10 strong claims about successful school leadership · 2012-07-03 · 10 strong claims about...

10 strong claims about successful school leadership

Professional development

Inspiring leaders to improve children’s lives

Schools and academies

We would like to thank all the teachers and heads who gavegenerously of their time and energy to participate in this project,especially those headteachers and staff who gave us material for the case studies and allowed us insight into their successfulleadership journeys.

Thanks also go to the members of the research team for theircommitment, skills and sustained presence: Clare Penlington(Nottingham), Palak Mehta (London), Alison Kington (Nottingham)and Elpida Ahtaridou (London), and to Martina Daykin and Hayley McCalla for the many miles travelled. Last but not least,we would like to thank Dr Colin Conner for his wise advice in shaping this report.

Christopher Day, Pam Sammons, David Hopkins, Alma Harris, Ken Leithwood, Qing Gu and Eleanor Brown.

Acknowledgements


Introduction 2

10 strong claims 3

Claim 1: Headteachers are the main source of leadership in their schools 3

Claim 2: There are eight key dimensions of successful leadership 4

Claim 3: Headteachers’ values are key components in their success 7

Claim 4: Successful heads use the same basic leadership practices, but there is no single model for achieving success 8

Claim 5: Differences in context affect the nature, direction and pace of leadership actions 9

Claim 6: Heads contribute to student learning and achievement through a combination and accumulation of strategies and actions 10

Claim 7: There are three broad phases of leadership success 12

Claim 8: Heads grow and secure success by layering leadership strategies and actions 15

Claim 9: Successful heads distribute leadership progressively 16

Claim 10: The successful distribution of leadership depends on the establishment of trust 17

Conclusions 19

Appendix 1 20

References 21

Contents

This report summarises the findings of a three-year nationalresearch project on the impact of leadership on pupil outcomes,with particular reference to the leadership of the headteacher(DCSF, 2009). It is the sequel to Seven strong claims aboutsuccessful school leadership (Leithwood et al 2006) and itconfirms, qualifies and builds on those original claims.

The research project investigated a national sample of schoolswhich had improved pupil learning outcomes over at least threeconsecutive years under the leadership of the same headteacher.It included a literature review and surveys completed by theheads and a range of other stakeholders. In addition, 20 casestudies of primary and secondary schools were conducted over 2 years.

The research found that leaders of successful schools definesuccess not only in terms of test and examination results, but also in terms of personal and social outcomes, pupil and staffmotivation, engagement and wellbeing, the quality of teachingand learning and the school’s contribution to the community.

Also, successful heads improve pupil outcomes through who theyare – their values, virtues, dispositions, attributes and competences– as well as what they do in terms of the strategies they selectand the ways in which they adapt their leadership practices totheir unique context.

2

Introduction


3

1 Headteachers are the main source of leadership in their schools.

2 There are eight key dimensions of successful leadership.

3 Headteachers’ values are key components in their success.

4 Successful heads use the same basic leadership practices, but there is no single model for achieving success.

5 Differences in context affect the nature, direction and pace of leadership actions.

6 Heads contribute to student learning and achievement through a combination and accumulation of strategies and actions.

7 There are three broad phases of leadership success.

8 Heads grow and secure success by layering leadership strategies and actions.

9 Successful heads distribute leadership progressively.

10 The successful distribution of leadership dependson the establishment of trust.

Claim 1: Headteachers are the main source of leadership in their schools

Headteachers are perceived to be the main source of leadershipby key school staff. Their educational values, reflectivestrategies and leadership practices shape the internal processesand pedagogies that result in improved pupil outcomes.

The leadership of the head has a direct effect on teachers’expectations and standards. This includes the way they thinkabout, plan and conduct their teaching and learning practices,their self-efficacy, commitment and sense of wellbeing, and theirorganisational loyalty and trust, all of which indirectly influencepupil outcomes.

Leaders in improving schools diagnose individual andorganisational needs and place the needs of pupils first. They then select improvement strategies in well-thought-outcombinations and sequences so that these reinforce and supporteach other. There is a strong link between setting the directionand restructuring the organisation, and between reculturing theorganisation and improving school conditions.

Since our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006), moreevidence has been uncovered to support our original findingthat school leadership is second only to classroom teaching as an influence on pupil learning1.

Our case study evidence confirms the importance of headteachersto the level of expectations, aspirations and wellbeing of staff,the improvement of teaching and learning conditions, and thewellbeing and achievement of pupils:

I think underestimating the importance of a good headwould be wrong. It doesn’t matter how the work isdelegated, he is still sailing the ship, so to speak.

School business manager

The head is an incredible leader. I don’t know what hersecret is, except she has good interpersonal skills, goodorganisational skills. She’s forward thinking. She has away of encouraging self-belief in staff. I don’t know what she has for breakfast, but it works!

Primary teacher

If I have any strengths at all, I would say it is in choosingthe right people for the school.

Secondary head

10 strong claims

1 Robinson et al (2009); Leithwood & Sun (2009)


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When I appoint staff, I don’t care about the academicqualifications. We always watch them teach. When I amgoing around, I look at what they are doing, how theyreact to children, because if they haven’t got a goodrapport with the children, they are not going to be able to deliver an effective lesson. And the children are notgoing to engage with them.

Secondary head

She’s in charge and I think everybody knows that. Thechildren know she’s the head because she can walk intothe hall and it goes silent. She’s got this air of authority,which I think the children like. It makes them feel verysecure because the head is there.

Primary deputy head

Claim 2: There are eight key dimensions of successful leadership

Our study identifies eight key dimensions of successfulleadership, which all centre on student learning, wellbeing and achievement.

In our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006), we argued that four core leadership practices – setting directions,developing people, redesigning the organisation, and managingthe teaching and learning programme – formed part of therepertoire of successful leaders. Our new evidence builds on these core practices.

Figure 1 The dimensions of successful leadership

Successful leaders:

– define their values and vision to raise expectations, set direction and build trust

– reshape the conditions for teaching and learning

– restructure parts of the organisation and redesign leadershiproles and responsibilities

– enrich the curriculum

– enhance teacher quality

– enhance the quality of teaching and learning

– build collaboration internally

– build strong relationships outside the school community

Although the sequence, timing, order and combination of thesestrategies varies from school to school, the visions and values are strikingly similar.

