforestation and
Rehabilitation Program, project monitoring committee will be organized within the project
period and monitoring and evaluation carried out as follows;
a) Mid-term evaluation
b) End of Project evaluation
c) Ex-post evaluation
The project will be developed based on the lessons learned from short-term and long term
impacts.
Annual Action Plan prepare through cooperation with implementing teams at township &
basic plantation unit level. Implementing teams at township & basic plantation unit level will
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implement project activities as described in the plan. The Project Monitoring Committee at
Region & State level pay a monthly inspection visit to the project sites and then submit
monthly progress report to Central Monitoring Committee. In every fiscal year, six inspection
teams jointly organized by Central monitoring committee & monitoring committee at Region
& state level make an overall inspection visit to the six project zones and within one month
after fiscal year, they submit the inspection report to the Central Project Monitoring
Committee.
Conclusion
In order to meet sustainable need for the direct & indirect benefits from the forests for the
current & future generations as stated in Myanmar Forest Policy, forestry operations as
described in National Rehabilitation and Reforestation Program and the extension programs
are implemented nationwide. These forest restoration programs shall not only benefit national
people but also support climate change mitigation within ASEAN region. Therefore, Ministry
of Natural Resources and Environmental Conservation, in cooperation with line ministries,
will put its emphasis on implementation of forest rehabilitation program not only by national
budget but also by financial and technical support from international organizations.
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Forest Rehabilitation and Management in Nepal
Mohan Chandra Bishwakarma
Under Secretary, Ministry of Forests and Environment, Nepal
Abstract: Community forestry intervention particularly in hills has significantly contributed
in forest cover increase in recent decades in Nepal. Leasehold forestry partly contributed in
rehabilitation of heavily degraded forest lands. Similarly, large scale plantation programs and
annual plantations activities by different government forestry institutions and communities
have partially supported in forest development. However, unsustainable harvesting of timber
and fuel wood, forest encroachment, haphazard infrastructure development activities such as
road, public building construction etc., forest fire, over grazing along with other underlying
causes like high dependency on forest resources, increased demand for forest products etc. are
realized to be responsible for forest degradation in the economy. Government has formulated a
number of policies and strategies to address these drivers of deforestation and forest
degradation to increase the overall forest productivity. Silvicultural systems based sustainable
forest management in Terai is deriving promising results in managing overstocked and
degraded small forest patches. Rapid expansion of ongoing sustainable forest management
should be made in all possible government and community managed forests to achieve the
intended outcomes. Therefore, introduction of modern tools and techniques along with
generation of adequate skilled human resources is highly essential to support ongoing
technical forest management in Nepal.
1. Introduction
1.1 Forests, People and Other Land use
Forest covers 6.61 million ha (44.74%) of the economy land; forest-5.96 million ha (40.36%)
and Other Wooded Land (OWL) 0.65 million ha (4.38%) (see Annex-1) (DFRS, 2015). Of the
total forest area, 37.80% lies in middle mountain, 32.25% in high mountain and high himal,
23.04% in Churia and 6.90% in Terai. The contribution of agriculture and forestry to national
GDP is estimated to remain at 26.5% in 2018/19 (MoF, 2019). Estimated forestry sector
contribution is 15 % to agricultural sector GDP (MPFS, 1988). Forest supplies 70% of fuel
wood and 40% of animal feed. About two-third of the total households use fire wood as usual
source of fuel for cooking (CBS, 2012).
The current population is 26.49 million and observed annual growth rate is 1.35% (CBS,
2012). Total number of households is 5.42 million. More than 6 million people (21.6%) are
still below the poverty line (MoF, 2018). Forest not only contributes in agricultural
productivity but also supports Tourism, Industry and Energy sectors. The National Land use
Survey Project, 2016 has estimated Forest (39.5%), Shrub land (4.1%), Agriculture (25%),
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Rocky area (14.4%), Grazing/rage land (11.9%) and Remaining (5.3 %) is covered by others
such as rivers, snow, ponds, lakes, urban area, barren land etc (see Annex-2) (DoS, 2016).
1.2 State of Deforestation and Forest Degradation
1.2.1 Deforestation
Forest and shrub land consistently declined during 1964 (45.55%) to 1999 (39.6%). The
current increase in forest cover (39.6% to 44.74%) is due to mainly community forestry
intervention particularly in mountains, abandonment of agricultural land and partly
methodological differences (Niraula et al. 2013, Gautam et al. 2002, Poudel et al. 2015,
DFRS, 2015). The highest rate of deforestation was observed between 1947 and 1980, where
Nepal’s forest cover declined at an annual rate of 2.7%. The annual deforestation rate was
1.7% during 1980s to mid-1990s with 2.3% in hills and 1.3% in Terai (DFRS, 1999). In recent
years, it is observed that forest degradation, rather than deforestation is a primary concern in
Nepal (MoFSC, 2014a).
1.2.2 Illegal Harvesting of Timber and Fuel wood
Illegal harvesting is generally carried out either by local residents or by illegally organized
groups particularly in Terai. Commercial logging is now banned but few cases of over
extraction of timber than approved forest operation plan by CFUGs have been reported.
Illegal collection of fire wood for household use is common throughout the economy. It has
been estimated that over 100,000 cubic feet of timber was illegally harvested in 2009 in Terai
(Khadka, 2010). Currently, demand outstrips supply. There will continue to be a shortage of timber
and fuel wood in Terai region due to high current demand and population growth (Kanel et al., 2012).
About 17.5 million cft timber legally extracted in 2017/18, and amount of timber and fuel
wood supply has continuously increased in the last 10 years (DoF, 2017, MoF, 2019).
1.2.3 Forest Encroachment and Resettlement Programs
The latest figure shows that about 125,110 ha (3,876 ha in PAs and 121,234 ha outside the
PAs) of forest lands have been differently encroached by more than 30,194 households in 740
locations (DoF, 2017, DNPWC, 2017). However, this figure is assumed to be far below than
the actual.
Government sponsored resettlement programs resulted in clearing of forests in Terai in a
massive scale during 1960s. It is estimated that over 140,000 ha forest lands distributed to
landless people in the last 40 years (MoFSC, 2014a). In the past 30 years, 2,819 ha of forest
lands were distributed to landless, free bonded-laborers and resettlements purpose (MoFE,
2018) of which, only 2.65 ha is distributed in the last 15 years for the purpose of relocating
protected area settlement (MoFE, 2018). It is estimated that over 450,000 households are still
landless in Nepal, (HLSLRC, 2010). Use of forest lands legally for resettlement purpose has
greatly reduced in the recent years.
1.2.4 Use of Forests Lands to Priority Development Projects
A total of 16,716 ha forest lands (including 4,690 ha for plantation to SFDP in 1994) have
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been provided to more than 516 development projects during 1985-2018 9 (see Annex-3)
(MoFE, 2018). In the last 15 years, hydropower, security forces, infra-structure development
projects, public building constructions are top most forest land receiving sectors. The amount
of such lands has continuously increased in the last 5 years and this is may be due to
increasing demand of forest lands for hydropower projects (MoFE, 2018).
1.2.5 Grazing, Forest Fire and Other Disturbances to Forest
Nearly two-third of the total forest area was affected by grazing (DFRS, 2015). It is observed
that livestock number has increased by 19% between 2001/02 - 2011/12, when the number of
goat and sheep increased but cow and buffalo decreased (CBS, 2019). Consumption of fodder
exceeds sustainable supply in some regions (Maren et al., 2014).
It is estimated that forest fire burn occurs in 0.16 million ha annually in Nepal. A recent study
in a Terai district revealed that, of the total forest biomass burnt, leaf and grass biomass
constituted more than 90% and only 0.01-0.4% was of tree biomass. This indicates surface
fire is the most common phenomenon (Bhujel, 2019). During 2018, forest fires were recorded
in more than 1303 different locations. Few crown fires particularly in coniferous forests in
mountains were detected few years ago (personal communication with Chief of Fire Desk,
DoF).
FAO estimated a forest loss of 2.2% (23,375 ha) in a 2015 earth quake in Nepal (MoSTE,
2015). Churia was observed to have highest occurrence of grazing, forest fire, landslides and
cutting of vegetation. Tree cutting and lopping were highest in forests of Terai (DFRS, 2015).
1.3 Brief History of Forest Management and Rehabilitation
Forests which were as a private property came under State after 1957. Before that,
commercial logging for timber supply to India and clearing of forests for agricultural
expansions held massively. Government institutions were established to manage and protect
forests. Forest management remained under full control of State till 1976. Then after, it is
realized that only state protection efforts are not adequate to protect and manage ongoing
deforestation. Government formulated its first forestry sector plan in 1976 to manage forests
resources in a sustainable way in cooperation with local communities. As a result, community
forestry emerged to address deforestation problem in mid 1970s. CF expanded throughout
hills massively. Forest Act, 1993 and its Regulation, 1994 formalized and further enhanced
community based forest management. After 2000, leasehold forestry in hills and collaborative
forestry in Terai evolved as new participatory model. After 2014, Silviculture system based
sustainable forest management of forests started in Terai and now is expanding in hills (see
Annex-4).
2. National Level Efforts in Forest Rehabilitation
2.1 National Policy Instruments
Government of Nepal formulated a number of plans and policies to conserve and manage
forest resources. They have played vital role in conservation and management of forests,
watersheds and biodiversity (see Annex-5).
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Plan and Policy
• The National Forestry Plan, 1976
• The Master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1988/89 (25 years plan)
• The Leasehold Forest Policy, 2002
• The Revised National Forest Policy, 2000
• The Forest Policy, 2015
• The Forestry Sector Strategy, (2016-2025)
• The REDD Strategy, 2018
• The National Forest Policy, 2019
Legislations
• The Forest Act, 1993 and Regulation, 1994
• The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 and its Regulation, 1974
and Buffer Zone Management Regulation, 1996
• The Environment Protection Act, 1996 and Regulation, 1997
Strategy and Guideline
• The Forest Encroachment Control and Management Strategy, 2011
• The Forest Fire Control And Management Strategy, 2010
• The Working Procedure on Scientific Forest Management, 2014
• The Working Procedure on Use of Forest Lands for National Priority Project, 2018
2.2 Key Programs Implemented
The government of Nepal implemented different programs in order to conserve and manage
forests, watersheds and biodiversity to its full extent in order to meet the increasing demand
for forest products without further degrading the ecosystems and biodiversity.
2.2.1 Large Scale Plantation Programs
In addition to following large scale plantations program, regular afforestation and
reforestation activities by different government forestry institutions and FUGs are supporting
to rehabilitate degraded forests in Nepal.
Tab. 1 Large Scale Plantation Programs
SN Program Key features Remarks
1 Sagarnath Forest
Development Project,
1978
Started with clear felling of 10,740 ha heavily degraded
natural forests
Project covers 13,500 ha, of which 10,447 ha is under
plantation (55% is covered by Eucalyptus, 45 % by Sisoo
Under
(FPDB)
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and Teak, and remaining by Khair and other species
Adopted Taungya agro-forestry
2 Ratuwamai
Afforestation Project,
1978
Project covers at 2,713 ha of which 2,240 ha is under
plantation. Eucalyptus is major species planted in 415 ha,
Sisoo and Teak in 200 ha
Under FPDB
3 Nepalgung Forest
Development Board,
1985
Plantation of fast growing species in 3,680 ha Not in
operation
now
2.2.2 Community Based Forest Management
Currently 2.49 million ha forests (including 0.14 million ha in buffer zones) is being managed
by more than 30,000 local forest user groups (CF, CFM, LHF) by which more than 3.84
million households are benefitted (see Annex-6). Community forestry alone shares 2.37
million ha with more than 22,500 user groups (DoF, 2017, DoF, 2018, DNPWC, 2017).
2.2.3 Sustainable Forest Management
within the period of last six years, about 83,000 ha of forests are currently being managed
under Silvicultural systems based scientific forest management. Of the total, 48% in
collaborative forest, 34.5% in community forests and 17.5% in government managed forests
particularly Terai (see Annex-7) (DoF, 2018). The estimated annual timber production target
from SFM is 6 million cft where 3.2 million timber and 2.64 million cft fuel wood (5288
Chatta) have been supplied in 2017/18 (MoF, 2019).
2.2.4 Protected Area Management and Protection Forests
About 23.39% (34,419.75 km2) land is currently under protected area management system
(DNPWC, 2018). Of the total forests of Nepal, 1.03 million ha (17.32%) lie inside PAs
(DFRS, 2015). There are 20 PAs (12 NP, 1 WLR, 1 HR, 6 CA) and 13 Buffer Zones. BZ
cover 5687.78 km2 (DNPWC, 2018). PA management has significantly contributed in forest
conservation. A total of 0.19 million ha forest is being managed under protection forest in 10
different locations (DoF, 2017).
2.2.5 Landscape Conservation Program
The government of Nepal is currently managing Terai Arc Landscape (24,710.13 km2),
Sacred Himalayan Landscape (23336.36 km2), Kanchenjungha Landscape (5190 km2),
Chitwan Annapurna Landscape (32090 km2) and Kailash Sacred Landscape (13224.18 km2)
for the conservation and management of forests, watersheds and biodiversity (see Annex-8)
(DoF, 2017).
2.2.6 REDD Forestry and Climate Change Program
Now implemented in 23 districts in Terai. Major activities are, SFM plan preparation support,
seedling productions, private forestry promotion, technical capacity building by training to
forestry staffs and communities etc.
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2.2.7 President Chure Terai Madesh Conservation Program
Implemented throughout Churia Conservation Area. Major activities are, seedling production
and distribution, plantation, natural regeneration conservation, soil conservation and bio-
engineering activities, forest fire control etc in Churia.
2.3 Institutional Framework
The Constitution of Nepal has decentralized forests, biodiversity, and watershed management
responsibilities in federal, state and local level governments (see Annex-9). National Forest
Policy formulation and protected area management is sole right of the Federal government
whereas management of forests within the State territory is a right of State government. Local
level environmental conservation and management is under Local government.
Tab. 2 Government Key Forestry Institutions Involved in Forest Rehabilitation
SN Federal Government (1) State Governments (7)
1 Ministry of Forests and
Environment
Ministry of Industry, Tourism, Forests and
Environment -7 (One in each states)
2 Department of Forests and Soil
Conservation
Forest Directorate Offices-7
3 Department of National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation
Divisional Forest Offices-77
4 Department of Plant Resources Watershed Management Offices-14
5 Department of Environment Forest Research and Training Centre-7
6 Forest Research and Training
Centre
7 REDD Implementation Centre
8 Forest Product Development Board
2.4 Stakeholder’s Engagement
More than 29,000 community, leasehold and collaborative forest user groups are involved in
the conservation and management of forests. Federation of Community Forest User Groups
(estd. 1995), Association of Collaborative Forest User Groups (estd. 2006), and Association
of Family Forest Owners Nepal (estd. 2015) are major CBOs working in Nepal’s forestry
sector.
2.5 Technology Development
Nepal has used few modern tools and techniques in some to extent such as satellite imageries
during national forest inventories, use of power chain saw in harvesting in SFM, use of
MODIS satellite data in fire surveillance and prevention etc. Similarly, real time SMART
Patrolling has in protected area management and Breeding Seed Orchards have been
establishment in different geographical regions. Indigenous knowledge and practices have
been utilized in forest management activities but introduction of modern tools and techniques
has been realized essential for the technical management of forests in Nepal.
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2.6 Financial Management
Government of Nepal allocated 128.7 million USD for forestry sector in 2017/18 which is
1.18% of the total annual national budget. Foreign aid constituted 22% in national budget in
2017/2018. Of which, forestry sector received 11.7 million USD (0.72% of the total foreign
aid in Nepal) which is a slight decrease in comparison to the last five years (MoF, 2018). In
the past, Government of Nepal worked with governments of Denmark, Finland, Japan, UK,
Germany, Switzerland, Australia, Netherlands etc., donor agencies such as UNDP-GEF,
WWF, IUCN, ZSL etc and multilateral organizations such as World Bank, Asian Development
Bank, for the forestry sector development and is continuing now.
3. Overall Outcomes and Lessons Learned
3.1 Community based Forest Management
Till date, more than 29,000 FUGs have been involved in the management of around 2.49
million ha of forests. CF is effective in improving forest condition in terms of regeneration,
growing stock, density of number of forest patches, biodiversity etc. (Pokharel et al., 2005).
LHF program have produced plenty of grasses and greenery within a two years period
resulting in increased incomes of poor families. Also, community engagement has played
great role in control of forest encroachments, shifting cultivation, forest fires, grazing etc. It is
widely observed that most of forest operation plans of FUGS are still protection oriented.
3.2 Sustainable Forest Management
About 83,000 ha forest is now being successfully managed under silviculture system based
SFM particularly in Terai. SFM has improved total growing stock, natural regeneration, forest
health, ecosystem functions and biodiversity (MSFP, 2016). Supply of timber and fuel wood
has increased than previous years because of different felling operations. Now, SFM is being
piloted in hills (pine forest and others). Inadequate skilled forestry staffs and trained local
users, lack of modern tools and techniques, and off course, lack of financial resources are
some observed challenges in SFM.
3.3 Plantation and Plantation Management
Between 1992-1996, plantations at more than 48,000 ha of forest land was carried out of
which 5,723 ha in government managed forest, 15,423.5 ha in CF, 25,827 ha in private land
and 1,733.4 ha in LHF (CES, 1998). By the year 2000, Nepal Australian Community Forestry
Project alone established plantation in some 20,000 ha of land (Cribe, 2006). More than 5,000
ha plantation has been done in the last three years (MoFE, 2019 unpublished progress report).
More than 144 million seedlings have been produced by government forestry institutions in
the last 10 years utilizing annual budgets (OAG, 2019). About, 10,447 ha of plantation under
SFDP and 2,240 ha under RAP is being managed. These plantations have contributed in
restocking degraded forest lands, supplied timber, fuel wood, poles for telecommunication
and transmission lines, raw materials (eucalyptus leaves) for essential oils production etc.
Mostly planted species are Sissoo (Dalbergia sisoo) and Euclyptus (Euclaytus cameldulensis)
in Terai, and Pinus roxburghii and Pinus patula in hills. Plantation of between (1963-1983)
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were observed successful and have created dense forest cover but plantations after that period
were not found satisfactory due to lack of inadequate quality planting materials, inappropriate
size of planting materials and planting techniques, and inadequate protection measures from
grazing and forest fires (Poudel, 2017).
Taungya villagers are now involved in forest land encroachment, illegal collection of forest
products, setting forest fire in SFDP area. It is observed that natural regeneration conservation
is an effective way of rehabilitating Sal (Shorea robusta) forest even in such areas where long
plantation efforts were proved failure. Growth performance of Eucalyptus planted in agro-
forestry setting was found poor in comparison to pure plantation (SFDP, 2015).
3.4 Private Forestry and Plantation Development
Till now, only 2,458 private forests are formally registered (DoF, 2017). Till now only 131 ha
forest land has been granted to 6 projects mostly for Rubber plantation (Ficus sps.). Las time
in 2004/05, 98.60 ha land was granted for rubber plantation, till then there is no demand of
forest lands for plantation activities. Land security, security of investment, forest crop
insurance, shortage of quality seed providers may be regarded as barriers for private forestry
development. However, private sectors engagement and investment in NTFPs based
enterprise development is increasing in recent years.
