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  • TOPIC 1 : MATERIAL STRUCTURE & BINARY ALLOY JF302/ 1/

    1

    1.0 MATERIAL STRUCTURE & BINARY ALLOY

    1.1 Atom Is the elementary particles that make up all the materials either in the form of solid, gas or

    liquid. Atomic size is very small, however it has the weight and the properties of its own.

    The atom consists of three basic particles as shown below :

    Particle Charge

    Proton Positive

    Neutron Neutral

    Elektron Negative

    In terms of the charge, the atom is neutral because the proton has a charge opposite to the

    electrons. The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. While electrons rotate around it.

    Arrangement of electrons in atoms is shown in Figure 1

    Figure 1: Position of the electron, the atomic nuclei and orbital

    1.2Elements

    A combination of two or more atoms of same type. It is in original condition. Example:

    the less relative metal such as gold and paltinium. Non-metals such as diamond, graphite,

    and sulfur.

    1.3 Mixture

    A combination of two or more atoms of different types, but not chemically combined.

    1.4 Compounds

    A combination of two or more different atoms chemically joined. Example: Iron +

    sulphide and heated, produce iron sulfide. Natural compounds are very stable because the

    particles are rigidly held therein. So it will not be easily knocked down. Eg: Sodium

    Chloride can be decomposed at a temperature of 800 C. Bonding that occurs is called

    chemical bonds.

    Nucleus which consist of

    proton dan neutron

    Electron

    Shell / orbital 1

    Orbital 2

    Orbital 3

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    1.4 Element Periodic Table

    Consists of 109 elements. Vertical column in the named group. Sometimes called the

    horizontal column. Periodic table has eight groups, from group I to VIII. Four groups

    have special names, such as in Figure 1.3. This table has a middle block, known as the

    transition elements.

    Figure 1.3 : Element Periodic Table

    N

    7

    Nitrogen

    14

    2:5

    Atomic weight

    Symbol

    Name of element

    Electron Configuration

    Atomic number

  • TOPIC 1 : MATERIAL STRUCTURE & BINARY ALLOY JF302/ 1/

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    1.5The characteristic of Element Periodic Table

    Chemical properties of an atom depends on the number of electrons in the outer shells of

    atoms, called atomic valence . In this arrangement, the elements have the same number of

    electrons in the outer shell will be included in the same group. This is why the elements

    in the same group have similar chemical properties. Elements in group 1 had an electron

    in the outer shell, the elements in group 2 has 2 electrons in the outer shell.

    Each periodic with the same number of shells.

    1.6 The Usage of Element Periodic Table

    To facilitate the classification of an element. It also gives information about the elements,

    especially the properties of the element as it is collected in order. Facilitate expect an

    element that is still in the discovery and predicting the properties and usage. Easy to

    analyze and understand a reaction between the elements.

    1.7 Electron configuration (order of filling electrons in orbital)

    Each shell can only be filled by a certain number of electrons only. If a shell has been

    fully completed, other electrons to be filled into the next shell. Generally, the electrons

    will occupy the shell closest to the nucleus prior to occupying other shell.

    Fill the electrons in the shell closest to the nucleus first. This shell has the lowest energy (e-max = 2n

    2). After that, the electrons are filled in the next

    shell which is more powerful.

    After the 18th elements, an exemption from this rule will apply. Where it should be in the order which been determined.

    1.8Crystal

    Solids can be classified into solid crystalline and amorphous solids. Crystalline or

    crystalline solid consisting of atoms arranged in a three-dimensional repetitive pattern or

    uniform. Crystals composed of metallic and nonmetallic. Single crystals with unit cell is

    composed of solid and uniform polycrystalline crystal consists of many single crystals in

    Figure 1.4 below

    Details of single crystal

    (butiran hablur tunggal)

    Grain boundries (sempadan

    ira @ bijian)

    Rajah 1.4 : Structure and grain boundries

  • TOPIC 1 : MATERIAL STRUCTURE & BINARY ALLOY JF302/ 1/

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    In the solidification process of atomic, liquid metal will react with each other and

    organize their respective positions in a uniform and orderly form. The compilation of this

    orderly process called space lattices. Crystals can be seen by using the X - Ray

    defractometer while the grain can be seen clearly using metallurgical microscope after the

    process of grinding, polishing, etching. Four types of crystal structures that are often

    found is the simple cubic (simple cube), body-centered cubic (BCC), face-centered cubic

    (FCC) and hexagonal closed pact (HCP) as in Figure 1.5.

    http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LtaOAMeXCHs/TwcKPbEVNgI/AAAAAAAAAFc/tnTfFsFpcvk/s1600/4.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1XV3PSw6OZM/TwcKsXYqH0I/AAAAAAAAAFk/pAxJ8IrB6S0/s1600/5.jpghttp://4.bp.blogspot.com/-TlGDGMbvuTI/TwcLUChaWxI/AAAAAAAAAFs/RIlQiirg7kw/s1600/6.jpg

  • TOPIC 1 : MATERIAL STRUCTURE & BINARY ALLOY JF302/ 1/

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    Rajah 1.5 : Crystal structure

    Examples of materials that crystallize in this form are: -

    Simple cube = salt (Na Cl)

    BCC = chromium, molibdenum, titanium and tungsten.

    FCC = aluminium, kuprum, aurum and nickel.

    HCP = berillium, magnesium and zinc. 1.9The types of bonding

    There are three ways how an atom is bond :

    Bonding Ion / ionic / elektrovalen

    Covalent

    Bonding metal / metal

    a) Ionic Bonding (Elektrovalen / Ion)

    This bonding occurs when one or more electrons transferred (donated) from one atom to

    another atom. Atoms lose electrons become + ve ions (cations) and atom receive electron

    become -ve ions (anions). Ionic bonding occurs due to the attraction of the ion with a

    different charges.

