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Alternative Tourism – Managing our eco-
cultural landscape for the benefit of our
environment and our tourism industry
Michael Parlato Trigona
Alternative Tourism
Some of the online organisations that market Alternative tourism directly to the traveller:
Alternative Tourism Guide (Balkans)
http://www.alternativetourguide.com/
Alternative Tourism Group (Palestine)
http://www.atg.ps/
Bulgarian Association for Alternative Tourism
http://www.baatbg.org/welcome.php?page=21
Alternative Tourism South Africa
http://www.alternativetourismsa.co.za/index.html
Alternative Tourism
... combines tourist products or individual tourist services, different
from the mass tourism by means of supply, organization and the
human resource involved.
These include rural, ecotourism, adventure (biking, horseback
riding, snowshoeing, ski mountaineering, rafting, diving, caving,
climbing), thematic tourism – connected with the cultural and
historical heritage, justice and solidarity tourism, the esoteric,
religion, wine, traditional cuisine, ethnography and traditional music
and handicrafts – WIKIPEDIA.ORG
Alternative Tourism
"Alternative Tourism", concept that is defined as not being mass
tourism. Under the alternative tourism concept we can find a series
of classifications and types of tourism. What characterizes the
concept of "Alternative" is the existence of small or medium
companies, created by families or friends, where there is the
possibility of more contact with the communities and where most of
the times there is a respect for the environment.
This concept is generally used by government institutions and
academics, and very rarely a traveller will ask in an information
centre for places or activities of alternative tourism –
WIKIANSWERS.COM
Alternative Tourism
AT is used as a broad term to include several types of
alternatives to mass tourism, such as:
‘sociocultural’, ‘appropriate’, ‘ethical’, ‘eco’, ‘nature’, ‘soft’,
‘responsible’, ‘people to people’, ‘controlled’, ‘small-scale’,
‘cottage’ and ‘green’ tourism
(Wall, 1997:37; Butler, 1996 as cited in Weaver, 1998:32; Fennel, 1999:9)
In general AT may be defined as:
…forms of tourism that are consistent with natural, social and
community values, and which allow both hosts and guests to
enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared
experiences
(Eadington & Smith,1992 as cited in Stronza, 2001)
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Alternative Tourism
Typology of Tourism Definitions
Category 1 – Market based segments Category 2 – Ethical based tourism*
Tourism, Mass tourism, Adventure
tourism, Nature tourism, Urban
tourism – including cultural, cruise,
resort, etc
Ecotourism, Geotourism, Pro-poor
tourism, Responsible tourism,
Sustainable tourism
Source: Chafe (2005) as cited with amendments in
SNV (2009) Netherlands Development Organisation [online]
* all are variations on the same theme of environmental, social and
economic sustainability
“Those who are unaware of history are destined to repeat it” - George
Santayana (1863-1952), Spanish American philosopher, essayist, poet, and novelist
"The first step towards getting somewhere is to decide that you are
not going to stay where you are." - John Pierpont Morgan (1837-1913)
American financier, banker and art collector
"If you don't know where you are going, you might wind up
someplace else.” - Lawrence Peter "Yogi" Berra (1925), former American Major
League baseball catcher, outfielder and manager
Alternative Tourism
Evolution of ‘Green’ Travel
People increasingly seeking natural environments as an escape
form their mundane built surroundings and hectic lifestyles,
often motivated by a search for relaxation and spiritual renewal
(Burton, 1998:756; Fennel, 1999:30; Honey, 1999a:19; Kimmel,
1999:40; Wearing & Neil, 1999:4; Ryan et al., 2000:149; Blamey,
2001:5 [online])
‘it is clear…that the environment is a social, cultural, economic
and political construct’ (Duffy, 2002:5)
Evolution of ‘Green’ Travel
Convergent evolution: ‘where many places and people
independently responded to the need for more nature travel
opportunities in line with society’s efforts to become more
ecologically minded.’ (Fennel, 1999:32)
A post modernist phenomenon, ‘characterized by feelings of
alienation, fragmentation, and superficiality’ MacCannell (1976,
as cited in Stronza, 2001:265)
Evolution of ‘Green’ Travel
Intense environmental debate of instrumental versus intrinsic
value of nature and its resources (Honey, 1999a:19)
Anthropocentric versus Biocentric view of the environment
vs.