In Figure 1, the inner circle illustrates the core focus of leaders’attention, the inner ring their core strategies, and the outer ringthe actions they take in support of these strategies. The buildingof trust is an intrinsic part and embedded within each of the corestrategies and an essential part of the actions in the outer ring.The eight dimensions are described below.

Improving Conditions forTeaching & Learning

Defining Vision,Values & Direction

Building Trust

Restructuring theOrganisation:

Redesigning Roles& Responsibilities

Enhancing TeacherQuality (including

Succession Planning)

Redesigningand Enrichingthe Curriculum

EnhancingTeaching

& Learning

BuildingRelationships

Inside theSchool Community

Building RelationshipsOutside the

School Community

Student LearningWell Being

& AchievementsHigh Expectations


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Defining the vision, values and direction. All the heads had a very strong and clear vision and set of values for their school,which heavily influenced their actions and the actions of others,and established a clear sense of direction and purpose for theschool. These were shared widely, clearly understood andsupported by all staff. They were a touchstone against which all new developments, policies or initiatives were tested.

I always had a vision of where I knew the school had to be. That was always there, but I did not sit down andthink ‘this year we are going to do this’. We do have a strategic long-term plan, but until you get some of thekey things right, the staff just would not have coped witha more creative curriculum. We did some creative thingsbut it needed to be managed in such a way that peoplewere not overwhelmed and felt quite secure andconfident to trial things.

Primary head

Improving conditions for teaching and learning. All the heads identified the need to improve the conditions in which the quality of teaching could be maximised and pupils’ learningand performance enhanced. They developed strategies toimprove the school buildings and facilities. By changing thephysical environment of the schools and improving the classrooms,the heads were confirming the connection between high-qualityconditions for teaching and learning, and staff and pupil wellbeingand achievement.

The biggest changes have been a new school building,new facilities, especially in certain departments. In termsof my department that has been fantastic. As with anythingthere have been problems, you are moving from a schoolthat has been up for 50 years and you are used to certainthings. Staff have to readjust to the new school. It hasbeen a settling-in process, but I think that has been thebiggest change. I think that has been a positive change.

Secondary head of department

Restructuring the organisation: redesigning roles andresponsibilities. The heads purposefully and progressivelyredesigned their organisational structures, redesigned roles and distributed leadership in ways that promoted greater staffengagement and ownership which, in turn, provided greateropportunities for student learning.

While the exact nature and timing varied from school to school,there was a consistent pattern of changing the hierarchy. This included:

– redefining senior leadership functions

– changing from a horizontal to a vertical pastoral structure

– using teaching and learning responsibilities (TLRs), advancedskills teachers (ASTs) and support staff more widely

Roles, responsibilities and accountabilities were made clear to all staff and were allocated according to ability. There was also recognition of people’s individual strengths andorganisational needs.

So there was the reshaping of the senior managementteam and we started to look at accountabilities a lotmore. The job descriptions were revised to reflect thenational standards far more closely. The first thing wasthat the senior management team was extended toincorporate all the core subjects.

Secondary deputy head

Enhancing teaching and learning. All the schools werecontinually looking for new ways to improve teaching, learningand achievement. The heads provided a safe environment forteachers to try new models and alternative approaches thatmight be more effective. Staff responded positively to theopportunity. It affected the way they saw themselves asprofessionals and improved their sense of self-efficacy. This, in turn, had a positive impact on the way they interacted withpupils and other members of staff.

I think the head gives you the freedom to experiment,obviously not to go completely overboard and mess it allup, but he’s very positive, very supportive, and he willlisten to you. Then obviously he has an overview of that,but he allows you to get on with your role.


I have been trying to change the mindset of everyteacher to say that every teacher is a manager and aleader. Everybody is, within their own classroom.

Primary head


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Redesigning and enriching the curriculum. All the headsfocused on redesigning and enriching the curriculum as a way of deepening and extending engagement and improvingachievement. Academic attainment was not in competition withpersonal and social development: the two complemented oneanother. The heads adapted the curriculum to broaden learningopportunities and improve access for all children, with theemphasis on ‘stage not age’ learning. Many of these changeswere in line with government initiatives. In primary schools therewas particular emphasis on greater flexibility and continuitybetween Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2, while in secondary schoolsthe focus was on personalised learning and providing differentpathways towards vocational qualifications.

Each student is doing a personal curriculum, somethingthat we have tailored for them to help them get the bestout of the school while they are pursuing their variouscurriculum options.


A number of the schools had introduced more emotional supportinto the curriculum through personal health and social education(PHSE) programmes. Building creativity and self-esteem featuredheavily in the curriculum, as did a focus on developing key skillsfor life. There was major emphasis on enjoyment of learning, and recognition that when pupils enjoy learning, they are moreeffective learners.

The big thing about the school is the PHSE curriculum. It is very caring, and throughout the school we are teachingthe children right from nursery to be caring and respectfulof each other and to share things, to respect each other’sdifferences and to look out for each other. And whenvisitors come to the school they notice how polite thechildren are – even the very, very young children.

Primary teacher

There was also emphasis on providing a broad range ofextracurricular activities, including at lunch time and in after-school clubs, as well as activities during school holidays.

Enhancing teacher quality (including succession planning).Heads provided a rich variety of professional learning anddevelopment opportunities for staff as part of their twin drive to raise standards and sustain motivation and commitment. They placed a high premium on internally led professionaldevelopment and learning, but teachers and support staff werealso encouraged to take part in a wide range of in-service

training (Inset), and were given the opportunity to train forexternal qualifications. This combination of external and internalcontinuing professional development (CPD) was used to maximisepotential and develop staff in diverse areas.

We do get quite a lot of in-house training. That isimportant because going out on various days out andcourses to learn specific things is fine for one member ofstaff and then obviously you have the opportunity ofextending your knowledge from that single day to yourdepartment, but as a teacher working in a particular area,sometimes you can’t always extend that to peoplebeyond your particular area simply because you don’thave time to do it. So we tend to have more peoplecoming in so that the whole school can benefit from thesame things.

Secondary teacher

Succession planning was a feature of all the schools, whiletargeted recruitment was a feature in those which acted asTraining Schools for pre service teaching students.

Previously [the head] would interview until he got theright person. Recently – I’m talking about 18 months ago– he started talking about appointing somebody fromwithin the school as the new leadership in such and sucha department, and training them up ourselves rather thantaking people who come in from elsewhere.