3.5 Forest Land Encroachment Control
Out of the total 125,110 ha forests encroached, 4291 ha has been freed from encroachment till
2017 (OAG, 2018). In the last three years, more than 3,500 ha land has been freed from
encroachers and fencing and plantations have been done in some lands (MoFE, 2019
unpublished progress report). Due to weak political commitment evacuation has become
difficult and lack of adequate financial resources rehabilitation measures are hampered.
Negligible amount of lands have been received as compensation from development projects.
These sites were mostly never planted and established as per agreement. Such lands are found
to be illegally encroached by squatters in some places. Monitoring of such projects from the
concerned district authorities is very poor (MoFE, 2018). Development agencies prefer to
construct roads through forestlands as they get the land free and can also avoid diverse types
of local disputes. In some cases, roads are deliberately constructed through the forest land in
order to facilitate the extraction of timber (CNRM, 2010).
4. Ways Forward
• SFM should be extended in all possible government and community managed forests.
Develop adequate skilled forestry professionals and trained manpower at community
level.
• Productive forests should be mapped and managed according to the production potential.
• Protection oriented forest operation plans of CFUGs should be revised in to SFM plans.
CFUGs should be involved in forest based enterprise development in a cooperative
model.
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• Leasehold forest (below poverty line) should be expanded to possible extent. High value
NTFPs cultivation and enterprise developed should be promoted.
• Produce quality seedling by using trusted seed sources. Promote use of planting materials
of appropriate size and type in plantations.
• Arrange appropriate fencing to protect plantation sites from grazing, forest fires, potential
encroachments etc. Provide irrigation and weeding facilities at least for few years.
• Carry out more studies on success of plantations by species, type of planting materials,
geographical locations, type of plantations such as community or government plantation
etc.
• Prefer natural regeneration conservation wherever possible rather artificial regeneration.
• Train more staffs in modern nursery techniques and management.
• High level political committee at centre level should be formed to obtain political support
in forest encroachment control.
• A separate guideline should be developed to attract private sectors in large scale private
plantations and associated forest based industry/enterprise development.
• Develop of forestry parks and or promote urban forestry at barren, degraded public lands
in collaboration with local governments in order to create greenery and also protect land
from further encroachments.
• Promote agro-forestry in private lands with fast growing species in order to supplement
household level demand for forest products especially in Terai. Provide alternative energy
sources such as solar, biogas, improved cooking stoves etc. to them.
• Control burning practice will be highly cost effective and beneficial in forest fire control.
Develop good network of fires lines and maintain regularly. Create awareness on forest
fires during dry season.
• Look for possible alternatives of a priority development projects before approval. Regular
field monitoring of such projects from concerned district level authorities should be
increased in order to get lands to be compensated and plantations to be established.
• High altitude range/pasture lands are not adequately managed yet. An innovative
approach should be introduced for high altitude range/pasture land management. Private
sector can be attracted for NTFPs cultivation in such lands.
• Introduce modern tools and techniques and innovations in technical forest management.
• Institutionalize result based monitoring. Policy formulation should be interlinked with
research and development.
• Forest governance should be improved.
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5. Summary
The highest rate of deforestation (2.7%) in Nepal was observed before 1970s. The causes of
deforestation were, timber export to India for railway sleepers, agricultural expansion, forest
land granting as a private property to family members during Rana regime etc. And
deforestation still continued in subsequent years but the rate reduced to in an average 1.7%.
Government of Nepal formulated different forestry plans and policies, and programs in order
to address deforestation. Community forestry program was introduced during 1970s and
became very successful in contributing rehabilitation of degraded and denuded hills. Success
behind community forestry was involvement of local communities in the protection and
management of forests. Community participation provided better protection to forests from
forest fires, grazing, illegal logging, encroachment etc. Later on, other community based
forest management models including leasehold forest emerged which further supported CF.
Government and community plantations contributed in greenery development in barren and
heavily degraded forests. Government itself initiated Sagarnath forest development project
and Ratuwamai afforestation project in 1978 and later introduced another Nepaljung forest
development project in 1985 in order to manage degraded natural forests by large scale
plantations and natural regeneration conservation. Natural Sal stands were established by
regeneration conservation even in plantation failure areas in Sagarnath. Quality of seedlings
and adequate protection measures must be ensured for the successful plantation in the coming
days. Strong political commitment is required to evacuate encroached forest areas and
arrangement of adequate financial resources is essential. Result based monitoring of forest
lands given to priority development projects should be increased to get compensated lands
timely and ensure plantation establishment. Development of good network of forest fire lines
and control burning practices help to control forest fires. Over and free grazing in forests
should be discouraged by stall feeding. Silvicultural systems based SFM is being
implemented and getting success in Terai both in terms of improving forest condition and
supply of timber and fuel wood without compromising quality of ecosystems and biodiversity.
SFM should be implemented to all possible government and community managed forests in
order to meet growing demands for forest products.
Development of adequate skilled forestry professional and trained human resources at local
level is required for the rapid implementation of SFM. Introduction of technological
innovations for sustainable forest management and policy formulations based on research and
development is essential for the overall development of forestry sector in Nepal.
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Abbreviation
BZ Buffer Zone
CA Conservation Area
CF Community Forest
Cft Cubic Feet
CFM Collaborative Forest Management
CFUG Community Forest User Groups
CBO Community Based Organization
DoF Department of Forests
FPDB Forest Products Development Board
FRA Forest Resource Assessment
FUG Forest User Groups
GDP Dross Domestic Products
Ha Hactare
HR Hunting Reserve
LH Leasehold Forest
MPFS Master Plan for Forestry Sector
NP National Parks
NTFPs Non-timber Forest Products
NGOs Non Governmental Organizations
OWL Other Wooded Lands
PAs Protected Areas
REDD Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation
SFM Sustainable Forest Management/Scientific Forest Management
SFDP Sagarnath Forest Development Project
RAP Ratuwamai Aforestation Project
USD United States Dollar
WLR Wildlife Reserve
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Annex:1 National Level Forest Inventories
Report Produced
by Year
Forest Shrub land Total
Million ha % Million ha % Million ha %
Forest Survey and
Research Office
(FSRO)
1964 6.402 45.55 - - 6402 45.55
Land Resource
Mapping Project
(LRMP)
1978/79 5.616 38.1 0.689 4.7 6285 42.8
Master Plan for
Forestry Sector
(MPFS)
1985/86 5.424 37.4 0.706 4.8 6210 42.2
National Forest
Inventory (NFI)
(DFRS)
1999 4.268 29 1.560 10.6 5828 39.6
Forest Resource
Assessment- FRA
(DFRS)
2010-
2014 5.962 40.36 0.647* 4.38 6.61 44.74
* OWL is Shrub land and area with tree crown cover (5-10%)
Source : Adapted from DFRS, 2015
Annex: 2 Land Use Pattern
SN Land Use Category Ecological Region (area in % of national total) Nepal (in %)
Mountain Hills Terai
1 Forest 7.94 21.54 10.02 39.5
2 Agriculture 3.27 11.07 10.65 25.0
3 Rock 12.27 2.13 0.00 14.4
4 Grazing 7.93 3.61 0.35 11.9
5 Shrub 1.35 2.57 0.18 4.1
6 River 0.88 0.86 1.16 2.9
7 Snow/Glacier 1.23 0.27 0.00 1.5
8 Barren Land 0.35 0.04 0.01 0.4
9 Urban 0.84 42.28 56.88 0.4
10 Pond/Lake/Reservoir 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.1
Total
Source : Adapted from National Land Use Project, 2016, Survey Department
Annex: 3 National Forest Lands Provide to Other Priority Project
SN Purpose Number of
Projects Area (ha)
1 Government Offices (VDC,muncipality, other project offices) 92 678.57
2 Hydro Power, Electricity Transmission line 164 3,223.63
3 Landless, land squatters 18 2,819.12
4 Security forces 67 1,726.28
5 Infrastructures- Road, drinking water supply, irrigation projects 57 1,689.66
6 Plantation (Rubber) 7 4,690.40
7 Hospital, school, college 38 881.51
8 Cement, limestone mining 22 398.85
9 Wildlife farming 2 256.37
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10 NTFPS enterprise 2 128
11 Hotel, resort, park, cable car 19 214.74
12 Telecommunication tower 25 6.33
Total 16,716.7
Source : MoFSC, 2018
Annex : 4 Brief History of Nepal's Forest Management
Before 1957 : Forests was administered as private property
up to 1864 Era of forest conversion to agricultural land Commercial logging for timber
export to India and agricultural
expansion
1864-1950 Privatization of forest by autocratic regime
1950-1956 Transition period of conversion of forest from
private property to as state property
1957-1990: Forest was controlled as state property
1957-1960 Nationalization of private forest-forest declared as
state property
Realization of management as
deforestation continued
CF was introduced to rehabilitate
degraded forests in hills
1961-1975 State's control and command approach remained
dominant
1976-1986 Emergence of concept of community forestry
1987-1990 Formalization of current forest policy
1991-2018: Forest has been managed as common property
1991-2000 Translation of community forestry principles and
policies in to practices
Continuation of CF
Introduction of LHF to rehabilitate
degraded forest (<20% crown
cover)
Now, scientific forest management
in Terai and piloting in hills.
2000 on
wards
Recognization of community forestry as an
effective resource management tools
Emergence of collaborative, leasehold forest
management
Promotion of forestry activities in private and
public land
Implementation of SFM
Annex: 5 Forestry Sector Key Plan and Policies
Plan and Policies Key Provision/Features
The National Forestry Plan,
1976
Emphasized on need of sustainable management of forests, technology
development and public cooperation
The Master Plan for the
Forestry Sector,
MPFS,1988/89 (25 years plan)
CF and LHF got high priority
Emphasized on enrichment plantation, larger scale plantations,
seedling production and distribution
Aimed to establish at least a quarter of a million hectare new
plantation by 2010
The Revised National Forest
Policy, 2000 Introduced block forest management and CF in Terai
The Leasehold Forest Policy,
2002
Defined LHF to be practiced in shrub land (< 20%crown cover) by
utilizing people below poverty line
The Forest Policy, 2015
Forest development in encroached area
Not to provide forest land to other non-forestry use unless there is no
alternatives
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Implement SFM in all possible forests
Mapping of productive forest area
The Forestry Sector Strategy,
FSS (2016-2025)
Implementation of SFM
Aimed about 50% of Tarai and inner Terai forests and at least 25% of
middle hills and mountain forest being sustainably managed
REDD Strategy, 2018 Establish and maintain National Forest Monitoring System
Implementation of SFM, promote private and public land forestry
The National Forest Policy,
2019
Defined collaboration and cooperation among federal, state and local
level government for forest management
Aimed to maintain existing forest cover (44.74%)
Rehabilitation of all degraded forest lands, promotion of urban and
family forestry
Legislations
The Forest Act, 1993 and
Regulation, 1994
Categorized forests as national and private forest. National forests
further as government managed including block forest, collaborative
forest, protection forest, community forest, leasehold forest, religious
forest
Transferred forest management right to local communities
Strictly prohibited registering forest land as a private property
Do not provide forest lands for any kind of resettlement programs
Prohibits illegal felling, cultivation, encroachments, grazing, forest
fire, etc in national forests
The National Parks and
Wildlife Conservation Act,
1973, Regulation 1974 and
Buffer Zone Management
Regulation, 1996
Management of different categories of PAs (NP,WLR,HR,CA and BZ)
Mobilization of buffer zone institutions in PA management
Allocation of 30-50% of the annual park revenue for BZ development
program
Prohibits illegal felling, hunting, cultivation, grazing, forest fire, etc in
PAs.
The Environment Protection
Act, 1996 and Regulation,
1997
Provision of IEE/EIA and implementation of EMP
Defines threshold for IEE/EIA
Provision of penalties against IEE/EIA
Strategies and Guidelines
The Forest Encroachment
Control and Management
Strategy, 2011
Implementation of Encroachment Control Plan
Control further encroachment
Evacuate encroached areas gradually
Implement rehabilitation measures in encroached areas
Obtain political commitment for evacuation
Formulated a central level committee comprising representatives from
line ministries, all security forces, FECOFUN
The Forest Fire Control And
Management Strategy, 2010
Implement fire management plans at center, district and FUGs level
Fire fighting in collaboration and cooperation
Reclamation of the fire burnt areas
The Working Procedure on
Scientific Forest Management,
2014
Emphasized on implementation of SFM
Recommended different silvicultural systems according to different
forest conditions
The Working Procedure on
Use of Forest Lands for
National Priority Project, 2018
IEE/EIA to be required
Strictly prohibits use of forests land for other non forestry purpose
except if there is no alternatives
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Equal land area should be compensated and forest created by
plantation at ratio of 1:25 trees
Annex: 6 Forest Land Under Different Forest Management Category
SN Management category Number of
FUG/institution Area (ha)
Involved
Households
1 Community management 29,780 2,356,999 3,843,639
1.2 Community forest 22,266 2,237,670 2,907,871
1.2 Collaborative forest 30 76,012 864,015
1.3 Leasehold forest (Below poverty line) 7,484 43,317 71,753
1.4 Buffer Zone Community Forest 476 138,184
1.5 Buffer Zone Leasehold Forest 63 257 408
2 Others
2.1 Leasehold forest (Commercial) 22 640
2.2 Private forest 2,458 2,360
2.3 Religious forest 36 2,056
2.4 Protection Forest 10 190,809
2.5 Protected areas 20 3,441,975
Source: Department of Forest, 2017 and Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, 2018
Annex: 7 Sustainable Management of Forests in Different Forest Management Regimes
SN Management Regime No of Forests Area Managed (ha)
1 Community forests 285 28,500
2 Collaborative forests 15 40,000
3 Government managed
forests (block forest) 7 14,572
Total 307 83,072
Annex: 8 Nepal’s Conservation Landscapes
SN Landscape Area Km2 Location Objective Total Coverage
1 Terai Arc Landscape -
TAL(2014) 24,710.13 Terai and Churia
Forest and biodiversity
conservation,
livelihood
improvement
Nepal and India
(Total Tal area-
49,500km2)
2
Sacred Himalayan
Landscape -SHL
(2006)
23336.36
High mountain
(watershed of
koshi river
basin)
Mountain biodiversity
and natural resource
conservation and
management
Nepal, Bhutan,
China
3 Kanchenjungha
Landscape 5190 High mountain
Conservation of
critical biodiversity
hot spots in mountain
Nepal, India,
Bhutan
4 Chitwan Annapurna
landscape (ChAL) 32090
Mountain-Terai
(North-south
linkage)
Climate friendly
conservation and
management
Nepal
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5 Kailash Sacred
Landscape KSL 13224.18
Mid-hill -high
mountain
management of
mountain eco-system
Nepal, China,
India
Annex: 9 Forest and Environment management power in three governments
Federal
Government Power
State Government
Power
Federal and
State
Government
(concurrent
power)
Local Government
Power
Federal, State
and Local
Government
(concurrent
power)
National Forest
Policies
Carbon Services
National parks,
wildlife reserves
and wetlands
National and
international
environment
management,
environment
adaptation
Land Use
Policies
Human
Settlement
Development
Policies
Criminal and
civil laws
making
International
treaties or
agreements
Use of forests
management
and environment
within the state
Management of
lands, land
records
State bureau of
investigation
Environment
protection,
biological
diversity,-
Utilization of
forests, forest
conservation
areas
stretching in
inter State
form
Land policies
and laws
relating
thereto
Civil and
criminal
procedure
Environment
protection and
bio-diversity
Protection of
watersheds,
wildlife
Local records
management
Forests,
wildlife,
birds,
environment,
ecology and
bio-diversity
Landless
squatters
management
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Enhanced National Greening Program in the Philippines
Leo Paulo Llorando Ferrer
Forest Management Specialist II, Forest Management Bureau
Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the Philippines
Abstract: On February 4, 2011, Former President Benigno S. Aquino issued Executive Order
(EO) 26 declaring the implementation of the National Greening Program (NGP). The NGP is
implemented in pursuit of sustainable development for poverty reduction, food security,
biodiversity conservation, environmental stability and climate change mitigation and
adaptation. This specifies that the NGP shall plant 1.5 Billion trees covering 1.5 million
hectares for a period of six years from 2011-2016 covering lands of public domain, namely
Forestlands, Mangroves and protected areas, Ancestral domains, Civil and military
reservations, Urban areas under the greening plan of Local Government Units (LGUs),
Inactive and abandoned mine sites and Other suitable lands.
Coordination and consultations with different stakeholders, Peoples Organization (POs), Civil
Society Organizations (CSOs), Local Government Units, and other National Government
Agencies (NGAs) were done to attain targets of the program. This includes coordination
pertaining to watershed planning, survey and mapping, seedling production, plantation
establishment, maintenance and protection activities, and monitoring and evaluation.
With the success of the implementation of the National Greening Program, the coverage of
the NGP has been expanded covering all the remaining unproductive, denuded and degraded
forestlands extending its implementation from 2016-2028 through Executive Order 193
signed by former President Aquino last November 12, 2015.
Introduction
The official land area of the Philippines is about 30 Million hectares that is legally classified
as forest land (15.8M hectares) and alienable and disposable land (14.2M hectares).
Moreover, the Philippines forest cover is estimated at 6,839,832 hectares comprises of 28.3%
(1.9M hectares) closed forest, 67.2% (4.6M hectares) open forest and 4.5% (0.3M hectares)
mangrove forests. With this data, the government has formulated the implementation of the
Enhanced National Greening Program. It aims to rehabilitate degraded areas in the identified
143 critical watersheds supporting irrigations and 146 proclaimed watersheds in the economy,
reforestation of denuded grasslands and brushlands, rehabilitation of coastal and mangrove
areas, agroforestry development of upland farms, rehabilitation of rivers and streambanks and
other areas suitable for bamboo species. Comprehensive activities on the implementation of
ENGP includes survey, mapping and planning, preparation of Work and Financial Plan for
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government budget allocation for the program, comprehensive site development with the
partner stakeholder, survey assessment and preparation of GIS generated maps (shapefiles)
including geoatagging of sites and site coding, plantation establishment and maintenance and
protection activities.
Monitoring and evaluation of activities were also done to verify the status and
accomplishment of established plantations. Validation by the Inspection and Acceptance
Committee (IAC) of the DENR field office serve as basis for payment for the partner
stakeholders. Annual 100% monitoring of survival rate of planted seedlings performed by the
Regional Offices and all reports are subscribed by the officials and are all under oath. Further,
regular annual monitoring done by Forest Management Bureau and Office of the
Undersecretary for Policy, Planning and International Affairs of the department. Internal audit
conducted by the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Anti-corruption of the department
together with the Commission on Audit and Third-Party Evaluation showing transparency on
implementing the program.
Tab. 1. NGP CY 2011-2018 Nationwide Accomplishment (as of January 18, 2019)
Tab. 1 shows the actual accomplishment of National Greening Program implementation
nationwide exceeding its target area being developed. This shows overall success in the
national implementation, even though there were several challenges that were encountered
during the process. For instance, budget allocation for the program for this year have a total of
5.07 Billion Pesos requested to be funded but was significantly reduced by 48.7% or a total of
2.47 Billion budget cut during the National Budget hearing in the Senate. This poses an
adjustment on the activities for this year specifically on establishment of new plantations and
prioritizing maintenance and protection of previously established plantation. Peace and order
situation in the established plantation area are also considered as one of the challenges
encountered by field implementers. Different leftist groups were inhabiting some forest areas
within the plantation sites posing danger to the field implementers and survival of the planted
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seedlings during encounters with the government. Survival of the planted seedlings after the 3
year maintenance and protection activities is also one of the challenges being considered by
the government in the program implementation. The established plantations were maintained
and monitored within the first 3 years from the start of the establishment. This include
weeding activities, hole digging, site preparation, Fire line establishment, application of
fertilizers (mycorrhiza), replanting and patrolling activities. Downloaded budget for the
established plantation already includes funds for the maintenance and protection activities.