The Tragedy of the Commons
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8gAMFTAt2M
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Ecotourism in Theory
‘Turismo ecologico’ (sic.), generally attributed to Hector
Ceballos-Lascuráin (Wearing & Neil, 1999) who coined the term
ecotourism in 1983:
Travelling to relatively undisturbed or uncontaminated natural
areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and
enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as
any existing cultural manifestations (both past and present)
found in these areas’ (Ceballos-Lascuráin, 1987)
Ecotourism in Theory
Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the
environment and improves the well-being of local people."
(TIES, 1990)
1990 – established
2007 – 1st Global Ecotourism conference
2010 – 1st European conference (EuroEco)
Ecotourism in Practice
Unsustainable practiceSustainable practice
AT
Mass
Tourism
SUSTAINABLE TOURISM UNSUSTAINABLE TOURISM
Ecotourism
Sociocultural
Source: Butler (1996) as cited in Weaver (1998:32)
Ecotourism in Practice
With reference to Ceballos-Lascuráin’s definition of ecotourism
as travel ‘…with the specific objective of studying, admiring and
enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals…’
‘…ecotourists at Fogg Dam were on the whole less inspired by
an opportunity to study than to “admire” and “enjoy”.’ (Ryan et
al. 2000:157-158)
Ecotourism in Practice
Exploitive
-results in
damage to the
host environment
Passive
-minimal
damage to the
host environment
Active
-contributes to
the health of
host environment
More responsible and more desirable ecotourism
The continuum of ecotourism types
Source: Orams (1995 as cited in Orams, 2001:30 [online])
It is argued that for ecotourism to be categorised as active it
must include a lifestyle or behavioural change on behalf of the
participant as well as actions that result in environmental
benefits (Weaver, 1998:16)
Ecotourism in Practice
Difficult
Dedicated
Easy
&
Casual
Difficult
& Dedicated
Soft
Hard
Hard
Soft
Degree of interest/experience in natural attraction
Lev
el o
f ch
alle
ng
e/p
hy
sica
l d
iffi
cult
y
Source: Laarman and Durst (1987 as cited in Orams 2001:28 [online]; Fennel 1999:35)
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Tom Baum – Future Industry
Trends...Changing Perceptions
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bLp0V0tHdFI&feature=related
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NEEDS
Physiological Needs(hunger, thirst)
Safety Needs(security, protection)
Social Needs (sense of belonging, love)
Esteem Needs (self-esteem)
Self Actualization
Travel Career Ladder - revisited
as cited in Pearce (2005) Developing the Travel Career Approach to Tourist Motivation; Journal of Travel Research February; 43: 226-237
Nostalgia, romance
Host-site-involvementNature related
More important for experienced travellers
More important for less experienced travellers
Important for all travellers
Roger’s Adoption/Innovation Curve
Early market Mainstream market
Plog’s Model of Personality types
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
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Plog’s Model of Personality types
Resource: Stanley Plog, Why destination areas rise and fall in popularity, Cornell Hotel and
Restaurant Administration Quarterly; Jun 2001; 42, 3; ABI/INFORM Global, pg. 13
Ecotourism in Europe
Ecotourism in Europe
‘…relative to its proportion of overall international tourist
arrivals, the less developed world appears to be over
represented in the ecotourism literature’ Weaver (1998:69)
According to UNWTO, with 460 million international arrivals
annually, Europe has more than 50% of the market share of
worldwide tourism – a position which, according to long-term
forecasts, it looks likely to retain (European Travel Commission
Nov 2010)
Ecotourism in Europe
Europe is a unique destination as it is made up of ‘a mosaic of
relatively small countries’ with a ‘diversity of ecosystems and
landscapes,…cultures,... languages, traditions and gastronomy’
(Blangy & Vautier, 2001:155-156 [online])
Connects ‘nature interpretation with local traditions,
architecture and culture’ Blangy & Vautier (2001:156 [online])
‘the peculiarity of the European landscape is that it is mainly a
product of human activity
Ecotourism in Europe
Europe as a whole is the most popular travel destination today
and is in the lead in terms of tourist numbers and economic
earnings, with the Mediterranean region being the most
attractive destination as well as the one to have suffered the
most impacts as a direct result of tourism (Blangy & Vautier,
2001 [online])
Kimpton Hotels & Restaurants
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KfVhPvz5jA
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Resource Management Issues
Tourism operators tend to develop a ‘selling mentality to the
resource’ which limits effectiveness PATA (Pacific Asia Travel
Association,1992 as cited in Wearing & Neil, 1999:33)
‘…whatever laudable, environmentally sound polices and goals
the industry articulates, they will remain subsidiary to the
demand for profit’ (Giannecchini, 1993:430).