Building relationships inside the school community. Headsdeveloped and sustained positive relationships with staff at alllevels, making them feel valued and involved. They demonstratedconcern for the professional and personal wellbeing of staff. Therelationship between heads and senior leadership teams (SLTs) in particular was one of trust and mutual respect. Theyengendered loyalty from parents, staff and pupils.

He walks round the school all the time. He’ll go intolessons, he’ll cover, he leads assembly, he goes in bothstaff rooms and he knows the children, he knows theparents. He’s got an open-door policy in terms of staffand parents. He’s got a good relationship with thegovernors.

Primary deputy head


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Building relationships outside the school community. For allheads, building and improving the reputation of the school andengaging with the wider community were essential to achievinglong-term success. They and their SLTs had developed positiverelationships with community leaders and had built a web oflinks across the school to other organisations and individuals.Strong links with key stakeholders in the local communitybenefited the school.

We are certainly a well-known school. We have goodrelationships in terms of staff training, and quite anumber of our staff go to other schools to do Inset [days].Likewise staff come here. We are one of the schools inthe authority that is on the up at the minute, and I thinkthat when you go to other schools – and we hear parentstalk about other schools – they are saying things arehappening at this school. We went on learning walks athalf-term with other schools, and they have been here to do the walk as well. I think we have a good status. Ithink the head is well known in the authority and wellrespected. We have a particularly good relationship with two geographically close schools, and I think ourrelationship with those schools is good but competitive.

Secondary assistant head

The heads achieved improved performance, not only through the strategies they used but also through the core values andpersonal qualities they demonstrated in their daily interactions.As Figure 1 illustrates, they placed pupil care, learning andachievement at the heart of all their decisions.

Claim 3: Headteachers’ values are key componentsin their success

In our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006), we argued thatvariation in the effectiveness of leaders is often explained by a small number of personal traits; indeed, research points toevidence of an association between leaders’ personal qualitiesand leadership success2. Our claim is that the most successfulschool leaders are open-minded and ready to learn from others.They are flexible rather than dogmatic within a system of corevalues. They are persistent in their high expectations of others,and they are emotionally resilient and optimistic. Such traits helpexplain why successful leaders facing daunting conditions areoften able to push forward against the odds. Our researchconfirms this. Data from across the case studies provides richillustrations of these core values.

Successful heads share certain attributes and hold commoncore values:

– a strong sense of moral responsibility and a belief in equalopportunities

– a belief that every pupil deserves the same opportunities to succeed

– respect and value for all people in and connected with theschool

– a passion for learning and achievement

– a commitment to pupils and staff

Successful heads see pupil achievement as having behavioural,academic, personal, social and emotional dimensions:

– Setting high expectations for staff and students is central to developing teaching and learning programmes.

– Care and trust feature highly in achievement-focused culturesthat aim to improve student outcomes.

– Introducing a whole-school approach to pupil behaviourmanagement is considered a positive step towards improvingstudent outcomes.

The head provides a ‘can-do’ culture and one of the thingsI’ve learned from him is that there are no problems, only solutions.


It’s a culture whereby people are free to make suggestions[and] encouraged to think of ways to take the schoolforward. I can’t think of instances where staff are turneddown. So, in terms of boosting staff confidence, it’s anopen culture.

Primary teacher

We all feel as though we matter, that we count and thatour opinions count. And we’re all part of it, so we’re kindof carried along with it, not pulled by it.

Primary teacher

It’s about being collaborative [and] about wanting to raiseachievement. It’s about being successful, being committedto being successful, supporting one another. Those are thecultural norms underpinning a lot of what happens insidethe school.

Secondary head

2 Day & Leithwood (2007)


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Claim 4: Successful heads use the same basicleadership practices, but there is no single modelfor achieving success

Since our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006), otherstudies3 have identified significantly larger effects forinstructional leadership (ie, that relating to teaching andlearning) than for transformational leadership (ie, leadershipthat is focused on developing teachers). The new evidence inour study is that successful heads draw equally on elements ofboth instructional and transformational leadership. They workintuitively and from experience, tailoring their leadershipstrategies to their particular school context.

Their ability to respond to their context and to recognise,acknowledge, understand and attend to the needs andmotivations of others defines their level of success.

The heads in this study deployed the same strategic leadershipapproaches as one another, but the combinations, sequence andtiming of the approaches varied according to their context.

In our 2006 review (ibid), we found that it is the way in whichleaders apply leadership practices, rather than the actualpractices themselves, that demonstrates their ability to respondto the context in which they work. New evidence of how thesecore leadership practices are used sensitively according tocontext relates not only to school turnaround scenarios(typically schools serving highly diverse student populations4)but also to highly accountable policy contexts5. Studies formingpart of a five-year study of leadership and learning in the US6

indicate that student poverty, diversity and school phase(primary or secondary) can significantly moderate the positiveeffects of school leadership on pupil achievement7 (see Claim 5).

Our case studies reveal that heads use a combination ofleadership strategies according to:

– their judgements about the conditions for teaching andlearning in the school

– the confidence, experience and competence of their staff

– the behaviour, aspirations and attainment levels of the pupils

– the experience of the heads themselves

High expectations are essential here and not allowingthat to slip, and that belief that every child can achieve, is really important in this context. And I think just beingvery organised and efficient and keeping on top of things,dealing with things very quickly so nothing gets out of hand.

Primary deputy head

I’m keen on empowering or at least ensuring that more of the curriculum teachers have the skills to lead thedepartment, which means getting people to take theLeading from the Middle course through the NationalCollege because we are not strong on that and need toimprove that capacity. They come to their role with a lotof enthusiasm and ability but they do not always have the skills to manage the department [or knowledge of]the ways [in which] people need to be managed.

Secondary head

Change has, at the moment, been initiated by me. I’vemade a lot of changes. I might have made some of thesetoo quickly, but the situation was so desperate that I had to.

Primary head

3 Robinson et al (2009)4 Jacobson, Johnson, Ylimaki & Giles (2005)5 Day & Leithwood (2007)6 Louis, Leithwood et al (2009)7 For example, Gordon & Louis (2009); Wahlstrom & Louis (2008)


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Claim 5: Differences in context affect the nature,direction and pace of leadership actions

Leadership differences by improvement groupings

Splitting our national sample of highly effective and improvingschools into three distinctive improvement groups – low start,moderate start and high start8 – revealed important relationshipsbetween school contexts and school improvement profiles.These are evidenced in significant differences in certainleadership practices between each group of schools.

Schools that had improved from a low start had experienced the most changes in pupil behaviour, attendance, motivation and engagement.