Fig. 1. NGP Budget allocation from CY 2011-2018 including the proposed and final
allocation for 2019
The graph shows the budget allotted for the implementation of the Enhanced National
Greening Program and shows the increasing trend from 2011-2015 and reaching its peak at
year 2016 with a downward trend thereafter due to sudden budget cut this year. This results to
adjustments on implementation specifically on plantation establishment and costings on
maintenance and protection activities.
With the implementation of the program on the national level, this call for the different
measures on monitoring the effectiveness, efficiency and transparency of the program.
Through this, all of the established plantation under the program are GIS mapped with its own
specific attributes and color coded per year. Established plantation sites are also posted real
time in the NGP website (www.ngp.denr.gov) for the information of the general public. All
sites are geotagged complete with geographic coordinates with date and time stamps.
Furthermore, all established plantation sites are obliged to provide a Certificate of Site
Development duly signed and sworn by all concerned officials in the field offices. It certifies
and validates the accomplishment of a specific plantation area. This include the before and
after geotagged photos of the sites to instantly grasp status of developments in the area
together with the location, total area developed, date established and validated and computed
survival rate.
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Fig. 2. Sample of color-coded thematic maps, NGP Website with sample site codes,
sample geotagged photos and Certificate of Site Development of established ENGP
plantation.
Conduct of multi-level monitoring
To determine and monitor the efficiency of the project and its impact on the society and the
environment a multi-level monitoring were conducted by several national agencies and
offices. Annual 100% validation of established NGP plantation sites were performed by the
respective Regional Office and all reports are subscribe and under oath by the concerned
personnel. Further, the Forest Management Bureau is regularly monitoring the performance of
established plantations by conducting random sampling on randomly selected sites
nationwide. The Office of the Undersecretary for Policy and Planning and Office of the
Assistant Secretary for Anti-Corruption is conducting an annual performance monitoring and
internal audit activities for ENGP. In relation, the Commission on Audit is closely monitoring
all the financial and physical activities of the project is regularly asking for explanations on
their findings. Furthermore, an independent third-party audit was done by the National
Economic Development Authority (NEDA) through the Philippine Institute for Development
Studies (PIDS) with results presented to several fora in the economy.
Public-Private Partnership is one of the strategies used by the government in implementing
the program. Involvement of private sectors in forest rehabilitation is encouraged to
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rehabilitate more areas within the economy. Private sectors will adopt, fund and manage a
specific area to be rehabilitated and will then be developed as plantation sites. Funding will be
at the expense of the company which will in return be considered by the government as part of
their Corporate Social Responsibility efforts.
The program also has partnerships with different State Colleges and Universities in the
propagation of seedlings and maintenance of Clonal Facilities. This will provide good quality
seedling provenance for the planting and replanting activities. The Department has provided
funds for these colleges and universities in the rearing of clones and seedlings which will then
be used as planting materials for targeted plantations. Furthermore, each province within the
economy has established a Seed Production Areas (SPAs) and Individual Plus Trees (IPTs)
areas for seed sources of endemic and indigenous trees in the economy. With the demands in
the number of seedlings needed in the establishment of the plantation, Mechanized and
Modernized Forest Nurseries (MMFN) were also established per Region in order to support
the need of quality planting materials.
Fig. 3. Different Public and Private partner organizations and stakeholders involved in
the implementation of ENGP.
The program is also compliant with the Procurement Law of the Philippines and follows the
Philippine Government Electronic Procurement System. This system promotes transparency
in government procurement and enhanced opportunities to trade with the government.
Stakeholders that are interested to participate in the program may inquire online provided that
they are duly registered with the system and the target area is within the public domain.
Interested Peoples Organization must be registered with any of the registering office in the
economy (SEC, CDA and DOLE) in order to participate in the program.
Way Forward
As the program continues, the administration has come up with strategies that will further
ensure the success of the program. Reforestation by administration is one of the strategies
seen to be employed in the future wherein areas to be rehabilitated or proposed sites must be
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within proclaimed and critical watersheds without existing tenure or within the protected area
and no existing Peoples Organization or qualified partner within and adjacent to the area
where the plantation will be established. The field office will designate a Project Manager per
watershed or protected area that is currently an employee of DENR, a registered Forester and
holds a permanent position with at least Salary Grade 18 or Senior Forester in the department.
ENGP sites that are already bearing fruits, latex, timber and other products derived from the
established plantation developed with our partner Peoples Organization are targeted to be
linked to market their products. This is through engagement of partner POs to different private
companies, NGOs, NGAs, and other interested organizations through coordination, meetings,
workshops and involvement in different activities fit to the marketability of their products.
Graduated sites established by year 2011-2016 that are no longer subjected to maintenance
and protection activities are targeted to be rehabilitated by administration prioritizing areas
within critical watersheds and/or areas with low survival rate of at least 30%. Seedlings
sources will be derived from Department of Public Works and Highways Tree replacement
program using the replacement seedlings from the affected trees by the road widening project
of the department, donations from different organizations and concerned offices, seedlings
produced by the Mechanized and Modernized Forest Nurseries and cloned seedlings from the
established Clonal Nurseries.
Conduct of drone image processing and analysis training for field office personnel to further
enhanced their capacity on processing images captured with the use of drones. Use of drones
in NGP sites monitoring and Forest protection activities is also considered. Further, drones
will also be used in surveying and mapping of potential sites for future site development.
Drone being used are the issued DJI Phantom 4 Pro partnered with Agisoft program used to
process image data bringing real time birds eye view of the established plantation which will
be a vital input for future planning efforts and monitoring of the status of the targeted area.
Summary
The Enhanced National Greening Program is a complete example of a national strategy in
forest rehabilitation and restoration. It’s a nationally funded program involving all the
concerned stakeholders in its implementation realizing the need for diverse inputs in its
success. Both financial and physical inputs is essential in the success of the project. With the
implementation of the program for more than 8 years now, it is now realized that various
inputs for funds, planning, implementation, manpower, technology, monitoring and evaluation
efforts, climate, terrain and target setting are significant in the success of the program. Several
challenges have been encountered and have been revisited for solutions and guidance for
future implementation.
Application of different technological innovations in the implementation of the program is
substantial in ensuring the success of the strategies being used in the attaining the targets of
the program. It will also be an important component for future planning and target setting.
Comprehensive Site Development is one of the best approaches in implementing the forest
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rehabilitation and restoration efforts in the economy. This process involves the community in
the area providing them substantial inputs and technological assistance as partner
stakeholders. It will further give them a sense of ownership in the area which will result to
better management and protection of the established plantation. Involvement of all the
concerned stakeholders in implementing the program is also seen as a good strategy in
attaining its goals and objective.
Adjustments on the strategies and techniques in project implementation will depend on funds
allocated and availability of potential sites to be rehabilitated. Availability of quality planting
materials together with the partner stakeholder that will manage the plantation is also a big
factor in project implementation. Further, monitoring and evaluation activities as a tracking
tool in assessing are important in assessing the efficiency of the project both in the community
and biodiversity.
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Degraded Forest Rehabilitation and Management in PNG
Vincianna Andrew
Forester Community Forestry, The Papua New Guinea Forest Authority
Abstract: This APFNET Report is based on the outline given in the Forest Rehabilitation
Workshop. The report gives an overview of the programs undertaken to address forest and
land degradation in Papua New Guinea (PNG). The economy has four main regions and this
report is focused on the Highlands of PNG. The Highlands region is mostly high montane
forests, moss forests with a vast degraded grassland and slopes for rehabilitation. The lessons
and experiences learnt during the implementations of the rehabilitation programs are different
from the rest of the world as PNG’s land tenure system is mostly customary ownership, 97 %
customary land ownership.
The report is in three segments. The first segment is basically an introductory to the
economy’s geography, topography, people, culture and the climate. The second segment is
focused on the efforts undertaken for Forest Rehabilitation and Management in PNG. The
approaches and mechanisms for forest rehabilitation, encounters and most importantly lessons
drawn for better avenues for successful programs into the future are in the third segment with
summarized conclusions and way forward for PNG.
Introduction
The forest resource is the livelihood of the 85% of the economy’s population living in remote
rural areas depending on it for their survival and daily needs. The financial returns from trees
harvested also provide economic benefits, providing revenue to local resource owners, both
the provincial and national levels of governments. This forest economy in both the rural and
urban areas enables government services to flow to these isolated or remote communities. As
population increases, the pressure for basic needs and services also increases. As a result of
the conversion of forests areas to other land uses threatens the rich and unique biodiversity
and increasing problems of deforested land and forest degradation. To remedy this program,
Papua New Guinea (PNG) has collaborated with numerous international organizations over
the years including CSIRO, FAO, UNDP, ITTO, JICA, ACIAR and other regional
organizations such as CIFOR, APAFRI as well on a sub-regional level with the South Pacific
Commission. It was through the earlier collaborative works that provenance trials of a number
of species were established forming the basis for future species improvement and
development in PNG. This made possible the implementation of Forest Landscape
Restoration (FLR) and Forest Rehabilitation (FRM) and Management programs in the
economy. However, PNG has moved forward after some attempts on forest rehabilitation has
developed a strategy to shift away from an extractive economy to one that will develop and
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grow manufacturing, agriculture, forestry (ban of round and promote downstream processing),
fisheries and eco-tourism sectors as this directive is outlined in the Vision 2050.
Forest Types
PNG has various forests cover which are categorized into different types of vegetation
depending on the environment and species dominance. The following vegetation types
recognized are; (1) Low altitude Forest on Plains and Fans, (2) Low Altitude Forest on
Uplands, (3) Lower Montane Forest, (4) Montane Forest – above 3,000 m, (5) Dry seasonal
Forest, (6) Littoral Forest, (7) Seral Forest, (8) Swamp Forest, (9) Mangrove, (10) Woodlands,
(11) Savannah, (12) Scrub and (13) Grasslands.
Geological History
The island of New Guinea is the second largest in the world. It lies between 3.5 and 12 of
south of the equator in the region commonly referred to as equatorial or the `hot-wet tropics'.
The island is approximately 2,500 kilometers long from east to west occupying a total area of
775,000 square kilometers. PNG occupies the eastern half of the island, just north of Australia
with a total land area of approximately 46.17 million ha, of which 5.6 million ha comprises
the islands, namely; New Britain, New Ireland, Bougainville and Manus as well as other 600
smaller islands (Figure. 1).
Fig. 1: Map of Papua New Guinea
Climate
The average annual rainfall experienced throughout the economy varies depending on the
topography from the highlands to the coastal plains. It may reach up to more than 8,000 mm
of rainfall annually in some higher mountainous areas to relatively low in seasonal coastal
areas with 1000-1500 mm of annual rainfall. Average temperatures also varies with altitude,
resulting in hot and humid tropical temperatures in the lowlands and islands and a milder
temperature in the highlands. Frosts do occur above 2, 200 m for very higher altitude areas
such in the Highlands of PNG.
Cultural Dimensions and Population
PNG is considered among the most bio-culturally diverse in the world. Its unique and diverse
environments have supported many tribal groups and communities for thousands of years.
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These groups and tribes speak over 800 plus distinct languages. However, throughout the
economy two major languages are used; Pidgin and Hiri-Motu, while English is used in
business and educational. This great bio-cultural diversity is a reflective of the extreme
diverse environments as influenced by the immense variations in geology, landforms, climate
and altitude. The diverse environmental conditions are well matched by the diverse cultural
traditions and customs.
According to preliminary census for 2010, PNG’s current total population is over seven
million. Approximately eighty-five per cent (85%) of the population lives in rural areas.
Population densities range from one person per square kilometer in the remote rural areas to
over 500 people per square kilometers on some small Islands. Land shortages are increasingly
common in areas where population densities are greater than 100 persons per square
kilometers. The average population growth rate is about 2.7%, but this varies greatly between
and within provinces, such that the higher growth rates are found in the main urban centers,
while relatively lower rates are recorded in rural areas. In the highlands, this is largely due to
migration into the urban areas.
Land Tenure System
Land ownership in PNG is vested with the traditional customary owners, most of whom live
in rural areas and they account for 85% of the total population. Ninety seven percent (97%) of
the total land area is owned by these traditional customary landowners and they have
complete ownership on their land. Whilst on the other hand, the state and some private
companies and individuals only owned 3% of the land. In terms of forest resource ownership,
the traditional owners owned 97%. The landownership and total area according to Forest
Resource Assessment (FRA) 2010 is shown in Table 1 below.
Forests Ownership Area (ha)
FRA 2010 Categories Forest Area (000ha)
1990 2000 2005 2010
Public forests 946 904 883 883
Private forests (Owned
by indigenous / tribal
communities)
30,577 29,229 28,554 28,554
Other forests 0 0 0 0
Total 31,523 30,133 29,437 29,437
Under the new Land Reform Act, the Special Agricultural Based Lease (SABL), gives the
opportunity back to the indigenous people and this is concerning the 3% state owned land
when the 99 year lease ends. People have the total ownership to lease to any business rather
than forestry development which makes forest rehabilitation a real challenge as rural
communities are more focused on fast making money such as short term agricultural crops.
This becomes a hindrance for forest managers and forests scientists to really get down to the
bottom of it in order to reforest or afforest the forested or grasslands.
Problems of Forest Rehabilitation and Management
The extent of the forest areas has been declining since 1990 from 31 million ha to 28.6
million ha as shown in FRA 2010 (Table 2) below. On the other hand, areas of planted forests
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have increased from 63,000 ha in 1990 to 92,000 ha in 2005, but due to harvesting it
decreased to 86,000 ha in 2010 as shown in Table 2 below.
Tab. 2. Forest characteristics and areas (FRA 2010)
Main forest Characteristics
(Based on FRA 2010
Categories)
Area
Forest Area (000 Ha)
1990 2000 2005 2010
Primary forests 31,
329.20
29,
533.60
28,
343.70
26, 209.90
Naturally regenerated forests 131 517 1, 001 2, 430
Planted forests 62.8 82.4 92.3 86.1
Reforestations na na na Na
Afforestations (grasslands) na na na Na
Total 31, 523 30, 133 29, 437 28, 726
In 2005 it was estimated that over 28.3 million ha (or 61%, FAO, 2010) of the total land mass
constitutes the forested land. A total of 15million ha of these forested lands have been
identified as productive forests, of which 12.2 million ha (81%) has or is currently acquired
for commercial logging, but that 6.0 million ha (40%) is deemed inoperable. Of the remaining
productive forest areas, 2.4 million ha has been logged and left to regenerate, while 0.4
million ha has been converted to permanent alternative land uses, such as oil palm estate
development projects. While another 1.1million ha is converted to other subsistence uses,
mostly by traditional slash and burn form of agriculture (Tate, 2006).
The extent of the forested land has gradually declined due to increasing expansion of forest
clearing through logging, large scale oil palm plantations, oil and gas and mining activities.
Shearman, et al. (2008) reported that 2.92 million ha of the forested land were degraded by
such activities and these disturbed forests are vulnerable to further degradation and
conversion to other uses. Such threats will become increasingly obvious with the increasing
population growth, extractive resource developments, food cropping and the future impacts of
climate change.
The fast population growth in economy has put a lot more pressure on the forests resource as
well as for land clearance for agricultural crops. According to preliminary census for 2010,
PNG’s current total population is over 7million. Approximately 85% of the population lived
in rural areas. Population densities range from one person per square kilometer in the remote
rural areas to over 500 people per square kilometers on some small Islands. Land shortages
are increasingly common in areas where population densities are greater than 100 persons per
square kilometers. The average population growth rate is about 2.7%, but this varies greatly
between and within provinces, such that the higher growth rates are found in the main urban
centers, while relatively lower rates are recorded in rural areas. In the highlands, this is largely
due to migration into the urban areas.
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Forest Rehabilitations and Management Programs
Collaborative programs were initiated with the Australian Scientific Organization, (CSIRO)
started in late 1950s up to the present involved seed collections for different native tree
species which have potential for plantation forestry and farm fruit trees. The Japanese
Government through its Technical Aid program to PNG established the PNG Forest Research
Institute office complex in 1989. It also assisted the institute through the JICA experts in the
establishment of seed orchards for a number of local and exotic species. This collaborations
with partner countries were just for a short time and no project sustainability but still to some
extent, degraded lands and imperated grasslands were rehabilitated through this species trial.
Tree breeding studies was initiated in the economy from seeds collected from wild stands of
A.cunninghamii, A. hunsteinii, Acacia mangium, Terminalia brassii and E. deglupta, and
developed for plantation programs. The programs enabled the establishment of seed
production areas (SPA) or Seed Orchards which provided quality seed sources for
reforestation and afforestation programs in the economy. The main forest trees species
currently developed for plantations include Eucalyptus deglupta, A. cunninghamia, A.
hunsteinii, Tectona grandis, Ochroma lagopus and Acacia mangium and A. auriculiformis.
Several commercial and lesser-known species are currently being trialed under tree
improvement programmes. This improvement program is based on various research studies
and trials of indigenous tree species with the support from donor agencies.
Examples of Rehabilitation Projects in the Highlands of PNG
Seed Storage
Mature Klinkii Afforestation
Nursery
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Barriers in Forest Rehabilitation
Many afforestations, reforestations, initiated under bilateral ties are being offloaded once
donor projects phase out. This makes management difficult due to insufficient funds for
maintenance. Another setback in the expansion of forest rehabilitation is lack of support in
terms of finance from the government as forest rehabilitation is a long term investment for the
rural communities to be involved. The lack of workable framework to pave way for plantation
development through forest rehabilitation and some noticeable barriers are listed below as
experienced in the highlands;
• Man-made bush fires
• Inconsistency supply of materials
• Lack of supervision and monitoring
• Labour intensive
• Lack of financial assistance
Challenges in Forest Rehabilitation
In the foreseeable future, forest rehabilitation and management will be dictated by increasing
population growth and its impacts on the forest resources resulting from the demands for
Drivers of Forest Degradation
Bushfire Mining
Fuelwood Agriculture
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increased socio-economic developments. Thus, influencing the policy directives such as those
illustrated in the National Government’s Medium Term Development Strategy (MTDS) 2010-
2015, the Development Strategy and Implementation Program (DSIP) 2015 – 2030 and the
Vision 2050. At the same time, the challenges of the pending impacts of climate change.
The Government’s strategic direction as outlined in the Vision 2050 document provides
challenges to shift away from an economy dominated by extractive resource sectors to one
that will develop and grow manufacturing, agriculture, forestry, fisheries and eco-tourism
sectors. Of the seven pillars of Vision 2050, two (2) provide clear directions for sustainable
development in forestry and timber industry therefore:
• Wealth creation, natural resources and growth nodes;
• Environment sustainability and climate change.