Market Failure: ‘entrepreneurs are not always required to
compensate for their negative impacts’ (Sirakaya, 1997:920-
921)
Resource Management Issues
‘educating the tour operators and placing a call to their
conscience…are the key strategies for increasing compliance’
‘…personal morality’ was the most important factor as non-
compliance resulted in ‘guilt’ feelings. There was also greater
compliance from female operators than from their male
counterparts (Sirakaya, 1997:942).
Resource Management Issues
Protected
area
personnel
Financial
Institutions
NGOs
Tourism
Industry
Local communities
National
ecotourism
committees
Consumers
Successful
ecotourism
State
Collaborative stakeholder approach to ecotourism
Source: Adapted from Ceballos-Lascuráin, (1996:93-95)
Resource Management Issues
Preservationist approach (fines and fences) failed as local
population reacts badly to a ‘militaristic defence strategy’
Stakeholders theory – which states ‘that people will protect
what they receive value from’ (Honey, 1999a:12)
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Asked if they would totally substitute their Sun/Sand/Sea (3S’s)
vacation for an ecotourism vacation, 300 + interviewees replied
as follows:
21.4% ‘Strongly in favour’
12.2% ‘In favour’
10.4% ‘Maybe’
56% ‘Totally against’
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Asked if they would partially substitute their Sun/Sand/Sea
(3S) vacation for an ecotourism vacation, 300 + interviewees
replied as follows:
42.6% ‘Strongly in favour’
23.6% ‘In favour’
14.2% ‘Maybe’
19.6% ‘Totally against’
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Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Soft ecotourism is based on ‘many of the characteristics of
mass tourism’
Similarly, according to Weaver (2001b:110) and Duffy
(2002:16), soft ecotourism represents a multipurpose holiday
in which such tourists make use of the mass tourism
infrastructure
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Weaver (2001b:110) suggests that the added eco-experience is
what draws soft ecotourists to destinations such as Costa Rica,
Belize and Queensland (Australia), instead of ‘cheaper and
more accessible 3S [sun, sand & sea] destinations such as
Malta, Jamaica or Hawaii’
Soft ecotourists are increasingly opting for more ‘sun-plus’
destinations ‘that offer environmental as well as 3S
attractions’ which in turn have the potential to ‘accelerate the
movement in mass tourism towards sustainability’ (Weaver,
2001b:110)
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Tourism platforms
Source: Adapted from Jafari (1989 as cited in Weaver, 2001b:107)
Platform Evolution View of tourism
Advocacy platform 1950’s &
1960’s
Perceived as the ‘ideal smokeless industry’
Cautionary
platform
1970’s A Trojan horse capable of undermining the
environmental, economic and socio-
cultural integrity of destinations
‘Adaptancy’
platform
1980’s Increased demand for more acceptable
forms of tourism – emergence of
Alternative tourism and eventually
ecotourism which gained its identity from
its conscious opposition to mass tourism
Knowledge-based
platform
1990’s Attempts to apply a more judicious
approach and move beyond the ideological
platforms of the past – focus on
management not scale
Rory MacLellan – Sustainable
Tourism ...