Heads in schools in disadvantaged circumstances tended to be less experienced than heads in schools in more favourablecontexts, and their tenure was often shorter than those in schoolsin more advantaged contexts.

There is strong evidence that schools in the low-start group hadmade greater improvements in changing the school’s culture andclimate, addressing teaching and learning and using performancedata during the previous three years, which are all importantprecursors and facilitators for raising academic achievement,especially in highly disadvantaged contexts.

Leadership differences by socio-economic context

There are relationships between the socio-economiccircumstances of schools and the amount of change inleadership practice.

Whilst our evidence confirms that most successful heads draw on the same repertoire of basic leadership practices, the casestudies confirm that the selection and combination of practicesused depends on context, with a greater number of leadershippractices required to effect change in more disadvantagedschools.

Substantial improvements in pupil behaviour, attendance,attitude and motivation are important precursors and facilitatorsfor improvement in students’ academic achievement, especiallyin schools in highly disadvantaged contexts.

Successful heads in disadvantaged contexts, therefore, makegreater efforts to effect improvement across a range of areas –especially pupil behaviour, motivation and engagement, andschool culture – because they know that improvements in onlyone or two areas are unlikely to be enough to secure sustainedgains in pupil outcomes.

Heads in disadvantaged contexts especially seek to make specificimprovements in teaching and assessment and use performancedata to monitor the effectiveness of changes made.

Leadership differences by experience and time in post

Successful heads employ different improvement strategiesdepending on their experience and time in post and theirperception of the need for change in their school.

During the first three years of leadership, heads are more activein initiating changes to effect improvement across a wide rangeof areas.

Our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006) found that schoolleaders improve teaching and learning indirectly and mostpowerfully through their influence on staff motivation,commitment and working conditions. Since then, a new line of evidence has appeared which suggests that attention shouldbe given to a full array of leadership practices (transformationaland instructional), with both teacher leaders and heads sharingresponsibility for those aspects of leadership that influencepedagogy9 (see Claim 6). Several recent studies of such sharedleadership have reported significant improvements in pupillearning10. In addition, our research demonstrates that thesuccess of leadership practices is dependent on leaders’ valuesand interpersonal qualities and that these in turn are affected by their professional and organisational context.

The different school settings, contexts and improvement strategiesare well documented in the full research report11, but here arethree illustrations from our study:

I want kids to feel confident. I want the children here tosee beyond this neighbourhood, not in a derogatory way,because I think they should be proud of where they comefrom, but I want them to see there is life beyond and that they can do anything they want if they’ve got theexperiences and the choices to choose from.

Primary teacher

8 These subgroups of schools were identified based on analyses of attainment and value-addedtrends: i) improving from low to moderate or from low to high in attainment, and highly effectivein value added; ii) improving from moderate to higher moderate or high in attainment and highlyeffective in value added; and iii) stable high attainment and highly effective in value added.Proportionally, more schools responding to the survey were in the low to moderate/high group, ie those that had made rapid recent improvement over three years (2003-05). Overall, nearlytwo-thirds (65.6%, n=105), of primary schools in the low group, compared with under 1 in 10(8%, n=10) of the high-start group were in free school meal (FSM) bands 3 and 4. For secondarysurvey responses, the pattern was broadly similar, with around a half (50.3%, n=84) of the low-start group being from high-disadvantage contexts (FSM bands 3 and 4), while only around 1 in 20 (5.2%, n=6) of the low-start group were from high-disadvantage contexts.

9 Marks & Printy (2003); Robinson et al (2009)

10 Wahlstrom & Louis (2008)

11 See DCSF (2009)


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We’ve changed the heads of department and made themcurriculum leaders. We had to say to people, you’re notmanaging a department, you’re leading a team of people,and this team of people is going to get us good resultsand develop the youngsters. So it was a different way ofthinking about leadership. It permeates the way peoplelook at themselves within their roles – that they’re notsimply doing jobs, but carrying out leadership roles. Ithink that’s really made a change.

Secondary head

The most significant change has been the introduction ofa behaviour for learning strategy. We were aware that thepupils’ behaviour was getting in the way of their learning.So the introduction of this has helped. The classrooms andcorridors are much quieter as a result. But I think also, aby-product of that is that the success culture has beengrowing.


Claim 6: Heads contribute to student learning and achievement through a combination and accumulation of strategies and actions

Our research shows that successful leaders contribute toimproved pupil learning and achievement through a combinationof strategies. It provides new quantitative evidence of the wayin which leadership activities lead to improvement in aspectsof school work, which in turn leads to improvement in schoolconditions and in pupil outcomes.

Research suggests that within-school variation in pupil outcomesis often considerably greater than the variation between schools.Highly effective and improving schools tend to reduce within-school variation by building common goals and being consistentin their approach12. Although most school-level variables havesmall effects on pupil outcomes when examined independently13,the combination of their impact tends to be stronger14.

Our quantitative surveys of headteachers and key staff identifiedkey dimensions of leadership and school and classroom processesthat contributed to an improvement in pupil outcomes over three years, including in the average GCSE results for secondaryschools and in maths and English test scores for primary schools.Headteachers’ accounts in these surveys showed that pupil learningand achievement are affected by a combination of leadershipstrategies which, taken together, address school culture and staffdevelopment, and focus on enhancing the processes of teachingand learning.

We constructed a number of statistical models that demonstratedhow these inter-related dimensions and processes predictinstitutional change. The case study evidence also revealed howand why different strategies and actions were adopted, showinghow leadership practices develop and shape change over differentphases of school development.

Among the most powerful variables were:

– influencing pupil outcomes and improvements in schoolconditions, such as an emphasis on raising academicstandards

– assessment for learning

– collaborative teacher cultures

– monitoring of pupil and school performance

– coherence of teaching programmes

– the provision of extra-curricular activities

Leaders’ trust in teachers makes a significant contribution to the willingness of teachers to collaborate, and is associated with distributed leadership.

The influence of variables on pupils’ learning and behaviour isindirect, but there is clear evidence of their effects on retentionand attendance of staff, improvements in pupil attendance andbehaviour, and increases in pupil motivation, engagement andsense of responsibility for learning, all of which are themselvesthe result of leadership values, strategies and actions.