Under the strategic direction of wealth creation there are three (3) implications for
socioeconomic growth through forestry and these are:
• Eliminating the export of round logs by 2010;
• Ensuring downstream processing of all logs on shore; and,
• Developing forestry plantations in suitable areas, with landowners’ participation.
There is a need to strengthen the awareness on the government’s focus on the forest industry
especially more awareness throughout the economy and more importantly review of the forest
policies and guidelines. Currently, there is no workable policies and framework such to assist
local people in terms of forest rehabilitation and the challenges escalates the efforts. Through
intervention of policies and workable framework in alignment to the 2050 Vision of the
Government in creating wealthier healthier economy.
Summaries and Recommendations
The drivers of forest degradation in PNG is associated with the following environmental
issues; over exploitation of natural resources, unsustainable use of forest resources,
explorations, agricultural project, population pressure, climate change and lack of
collaborations with the indigenous people. Institutions and agencies involved indirectly in
forest rehabilitation and restoration lacks capacity to undertake appropriate strategies and
methods to effectively address forest landscape restoration issues and could benefit from
assistances provided through external collaborations.
As such, PNG has a great wealth of information on FRM in the economy which today’s forest
managers and forest scientists can capitalize from the baseline data. For instance, forest
plantations of commercial species such as Tectona grandis, Pinus species, Ochroma lagopus,
Eucalypts species, Acacia species and Araucaria species were developed on state land
specifically for timber and pulp. Seed orchards are established for the purpose of providing
quality germplasm (seeds) to meet domestic demands for plantations
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Papua New Guinea Forest Authority (PNGFA) is the sole supplier of germplasms to other
stakeholders especially timber companies involved in plantation development. Seeds supplied
are mostly of E. deglupta,Anthocephalus chinensis, Octomeles sumatrana and Acacia
magium. Forest plantations are located in the following provinces; Madang, East and West
New Britain, Milne Bay, Central, Morobe, Western and Eastern Highlands. This companies
have rehabilitated and reforested or afforested the land that was exploited.
Studies on forest trees in plantations in PNG have shown that increasing temperatures in the
area over the past years have changed the soil conditions and appears to be conducive to
termites and other insects thus increasing their attacks on the both plantation and natural
forest trees. In areas where rapid agricultural development is occurring, large areas of forests
have to be cleared to make way for agricultural crops and through this process, a number of
forest plant species are either lost or reduced in numbers resulting in the erosion of the genetic
bases.
The impact of climate change on the vegetation in PNG are becoming more and more evident
as notable changes due to increasing surface and air temperatures, changes in the distribution
and intensity of rainfall, alteration of hydrological regimes, changes in wind patterns and
intensity, altering of fire frequencies and intensities, flooding and erosion regimes are being
observed and recorded over short period of time. This noticeable change is affecting the
behavior of the people to take tree farming as one of the priority activity in terms of
integrating agriculture with forestry as these are part of the rural economy.
Recommendations
The following are some of the issues required by the Medium Term Development
Strategies(MTDS), the Development Strategy and Implementation Programs (DSIP) and the
Vision 2050 to be addressed by the regulating agency and other stakeholders in the economy.
1) Revise the existing Forestry Policy & other forestry legislations to strengthen
conservation and reforestation/re-afforestation programs.
2) PNGFA to develop a National Reforestation Programme to meet the required acerage by
2050 under the Operation Looking for Land and Planting Trees, the 2050 Vision to plant
800, 000 ha by 2050. At the same time timber projects that are located in isolated areas
should develop and establish an effective program to improve the forest composition in
logged over areas.
3) Establish understanding under joint venture agreements with land owners to secure land
to develop Seed Orchards, establish species trials of indigenous species and large scale
reforestation and afforestation projects due to lack of land.
Way Forward
1) Workable Policy and Framework on Forest Rehabilitation and Forest Landscape
Restoration to increase local people participations as they own the land. This will give the
local people the opportunity to fully participate and take ownership of the long term
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investment concerning all associated benefits of tree planting.
2) Forest Institutions and agencies involved indirectly in forest rehabilitation and restoration
lacks capacity to undertake appropriate strategies and methods to effectively address
forest landscape restoration issues and could benefit from assistances provided through
external collaborations with improved technologies and skills.
3) Offloading of responsibilities of responsibilities to the customary landowners as they
owned the land. Assist them with finance and material whilst the government coordinates
and supervise the projects effectively as a joint venture project.
4) Improved laws on forest fire especially man-made fire, with strong penalties to mitigate
man-made fire
5) Therefore it is strongly recommended to take into account all the above and a revised
forest policy in alignment to the 2050 strategic medium and long term strategies. This
would pave way for successful rehabilitation programs by in cooperating all the lessons,
experiences, failures of past projects as a stepping stone. Also increasing funds for
rehabilitation programs with effective monitoring for a greener wealthier healthier PNG.
References
Doran, J.C., Skeleton, D.J. 1982. Acacia mangium seed collections for international
provenance trials. Forest Genetic Resources Information 11, 48-50.
FAO, Rome.
FAO, 2010. Country Report – Papua New Guinea. In Global Assessment Forest Resources
Assessment, 2010. FRA 2010/161. FAO, Rome.
Jeffrey, G.K., 2012. Development of a PNG timber industry based on community-based
planted forest: design and implementation of a national germplasm delivery system (ACIAR
Project FST 2007/078). In Mid-term project report.
Shearman, P., Bryan, J., Ash, J., Hunnam, P., MacKey, B. and Lokes, B., 2008. The state of
the forests of Papua New Guinea – mapping the extent and condition of forest cover and
measuring the drivers of forest change in the period 1972-2002, University of Papua New
Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.
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Forest Rehabilitation in Sri Lanka:
Case study in Ihala Puliyankulam Degraded Forest
in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka
Senanayakage Mahesh Chathuranga Senanayaka
Assistant Conservator of Forests, Forest Department of Sri Lanka
Abstract: Deforestation and forest degradation are main environmental problems in Sri
Lanka. Therefore, the Government of Sri Lanka has set a target to increase the forest cover up
to 32% of the land area of the economy from the existing 29.7%. Forest restoration and
rehabilitation used as a main tool to increase the forest cover. The programme to enhance the
forest cover commenced in 2014 and around 8700 ha are under rehabilitation and restoration.
Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest in Ipalogama Reserved Forest in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka
is one of the restoration area among them. The area is 70 hectares and the vegetation of the
land is predominantly grass with scattered trees and shrubs. Various interventions such as fire
protection, removal of grass and other unwanted plants, scattered tree planting, seed sawing
and protection of the land from cattle grazing are the main interventions. The land is
continuously supervised and monitored. It has been observed the improvement of natural
regeneration over two year period. Number of seedlings on the land has been increased
remarkably compared to 2014. Suppression of grass and protection of land from fires has
played a significant role in forest regeneration. It is a challenge to maintain the restoration
process under national and local level external threats. Adequate measures have been taken to
overcome them and to replicate this approach in other similar areas of Sri Lanka.
Introduction
Main land uses of Sri Lanka are Forests, Home gardens, Paddy, Tea, Rubber, Coconut and
other agricultural lands. Forest occupies 29.7% of the total land area of the economy
according to 2010 estimates (Edrisinghe, et.al). There are three main climatic regions in Sri
Lanka and they are Wet Zone, Dry Zone and Intermediate Zone. The mean annual rainfall
above 2500mm is considered as Wet Zone and rain fall below 1750mm is categorized as Dry
Zone. Mean annual rainfall in intermediate zone is between 1750mm to 2500mm (Survey
Department of Sri Lanka). Distribution of the forest cover in Sri Lanka in main climatic
regions shows in Figure 1. It shows that majority of the forests concentrated in to the dry zone
of the economy. In contrast home gardens and rubber plantations are concentrated in to the
wet zone. Most of the paddy and other agricultural lands are located in the dry zone.
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Forest degradation and deforestation are main environmental problems in Sri Lanka. Annual
deforestation rate from 1999 to 2010 was estimated as 0.23% but forest degradation has not
been estimated even though it is taken place continuously at an alarming rate. The
deforestation and forest degradation is higher in the dry zone than in the wet zone of Sri
Lanka. Planned development activities, encroachments, shifting cultivation, illegal felling,
forest fires and cattle damages are main causes of deforestation and forest degradation. As a
result, Sri Lanka suffers many environmental problems such as floods, soil erosion,
landslides, and siltation of reservoirs and loss of biodiversity. In addition, loss of wildlife
habitats becomes a serious problem at present. Human-elephant conflicts, crop damages due
to other wild animals such as wild pigs, giant squirrels, porcupines, barking deer, monkeys
and peafowl are have affected rural livelihood seriously at present as a result of the habitat
degradation. Deforestation and forest degradation contributes to climate change and UNFCC
has estimated it contributes to 17% of the CO2 emissions.
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Fig. 1. Forest Types of Sri Lanka and Climatic Zones
Therefore, there is a national commitment to protect the existing forest area of the economy.
Sri Lanka has planned beyond this target and expect to increase the forest cover up to 32% of
the total land area of the economy.
A Forest rehabilitation and restoration progrmme was commenced in 2014 by Forest
Department of Sri Lanka to enhance the forest area and to improve the quality of the forests.
Forest Department expects to increase the forest cover by another 60,000 ha by rehabilitating
and restoring of degraded forest lands to achieve the national target of 32% forest cover.
Under the forest restoration and rehabilitation programme around 8,700 of degraded forest
lands are being restored and rehabilitated from 2014 to 2016. This programme is implemented
island wide covering dry zone and wet zone and intermediate zone. This report describes the
experience and lessons learnt in this programme in dry zone of Sri Lanka using a case study
of Ihala Puliyankulama Restoration site.
Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest area which is under restoration programme is located
Ipalogama Reserved Forests in Puttalam district. Figure 2 shows the location of the Ipalogama
Reserved Forest and Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest and forest cover distribution of the
district. The figure shows the majority of the reserve is degraded. This is due to
encroachments and shifting cultivation. There are dense forest, open forests, scrubs and
grasslands within the forest. In order to protect forest from further degradation and
deforestation, Forest Department surveyed and demarcated the forest boundary in 2004. It
eased the monitoring and supervision of the forest hence illegal activities within the Reserved
Forests decreased. Farmers did not continue shifting cultivation within the forest after the
boundary demarcation.
The area of Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest is 70 ha and the vegetation is predominantly
grass and patches of shrubs. Impetrate cylindrica, Panicum maximum and Aristidia setaceae
were abundant grass on the land. In addition, Haldina cordifolia and Manilkara hexandra trees
were sparsely scattered. Grass species available on the land are highly combustible so that the
land was prone to forest fires annually during the dry season. These fires were manmade and
originated in adjoining villages due to negligence of the people. In addition, hunters set fires
in the forest to trap wild animals. Due to continuous forest fires, natural regeneration was
interrupted stopped subsequently grass and few fire resistant trees species were dominated on
the land. There are small bushes of large trees which has the potential to grow up to 10-15 m
height. Due to continuous fire damages these trees remain as small bushes. This land was
selected for forest restoration programme in Puttalam district in 2014.
Ihala Puliyankulama forest land is located around 400m away from Putalam –Trincomalee
main road and there are three GN divisions closer the forest. They are Aluthgama,
Palugasdamana, Ihala Puliyankulama and the population is 3887 persons. The main
occupation of them is farming. Main crop of the area is paddy and farmers grow vegetables
and other field crops on uplands. They had practiced shifting cultivation on government lands
but at present very few farmers practice it. The discussions with the villages revealed that
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shifting cultivators have switch over to permanent cultivation on their private lands.
Fig. 2: Location of the Ihala Puliyankulama Degraded Forest
Objective of the Programme
The overall objective of the national forest restoration and rehabilitation programme is to
bring 60,000 ha of degraded forest lands under forest restoration process by the year 2020.
The objective of the restoration programme of Ihalapuliyankulam is to improve the
biodiversity, biomass and structure of 70 ha of degraded forest area.
Key elements relating to the Case Study
Technical Aspects
The natural regeneration was not taken place on Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest land
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mainly due to forest fires so combustible grass becomes prominent. Grass cover suppresses
the growth of the seedlings and induces fires so this continues as a vicious cycle. There are
different ways to improve this land. They are Ecological Restoration, Rehabilitation and
Reclamation. Lamb and Gilmour (2003) define above terms as follows.
Reclamation: Recovery of productivity at a degraded site using mostly exotic tree species.
Species monocultures are often used. Original biodiversity is not recovered but protective
function and many of the original ecological services may be re-established.
Rehabilitation: Re-establishing the productivity and some, but not necessarily all, of the plant
and animal species originally present. For ecological or economic reasons the new forest may
include species not originally present. In time, the original forest’s protective function and
ecological services may be re-established.
Ecological Restoration: Re-establishing the structure, productivity and species diversity of the
forest originally present. In time, ecological processes and functions will match those of the
original forest.
Lamb and Gilmour (2003) described the difference between approaches as illustrated in
Figure 3.
Fig. 3. Ecological restoration, rehabilitation and reclamation
In the absence of human intervention the degraded forest may gradually recover and species
richness and biomass will improve slowly towards its original condition (B1 to A in Figure 3).
The rate at which this occurs depends on the speed with which species are able to colonise the
site; it might be accelerated by human intervention (i.e. restoration). Alternatively, recurrent
disturbances (e.g. wildfires or grazing) may further degrade the system and more species may
be lost, pushing the system towards point From B1 to B2. Reclamation is represented by point
E, where a tree plantation or crop monoculture has been established. This may have recovered
the original biomass (E1) or perhaps even exceeded it (E2) because of site preparation and
fertiliser use. Rehabilitation is represented by point F. In this case structure and biomass and
some, but not all, of the original species richness have been recovered. Each of these three
alternatives (A, F or E) might, theoretically, be applied to any of the several forms of
degraded lands (Lamb and Gilmour, 2003)
Biodiversity
Stru
ctu
re, B
iom
ass,
Pro
du
ctio
n
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Interventions carried out in Ihala Puliyankulama Degraded Forest
Ecological Restoration technology was used in Ihala Pulianakulama degraded area and they
are described below.
Fire Protection
Fire is the main cause of degradation in this land so intensive fire protection programme was
implemented. Places whare fire originates were identified and fire line was established
covering the area. The width of the fire line is 10m and all the grass was removed completely
(Figure 4). The length of the fire line is six kilometers. The fire line is cleared once a year
during the dry season. The villages around the area were informed to be vigilant over the fire
occurrence. Forest officers were vigilant about the fire occurrences.
Fig. 4. Fire Line
Promotion of the growth of young seedlings
There are young seedlings on the degraded land but they cannot grow and establish well due
to fire damages and disturbances of grass cover. The grass densely occurs on the land (Figure
5) it suppresses the growth of young seedlings by limiting availability of light, moisture and
nutrient to seedlings. In order to control grass we pressed and bent grass on the ground. Since
it was not successful we up rooted grass and burnt them. It was successful and Figure 6 shows
area where grass was uprooted.
Fig. 5. Grass Cover of the land Fig, 6. Grass removed area
Rehabilitation of burnt trees
Due to seasonal fires, species which have a potential to grow as a large trees become small
bushes. These bushes were managed removing unnecessary branches leaving few stumps
(Figure 6).
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Fig. 7. Burnt saplings formed bushes
Scattered tree planting
Planting of small number of trees was done in places where there were no seedlings to grow.
Locally available species were planted. Selection of species was done by examining species
availability of forest areas closer to the land and by consultation of key informants who know
the history of the land.
Direst Seeding
The rate of natural succession is limited by the slow dispersal of seed on the land. Therefore,
to accelerate the successions, deliberate reintroduction of seeds is done. Seeds were placed
after removing the grass and loosing the soil in patches of one meter diameter.
Educate adjoining people
In addition to above technical interventions, Forest Department informs adjoining people
about the programme and obtains their support for this. This was done using informal
meetings and home visits.
Monitoring
The performance of the programme is monitored continuously. Forest officers visit the land at
frequent intervals to observe the growth of the seedlings and growth of the grass. In addition,
the performance is compared to the baseline also. At the beginning seven samples were taken
from Ihala Puliyankulama to establish the baseline and these samples will be revisited and
study the species composition after three years from the beginning.
Policy, Legal and Institutional Issues
National forest policy of Sri Lanka has three policy objectives. The first objective is to
conserve forests for posterity, with particular regards to biodiversity, soils, water and
historical, cultural, religious and aesthetic values. According to the policy, degraded forests
lands will be rehabilitated as forests for conservation and multiple use production where it is
economically and technically feasible, mainly for the benefit of local people. In addition,
Government of Sri Lanka has set a target to increase the forest cover up to 32% of the total
land area of the economy. Therefore, Forest Policy of Sri Lanka supports this programme.
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Sri Lanka National Agricultural Policy aims to increase the agricultural productivity through
the application of sustainable management practices. The same policy promotes maximum use
of degraded, barren and infertile lands as well as lands under shifting cultivation to ensure
higher productivity and idle lands to be used to crop/forest cultivation and animal husbandry.
Since shifting cultivation is a cause of deforestation, this policy can have negative effect on
forests. However, using of idling lands for forest cultivation has a positive effect on forestry.
There is a demand for lands for development, settlements and village expansion. Demand for
degraded forests from development sector is high since degraded forests do not consist of
large trees and good vegetation. Further, developers do not recognize a regenerating forest but
instead see an economic opportunity in the form of apparently unused and unoccupied
wasteland. This is a severe threat for forest rehabilitation.
Ihala Piliyankulama degraded forest is vulnerable for development pressure due to above
mentioned reasons and its proximity to Puttalam-Trincomalee highway. However, this
degraded forest is located within the Ipalogama Reserved Forest therefore the potential threat
to the forest is less. In order to aware about forest restoration to general public and interested
parties, Forest Department set up a sign board at the boundary of the restoration land (Figure
8).
Fig. 8. Sign Board
There is a demand for grazing lands in Sri Lanka to provide food for over one million cattle
population in Sri Lanka. More than 90% these cattle are free ranging and the feed on forest
lands. Cattle grazing degrade forests since they damage small seedlings and compact the soil.
Specially degraded forest lands are requested by cattle farmers to develop grazing lands.
Cattle trespassing is an offence according to the forest law so legal action can be taken for
owners who send cattle for forest areas. However, it is difficult to control cattle trespassing
and enforce law since the number of cattle herd is too large to handle. Therefore, law
enforcement is not a practical solution to control cattle damages in forests. According to the
Animal act, cattle trespassing in forest is not illegal.
There are three cattle owners around the Ihala Puliyankulama forest area and the size of the
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herd is around 200. Forest Department has employed a watcher to protect this site from cattle.
Funding
Government of Sri Lanka funds for the forest restoration programme. The restoration
programme needs continuous maintenance of the land, removing of unwanted plants and
protection the land from fires. The funds available at present are not sufficient to implement
the restoration programme more effectively. If more funds are available project can be expand
to more lands and intensity of interventions can be increased.
Lesions Learnt
Baseline and Performance of the interventions
The vegetation of the degraded land was studied using a sample survey using seven sample
plots selected randomly at the beginning of the restoration programme. The sample plots were
circular shape and size was 500m2 . Two years later same samples were studied again.