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
Ecotourism Mass tourism
Imparts sustainability/environmental ethos to mainstream tourism
Provides diversification opportunities for mass tourism
Attractive to an increasingly ‘green’ tourist market
Provides sufficient market and revenue flows to position ecotourism
as a major resource stakeholder, with significant lobbying clout
Introduction of effective environmental management systems
Converging and symbiotic relationship between ecotourism and mass tourism
Source: Weaver (2001a:79 [online])
Managing Mass & Ecotourism
‘…political nature of legitimacy management is particularly
acute in the context of emerging industries like ecotourism’
(Lawrence et al., 1997:309) – stakeholder involvement necessary
Negative tourism impacts could be due to ‘mismanagement’
rather than ‘any inherent flaw with mass tourism’ (Lawton,
2001:299 [online])
Two main strategies which can be employed to increase carrying
capacity include; site hardening measures and consumer
education
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_08Nxj-7RSQ&feature=related
Site Hardening
Site Hardening Site Hardening
Visitor Interpretation
What is interpretation?What is interpretation?
A communication process designed to reveal meanings and
relationships of our cultural and natural heritage to visitors,
through first hand experiences with objects, artifacts,
landscapes, and sites
Visitor Interpretation
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• Without interpretive services, you do not have a heritage or
historic site, you have an OLD site.
• It is through the interpretation of a site’s stories to visitors,
that the “heritage” of a site is brought to life.
• Visitors need to know: Who you are, How and Why you do
what it is you do
• Interpretation is the most powerful communication process
any historic or heritage site has to communicate its message
to visitors
Visitors want to learn, see, and do! They travel to destination
for a mix of ‘edutainment’ experiences.
Visitor Interpretation
Interpretive
Communication
Strategies
Advertising
Consumer
Behaviour
Psychology of the
Audience
Recreational
learning theory
Marketing
Other related
professions &
disciplines
Visitor Interpretation
Interpretation is an Attitude
Interpretation not just a thing (signs, boards or exhibits). It’s a way
of thinking about level of quality of the communication & services
you offer to visitors.
It’s an indispensable part of a heritage site’s ultimate success
(financial, political or educational)
Without this attitude about interpretive quality and customer care
excellence, the site visit becomes stale, boring and lacks soul.
Interpretation is the main reason visitors go to heritage sites
Indicators that sites need
Interpretation
• Visitation numbers have not significantly increased over thepast couple of years
• Visitation numbers have flat-lined
• Visitation numbers far below expectations given historicalvalue & location of site as well as in comparison to othersimilar sites or sites in the area
• Visitation numbers are decreasing
• Visitor management problems and impacts are increasing orremain unresolved
Indicators that sites need
Interpretation
• Poor community support
• Experiencing reduction in grant aid
• Visitors do not leave site truly understanding the story of the
site or the value in preserving historic sites and landscapes
• Your marketing material depicts landscapes, furniture,
buildings but no people in pictures
• Site lacks sparkle, entertainment, fun, experiences & benefits
to visitors
Creating Powerful Interpretation
To be interpretive, the communication must:
– Provoke the attention of the visitor
– Relate to everyday lives of visitors
– Reveal the essence of the message in a unique or
interesting manner
– Address the whole i.e. support a high level theme or story
– Strive for message unity i.e. use correct design elements
and audio to support the topic
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Creating Powerful Interpretation
• Develop objective and outcome-based media plans
• Target messages to specific market groups
• Have in-depth understanding of audiences
• Make presentations fun, inspirational & memorable
• Plan for total visitor experience
Benefits of Interpretation
• Benefits are not only advantageous to the heritage site but
are sought after by the visitor
• Show visitors why site has value
• Inspire visitors and create sense of pride
• Visitors come for the interpretation of the site
• Gets visitors to care about heritage
• Interpretation is the reason visitors come back
• Can increase visitation by increasing the perceived BENEFITS
tourists receive
Benefits of Interpretation
• Interpretive programs can reduce cost of maintenance and
visitor management when used as management tool
• Interpretation makes money
• Provides added value
• Heritage tourism is dependant upon heritage interpretation
• Helps visitors create their own way to experience & learn
about a site
Planning for Interpretation
1. First of all it is imperative to consider the main story or theme
of the heritage site
2. Decide on Total Media Mix (leaflets, exhibits, demonstrations,
guided tours, audio devices, etc)
3. Decide on the measurable objectives that can demonstrate
success or failure
4. Remain product based – what are you really promoting to the
visitor?