Appendix 1 presents an explanation of the relationship betweenleadership practices and changes in secondary pupil outcomesover three years and is the result of detailed analysis of thequantitative evidence gathered from successful heads in secondaryschools. In all cases, examination results had improved over atleast three consecutive years under their leadership, and theirperformance was identified as highly effective in value-addedanalysis of school results. The same analysis was carried out withsurvey results for primary heads and with key staff.

The results are significant because they show the complexity of the leadership strategies used by these successful heads over time and their contribution to improving pupil outcomesover three school years.

While all the links between the different dimensions are significant,some are stronger than others. The strength of these connectionsindicates which features of leadership practice are most closelylinked. The analysis shows that the school processes directlyconnected with headteachers’ leadership strategies are the onesthat also connect most closely with improvements in aspects ofteaching and learning and staff involvement in leadership; thesein turn help to predict improvement in school conditions, and soimprovement in pupil outcomes.

12 As suggested by recent research on high-reliability schools by Stringfield, Reynolds & Shaffer (2008)13 Creemers & Reezigt (1996)14 Sammons (2007)


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The analysis provides new empirical data that shows that it is thecombination and accumulation of actions and strategies over timethat results in school improvement: the headteachers’ leadershipdirectly both creates and influences improvements in the schoolorganisation and in the teaching and learning environment, whichin turn improves pupil outcomes.

The findings complement the qualitative case study analyses,which show clearly that successful headteachers select leadershipstrategies according to their context. Of particular note are:

– the role played by heads’ trust in teachers, both in relation to the SLT and broader staff leadership

– the important link between redesigning the organisation and setting directions

– the way redesigning the organisation predicts improvementin school conditions

– the way leadership strategies to develop people link with the teacher collaborative culture, and with high academicstandards and positive learner motivation and a learningculture

– the positive associations between improvement in schoolconditions for teaching and learning and better outcomes in terms of pupil behaviour, pupil attendance, and learnermotivation and learning culture

All of these various statistical connections are examined15 andexplained in more depth in the case studies .

The most frequently cited strategies used to improve studentoutcomes are shown in Table 1. There were broad similarities in strategies and actions cited by primary and secondary heads,although a change in school culture was cited more often bysecondary heads.

15 See DCSF (2009)

Primary heads % Secondary heads %

Encouraging the use of data and research 28 Encouraging the use of data and research 34

Improved assessment procedures 28 Teaching policies and practices 28

Teaching policies and practices 26 Change in school culture 21

Changes to pupil target-setting 20 Providing and allocating resources 20

Strategic allocation of resources 20 Improved assessment procedures 19

Providing and allocating resources 19 Monitoring of departments and teachers 16

Promoting leadership development and CPD 16 Promoting leadership development and CPD 15


Table 1Most frequently cited actions or strategies leading to improved pupil outcomes

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It is difficult to summarise the complexity of combinations andlevels of leadership strategies that directly and indirectly affectschool success in improving pupil outcomes. The followingexcerpts from our case studies do, however, give a flavour:

It’s a shared vision. We in the senior management teamknow where we’re going and we put a lot of effort intocontinuing professional development, looking at thetraining needs of staff, sharing that information. All seniormanagers, on a rolling programme, monitor their subjectareas. We reflect on what we’re doing, not just byourselves. We involve staff in evaluations. We’ll evaluateany new resources, any intervention strategies areevaluated and, if they’re not effective, we discontinuethem. If they’re effective, we increase them.

Secondary deputy head

The head will steer the school in lots of different ways.He’s very sure of where he wants it to go, so he’s quiteclear in his objectives, but he’s also very collegiate in thathe’ll ask ‘What do you think?’ and ‘How could yourdepartment and your key stage add to this?’, ‘What doyou want to do?’, ‘What do you need training in?’ or ‘How do you want to develop?’

Primary teacher

We try to give people shared responsibilities andaccountabilities. That happened through the introductionof teaching and learning responsibilities. Middle leadersare now very much responsible for their areas and thereare very clear lines of accountability. So, it’s almost as ifthey are units within the school, and my best leadershave been deployed to line managing the departmentswhich are not doing so well.

Secondary head

Everybody is a leader of something. If you give people the ownership then they will do a good job. If I had to, Iwould say that my role is monitoring and evaluating whatis going on in whatever way it is done, and if somethingisn’t working, then that would be the time to find outwhy it wasn’t.

Primary head

Claim 7: There are three broad phases of leadership success

Successful heads prioritise combinations of strategies andmanage these within and across three broad phases of success.

Heads identified a number of broad phases in their leadershiptrajectories. While the number of phases differed, they could be classified under three broad headings – early (foundational),middle (developmental) and later (enrichment).

In the early phase, heads prioritised:

– improving the physical environment of the school to createmore positive, supportive conditions for teaching and learning,and for teachers and pupils

– setting, communicating and implementing school-widestandards for pupil behaviour

– restructuring the senior leadership team, and its roles and responsibilities

– implementing performance management systems for allstaff: there were differences in timing and emphasis betweensectors, but in general this had the effect of distributingleadership more and led to the development of a set oforganisational values

In the middle phase, heads prioritised:

– the wider distribution of leadership roles and responsibilities

– a more regular and focused use of data to inform decision-making about pupil progress and achievement; learningobjectives and target-setting were important practices in all case study schools

In the later phase, heads’ key strategies related to personalisingand enriching the curriculum, as well as wider distribution of leadership.

In schools in more challenging contexts, greater attention and efforts were made in the early phase to establish,maintain and sustain school-wide policies for pupil behaviour,improvements to the physical environment and improvementsin the quality of teaching and learning than in other schools.

Figure 2 illustrates these three phases, the combinations of strategies used and the impact these had on the quality of one school.


13

Our claim is illustrated, also, by extracts from secondary schoolcase studies where the first phase was described as getting thestaffing right, the second provided a greater focus on curriculumdevelopment, and the third was characterised by curriculuminnovation and change.

Phase 1: Getting the staffing right

One thing I noticed that we all suffered from was[problems with the] retention and recruitment of teachersso we decided to grow our own. We applied to the ...Training and Development Agency for Schools (TDA), andthe Open University to get permission to run our ownschool-centred initial teacher training (SCITT) and to getvalidations for our postgraduate certificate in education(PGCE) award. I think we’re now into the 10th or 11thyear of our teacher training and many of my staff and thestaff in other schools are home-grown teachers and thatwas a major staging post in the development not only ofmy school but of other schools in its on-the-job teacher

training and teaching in the inner city. This is different toteaching in the leafy suburbs because there are so manychallenges, which requires a special type of on-the-jobtraining. We’ve had the Open University, Ofsted and theTDA commend us for our work. And it’s recruiting teachersacross the ethnic divide which is important and that’sbeen a major success for our schools, for two reasons, one we were able to train our own teachers to teach inthe way we want them to teach, and two by makingsome of our staff mentors and subject leaders andprofessional tutors for these students.