A change of species composition is shown in Table 1 and 2. It shows number of seedlings and
shrubs have been increased with the interventions. Sample survey revealed that number of
shrubs has been increased up to 294 individuals per hectare in 2016 from 63 individuals in per
hectare in 2014. The result shows that number of seedlings in 2014 is 43 per hectare and after
two years it is 132 per hectare. Only two new species were recorded on this land which was
not present in 2014. In addition to the number of individuals, I observed the increased growth
of individuals even though it is not measured. Photo monitoring also shows the improvement
of the vegetation. Figure 9 Shows the enhanced growth of the seedlings.
Fig. 9. Growth of the seedlings
Tab. 1. Shrubs in Ihala Puliyankulama degraded forest before and after the intervention
Species Common Name
Number of
individuals / ha
in 2014
Number of
individuals / ha
in 2016
Gmelina arborea Demata 0 14
Ochna laceolata Malkara 9 91
Blachia umbellata Goda ratmal 0 6
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Phoenix sylvestris Indi 11 123
Carissa carandas Karamba 6 6
Memecylon
rostratum Kuratiya 23 34
Croton lacciferrus Kappettiya 14 20
Total 63 294
Tab. 2. Tree species on Ihala Puliyankulama before and after the intervention
Species
Local Name
Number of Species
2014 2016
DBH >5
cm DBH<5cm
DBH >5
cm DBH<5cm
Vitex altissima Milla 9 6 9 23
Grewia rothii Boradaminiya 17 6 17 6
Azadirachta
indica Kohomba 6 0 6 9
Chloroxylon
swietenia Burutha 3 6 3 6
Lannae
coromandelica Bathhik 11 17 11 40
Eucalyptus
camaldulensis Camaldulensis 17 0 17 0
Tamarindus
indica Siyambala 3 0 3 9
Panderu 3 0 3 0
Bauhinia
racemosa Maila 6 3 6 9
Syzygium cumini Madan 0 0 0 11
Cassia fistula Ahala 0 0 0 6
Porawapalu 0 6 0 6
Haldina
cordifolia Kolon 6 0 6 0
Memecylon
angustifolium Korakaha 6 0 6 9
Galseru 3 0 3 0
Asbadda 3 0 3 0
91 43 91 131
The main reasons for the above performance of the project are prevention of the land from
forest fires, removal of grass and protection from cattle damages. During the two year period
only one forest fire was occurred and it was controlled at the beginning before spreading to
larger area. The area damaged due to the fire was around 10 hectares. There are no cattle
grazing on this land since Forest Officers have controled it. During intervention period seed
sawing was done on the land but the success of this is very low.
This restoration programme in Ihala Puliyankulama proves that the forest restoration is a
useful tool to increase the forest cover while improving the bio diversity of the land. Removal
of grass is the main reason for the accelerated natural regeneration. Grass should be up rooted
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to effective control even though, it is an expensive practice. Therefore, we have to find low
cost methods to suppress grass. It is important to improve the participation of local
communities for this programme to protect the site from various threats. Forest Department
can replicate the methods used in Ihala Puliyankulama to other similar degraded forest areas.
Way Forward
Restoration of Ihala Puliyankulama area is a part of the national restoration programme. In
order to understand the performance of the programme it is proposed to conduct detailed
study covering biological and socio economic aspects of the programme. This knowledge
will be useful in future restoration programmes.
Uprooting grass is the best way to remove grass and promote natural regeneration but it is
expensive. Therefore, it is necessary find out low cost method to suppress grass. Seed sawing
is a low cost method for replanting trees but success is low. Therefore, improved seed sowing
methods have to be found out. Since the funding is not sufficient to implement required
restoration activities it is proposed to find additional funds.
Summary
The degraded forest area in Ihala Puliyankulama was restored using different interventions
such as fire protection, removal of grass and other unwanted trees, scattered tree planting,
seed sawing and protection from cattle. Restoration is a slow process which needs continuous
care and supervision. Fire damages and cattle damages are local level threats that can be
managed through supervision. The land is under restoration and number of individuals of
existing species has been increased while two new species are found compared to the base
year of 2014. The technology that we have used is suitable for the land. Since removal of
grass is essential it is necessary find out alternative methods to suppress grass. The direct
seeding methods was not successful on this land and it is necessary to develop technology for
direct seeding. There are external threats from development, livestock and agricultural sectors.
Threats can be managed by informing stakeholders about the programme.
References
Edirisinghe, E. A. P. N., K. P. Ariyadasa and R. P. D. S Chandani (2012), ‘Forest Cover
Assessment in Sri Lanka’, The Sri Lankan Forester 34 (new series): 1–12.
Survey Department Sri Lanka (2007), The National Atlas of Sri Lanka, Second Edition.
David L. and D. Gilmour (2003), Rehabilitation and Restoration of Degraded Forests, Issues
in Forest Conservation. IUCN.
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Forest Rehabilitation in Thailand
Manop Kaewfoo
Forestry Technical Officer (Practitioner Level),Pong Krai Watershed Management Unit
Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation
Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Thailand
Abstract: Thailand has suffered from severe deforestation during the last century. Forest
cover has declined drastically both in terms of area and quality, mostly due to the expansion
of human activities. Much of the deforested area has been used for agricultural purposes, but
much has also been left in a degraded condition. In late 1980s, the forest declined to a point
where the nation decided that the remaining forest should be kept for conservation rather than
further exploitation. consequently, forest policy has shifted its focus from exploitation to
sustainable management and protection. Thailand has set a goal of increasing its forest area to
40% of the total land area, while at present, forests occupy around 31.58 % of the land. With
the intention to retain most of the remaining forest as protected areas and, at the same time,
achieve the goal set, several reforestation and rehabilitation initiatives have been
implemented, especially on those lands in a degraded condition. In terms of forest plantations,
the crucial factors in good plantations are the selection of suitable species, the quality of seed
and seedlings and planting techniques. Additionally, the development of promising
approaches that will facilitate the collaboration is urgently needed to ensure that the
rehabilitation measures introduced will not be of a top-down nature. The current emphasis on
the rehabilitation of degraded forests also provides opportunities to build new relationships
between the government and local communities based on collaboration rather than
confrontation. Successful programs have to take into consideration the social reality of poor
rural households to ensure an equitable sharing of the benefits and costs.
Status of Land Use and Forest Degradation
Forest Land and Land Use Change
Thailand has a total land area of 513,115 km2 (about 51 million ha, or 320 million rai), and a
population of 66,413,979 million people, with an annual birth rate of 10.5 percent in 2018.
The economy is diverse and comprises agriculture, manufacturing and service industries. The
economy has been urbanizing rapidly since the 1980s; in 1965, only 13 percent of the
population lived in urban areas, compared with 23 percent in 1990, declining to 21 percent in
2000 (World Bank, 2000). Population density was 110 people/km2 in 1990, rising to 120.3
people/km2 in 2004 (RFD, 1998; 2004) and rising to 129.43 people/km2 in 2018. Forest
resources, forest land and agricultural land have been interdependent since the start of
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economic development in the 1960s; the economy is based on agriculture. The population
growth and migration, resulting in decreased in the number of forest areas. (Figure 1)
Percentage of Forest Area Number of Thai population (million people)
Source: Sueb Nakhasathien Foundation, 2018
Fig. 1 Percentage of forest area and number of Thai populations
Since the Royal Forest Department (RFD) was established in 1896 to carry out forestry tasks
under the Royal Thai Government, Thailand has enacted five main policies that are relevant to
forestry and forest-related resources: 1) the first Forest Protection Act of 1913, for long-term
forest exploitation benefiting the State; 2) the forest protection policy, which was introduced
as part of the First National Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDP No.1) of 1961
and comprised a few national acts (described in the following section) aimed at achieving 50
percent forest cover; 3) a policy aiming to achieve 40 percent forest cover, which was part of
the third NESDP in the 1970s and altered the original forest protection policy; 4) the first
formal National Forest Policy, which was formulated by the National Committee on Forestry
in 1983 and aimed at dividing the 40 percent land cover into 25 percent under economic or
production forest, and 15 percent under conservation forest − these percentages were switched
after the logging ban of 1989; and 5) the Forestry Master Plan, which was announced during
the Queen’s birthday speech on 11 August 2003 and aims to restore degraded forests,
encourage the forest industry with various plantation schemes, and support the community
forests that local communities have established and are managing, in spite of the long delay in
enactment of the Community Forestry Act of 1992.
Tab. 1. Land Utilization of Thailand by Region, 2017
Region/
Province
Total Land
(ha)
Forest Land
(ha)
Agricultural
Land use
(ha)
Farm size
(ha/household
)
Non-Agricultural
Land use (ha)
Whole
Kingdom
51,311,502.08 16,345,016.1
6
23,880,594.7
2
4.04 11,085,891.2
Northern 16,964,428.8 9,020,705.44 5,201,067.52 3.96 2,742,655.84
Northeastern 16,885,434.0
8
2,504,888.64 10,217,300.0
0
3.74 2,362,283.04
Central 10,390,120.4
8
3,045,287.2 49,825,50.24 5.82 2,362,283.04
Southern 7,071,518.72 1,774,134.88 3,479,676.96 3.42 1,817,706.88
1961 1967 1976 1978 1982 1985 1988 1989 1991 1993 1995 1998 2000 2004 2005
2006 2008 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
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Source: Agricultural Statistic of Thailand (2018)
In 2000, forests occupy about 17.0 million ha, or 33.2 percent of the total land area.
Generally, percent over the past few decades the area of agricultural land has expanded at the
expense of the forest.
Table 1 shows the distribution of land uses by different regions in the economy. It is evident
that all regions in the economy have reasonable areas of both agricultural land and forests,
with the North being the most heavily forested. The whole Thailand area are divided into 32
percent forest area, non-agricultural land uses into 22 percent and the most agricultural land
uses area is 46 percent. (Figure 2)
Fig. 2. Percentage of land uses in the whole Thailand kingdom
During the past few decades farmers have been encouraged to move from subsistence
agriculture to more market-oriented cash crops, requiring an expansion of the agricultural land
base. The government has also had a policy of leasing “degraded forest lands” to the private
sector for the establishment of plantation crops such as oil palm, eucalypts and for large-scale
shrimp farming. Some of the resulting large agri-businesses forced people off their land so
that they had to seek new farming land, which generally meant they were obliged to move
into the forest and clear more land. These economic factors operating outside the forest sector
have been major drivers of forest clearance. The Northern region, which has traditionally been
an area dominated by shifting cultivation, has witnessed a significant shift towards more
permanent agricultural practices, with an emphasis on cash crops (in some cases as a
replacement for opium).
Thailand’s forest areas declined from 53.33% of the total land area in 1961 to 22.8% in 1999
(FAO 1999). The annual deforestation rates were in excess of 3% for much of the period
(FAO 1998). In 1997, FAO estimated that 329,000 ha of Thailand’s forest areas were being
removed annually, equating to 2.6% annual forest loss. Researchers and other involved parties
agree that there are several direct causes of deforestation in Thailand, for instance, legal and
illegal logging, land encroachment and shifting agriculture. In general, Thai forestry has
undergone four stages as follows (FAO 1998):
1. Early exploitation stage (the mid-1890s to the early 1930s) Logging for commercial
purposes started when teak was in demand here and abroad.
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2. Forest exploitation and management stage (the 1930s to the early 1960s) Logging became
an important economy-building activity. RFD, as the government agency responsible,
attempted to put forest exploitation under management by enacting important forest laws,
opening a school to train foresters and putting them to work to implement forestry laws
and regulations.
3. Peak exploitation decline stage (the 1960s to the mid- 1980s) Logging peaked, export-
oriented agriculture expanded, and the national economic development gained
momentum. As the forests diminished, a growing awareness of the link between the forest
and national well-being emerged.
4. Exploitation closing stage and the beginning of a new forestry era (from the late 1980s)
People developed a high awareness of the adverse effects of forest exploitation. The
forest had declined to a point where the nation had to decide that what remains of it must
be kept for conservation rather than for further exploitation. (Alice and Nobukazu, 2006)
It is generally accepted that the causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Thailand are
diverse (Kashio, 1995; Jantakad and Gilmour, 1999; Rerkasem, 1995;) and include:
• agricultural expansion – for both permanent and shifting cultivation;
• farmers’ need to improve productivity for better economic conditions, leading to the
• expansion of agricultural land;
• rural poverty, including that of disadvantaged and landless people;
• population growth and migration, resulting in increased population in forest areas;
• poorly planned and managed activities of both legal and illegal logging operations;
• poor coordination of policy planning and implementation among the government
agencies
• involved in forest resource management and conservation, and weak institutional
capacity for
• these activities;
• infrastructure development and improved access into frontier areas, particularly in
terms of
• roads, dams and mining.
Forest resources in Thailand have officially been owned by the State or the government,
through RFD, since 1896. In October 2002, the government began to reform the bureaucracy
of the whole economy, and responsibility for forest resources was divided between two
departments: RFD and a newly established Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant
Conservation (DNP). RFD oversees production in the forestry sector, and DNP the protection
or conservation of forests. The ownership of forest resources remains under the government
through these two departments. The private sector and/or local people cannot own any piece
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of natural forest; if they want to have their own forests, they have to establish forest
plantations, forest farms or agroforests. Community forests, which have been in existence for
several years now, have yet to be formalized, particularly regarding rights and responsibilities;
this is owing to the long process of enacting laws, which started in 1990 (see section on
Community management in the chapter on Changes and trends in forest management). Since
the logging ban, a semi-private enterprise agency − the Forest Industry Organization (FIO) −
has been the sole logging operator in plantations and the wood industry in Thailand.
Status of Forest Degradation
The economy has two main forest types, namely evergreen forest and deciduous
Broadleaved closed canopy forests or tropical evergreen forest cover some 36% of the total
forested area. Small but important areas of bamboo, pine forests and mangroves also occur.
Broadleaved open canopy forests cover 54% of the forest area and include: 1. Mixed
deciduous forest with and without teak 2. Dry dipterocarp forest, and 3. Savannas
The Royal Forest Department reported that the forest cover of Thailand in 1910 amounted to
35.9 million ha, or 70% of the land area. In the intervening decades the forest area has
declined to the present 26% coverage in 1993. Much of the loss has taken place since the
1960s, when the forest area has halved (see Table 2). The biggest percentage-wise loss of
forest took place in the Northeast Region with a reduction from 7.0 million ha in 1961 to 2.1
million ha in 1998. At the end of the 1960s, about 70 % of the North of the economy was
covered with forest. However, by the 1990s, two thirds of the forested area above an elevation
of 1,000 meters had been modified through shifting cultivation by ethnic Thai and hill tribe
people. In addition, a large percentage of forest in the North had been heavily logged or
burned and as a result has been converted to savanna woodlands and open grassland
(Charuppat, 1998).
The most recent techniques of land use and forest cover estimation showed that in 2000 the
area was covered with forests at about 17,011,078 ha or 33.15 percent of the economy. The
new statistics deriving from present technology of satellite image interpretation revealed the
increasing forest cover as compared to 25.28 percent of 1999. It should be noted that different
sources give different estimates of areas under various types of land use. These variations are
caused partly by the use of different techniques and different standards for defining forest and
non-forest land. In addition, the aerial photo data base is quite old, so even if estimates are
precise, they may not represent the present-day reality. However, they give useful comparative
data.
Forest resources in Thailand have officially been owned by the State or the government,
through RFD, since 1896. In October 2002, the government began to reform the bureaucracy
of the whole economy, and responsibility for forest resources was divided between two
departments: RFD and a newly established Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant
Conservation (DNP). RFD oversees production in the forestry sector, and DNP the protection
or conservation of forests. The ownership of forest resources remains under the government
through these two departments. Table 3 show the protected areas between 2007 and 2017 in
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each categories of protected areas as National Park, Forest Park, Wildlife Sanctuary, Non-
Hunting Area, Botanical Garden and Arboretum oversees by DNP. Table 4 show the National
Forest Reserves Areas between 2007 and 2017 oversees by RFD.
At present, RFD is encouraging large- and medium-scale private plantations, along with strict
protection of the remaining forests. RFD has recognized the importance of people’s
participation and cooperation since the mid-1980s, but its rigid technocratic and top-down
bureaucratic structure makes it difficult to implement participatory projects that involve local
people in the collaborative management of forest resources and the environment. As long as
RFD’s top-down attitudes and poor support for staff continues, the concept of sustainable
forest management (SFM) will remain an empty promise. In the meantime, policies for
participatory forest management and the joint management of natural resources are
incoherent; understanding and trust are necessary before any real collaboration among
involved parties is possible, and SFM needs to be planned and worked towards.
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Region
Year ha % ha % ha % ha % ha % ha %
1973 11,359,500.00 66.96 5,067,100.00 30.01 1,503,600.00 41.19 2,397,000.00 35.56 1,843,500.00 26.07 22,170,700.00 43.21
1976 10,232,700.00 60.32 4,149,400.00 24.57 1,263,100.00 34.6 2,182,600.00 32.38 2,013,900.00 28.48 19,841,700.00 38.67
1978 9,493,700.00 55.96 3,122,100.00 18.49 1,103,700.00 30.24 2,042,600.00 30.31 1,760,300.00 24.89 17,522,400.00 34.15
1982 8,775,600.00 51.73 2,588,600.00 15.33 800,000.00 21.92 1,851,600.00 27.47 1,644,200.00 23.25 15,660,000.00 30.52
1985 8,412,600.00 49.59 2,558,000.00 15.15 799,000.00 21.89 1,768,500.00 26.24 1,548,500.00 21.9 15,086,600.00 29.4
1988 8,040,200.00 47.39 2,369,300.00 14.03 783,400.00 21.46 1,724,400.00 25.59 1,463,000.00 20.69 14,380,300.00 28.03
1989 8,022,200.00 47.29 2,358,600.00 13.97 778,600.00 21.33 1,722,300.00 25.55 1,460,000.00 20.65 14,341,700.00 27.95
1991 7,714,300.00 45.47 2,179,900.00 12.91 769,100.00 21.07 1,661,600.00 24.65 1,344,900.00 19.02 13,669,800.00 26.64
1993 7,523,100.00 44.35 2,147,300.00 12.72 763,400.00 20.29 1,640,800.00 24.34 1,280,800.00 18.11 13,355,400.00 26.03
1995 7,388,600.00 43.55 2,126,500.00 12.59 759,100.00 20.8 1,628,800.00 24.17 1,245,500.00 17.61 13,148,500.00 25.62
1998 7,306,020.00 43.06 2,098,400.00 12.43 750,700.00 20.57 1,604,900.00 23.81 1,212,500.00 17.15 12,972,200.00 25.28
2000 9,627,028.28 56.75 2,652,694.10 15.71 843,828.32 23.12 2,146,184.65 31.84 1,741,342.97 24.62 17,011,078.32 33.15
2004 9,206,842.40 54.27 2,809,568.96 16.64 824,032.64 22.57 2,124,324.16 31.52 1,794,329.44 25.37 16,759,097.60 32.66
2005 8,938,099.00 47.31 2,533,460.00 15 793,582.00 21.74 2,067,858.00 30.68 1,767,131.00 24.99 16,100,130.00 31.38
2006 8,836,811.00 52.09 2,454,988.00 14.54 788,362.00 21.6 2,055,507.00 30.5 1,729,591.00 24.46 15,865,259.00 30.92
2008 9,507,474.45 56.04 2,755,554.24 16.32 803,340.00 21.01 2,222,757.12 29.81 1,869,439.31 27.03 17,158,565.00 33.44
2013 9,005,376.00 52.36 2,530,229.00 15.09 822,244.00 22.45 2,213,222.00 32.79 1,768,056.00 23.95 16,339,126.00 31.57
2014 9,045,997.00 52.6 2,519,829.00 15.02 812,210.00 22.18 2,218,111.00 32.86 1,769,516.00 23.97 16,365,664.00 31.62
2015 9,039,501.80 52.56 2,505,626.63 14.94 814,684.67 22.25 2,226,903.17 33.02 1,771,840.83 23.99 16,358,557.10 31.6
2016 9,029,437.90 52.5 2,503,651.60 14.93 817,243.89 22.32 2,225,342.16 32.98 1,772,293.27 24 16,347,968.81 31.58
2017 9,020,705.37 52.45 2,504,888.61 14.94 818,178.15 22.34 2,227,109.01 33.01 1,774,134.95 24.02 16,345,016.08 31.58
Source : Forest Land Management Bureau, Royal Forest Department, 2018
Table 2 Forest Area in Thailand by Region, 1973-2017
Whole KingdomNorth North-East East Central South
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Tab. 3. Protected Areas in 2014 – 2017
Source: Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Statistical data 2017
Tab. 4. National Forest Reserves Areas in 2013 - 2017
Note: 1. Total area of the national forest reserves appeared in this table compiled from the
maps and their corresponding area published in the government gazette which occasionally
overlapped each other and some areas have already been revoked from the reserved category
for other used. 2.In the North, included Nakhon Sawan, Kamphaeng Phet and Uthai Thani.