5. Identify and communicate benefits that visitor will receive
from visiting the site
Planning for Interpretation
1. What? - Inventory
2. Theme – Topic/Programme
3. Why? - Mission Statement, Goals & Objectives
4. The two most important Questions
5. Who? - Who is your audience?
6. How/When/Where? - Story Development
7. So What? - Evaluation
1. Creating an Inventory
What do we inventory?
Resources
Natural Cultural
Biological
Geological
Tangible
Intangible
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2. Identifying the Theme
A theme is the central or key idea (the “Big Picture”) of any
presentation and should:
• Be stated as a complete sentence
• Contain one main idea
• Reveal the overall purpose of the presentation
• Be stated in an interesting manner
2. Identifying the Theme
The multiple use of the Forest
benefits people and wildlife
Programme themes or sub-topics can be more specific:
• Mosquitoes are fascinating insects
• The grizzly’s survival is threatened
• There are many ways you can help protect this natural park
Many animals have specialised ways for finding food or pray
All animals have developed a variety of strategies to survive in a global ecosystem
Some animals have evolved special reproduction strategies for survival
Some animals have special adaptations for surviving harsh climates (staying warm /cool)
Many animals have evolved survival strategies for “not being eaten”
3. Mission Statement, Goals &
Objectives
• Mission statement drives interpretation
• Mission statement to be set after inventory & Theme
• Interpretive goals are broad in nature but help to set the
general direction
• Interpretive Objectives are more specific and measurable
Learning Objectives
• Most commonly used, focus on visitors being able to name,
list, describe or illustrate desired items upon completion of a
given programme
• Example:
– The majority of the visitors will be able to list five ways the
forest is using state-of-the-art conservation techniques to
improve habitats for wildlife
3. Mission Statement, Goals &
Objectives
Visitor Perception & Behavioural Objective
Change Strategy
Behaviour Change
Motivated to Change Behaviour
Awareness of Issue
Issue Identification & Information Learning
Objectives
Emotional
Objectives
Behavioural
Objectives
3. Mission Statement, Goals &
Objectives
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Emotional Objectives
• You cant begin to change or alter behaviour or attitudes unless you accomplish these
• These are the “driving force” objectives
• They help visitors remember the topic because of strong “feelings” they create
• Example:
– The majority of visitors will feel that taking an active role in recycling materials at home helps people and wildlife; they will feel good about recycling
3. Mission Statement, Goals &
Objectives
Behavioural Objectives
• Probably most important
• Focus on what it is that you want visitors to do (how you want
them to use the info)
• Example:
– The majority of visitors will want to join in local efforts for
historical preservation
3. Mission Statement, Goals &
Objectives
4. Two Most Important Questions
1. Why would a visitor want to know that?
2. How do I want the visitor to use the information I am giving
them?
People learn better when they're actively involved in the
learning process and when they're using as many senses as
possible.
People retain about:
10% of what they hear
30% of what they read
50% of what they see
90% of what they do
5. Know your Audience
• Understand visitor motivations for selecting and attending
Heritage sites and Interpretive programmes
• Ohio State Park example
• Essential to carry out research
• Pacing Interpretive services
6. Story Development
• Once we’ve decided What/Why/Who, we move onto
How/When/Where
• Remember that there is the Theme
• Interpretation at each site much illustrate main Theme
(Address the whole + Message Unity)
7. Evaluation
• The So What? Section
• Plan evaluation into your project
• The evaluation Process:
– Identify objectives that you wanted to evaluate
– Select most appropriate evaluation tool
– Apply technique & obtain results
– Compare actual results to desired results from objectives
– Analyse results
– Make recommendations for improvements
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Interpretation Case Study
Interpretation material:
1. Three Cities Strategic Plan
2. Three Cities Flyer
3. Grand Harbour Water Taxi
4. Interpretation Panels
5. Three Cities Leaflet
6. Location Maps
The end
Thank you for your attention