Secondary head

Success of leadership in terms of effect upon broad pupil outcomes

1. Coming out of special measures (1999-2000)

Enriching teaching and learning environment

Making school secure

Improving teaching and learning in classrooms

Leading by example

Establishing a student behaviour policy and improving attendance

Vision and values

Developing resources

20001999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 onward

3. Developing creativity (2002-2005)

Restructuring leadership

Involving community

Assessment (personalised)

Placing staff well-being at centre of school improvement

Broadening horizons

4. Everyone a leader (2005-present)

Creative partnership and creativity

Self evaluation

Personalised learning

Ofsted Inspection2007

(Outstanding)


(Very Good)


(Special Measures)

2. Taking ownership: an inclusive agenda (2000-2002)

Vision and value: developing school’s mission

Distributing leadership

Persisting priority on teaching and learning

– becoming a thinking school– curriculum development

Performance management and CPD

Inclusivity: integrating students from different social and cultural backgrounds

Focus on monitoring and evaluation

Figure 2 Example of phases of leadership success in a primary school in very challenging circumstances


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Phase 2: Increased focus on the curriculum

At the beginning I had a five-year plan, but looking back,everything was actually working towards the final goal.Every phase focused on making the next phase work. So to start with, I focused on the staffing and getting thatright but other things moved on incrementally at the sametime. Then the focus shifted to the curriculum. It’s not likeyou can focus on one thing and forget everything else.

Secondary head

Now we’ve got...individual learning plans (ILPs), whichare now linking the home and the school together. Weask for parents’ comments and all our gifted and talentedchildren now have an ILP, all the children on action havean ILP.

Primary head

If a girl comes here with a language other than Englishand it’s examinable at GCSE and A-level, I’m going toencourage her to do it, and we have found that has had a spin-off effect on the achievement in the rest of thecurriculum because many of these girls got As both atGCSE and AS- and A-level and that continues. So it’s littlethings like that really, building on the strengths that thepupils come to school with that we’ve capitalised on andat the same time trying to fill in the gaps.

Secondary head

There have been a lot of things that I think together havemoved. A more tailored curriculum, we have been movingtowards a more personalised curriculum as well. Whole-school efforts, getting coursework finished – variousthings like that.

Secondary head

Each student is doing a personal curriculum, somethingthat we have tailored for them to help them get the bestout of the school while they are pursuing their variouscurriculum options.

Secondary head

We introduced an accelerated curriculum, so we havesome Year 11 [pupils] now who have five top-gradeGCSEs. We have one young woman with seven. So thatwas a dramatic change of attack. We knew the historyand the geography departments were not performingwell, so we made them go for humanities and early entry,so the children do a humanities course in Year 9, Year 10with early entry, and that has worked up to a point.

Secondary head

The next difference that I made, alongside this I feel, wasto do with the curriculum. When we first started, when I arrived, the curriculum was very simple in that it wasmainly a GCSE programme for Key Stage 4. Key Stage 3 is much more governed and driven by the DfES sort ofrequirements, but with Key Stage 4 we began to be verycreative with it, purely because we recognised the needsof the students.

Secondary head

Phase 3: Curriculum innovation and change

So we’re at that stage where we have revised ourcurriculum provision for Year 7 and it is going to becompetency-based. It has a cross-curricular approach, across-discipline approach. And the starting point is how dowe deliver these competencies that we want the childrento develop rather than how to teach in history, how toteach in geography. So we’re starting with this level ofcompetency and it is about creating learners who canwork in the 21st century.


I think the most exciting new initiative at the moment isthe opening minds curriculum that we’ve just started inYear 7. That’s going exceptionally well.

Secondary teacher

We’re adapting the curriculum once again. We’re trying toensure that we’ve got a far more vocational offer, lookingat more vocationally oriented qualifications. We’re alsotrying to ensure that we deliver qualifications whenthey’re appropriate to young people so there’s a lot morebeen driven down into Year 9 now, in the belief that if ayoung person gets an accredited qualification earlier on in their life then they might actually value educationbecause they don’t see themselves as just comingthrough a sort of sausage factory.



15

Claim 8: Heads grow and secure success by layeringleadership strategies and actions

Effective heads make judgements, according to their context,about the timing, selection, relevance, application andcontinuation of strategies that create the right conditions for effective teaching, learning and pupil achievement withinand across broad development phases.

Figure 3 illustrates the way in which one secondary head built on strategies over time, laying the fundamental framework forsuccess and moving through distinct phases in their approach.

Some strategies did not continue through each phase, anexample being restructuring, which was a particular feature of the early phase. Others grew in importance and formedsignificant foundations on which other strategies could be built.For example, growing confidence in using data, which began inphase 2, was a necessary step on the way to developing acomplex personalised curriculum in phases 3 and 4. The twostrategies then continued to develop in tandem. It was clear thatby the later phase, a range of strategic actions were beingimplemented simultaneously. Some had a higher priority thanothers, but it was the combination of actions, along with gradualbroadening and deepening of strategies, that enabled the laterstrategies to succeed and made it possible for the head’sleadership to have such a powerful impact on pupil outcomes.

So I’ve learnt that here about distributive leadership but Idon’t think the head would have done that in the earlydays, and if I was a new head in a school I wouldn’t do itstraightaway. I would want to know everything that wasgoing on and I think it might be a phase of yourleadership when distributive leadership comes in. As anew head you don’t know how good your deputy or thesenior leaders are. You’d want to be more involvedinitially until you felt you could let the reins go.

Primary head

In the beginning there was a lot of telling. It was notdemocratic. I was doing most of the decision-making.Also, I was doing a lot of the lesson observations andthen, alongside me, the senior leadership team, when Ifelt they were ready. Now things have changed. Middleleaders in the second phase and now teachers and pupilsparticipate in the decision-making and responsibilities aredistributed across the school.

Primary head

Now, it’s more of a focus on the creative and theenjoyment of speaking and listening. We’ve got aspecialist teacher that comes in, we’ve got drama, andjust linking the creative partnerships to get them involvedin school. We’ve still got the focus of impacting it onwriting, a very clear focus, but it’s ‘How can we inspirechildren?’ I feel that’s the phase the school’s at now.