Source: Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Statistical data 2017
The following are complementary policies and incentives that would help SFM to become
fully effective:
• RFD’s roles and attitudes need to be substantially changed, and its organization
requires restructuring with a view to the future. RFD was established in 1896, so it is
not surprising that changes need to be made.
• Institutional capacity is needed. Involved agencies should capacitate institutions,
make partnerships and carry out activities with all the parties involved. It is also
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Categories of Protected Areas (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
National Park 5,472,553.00 5,513,532.00 6,032,384.00 6,032,011.00 6,031,990.00 6,219,886.00
Forest Park 123,879.00 123,671.00 123,879.00 123,608.00 123,518.00 121,899.00
Wildlife Sanctuary 3,620,321.00 3,657,872.00 3,692,937.00 3,692,937.00 3,692,937.00 3,692,937.00
Non-Hunting Area 377,624.00 523,304.00 406,042.00 406,042.00 414,705.00 430,657.00
Botanical Garden 4,628.00 4,137.00 4,137.00 4,538.00 4,538.00 4,538.00
Arboretum 4,189.00 4,284.00 4,297.00 4,302.00 4,302.00 4,252.00
Total 9,605,201.00 9,828,808.00 10,265,685.00 10,265,448.00 10,274,001.00 10,476,181.00
Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Categories of Protected Areas (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
National Park 6,219,886.00 6,219,886.00 6,219,886.00 6,246,274.15 6,315,318.24
Forest Park 121,099.00 145,582.00 145,582.00 145,581.66 113,378.21
Wildlife Sanctuary 3,692,937.00 3,692,937.00 3,692,937.00 3,702,777.96 3,726,936.36
Non-Hunting Area 430,657.00 430,657.00 430,657.00 505,645.83 564,484.55
Botanical Garden 4,638.00 4,769.00 4,769.00 4,768.64 5,002.08
Arboretum 4,152.00 3,923.00 3,908.00 3,916.06 3,915.74
Total 10,475,382.00 10,497,754.00 10,497,739.00 10,608,964.30 10,729,035.18
Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Region (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
North 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08
North-east 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00
Central and East 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00
South 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50
Total 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58
Year 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Region (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha)
North 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08 11,187,504.08
North-east 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00 5,533,340.00
Central and East 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00 3,488,906.00
South 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50 2,818,314.50
Total 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58 23,028,064.58
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necessary to establish transparency and accountability in forest management
• Security of land tenure and access to resources for local people would help
discourage forest encroachment, but forest tenure under RTG is still rigid at present.
• Local people’s rights to use and manage their community forests must be approved.
(The
• Community Forestry Act has been waiting for approval since 1992.)
• There is need for local institutional development and the recognition of local
communities’ traditional rules and regulations. These can help the planning and
implementation of natural resource management at the local level through TAOs.
• Cooperation and coordination should be built up among the agencies involved in
policy planning, the implementation of natural resource management, monitoring and
evaluation.
• It is important to gain the collaboration of key stakeholders who can help resolve
conflicts over land uses and overlapping land areas between local people and
RFD/DNP. During such conflict resolution, it is necessary to establish the agreement
of both parties regarding the identification of boundaries and the demarcation of land.
• Inappropriate or obsolete legislation/regulations need to be replaced. The political
will to do this is needed.
• Government officials must employ socially acceptable methods (based on equality,
not superiority) when working with local people and other parties.
• It is essential that all stakeholders be involved in the participatory planning of
decentralization schemes.
Fig. 3. Various factors contributing to degradation and loss of forest (TFSMP, 1992)
Figure 3 shows the various factors that contribute to on-going forest degradation and loss. The
degradation and destruction of forest resources in Thailand stems from a variety of reasons.
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The private purchase, direct or indirect and for whatever purpose, of extensive tracts of
farmland in former forested areas, which were officially reclassified as non-forest areas, has
driven the land dependent peasants to resume their production activities by clearing land in
the Forest Reserve for cultivation. The extensive conversion of forests into farmland is also
caused by the farmers’ need for additional land to increase output, because existing
agricultural productivity is usually rather low. Meanwhile, failures by the state can be
considered as another major underlying factor of forest resource destruction and degradation.
Many government policies are either inappropriate or unclear in their objectives, design,
direction and operation, such as the policies concerning infrastructure development, tourism
promotion, and export crop promotion. Certain laws, official rules, and regulations related to
forest resources are not well-defined either, and may therefore hamper the accomplishment of
goals established by the National Forest Policy and the National Land Policy. This is because
the legal mechanisms cannot function to guide and control land use in the desired manner,
especially the usage of land according to conservation practices in the watershed headland.
Another pitfall is, perhaps, the difficulty to accurately assess the forest situation because the
available statistics and information concerning forest resources are not gathered on a
continuous basis nor by using the same methods each time, and the definitions used in
succeeding studies and reports are not always the same (Kaosa-ard and Wijakprasert, 2000).
Implementation of Forest Restoration and Rehabilitation
In Thailand, reforestation was introduced in 1906 when teak was planted in the form of
taungya plantations. From then until 1960 small areas were planted annually. However, no
clear reforestation plan came up until the first National Economic and Social Development
Plan (NESDP) was introduced in 1960. Accomplishments were very modest; only about 8,754
ha were planted before 1960, of which 92 percent was teak. In the First and Second Plan, it set
up planting targets at 13,000 ha and 140,000 ha, respectively. The planting target was
increased towards the Fourth Plan at 500,000 ha, then declining to 300,000 ha in the Fifth
Plan. In the Sixth Plan, the target was not specified in terms of ha per year. Instead, the
government stated that the Kingdom's forest cover should be increased from 28 to 40 percent
(15 percent for protected forests and 25 percent for economic forests) of total land area. This
target was reversed in the Seventh Plan, i.e., 25 percent for protected forests and 15 percent
for economic forests. By the time when the Eighth and Ninth Plan were introduced
reforestation work had become less important for development in the government’s view due
to previous unsatisfactory results. At the present, it is unlikely that the government will
consider reforestation work as an important means for rehabilitating degraded forest land
rather than enhancing natural regeneration by only protecting the area from forest fire.
(Jamroenprucksa, 2004)
Impacts of Forest Degradation
The disappearance of large tracts of forest vegetation denotes the possible loss of important
forest ecosystems, particularly those characterized as unique or uncommon and possessing a
great diversity of sophisticated life in all of the vertical stratification. They also serve as
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natural habitats to rare and endemic species of plants and animals in Thailand. The loss of
forested areas often makes it difficult or even impossible to restore the ecosystem to its
natural state. The loss of many distinctive forest ecosystems from the economy must be taken
as the most negative experience. It must be prevented at all costs, not only for the purpose of
protecting biodiversity in all trophic levels, but also because the general public and future
generations may be deprived of their right to biodiversity and welfare. Once the rare and
unique forest ecosystems are depleted or damaged, there will be no likely way of finding
replacements or alternatives for future generations to pursue advancement in science or to
utilize the various biological resources to sustain human well-being and development.
The qualitative degradation of forest ecosystems involves changes in the community structure
of wild plant species induced by human activities such as wood cutting, foraging and land
clearing, but which take place sporadically and not to any great extent, or to an extent that
permits the ecosystem to successfully restore itself to its original state over the years. To
assess whether the extent to which external disturbances will have a bearing on the
sustainability of an ecosystem, various indicators are needed such as species richness, tree
density, basal area, the growth distribution of each species, relative density, relative
dominance, relative frequency, and the importance value index of each species in a specific
forest ecosystem. In addition, tree vigor, regeneration patterns, and stages of succession can
also serve as indicators of the degree to which forest ecosystem degradation has occurred.
Nevertheless, the most obvious consequence of forest loss and degradation is the loss of
biodiversity. Thailand’s rich reserves of biodiversity have been severely degraded, particularly
during
recent decades. However, the extent of the loss is not clear. Also, of importance is the loss of
environmental services, such as watershed functions and carbon sequestration. Quantification
of these services is even more difficult to determine. There is also a widely held view that the
loss of forest cover has impacted adversely on water supplies in Thailand’s major river
systems. Even though the weight of scientific evidence does not support these views, they
have become part of the local belief system.
Current Policy Governing Land Use and Restoration/Rehabilitation
Forest Land Zoning
Since 1989 following the declaration of the logging ban operation in Thailand, the Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives instructed the Royal Forest Department to undertake a survey of
the status of the forest in all areas that previously had been allocated as logging concessions.
The purpose of this survey was to establish clearly defined forest land classifications within
national forest reserves. The three zones are classified as follows:
• Conservation Zone (or Zone C)
The land in this zone is covered with forest trees that are healthy and must be conserved. The
area is managed for being national parks or wildlife sanctuaries.
• Economic Zone (or Zone E)
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The forest condition in this zone is partly degraded. However, the assessment of soil
capability indicates that these areas are suitable for the cultivation of tree crops, particularly
forest tree crops.
• Agricultural Land Reform Zone (or Zone A)
The land in this zone has been deforested and is occupied by permanent settlers. The
communities in these areas are permanent and people are cultivating a combination of rice,
upland crops, and permanent tree crops. These areas have been shifted from the control of
RFD to Agricultural Land Reform Office in order to give land tenure to the settlers.
In Thailand, any piece of land not covered by deeds or documents according to the processes
of the Land Code of 1954 was to be defined as forest land. Therefore, the state forest can be
considerably expanded in spite of having forest settlers. In 1999, there are 1,221 units of
forest reserve of 23,037,000 km2 or 45.9% of the economy (Royal Forest Department, 2001).
The potential areas for reforestation are in the category of Conservation and Economic zones
which covered 18.6 percent of the economy area or 9,558,400 ha. However, it has been found
that there are a number of small holders already occupying the land. It requires their
cooperation for reforestation of the land, and appropriate incentives should be provided.
Land Right Certification
The government has tried to preserve and protect land for forestry. Large forest reserve areas
have been destroyed in spite of this. The enforcement of the law and the protection of natural
and planted forests have been ineffective. Another dimension of the problem is the fact that
about 6 million hectares of encroached forest land where farming has been practiced for
decades is actually suitable for agriculture (Onchan, 1990). However, the government is
reluctant to give up, or alienate the land to people now occupying it. It has for a long time not
been argued that if the land was legally allocated to the farmers it could be used more
efficiently. Forest farms could be such an efficient land use. On the other hand, there is a
worry that if the forest occupants are given the land certificate, they will sell the land right
illegally, move and continue forest encroachment. The government has granted land rights
through a number of land allocation agencies such as Agricultural Land Reform Office, Public
Welfare Department, Cooperative Promotion Department, and RFD. However, this has so far
been rather ineffective in reducing forest encroachment.
In the study area, it is estimated that the area under rubber plantation and fruit tree plantation
covering 30 percent of the watershed has received land right certificate (S.P.K.4-01) issued by
the Agricultural Land Reform Office. As the survey revealed, there are some farmers who
prefer not to have all their land subjected to that land right certificate in spite of having illegal
ownership. This is the case when they have more land than the rule by the government defines
which allows less than 50 rai for the certificate (Jamroenprucksa,2004)
National Forest Policy
In Thailand, the concrete policy for reforestation can be accounted from the beginning of the
first National Economic, Social and Development Plan (NESDP), The National Forest Policy
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that required Thailand to have forest cover at 40% of the total land area was also changed to
incorporate the rising awareness into its tasks. Within the 40% of the economy land area, the
ratio of conservation and commercial forest, which used to be 15:25, was changed to 25:15,
respectively. During the National Economic and Social Development Plan (NESDP 1-6
(1961-1991)) agricultural development for export was the main priority in Thailand’s
development, and farmers were encouraged to expand their farmland. Later, during NESDP 8
(1997 to 2001) − almost too late − the government recognized the negative environmental
impacts that result from economic development without proper consideration of sustainability,
the environment and local people’s involvement. In the NESDP 9 (2002 to 2006), the main
focus is on restoring degraded natural resources and utilizing resources soundly.
(Lakanavichian, 2006). In the NESDP 10 (2007 to 2011), the main focus is on Thailand must
therefore raise the standard of management. The environment is better than ever by protecting
the resource base in order to maintain a sustainable balance of the ecosystem. By developing
the natural resource management system for hight efficiency under the process of having
participate and adjust the production model of products and services that are more
environmentally friendly. For the NESDP 11 (2012 to 2016), was focus on Conservation,
restoration and stability of natural resources and the environment. Aimed at preserving and
restoring forest and conservation areas. In the current NESDP 12 (2017 to 2021), adhere to
the principle of "philosophy of the sufficiency economy "" sustainable development "and"
people as the center of development " in accordance with the 20-year national strategic plan.
Where the goals and indicators must be consistent with the target framework economic, social
and environmental development Which international organizations have established such as
sustainable development (sustainable development goals: SDGs) at the United Nations. Table
5 summarize the major policy and practical shifts that have taken place in the past four
decades.
Table 5. Evolution of watershed management policy in Thailand
Period Policy Focus Major Activities
1976-1980 Watershed rehabilitation
Reforestation of abandoned swidden area;
relocations of hill tribe villages and
improvement of quality of life.
1980-1990 Integrated watershed
management
Land use planning, soil and water
conservation measures, forest fire control and
promotion of agricultural extension.
1990-1999 Participatory watershed
management
Local people’s participation, village
committee, watershed network, rules and
regulations.
2000-2011
Watersheds for the people
Promote participation of local people in the
conservation and protection of forest
resources Along with improving the quality
of life of the community.
2012 onward Watersheds for the people
Promote participation Integrative work of all
sectors, both communities in the conservation
and preservation of watershed headlands and
improving the quality of life along with
sustainable use.
A National Forest Policy was drawn up and adopted by the cabinet in 1985 in an attempt to
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harmonies the forest policy in the economy and to place forestry within the context of overall
national development. The process of preparing the policy was thorough and detailed, with
extensive public hearings and input. Reforestation and afforestation were seen as important
initiatives to supply wood for future needs. This part of the policy encouraged the private
sector to become involved in tree planting projects for both domestic and export supply.
Emphasis was placed on a partnership with the private sector. However, the private sector was
interpreted to mean concessionaires and business people rather than rural people.
Although the forest policy was widely considered that it did not give adequate attention to
three crucial areas (RFD, 1993). These are:
• Deforestation, with all its negative impacts, continued because its root causes were
not addressed;
• The Kingdom’s household and industrial wood demand was not met in a sustainable
manner; and
• The conflict over forest land use by many "illegal" occupants of state forest land
remained unresolved, thereby accelerating land degradation and maintaining social
tension. (Lakanavihian, 2006)
Watershed Classification Regulation
The Watershed Classification Regulation was introduced in the late 1970s to classify areas for
watershed protection, production forestry and agriculture. Based on an agreement among state
agencies, five watershed classes were characterized as follows:
• WSC1 – Protection or conservation of forest and headwater sources. Areas under this class
are usually at high elevations and have steep slopes, so that they should have permanent forest
cover. There are two subclasses: WSC 1A if the area is wholly undisturbed, or WSC 1B if part
of it has already been cleared for cultivation.
• WSC2 – Commercial forest. Areas under this class may be at high elevations and
may have steep slopes, but their landform results in less erosion than WSC1. They
may be used for logging, mining, or grazing, or for crop production if appropriate
soil protection measures are taken.
• WSC3 – Fruit tree plantation. Uplands with steep slopes, but less erodible landform
than WSC 2; may be used for commercial forests, grazing, fruit trees, or some
agricultural crops if soil conservation measures are taken.
• WSC4 – Upland farming. Gently sloping, and suitable for row crops, fruit trees and
grazing with moderate use of soil conservation measures.
• WSC5 – Lowland farming. Very gentle slopes or flat; suitable for paddy fields and
other agricultural crops with few restrictions.
Watershed management became a priority for the RFD in the early 1950s. Public relations
work was started through print and broadcast media to inform people about the damage to soil
and water resources caused by frequent fires. At about the same time rehabilitation of denuded
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watersheds by means of reforestation commenced in the Northern region. A number of RFD
stations were established in the North and Northeast of the economy for headwater protection
and rehabilitation. Rehabilitation by reforestation continued on the assumption that only
forests can provide ideal hydrological conditions. The watershed management activities were
mainly agency oriented and were focused on technical interventions. From 1965 to 1996, the
RFD through its Watershed Management Division rehabilitated 211,231 ha of forest primarily
through reforestation activities, and mainly in the Northern region. All highland communities
are directly affected by the national forest policy and its implementation. As all mountain
lands essentially "belong" to the RFD, the highland villager’s rights to use land can be
revoked by a forestry officer at any time. At the village level, this policy translates into an
enforcement of land use restrictions without redress to any social and economic assistance. An
example of how the insecurity of tenure can have a devastating effect on people’s lives comes
from the experience of the Lahu village of Lo Pa Krai, North of Chiang Mai. Their village
was selected for economic development, and a large tract of this land in the area was awarded
by the RFD in Bangkok to the Forestry Industry Organization (FIO), a government owned
company mandated to develop eucalypt plantations. This action essentially disenfranchised
the local villagers from their traditional lands, and they were without redress (Ramitanondh
and Somswasdi, 1992). However, the approach of the RFD to watershed management has
evolved over the years, as experience has been gained.
Forest Restoration/Rehabilitation Initiative
Reforestation
As discussed above, Thailand absolutely needs a massive reforestation program for at least
three reasons. Firstly, the economy has suffered a negative wood balance. Secondly, as the
economy’s population increased to 66 million in 2019, it needs wood from man-made forest
to release consumption pressure on natural forest. Thirdly, due to the impact of past shifting
cultivation destroying huge forest areas of watershed headlands, the economy needs effective
reforestation to rehabilitate the degraded forest. Therefore, reforestation in Thailand can be
divided, by type of planting land and forest policy, into three categories, namely: reforestation
on public land, on leasehold, and on titled land.