Primary deputy head

It was actually a period of a lot of struggles, the pupilswere not always responsive…and some staff were veryanti this as well. In this period a lot of those staff movedon, for a variety of reasons we lost a lot of staff. Itallowed a lot of doors to be opened because you couldemploy staff who were in tune with the ethos that thenew head wanted to implement now.

Secondary senior teacher

The new staffing structure that we went through as well, I think that’s helped to add more direction. Rather thanhaving a number of small departments I think everythingis under more manageable umbrellas and we’ve gotfewer people but more direction at middle managementrole, rather than spread between a lot of heads of smalldepartments.

Secondary teacher


16

Claim 9: Successful heads distribute leadershipprogressively

There is a connection between the increased distribution of leadership roles and responsibilities and the improvement of pupil outcomes.

In our previous review (Leithwood et al, 2006), we argued thatschool leadership has a greater influence on schools and studentswhen it is widely distributed. In the three years since then, wehave accumulated a great deal more evidence about distributedleadership, the majority of which can be found in two sources16.The new evidence indicates that:

– leadership distribution is common in schools but patterns of distribution vary

– the distribution of leadership responsibility and powervaries according to local context

Our research identified that the distribution of leadership rolesand responsibilities was a developing feature in all schools andwas initiated and nurtured by heads over time. Furthermore, thehead’s lines of success in Appendix 1 indicate likely links betweenincreased distribution of leadership, improved Ofsted judgementsand improved pupil outcomes.

Primary and secondary heads in the case studies were quick todistribute leadership by sharing new roles and responsibilitiesacross the senior leadership team in the early or middle phase of their tenure. Over half of these heads noted, however, thatbeyond this small group of staff, they had been more autocraticin the early phase, working to build trust and confidencebetween themselves and a range of staff before moving towardsa broader distribution of leadership roles, responsibilities andaccountabilities in the middle and later phases of their leadership.

School 18: Eyhampton

Phase 1: 1996 Phase 2: 2000 Phase 3: 2002 Phase 1: 2005

Note: The broadening of lines indicates a greater focus in the area, the narrowing of lines indicates a lesser focus in the area

Performance management and raising quality of teaching

Curriculum enrichment and personalisation

Distributing leadership

High expectations and school ethos

Physical environment

Restructuring

Pupil behaviour

Pupil voice

Pastoral care

Use of data

Training and development

Figure 3 An Illustration of the Use of Layered Leadership Strategies in One Secondary School


16 A text edited by Leithwood, Mascall & Strauss (2008) and a summary of research evidence on distributed leadership by Harris (2009)

17

This presents a pattern of progressive and selective leadershipdistribution over time, determined by four factors:

– the head’s judgement of what was right for the school at different phases of its development

– the head’s judgement about the readiness and ability of staff to lead

– the extent to which trust had been established

– the head’s own training, experience and capabilities

The layering of leadership strategies over time means that therewill be a focus in some phases on particular combinations and,within these, differences in intensity of application. Such layeringof strategies was shown in the case study data to be fundamentalto leadership success:

I give them additional responsibilities, and as time goesby, the responsibilities change. One of the things I’m keen to do every year is to reflect on everybody’sresponsibilities and change them so no one will have the same responsibility forever, because I think that isdeskilling. It means you haven’t tested your managementskills in a different area.

Primary head

We’ve always had good relationships, but I think thatrelationships develop over time and it’s not somethingthat’s going to happen overnight because there’s got tobe trust on both sides. They’ve got to trust me and I’vegot to trust them, but it is something that you can foster.It’s dependent on time, commitment, a degree offrankness and openness, but also a sense of beingprepared to be challenged – and that’s not always easy,especially if you’re feeling a bit tentative or vulnerable.

Primary head

For the first five years of leadership here, I was moreautocratic because I needed things to be done. I keptpeople in the loop but didn’t involve colleagues. The next five years I started to delegate leadership across the senior leadership team and middle managers.

Secondary head

In the early stages, when you have a very young staffthat are quite inexperienced, you take far more of a directleadership role. As the staff become more experienced,you are able to [delegate] a lot of stuff to them, to takecontrol of and to work with. So, there are phases ofdistribution, depending on the staff.

Primary head

Claim 10: The successful distribution of leadershipdepends on the establishment of trust

Trust is essential for the progressive and effective distributionof leadership. It is closely associated with a positive school ethos,improved conditions for teaching and learning, an enhancedsense of teacher autonomy in the classroom and sustainedimprovement in pupil behaviour, engagement and outcomes.

Previous research has established strong links between schoolimprovement and trust between head and teacher, teacher andteacher and school professionals and parents17. Research has also claimed that trust in leaders both determines organisationalperformance and is a product of organisational performance18.Our research confirms and extends these findings.

The distribution of leadership over time by heads in this researchwas a clear expression of the importance they placed on gainingthe trust of others and extending trust to them. The heads playedan active and instrumental role in the distribution of leadershipand this increased the commitment and self-efficacy of staff.

For these heads, effective distributed leadership depended uponfive key factors of trust:

– values and attitudes: beliefs that people cared for theirstudents and would work hard for their benefit if they wereallowed to pursue objectives they were committed to

– disposition to trust: experience of benefits derived fromprevious trusting relationships

– trustworthiness: the extent to which others trusted them

– repeated acts of trust: enabling the increasing distribution of leadership roles, responsibilities and accountabilities andbroadening of stakeholder participation

– building and reinforcing individual relational andorganisation trust: through interactions, structures andstrategies that demonstrated consistency in values and visionand resulted in success

Recent research finds a significant relationship between a co-ordinated form of leadership distribution described asplanned alignment and teachers’ academic optimism19.Planned alignment involves members of a leadership groupplanning their actions together, periodically reviewing theimpact these actions and revising them accordingly. Academicoptimism is a composite of teacher trust, teacher efficacy andorganisational good citizenship, all of which are associated withstudent achievement.

Building and sustaining trust and trustworthiness played a keypart in the longer term success of the case study schools. Havingtrust made it more feasible to achieve changes over a range ofaspirations, expectations and practices and heads were preparedto take informed risks as a result.