Reforestation on Public Land
The Royal Forest Department is the main agency implementing reforestation programmes in
the economy operating under the following two offices:
• The Office of Conservation is responsible for reforestation in the conservation zone
especially in degraded watershed headlands and
• The Office of Reforestation with its two units, - i.e., the Division of State Reforestation
and the Division of Private Reforestation - is responsible for reforesting degraded forest
reserves and promotion of private reforestation in leasehold forest land. Forest Industry
Organization (FIO) and Thai Plywood Company, which are state-owned enterprises, are
permitted to use public land for reforestation to supply wood material in a sustainable
manner.
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Forest logging concessionaires were also active agencies for reforestation according to the
concession agreement before the logging ban in 1989. After that, the reforestation burden
moved to FIO. The main purpose of reforestation on public land by the government budget is
to reforest the watershed areas heavily destroyed by shifting cultivators in the past as well as
lowland degraded forests. The former planting sites were more common in the mountainous
terrains rather than in the lowlands, while the latter reforestation gave rise to the development
of forest villages and management of community forestry. From 1994 to 1996, the Royal Thai
Government through the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives (MOAC) launched a large
scale reforestation programme in commemoration to the Golden Jubilee of King Bhumipol
Adulyadej's ascension to the throne (the Fiftieth Anniversary of H.M. the King) to rehabilitate
deteriorated conservation forest as well as planting trees along roadside of the main highways.
The government was successfully doing a billion-baht fund raising campaign for its
implementation. Besides, RFD and state-owned enterprises have been using the budget from
other agencies such as the Electricity Generation Authority of Thailand, the Royal Irrigation
Department, and concessionaires to launch the reforestation program on public land.
However, most problems of reforestation on public land are the lack of adequate maintenance
due to less budgetary support especially after 6 years of plantation establishment. Forest fire is
another big problem causing mortality of planted trees in large areas. (Jamroenprucksa,2004)
Private Reforestation on Leasehold
After the logging ban in 1989, the government has set up the new target of forest cover being
25 percent for conservation forest and 15 percent for economic forest in the Seventh Plan
(1992-1996). Recognizing the potential role of the private sector in reforestation for economic
purposes, RFD promoted private-sector involvement by providing them the privilege to rent
degraded forest land which is in the economic zone for fast-growing tree planting. Thus,
encroached land in forest reserves is rented to private companies for eucalyptus plantations at
a rate of only 10 baht per rai (or 0.16 ha). The government also grants promotional privileges
to participating companies through a Board of Investment (BOI) promotion program. This
policy has led to a major controversy as private firms have to pay farmers living on
encroached land to move out. If this policy were widely implemented, there would be a major
concern on ensuring the welfare of the approximately 7.8 million poor farmers now living in
forest reserves. The National Forest Reserves Act of 1964 cannot be enforced unless the
government finds a way to deal fairly with such a large number of settlers. Past experience
has shown that driving people out of the forest reserves without appropriate compensation is a
sure recipe for trouble. However, for this reason, there were many private enterprises applying
to utilize degraded forest lands for the establishment of industrial plantations throughout the
economy, especially after 1980. Nowadays, there are two main groups which have similar
approaches in the management of their reforestation for securing raw material. The first
group, in the Prachinburi and Chachoensao province, has its own plantation of about 32,000
ha in which some are leasehold, some are contract farming area with farmers of the size of
about 48,000 ha. The second group, in the Kanchanaburi province, has a contract farming area
of about 25,600 ha in addition to non-contract farming of 40,000 ha (Banjachaya, 2002).
Mostly, the species planted is Eucalyptus camaldulensis. From the social point of view, the
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industrial reforestation project, which is large-scale in nature, must ensure that local people
get long-term benefits from the reforestation effort. (Jamroenprucksa, 2004)
The benefits from the large-scale reforestation to local people can be listed as follows
• Cash from employment in nursery, planting, maintenance, protection, harvesting and road
construction work;
• A share of the revenues when the trees are harvested;
• Possibilities to use the land temporarily or permanently for the people’s own production;
• Wood or profit sharing contracts; the wood or the profits from timber harvesting in
plantations shared in relation to the inputs to the plantation; and
• Various extension activities in which technical assistance is provided to local people, so
that they can establish forest and agroforestry plantations on their own titled or permitted
land.
Reforestation on Titled Land
Recently, in the period of 1994 to 2000, the government has established incentive schemes to
promote economic tree farming on titled land. It has provided a subsidy of 3,000 baht per rai
(18,750 baht per ha) for five years, divided into five installments, as the established plantation
has proven successful. This project has faced a lot of problems due to unclear directions for
future management of the plantation as well as small wood markets. Some farmers, who
joined the promotion, gave up and switched to other uses of the planting plot. It can be seen
that the number of farmers joining the promotion and planting area from the beginning, the
period of 1994 to 1998, has decreased to 81,486 farmers and 174,256 ha. (Jamroenprucksa,
2004). However, the government gazette has published the Forest Act (No. 8) BE 2562, which
is significant in section 4, shall be repealed in the first paragraph of Section 7 of the Forest
Act BE 2484, as amended. By the National Peacekeeping Council Announcement No.
106/2557 Re: Amendment to the Law on Forestry dated 21 July 2014 and shall use the
following instead. By considering that all kinds of wood that is grown in the land of
ownership is not classified as restricted timber According to the Forestry Act, in response to
the policy of the Minister of Natural Resources and Environment that wants to create space
"Economic forest" that can be cut, sold." To encourage the private sector is interested in
growing more forests.
To solve the problems in the long term, the farmers have been encouraged by the Royal Forest
Department to form farmer organizations, so-called “Private Reforestation Cooperatives”, to
help members in running their own wood-based business and to solve marketing problems. At
present, there are 34 cooperatives established throughout the economy. However, there are a
number of problems the farmers have to face such as slow growth and survival of trees, lack
of appropriate technology for the utilization of small logs, and an unclear market for wood.
However, the success and failure of reforestation projects showed that participation of local
people is a key factor. The most important measure to achieve participation consists in
assuring an interesting market for the products coming from plantations. With a good market
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at hand, people will look upon any plantation as something valuable, something worth as
private property (Jamroenprucksa, 2004)
Adaptation to Economic Crisis
After achieving an average growth rate of 6.8 percent during 1960-1996, the Thai economy
faced the severest crisis in 1997. This crisis had some effects on the structure of the economy.
The government had launched the public sector adjustment policy to review the role of
government agencies. It was decided that all work that could be carried out by the private
sector should be privatized. Or despondingly, all work which could be undertaken by local
people should be transferred to local organizations. Under this policy, the RFD will terminate
government reforestation projects, private plantation promotion, seedling distribution, and
wood and non-wood checkpoints. These activities as well as all the work concerning forest
engineering (such as road construction, forest boundary survey and all mechanical
engineering) shall be transferred to the private sector. (Jamroenprucksa, 2004). Plantation and
forest protection activities will be transferred to local organizations. The process of the
adjustment was initiated in 1998 and is ongoing (Komon, 2000).
Future Action for Enhancing Restoration/Rehabilitation
Proposed Model for Community-Based Reforestation
Reforestation is often regarded as key activity in sustainable natural resource management.
Representative and accountable community-based institutions are seen to be potentially more
dynamic and responsive to rapidly changing local realities. In Figure 4 a model of
Community-Based Reforestation is presented that can be set up through support by funding
organizations such as the government or a donor agency. As mentioned earlier, community-
based reforestation is a form of decentralization which emphasizes local people’s participation
through collaboration of two governmental reforestation units which have different
complimentary roles. One, called “Local Reforestation Unit (LRU) “, is based on local
organizations which may be the one within the structure of the local administration or the one
from farmer cooperatives. This depends on the situation of each community. Another one,
called “Technical Reforestation Support Unit (TRSU)”, is a qualified professional team in
reforestation and natural resources management. TRSU should get an initial fund from the so-
called “Funding-support Reforestation Organization (FRO)” to prepare a reforestation plan as
well as a research and extension plan with the local people and LRU. Then, they should
submit the plan for approval to FRO for further funding and implementation.
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Fig. 4 Proposed model of community-based reforestation (Jamroenprucksa, 2003)
With the above model, LRU will play a key role in implementing reforestation plans starting
from the beginning of the project period to the end of harvesting. During the project period,
FRO will release the reforestation fund to LRU and TRSU together on the basis of their
collaborative report submission. FRO can get return indirectly from harvesting timber for
further financial support of the next implementing cycle.
Integrated R&D Approach
Integrated research and development (IR&D) is an iterative process and a form of natural
resource management. Therefore, agricultural science must definitely be subject to the value-
driven preferences of diverse interest groups or learning communities. Resource management
involves negotiating goals and acceptable trade-offs among multiple stakeholders, including
the different learning communities. For poor farmers in semi-subsistence agriculture, there are
trade-offs between satisfying the family's daily food and income needs and maintaining the
viability of the natural resources required to produce them. For better-off farmers in
commercial agriculture, there are trade-offs between cutting costs to capture slender profit
margins and long-run investment in the management practices and technology needed to
sustain productivity. Research aimed at improving the management of reforestation has to
incorporate the management objectives of the different stakeholders with regard to how best
to use natural processes, cope with disturbances, and internalize externalities.
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Fig. 5 Basic steps for carrying out integrated research and development.
(adapted from Hagmann et al., 2002)
The methodological sequence can be viewed as a cyclical spiral of collective action,
reflection, and self-evaluation (Figure 5). Each cycle brings new learning experiences on
which the next cycle can be built. Not even the situation analysis is static; it will provide more
insights during implementation that might require new actions. This action learning is an
iterative process, aimed at full engagement and ownership of the process by local people with
their own goals, values and needs. The process of the IR&D consists of 5 basic steps, namely
• Interactive situation analysis:
This step aims to participatory assess the situation existing in the project environment. It
consists of exploratory vision, needs and problems related to reforestation and livelihood.
The preliminary result can be a draft of logical framework for the further discussion with
local organizations.
• Facilitation of platform building:
The technical reforestation support unit should conduct a forum for local people to discuss
in order to develop vision and build consensus on the subject matter. Interest groups can
be formed for in-depth analysis and scenario-building.
• Negotiation of interest & power:
With the participatory building scenarios, the team should conduct negotiations with land
users to search for solutions. Then, responsibilities and tasks for the stakeholders can be
drawn.
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• Planning and implementation:
Planning can be done by the technical team and approved by joint a committee for
implementation. Indicators for successful implementation must be developed.
• Sharing results and evaluation:
During the implementation, the stakeholders must have interactive discussions to share
experience and analyze reasons for failure. Development impact assessment should be
conducted before the discussion.
• Re-negotiation and re-planning:
After reaching the end of the implementing cycle, the teams should review and share
problems to re-focus action for the next cycle which may start again at any step above
depending upon the findings and decisions of the teams. The distribution of forest types
closely follows the rainfall distribution pattern. Natural forest vegetation can be grouped into
dry, hill and moist evergreen forests types of the moister areas (totaling about 43%) and mixed
and dry dipterocarp forest in drier areas, representing 22% and 31% of the forest respectively.
The remaining 4% include primarily mangroves and pine forests (RFD, 1992). In terms of
forest fires, the forest land was affected by fire annually. The majority of the fires occurred in
the North.
Conclusion
The growing concern over the scale of deforestation and forest degradation will generate the
need for stable forest policy and restoration of degraded forests. The twelve NSED Plan
reinforced this shift with guidelines that emphasize protection of the remaining forest and the
promotion of forest rehabilitation and reforestation. In terms of forest plantations, the crucial
factors in good plantations are the selection of suitable species, the quality of seed and
seedlings and planting techniques. Additionally, the development of promising approaches
that will facilitate the collaboration is urgently needed to ensure that the rehabilitation
measures introduced will not be of a top-down nature.
Furthermore, legal adjustments regarding land ownership and user rights outside the forest are
necessary to change current short-term oriented land use attitudes towards a long-term
oriented and sustainable management. The current emphasis on the rehabilitation of degraded
forests also provides opportunities to build new relationships between the government and
local communities based on collaboration rather than confrontation. Successful programs have
to take into consideration the social reality of poor rural households to ensure an equitable
sharing of the benefits and costs.
References
Agricultural Statistic of Thailand. 2018. Office of Agricultural Economics.
Alice Sharp & Nobukazu Nakagoshi. 2006. Rehabilitation of degraded forests in Thailand: Policy and
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practice. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/
Benjachaya, Somchai. 2002. The Further Processing of Tropical Timber in Thailand. In the First Thai
Biomass Utilization Symposium on Effective Utilization of Forest Biomass for Regional People in Thailand.
Charuppat, Thongchai. 1998. Forest situation of Thailand in the past 37 years (1961-1998) Forest Research
Office, RFD, Bangkok, Thailand.
FAO. 1998. Asia-Pacific forestry towards 2010. Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study.
Rome, Forestry Policy and Planning Division, Bangkok, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.
FAO. 1999. FAO-Forestry Profile-Thailand. Bangkok. Available at: www.fao.org/infosylva. Forest Land
Management Bureau. 2018. Royal Forest Department. Available at: http://forestinfo.forest.go.th/
Hagmann, J. R., E. Chuma, K. Murwira, M. Connolly, and P. Ficarelli. 2002. Success factors in integrated
natural resource management R&D: lessons from practice. Conservation Ecology 5(2): 29.
Jamroenprucksa, Monton. 2003. Integrated R&D approach for community-based reforestation Asian
Timber. Vol 22 No3 May/June 2003.
Jamroenprucksa. Monton. 2004. PART A. STATUS OF LAND USE AND FOREST (AND LAND) DEGRADATION.
Available at: https://www.iufro.org/download/file/7384/5120/Thailand_pdf/
Jantakad, P. & Gilmour. 1999. Forest rehabilitation policy and practice in Thailand. 33 pp. (mimeograph)
Kaosa-ard, Mingsan and Wijukprasert, P. 2000. The State of Environment in Thailand: A Decade of Change,
Thailand Development Research Institute, 321pp.
Kashio, M. 1995. Sustainable forest management in Asia and the Pacific. In FAO. Proceedings of a Regional
Expert Consortium on Implementing Sustainable Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific, 12 to 15
December 1995, pp. 17-31. Bangkok, FAO.
Komon Pragthong. 2000. Recent Decentralization Plans of the Royal Forest Department and Implications
for Forest Management in Thailand. In Decentralization and Devolution of Forest Management in Asia and
the Pacific. T. Enters, P.B.Durst, and M.Victor, eds. Bangkok: RECOFTC.
Lakanavichian, S. 2001. Impacts and effectiveness of logging bans in natural forests: Thailand. In FAO.
Forests out of bounds: impacts and effectiveness of logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific. Bangkok,
FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Onchan, T. 1990. A land policy study. TDRI. Bangkok, Thailand
Statistical data 2017. Department of National Parks Wildlife and Plant Conservation, Available at:
http://www.dnp.go.th/statistics/dnpstatmain.asp
Ramitanondh S. and Somswasdi V. 1992 Impact of deforestation and reforestation programs on household
survival strategies and women’s work: the case of Karen and Lisu Tribe in the villages of Northern Thailand,
Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Royal Forest Department (RFD). 1998. Forestry statistics of Thailand. Bangkok, RFD Information Office.
Bangkok
Royal Forest Department (RFD). 2004. Forestry statistics of Thailand. Bangkok, RFD Information Office.
Bangkok, Available at: www.forest.go.th/stat/stat47/TAB1.htm
Sueb Nakhasathien Foundation. 2018. Available at: https://www.seub.or.th/document/
World Bank. 2000. Thailand environment monitor. Available at: www.worldbank.or.th/environment.
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TFSMP. 1992. Modeling Deforestation in Thailand. Thai Forestry Sector Master Plan Forest
Products Marketing Sub team. Bangkok Thailand
World Bank. 2000. Thailand environment monitor. Available at:
www.worldbank.or.th/environment.
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Impacts of Slash and Litters Management on Soil
Nutrients and Growth of Acacia auriculiformis Plantation
after Three Rotations in Southern Vietnam
Kieu Tuan Dat
Director, Forest Science Institute of South Viet Nam
Abstract: Management of organic and soil nutrients during inter-rotations is an important
matter for sustainability of plantation productivity in later rotations. Three experiments of
slash and liter management of Acacia auriculiformis plantation in Southern Vietnam were
carried out in this study including (Fl) removing all slash and litters; (Fm) remaining all slash
and litters were repeated during second and third rotation; (Fh) doubling slash and litters at
second rotation, same as Fm and plus fertilizing 300g phosphate of 16.5% P205 per tree at
planting in the third rotation. The experiments were conducted over 12 years (2002–2013).
The results indicated that bulk density in 0–20 cm soil layer were different among three
experiments. The differences were significant for bulk density soil, C, N, P, and exchangeable
K, Ca and Mg, and the highest in Fh treatment, reducing to Fm and to Fl. When remaining
slash and litters (Fm) in second and third rotation, the MAI increased 3 m3ha-1year-1
compared to Fl and aboveground biomass also increased from 6.6 to 8.7%. The MAI of Fh
increased about 6 m3/ha/year and aboveground biomass also increased from 17.6 to 18.5%
compared to Fl. The productivity of A. auriculiformis after three rotations has been improved
because of the use of good seedling sources and remaining slash and litters. In the third
rotation, total standing tree volume after 5 years reached 185.6 m3/ha, an increase of 11%
compared to the second rotation (180.4 m3/ha after 6 years) and increased by 41% compared
to the first rotation (130 m3/ha after 7 year).
It is concluded that remaining slash and litters in A. auriculiformis plantation is sustainable for
both in term of productivity and soil nutrients for the next rotation
Keywords: Biomass; standing tree volume; nutrient cycle; sustainable management.
1. Introduction
More than 1.1 million hectares of Acacia plantation have been established in Vietnam for
timber and pulp wood supplies (Nambiar and Harwood, 2014). Plantations of acacias in
Vietnam are becoming increasingly important in contributing to the national economy and
livelihood of million people in rural areas, especially in the situation of logging timber from
natural forests was prohibited in Vietnam in 2016. By 2013, 51% of total plantation areas in
Vietnam were planted with acacias, where area of Acacia auriculiformis plantation was
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around 600,000 ha (Kien et al. 2014). Access to new land suitable for commercial plantations
remains limited. Since, government policy restricts further clearing of degraded native forests
for plantation establishment. Thus, sustainable managing the current plantation land base for
commercial plantations is becoming urgent need. The silvicultural practices, which can
sustain and increase productivity of plantations at the meantime are not deteriorating soil
fertility, are prioritizing.
However, the tendency to reduce plantation productivity through later rotations is a concern
for businesses and growers not only in Vietnam, but also in many countries around the world.
One of the most important causes is unsustainable site management in afforestation. The
research results of the project network implemented by the Center for International Forestry
Research (CIFOR) in 16 tropical and Asian tropical countries showed that: reasonable
management of organic materials after harvesting, control vegetation cover and the use of
suitable fertilizers had a positive effect on soil fertility and productivity of plantations through
the next rotations (Nambiar, 1996).
Input and output of nutrients in undisturbed natural forests are in balance, where plant demand
for nutrients is met by efficient recycling nutrient systems (Zech and Drechsel, 1995).
Nutrient storage in the short-rotation of plantations were changed and cycling processes
occur, due to harvest exports, changed distribution and quality of organic matter, and altered
patterns of nutrient input and output (fertilization, erosion, leaching, volatile losses etc.).
These factors can impact on storage and supply of soil nutrients and consequently the
sustainability of plantations.
Soil nutrition is the most essential element in sustaining the productivity of forest plantations
(Bouma, 1994). Assessment of soil quality and its alteration overtime is a primary indicator
for sustainable forest plantation management (Doran 2002). There are several studies
quantifying the extent and rate of soil fertility changes in forest plantations of different ages
(Dung et al. 2005; Hardiyanto et al, 2008). There is a clear evidence that prudent management
especially that directed enhancement of soil organic matter and soil nutrient status can result
in sustainability of plantations (Hardiyanto et al., 2000). Other studies demonstrated that site
quality and wood production can be improved over successive rotations (Nambiar, 1996).
Silvicultural operations such as slash and litter management can influence soil fertility and
hence nutrient uptake and tree growth. Retaining slash and litter had higher plantation
productivity than complete logging residue removal. Treatment of logging residues will
become an increasingly important issue for management of plantations in the future, both
from an operational viewpoint, and also for maintenance of soil fertility. Organic matter has a
large influence on the forms and temporal dynamics of nutrients in soil. Thus management of
organic matter and nutrients during the inter-rotation of fast growing plantations is critical for
sustainability of plantation productivity in later rotations (Goncalves et al, 2007; Dat et al,
2014; Huong et al, 2015).
This study was carried out from 2002-2013, in order to determine the role of slash and litter
management after harvesting to improve soil nutrition, improve plantation productivity and
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nutritional balance of A. auriculiformis plantation through three rotations. This study will be
the premise for sustainable management of commercial acacia plantation in Vietnam. The
objectives of the case study were to (1) evaluate the changes of soil characteristics; (2)
evaluate the growth rate, standing volume, aboveground biomass and litter fall; and (3)
consider nutritional balance cycle of A.auriculiformis plantation in Southern Vietnam under
different slash and litter management.
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Site Description
The study was conducted at PhuBinh Forest Research Station (11o30’N and 107
o06’E),
belonged to Vietnamese Academy of Forest Sciences. The site is located in a flat area with
slopping < 3o and elevation above sea level of 80 m (Vu et al., 2008). Average temperature is
26.6oC with 2,330 sunny hours per year. Annual rainfall ranges from 1,671–2,319 mm and
80% rainfall focuses from May to September. Annual humidity is 80–87%. Acrisol chromic
soil dominates the study site.
2.2. Experiment Design
In the site, A. auriculiformis commercial plantation was planted in 1995 as the first rotation
and harvested in 2002. The second rotation of A. auriculiformis was 6 years (2002–2008). The
third rotation of A. auriculiformis was 5 years (2008–20013). The experiment was designed as
a completed random block with three treatments and five replicates (Fig.1) as bellow:
• Fl: remove all slash and litters after harvesting of the first and second rotation
• Fm: remaining all slash and litters after harvesting of the first and second rotation
• Fh: doubling slash and litters after harvesting of the fist rotation (all residues from Fl
were moved to Fh). In the third rotation remaining all slash and litters as Fm and plus
fertilizing of 300g phosphate of 16.5% P205 per tree at planting.
Slash and litter including leaves, barks, litter understory and branches (diameter < 5 cm were
cut into segments of shorter than 1 meter and were evenly distributed on forest floor. Then,
land preparation was applied as without plough during three rotations, digging planting holes
of 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm by man-power. Three month-old seedlings of 30 cm height were
planted in August 2002 and 2008. The planting density was 1,666 trees ha-1
(spacing of 3 m ×
2 m). Each plot had an area of 1,152 m2 planted 192 trees (12 × 16 tree lines). Only 96 trees
(8 × 12 inner lines) in inner plots were used for measuring growth data.
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Fig.1. Layout of experiment
2.3. Data Collection and Analysis
2.3.1. Growth and aboveground biomass
Growth data of A. auriculiformis including diameter at breast height (DBH) and stem height
(H) were measured in inner plots in July annually.
Standing tree volume (V in m3) of each stem was estimated according to the guidance of
MARD (2001): V = 10-4
*π/4*DBH2*H*0.5. Then sum of volume of all stems in a plot was
calculated to have values of total plot standing volume and it was transferred to unit of m3/ha.
Aboveground biomass: Trees, representative of the range of diameter classes, were
destructively sampled 15 trees every year of 2nd
and 3rd
rotations. After felling sample trees,
DBH and stem length (to a top end diameter of 3 cm) were measured. The stem was divided
equally into five sections; wood and bark in each section were weighed and subsamples were
used for dry mass determination. Branches and foliage were treated similarly. Algometric
regression relationships between DBH (X) and stem plus bark, and branch (<1 cm, 1-5 cm,
and >5 cm) biomass (Ys) were established by using the exponential model: Y= aXb. Then
sum of biomass of all stems samples was transferred to unit of kg/ha.
2.3.2. Soil sampling and analysis
In the second rotation, soil samples were collected annually in July. Soil cores (0-10 cm, 10-
20 cm of soil depth) were taken, excluding the litter, from five locations in each plot, bulked
within depths per plot, air-dried, sieved and fractions <2 mm were analyzed. Soil pH, Carbon
(C), Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus extractable (P) and cation exchange capacity (K,Ca, Mg) were
measured according to Van Reewijk (2002). Soil bulk density was determined on undisturbed
soil cores, using one sample from each plot at 0-10 and 10-20 cm depth
2.3.3 Litter fall
In the second and third rotation, falling litter was collected fortnightly between ages two and
five from five litter traps (1 m2 of each) per plot in the Fm treatment. Litter was dried to
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constant weight at 76°C, separated into leaf, twigs and other components, and weighed.
Nutrients were analyzed as above.
3. Results
3.1. Soil pH and Bulk Density
In this study site, soil pH ranged from 4.3–4.6 and was not different among three experiments.
Soil bulk density decreased by time, regardless of experiments. The difference of soil bulk
density among three experiments in soil layer 0-10cm and 10-20cm were significant at any
time (P< 0.05). The soil bulk density reduced from Fh to Fm and to Fl after 12 years. The
lowest soil bulk density was found in Fh as 1.41 g/cm3 in 2002 reducing to 1.24 g/cm
3 in 2008
and to 1.23g/cm3in 2013 (Fig.2a). In the layer 10-20cm, soil bulk density was reducing from
1.56 g/cm3
in Fh to 1.31 g/cm3 and 1.36 g/cm
3 in Fm after 12 years (Fig.2b)
Fig. 2a, 2b. Dynamic of soil bulk density in layer 0-10cm and 10-20cm after 12 years
3.2. Dynamics of Soil C, N, P and Nutrients
Resulting from planting A. auriculiformis in the first rotation (1995–2002); the second
rotation (2002–2008) and third rotation (2008-2013), nutrients including N, P, K, Ca and Mg,
soil C in 0–10cm and 10-20 cm soil layer were different among three experiments. The
differences were significant (P< 0.05) for soil C, N, P (Fig. 3a to Fig. 5b), but exchanged
cations K, Ca, Mg on both soil layers (0-10cm; 10-20cm) have little fluctuation through the
next rotation and the difference between three treatments not so much (Fig. 6a to Fig 8b).
Soil fertility was the highest in Fh, reducing to Fm and to Fl at any time. The total nitrogen
and carbon content decreased after harvested plantation but gradually increased again in the
years after the decomposition of organic materials and soil loss supplies, especially when the
following plantation were 2 years old. The phosphorus content in the soil is low and tends to
decrease gradually in all three treatments.
1.41
1,32 1.32
1,30 1.28
1.24 1.23
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
BD
(g/
cm3
)
Year
Dynamic of Bulk Density in soil layer from 0-10cm
Fl
FmFh
1.38
1.36
1.56
1.36
1.33 1.33 1.31
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
20
14
BD
(g/
cm3
)
Year
Dynamic of Bulk Density in soil layer 10-20cm
Fl
Fm
Fh
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Fig. 3a, 3b. Dynamic of total Nitrogen (%) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
Fig. 4a, 4b. Dynamic of total Carbon (%) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
Fig. 5a, 5b. Dynamic of total P-Bray (mg/kg) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
0.13
0.17
0.15 0.16
0.13 0.15 0.13
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.1620
01
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
N (
%)
Year
Dynamic of total Nitrogen (%) in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
0.12 0.13
0.11
0.12
0.12
0.11 0.11
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
N (
%)
Year
Dynamic of total Nitrogen (%) in soil layer 10-20cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
2.01
2,34
2.04 2.09 2,08
1.94
1.76 1,94 1.74
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
C (
%)
Year
Dynamic of total C (%) in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
1.21
1,81
1.51 1.57
1,78
1.44 1.44 1,63
1.40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
C (
%)
Year
Dynamic of total C (%) in soil layer 10-20cm form 2002-2013
Fh
Fm
Fl
8.77
5.88 6.53
7.85
5.38 6.10
8.21
5.22 5.74
.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
P-B
ray
mgk
g-1
Year
Dynamic of total P-Bray (mg/kg) in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
4.04 3,88
4.28
3.33 3,67
4.12 4.06
3,58
3.88
.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
P-B
ray
mgk
g-1
Year
Dynamic of total P-Bray (mg/kg) in soil layer 10-20cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
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Fig. 6a, 6b. Dynamic of K+ exchange (cmol/kg) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
Fig. 7a, 7b. Dynamic of Ca2+ exchange (cmol/kg) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
Fig. 8a, 8b. Dynamic of Mg2+ exchange (cmol/kg) in soil layer 0-20cm after 12 years
3.3. Tree Growth Responds
Remaining slash and litters after logging had significant effects on survival rate of A.
auriculiformis plantation in the third rotation. After 5 years of planting, survival rate in Fh
was 94.8%, reducing to 90.8% in Fm and to 86.3% in Fl. The differences were significant (P<
0.05).
Resulting from three treatments in second and third rotation were differences of DBH (Fig.
0.28
0.27 0.36
0.27
0.26 0.35
0.28
0.25
0.32
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.420
01
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
K+
-Exc
h C
mo
l kg-
1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation K+ in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
0.25
0.28
0.32
0.24
0.26
0.31
0.25
0.24
0.29
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
K+
-Ex
ch C
mo
l kg-
1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation K+ in soil layer 10-20cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
0.55 0.46
0.49 0.54
0.44
0.46
0.54
0.41 0.43
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Ca-
Exch
Cm
ol k
g-1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation Ca2+ in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
0,48 0,49
0,48
0,38
0,38 0,40 0,42
0,39 0,40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Ca-
Exch
Cm
ol k
g-1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation Ca2+ in soil layer 10-20cm
Fl
Fm
Fh
0.30 0.27
0.36
0.30 0.25
0.32 0.31
0.24
0.31
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Mg-
Exch
Cm
ol k
g-1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation Mg2+ in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
0.21
0.20
0.28
0.22
0,21 0,19
0,24 0.19
0.26
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Mg-
Exch
Cm
ol k
g-1
Year
Dynamic of exchange cation Mg2+ in soil layer 0-10cm
Fh
Fm
Fl
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9a), H (Fig. 9b), Standing volume (Fig. 10a) and Aboveground biomass (Fig. 10b) of A.
auriculiformis plantation. DBH and H were the highest in Fh, reducing to Fm and to Fl at any
time. In third rotation, after 5 years of planting, A. auriculiformis plantation had DBH of 13.2
cm, 12.7 cm and 12.5 cm, and H of 19.2 m, 18.8 m and 18.4 m in Fh, Fm, and Fl,
respectively. The differences of survival rate, DBH and H led to significant differences (P<
0.05) of standing volume and aboveground biomass. Standing volume was 185.6 m3/ha, 169.3
m3/ha, and 155.4 m
3/ha in Fh, Fm, and Fl, respectively in the third rotation and higher than
second rotation at 6 years old. The aboveground biomass was 142.8 tons/ha, 129.5 tons/ha,
and 121.1 tons/ha in Fh, Fm, Fl, respectively and same as the second rotation (2002-2008).
Fig. 9a, 9b. Growths of DBH (cm) and H (m) by time during three rotations
Fig. 10a, 10b. Standing volume and aboveground biomass by time during three rotations
Comparison of growth rate of a auriculiformis after three rotations showed that (Table 01): In
the treatment of remaining slash and litters in second and third rotation (Fm), the MAI
increased 3/m3/ha per year compared to Fl, and aboveground biomass also increased from 6.6
to 8.7%. MAI of Fh increased about 6 m3/ha/year and aboveground biomass also increased
from 17.6 to 18.5% compared to Fl. The productivity of A. auriculiformis after 3 rotations has
been improved with the use of good seedling sources and remaining slash and litters. In the
third rotation, standing tree volume after 5 years reached 185.6 m3/ha, an increase of 11%
compared to second rotation (180.4 m3/ha after 6 years) and increased by 41% compared to
first rotation (130 m3/ha after 7 year).
14 13.5 13.2 14 13.3 12.7
14,0
12.5 12.5
.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
15.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
DB
H (
cm)
R1 R2 R3
Fh
Fm
Fl
16.7
19,2
16.5
18,8
11.7
15.8
18,4
.0
4.0
8.0
12.0
16.0
20.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Ht
(m)
R1 R2 R3
Fh
Fm
Fl
130
180.4 185.6
165.2 169.3
151.9 155.4
.0
40.0
80.0
120.0
160.0
200.0
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Sta
ndin
g v
olu
me
(m3/h
a)
R1 R2 R3
Fh
Fm
Fl
119,0 121,5 129,4 129,5
51.2
141,0 142,8
0
30
60
90
120
150
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
20
08
20
09
20
10
20
11
20
12
20
13
Ab
ove
gro
un
d B
iom
ass
(to
n/h
a)
R1 R2 R3
Fh
Fm
Fl
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Tab. 01.Comparision some indicators of a auriculiformis plantation after three rotations
3.4. Nutrient cycle in the third rotation
The combined results of the nutritional balance of a auriculiformisplantations in the third
rotation show that: The treatment Fh and Fm retaining all slash and litters after harvesting,
after 3 rotations have the ability to balance the nutrition themselves and do not need to apply
additional fertilizer at planting. The treatment Fl removing all slash and litters after 2 rotations
showed a lack of nutrients such as P, K, Ca and Mg (Table 02 and Fig. 11a).
By quantifying some important links in the nutrient cycle of plantations, this case study
simulated the nutrient cycle for Fm treatment of A auriculiformis plantation at ages of 5 in the
third rotation (Fig. 11b)
Tab. 02.Nutritional balance of three treatments at age of five in the third rotation
Treat. Item Nutrient resource Biomass Nutrients composition (kg/ha)
(ton/ha) N P K Ca Mg
Fh
A Providing
1 Nutrient in the soil of layer 0 -
20cm 327.5 10.7 8.2 10.6 6.3
2 Apply fertilizer 300g P205/tree
36.0
3 Slash and litter retained in second
rotation 30.8 319.6 17.2 154.1 40.7 12.0
4 Litter fall (40 months) 24.2 339.4 44.1 173.2 17.7 12.1
Total: (1+2+3+4): 55.0 986.5 108.1 335.6 69.0 30.4
B Using
1 Nutrients of plantation after 5 years 142.8 651.4 72.2 272.7 91.2 29.0
C Balance: C = A-B
7.6 25.1 54.6 -32.8 -4.9
Fm
A Providing
1 Nutrient in the soil of layer 0 -
20cm 298.2 9.8 7.8 9.7 5.6
2 Slash and litter retained in second
rotation 30.8 319.6 17.2 154.1 40.7 12.0
Age (year) 7
Planting stock (tree/ha) 833
Germplasm resoures Seedling from seed
Treatment - Fl Fm Fh Fl Fm Fh
Servival rate (%) 78.1 87.9 91.3 91.7 86.3 90.8 94.8
DBH (cm) 14.0 12.5 13.3 13.5 12.5 12.7 13.2
H (m) 11.7 15.8 16.5 16.7 18.4 18.8 19.2
Standing volume (m3/ha) 130.0 151.9 165.2 180.4 155.4 169.3 185.6
MAI (m3
/ha/year) 18.6 25.3 27.5 30.1 31.1 33.9 37.1
Total aboveground
biomass (tons/ha)51.2 119.0 129.4 141.0 121.5 129.5 142.8
Rotation/treatment DBH (cm)
CK2 (Fh/Fl) 4.3%
CK2 (Fm/Fl) 3.9%
CK3 (Fh/Fl) 5.6%
CK3 (Fm/Fl) 1.6%
Index
Cuting seedling
R2 (2002-2008)
Comparison ratio (%) between treatments after 3 rotations
R3 (2008-2013)
6
6.6%
4.4%
2.1%
19.4%
8.9%
5
1,667 1,667
Cuting seedling
H(m)
8.6% 8.7%
R1 (1995-2002)
17.6%
5.7% 18.5%18.8%
Volume (m3/ha) Biomass (ton/ha)
8.8%
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3 Litter fall (40 months) 24.2 339.4 44.1 173.2 17.7 12.1
Total: (1+2+3): 55.0 957.3 71.2 335.1 68.1 29.7
B Using
1 Nutrients of plantation after 5 years 129.5 593.1 65.6 248.2 52.2 26.4
C Balance: C = A-B
364.1 5.6 86.9 15.9 3.4
Fl
A Providing
1 Nutrient in the soil of layer 0 -
20cm 270.5 8.8 6.9 8.9 5.1
2 Litter fall (40 months) 24.2 339.4 44.1 173.2 17.7 12.1
Total: (1+2): 24.2 609.9 52.9 180.2 26.7 17.2
B Using
1 Nutrients of plantation after 5 years 121.5 555.7 61.5 232.5 78.2 24.7
C Balance: C = A-B
54.2 -8.6 -52.4 -51.5 -7.5
Fig. 11a. Chart for nutritional balance of 3 treatments in the third rotation; Fig. 11b.
Nutrient cycle of Fm
4. Lessons Learnt
• Management of slash and litters for acacia plantations is one of the sustainable forest
management approaches towards forest certification;
• Study results indicated that remaining logging residues in A. auriculiformis plantation is
sustainable both in term of productivity and soil nutrients for the next rotation. After 12
years of evaluation for remaining slash and litter after logging, no need to apply additional
-100 0 100 200 300 400
Nts
Pts
Kts
Ca++
Mg++
Nutrient content (kg/ha)
Nu
trit
ion
Fl
Fm
Fh
N P K Ca Mg
3,693 12.0 287.1 217.7 69.7
N P K Ca Mg
319.6 17.2 154.1 40.7 12.0
N P K Ca Mg
593.1 65.6 248.2 52.2 26.4
Soil nutrients layer from 0-20cm (kg/ha)
Slash, llitter, understore and vegetables (kg/ha)
Plantation absorb nutrition (kg/ha)
Litter fall (kg/ha)
N P K Ca Mg
339.4 44.1 173.2 17.7 12.1
Diagram to
simulate the
nutrient cycle
(Fm)
Rain,light,
temperature,…
Lost by erosion, leaching,
evaporation, …Animals and
Microorganisms inthesoil
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fertilizer for plantations. If all slash and litter are removed, apply more fertilizers will be
needed, especially supply phosphorus of which an amount from 10 to 20 kgP/ha;
• In addition to the management of slash and litters after harvesting, attention should be
paid to seedling quality and silvicultural techniques to improve productivity and quality of
the plantation;
• However, remaining slash and litters after harvesting may lead to more difficult to manage
forest fire, because there are many households living in forests intermingled in Vietnam.
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