17 Bryk & Schneider (2002)18 Louis (2007:4)19 Leithwood, Mascall, Strauss, Sacks, Memon & Yashkina (2007); Woolfolk Hoy, Hoy, Kurz (2008)


18

And things kind of developed and sparked something else off, so the environment was definitely the key thing.Then, when it was the first Inset day and I talked to thestaff, I talked a lot about my beliefs and my expectationsand I suppose I felt that trust was a huge part of asuccessful school. I acknowledged that I’d just come outof the classroom as well and [I knew] what it was like inthe classroom.

Primary head

Traditionally people see monitoring as something thathappens to them by people who are above them. Becausethe culture here is so ‘everyone has been here a long timeand knows everyone’ the monitoring is slightly easierbecause you don’t feel threatened. There is a trust there.People recognise what your expertise is. So when you say ‘this would be even better if...’ they know that youknow what you’re talking about. We are trying to be self-monitoring. And that’s to do with the self-evaluationprocess.

Secondary teacher

The culture and ethos of the school I think is one of itshuge strengths and it’s about giving ownership to all ofthe staff in the school, everyone having responsibility andfeeling that they are a vital part and they are going totake a vital part in decision-making. So how I lead is bygiving that power to other staff to make their decisions.

Secondary head

I think there’s trust and very much allowing my staff totake a free rein over my department. So rather than itcoming from the top, it’s actually the other way. I’veshared my vision with them, whereas in some placesthey’re not very directed from the top about what theyshould be doing. Communication is the key thing, havingthat link and having that open door with senior membersof staff is a crucial thing. So, they’re approachable interms of any ideas or queries or questions you’ve got.


I don’t think that anyone learns – whether they are a childor an adult – they might do what is expected of them butyou don’t learn very much if you are frightened. What youhave got to have is a climate of trust. For teachers it isprofessional trust. I don’t pretend always to get thingsright, quite often I get things wrong. So, you have to givecredit and praise where it is due, and you’ve got to beprepared to say ‘How can you make it better?’, ‘Have youtried such and such?’

Primary head

People seem to know what they are doing and I haveworked in schools before where everything is laid out foryou – ‘you do [it] like this, this and this’ – and it was verydifferent amongst the staff. There is something aboutbeing trusted I think. I think it is high accountability: lowtrust; high trust: low accountability. I think it’s the secondone. People feel that they can get on with their jobs andthey are trusted.

Primary teacher

[The head] obviously trusts my decision-making in thatkind of area. It’s a significant thing for a member of staffto come into the school. The fact that he’d trust me tomake that decision and not cock it up completely, is good.So, I think he’s become increasingly able to do that kindof thing. And I think it’s because we’ve become moresuccessful, and probably the people within the structuresare the right people to do that, but obviously thatacknowledgement of what’s happening is, in general,quite positive because we’ve become quite successful.



19

– The head is the main source of leadership in a school andplays the lead role in promoting change for improvement.Strategies that improve pupils’ measurable attainmentsrepresent an essential layer of successful leaders’ work andstrategies that build and sustain a range of other personaland social wellbeing outcomes represent another essentiallayer (claim 1). Successful heads use their practicalknowledge and intuition and draw from a repertoire ofleadership strategies (claim 2).

– Schools that achieve and sustain improvement in pupils’academic performance and wellbeing are led by heads whohave strong ethical values and moral purpose. Heads nurturesuccess in schools through sustained articulation,communication and the application of core values with arange of internal and external stakeholders, using high levelsof intellectual and interpersonal qualities and skills (claim 3).

– Successful heads use the same basic leadership practices, butthere is no single model for achieving success. Differences inexperience and context affect the nature, direction and paceof leadership actions (claims 4 and 5).

– Heads achieve success by progressively layering combinationsof strategies and actions to fit their purpose. These areapplied over broad phases of school improvement, withconsideration given to individuals’ professional experienceand ability and to internal and external policy environments(claims 6, 7 and 8).

– Trust and trustworthiness among staff, pupils and thecommunity are key elements in the progressive distributionof leadership. Building trust requires high levels of diagnosticskill, the possession of high levels of emotional andintellectual qualities, and an ability to combine positionalpower with personal and social influence (claims 9 and 10).

Our research demonstrates conclusively that there is no single,best-fit leadership approach: successful leadership is contextsensitive.

It also shows that improving the cognitive, emotional andpractical capacities of heads to achieve effectiveness andbroader success requires training and developmentprogrammes that pay attention to:

– the challenges of the particular personal, organisationaland policy contexts in which heads work or are likely to work

– the development of clear sets of values, interpersonalqualities, diagnostic skills and judgemental capacities

Conclusions


20

Figure A1Example of leadership practices and changes in secondary pupil outcomes over three years: a structural equation model (N=309)

Appendix 1

The path analysis above shows the processes that link effectiveleadership at difference levels with improved school outcomes.The lines between the boxes show how they all link together,with the figures indicating the significance of the link. A detailedexplanation of the methods and results is provided in the finalreport of the project20.

20 See DCSF (2009)


21

References

Bryk, A S & Schneider, B L, 2002, Trust in Schools: A Core Sourcefor Improvement, New York, Russell Sage Foundation Publications

Creemers, B P M & Reezigt, G J, 1996, School level conditionsaffecting the effectiveness of instruction, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 7, 197–228

Day, C & Leithwood, K (eds) 2007 Successful school principalleadership in times of change: International Perspectives,Dordrecht, The Netherlands, Springer

DCSF, 2009, The Impact of School Leadership on Pupil Outcomes,research report DCSF-RR108, Nottingham, Department forChildren, Schools & Families

Gordon, M & Louis, K S (2009) Linking parent and communityinvolvement with student achievement: Comparing principal andteacher perceptions of stakeholder influence, American Journal of Education, 116(1), 1-31

Harris, A (ed) 2009, Distributed leadership, Dordrecht, TheNetherlands, Springer

Harris, A, 2008, Distributed knowledge and knowledge creation.In K Leithwood, B Mascall & T Strauss (eds) (2008) Distributedleadership according to the evidence, 253–66, New York,Routledge

Jacobson, S L, Johnson, L, Ylimaki, R & Giles, C, 2005, Successfulleadership in challenging US schools: Enabling principles, enablingschools, Journal of Educational Administration, 43(6), 607–18

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Robinson, V, Hohepa, M & Lloyd, C, 2009, School Leadership andStudent Outcomes: Identifying What Works and Why. BestEvidence Syntheses Iteration (BES), Ministry of Education, NewZealand [online http://educationcounts.govt.nz/goto/BESaccessed 3 March 2010]

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