    As in Figure 1.7: The reaction between natrium and chlorine atoms. For natrium chloride

    ion, electrons are transferred from natrium atoms to chlorine atoms to form natrium

    chloride. Ions Na + Cl organized together with the large number of ions in crystals.

    Elekton are transferred from Na to the Cl to form Na Cl.

    Most of the mineral materials and ceramics are of ionic bonding.

    Elektron transferred from

    natrium to clorine

    http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XtB7JavlTi0/TwcLq7OP74I/AAAAAAAAAF0/-ptkQ_Jt_5k/s1600/7.jpg

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    Figure 1.7 : Ionic Bonding of Natrium Cloride b) Covalent bond

    Terhasil daripada tarikan diantara elektron yang dikongsi ini dengan nukleus positif bagi

    atom yang masuk kedalam ikatan.

    Partnership of the elctron in order to ensure the outer electrons (valence electrons) are

    always full as shown in Figure 1.8. Resulting from the attraction between electrons that

    are shared by the positive nucleus of an atom into the bond. Usually, the material which

    have a covalent bond are fragile. For an example, an electrical insulator (polymers and

    ceramics)

    Figure 1.8: Covalent Bonding (a) Clorine (b) Oxigen

    c)Metal Bonding (Metallic)

    Atomic arranged very close to each other. Each atom provides one @ more electrons

    move throughout the metal crystals as shown in Figure 1.9. Electrons not only shared by

    a few atoms only, but will be owned by all the atoms in it. These solids are bound by

    attraction between metal ions and free electrons posiitif. It produces forces a strong bond.

    For example : heated tungsten atom between 3400 C - 5000oC.

    2.0 SOLIDIFICATION OF METALS AND ALLOYS

    In previous topic, we have examined the structure of existing materials from atoms and

    we have understand that the building or a combination of atoms of the structure is the

    basis of the phase formation. This time we will try to understand how these phases

    solidify form and combine to produce a grain that can be seen in the gross. For that, let us

    together see how the solidification of metals and alloys occur.

    2.1 The growth of crystal / Grain

    Solidification process occurs with the growth of the nucleus (nukleas). Nucleus edges

    (bucu-bucu nukleas) are free to choose their own path to a cooler place. This causes the

    growth of nuclei and the development of the growing edges (perkembangan bucu). The

    (a) Molecule of Cl2. One pair of electron

    (b) Molecule of oxigen, O2.-Two

    pairs of electron

    Cl Cl O O

    Figure 1.9: Metal Bonding (positive ion in a gas of electron)

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    Radial arm (lengan jejari) is formed which will form the secondary arms (lengan

    secondary) which is respectively 90 from one another. This continued until one

    structure existing which been called dendrites, as shown in Figure 2.1 below.

    The dendritic growth & arm met each other to form the grain boundaries. The

    solidification ends with the formation of grains.

    2.2 Pure Metal (Logam Tulin)

    Logam yang mempunyai elemen-elemen yang sama, mempunyai sifat-sifat yang

    melampau (extreme) dan tidak dapat memenuhi kehendak kerja kejuruteraan. Logam

    tulin mempunyai cirri-

    i. Mudah di tempa boleh di ketuk kepada berbagai bentuk. ii. Mulur boleh dijadikan wayar yang halus.

    2.2 Alloy (Aloi/Pancalogam)

    Gabungan/cantuman rapat antara 2 atau lebih komponen bahan ( unsur logam dan bukan

    logam) dan wujud samada dalam keadaan pepejal atau cecair. Contoh : sedikit karbon

    dicampurkan dengan besi akan menghasilkan keluli.

    2.3 Solid Solution (Larutan Pepejal)

    Atom atau molekul-molekul bahan telah menduduki kedudukan yang biasa dalam kekisi

    hablur dan membentuk suatu fasa tunggal. Apabila pemejalan berlaku, atom-atom aloi

    akan tersusun dengan teratur dan ia dipanggil ruang kekisi. Fasa ini mengekalkan

    kelarutan zarah yang terdapat dalam keadaan cecair sama ada sebahagian atau

    keseluruhannya.

    Rajah 2.1: The formation of nucleas, dendrite structure and grain

    boundries

    The formation of

    nucleus Dendrite Solidification ends with

    the form of grains The dendrite growth &

    arm met each other to

    form grain boundries

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    2.4 Types of Solid Solution (Jenis-jenis Larutan Pepejal)

    Terdapat 2 jenis larutan pepejal iaitu :

    i) Larutan Pepejal Gantian (Substitution Solid Solution)

    Secara Rawak (random replacement)

    Secara Teratur ( ii) Larutan Pepejal Celahan (Interstitial Solid Solution)

    a) Substitution Solid Solution of Random Replacement (Larutan Pepejal Gantian Secara Rawak)

    Atom zarah mengambil tempat atom utama secara rawak dan susunannya tidak teratur.

    (Rajah 2.2)

    b) Larutan Pepejal Gantian Secara Teratur Atom zarah mengambil tempat atom utama dan susunannya teratur seperti Rajah 2.3 di

    bawah.

    c) Interstitial Solid Solution (Larutan Pepejal Celahan) Atom zarah yang kecil mengisi ruang-ruang di antara atom-atom dalam kekisi. Ia berlaku

    sekiranya atom logam tambahan ini adalah lebih kecil dari logam induknya. Larutan jenis

    ini adalah lebih kuat kerana peranan atom logam yang lebih kecil akan memenuhi

    ruangan-ruangan yang ada. Oleh yang demikian, kegelinciran dapat dielakkan dari

    berlaku seperti Rajah 2.4 di bawah .

    Atom Zarah

    Atom Utama

    Atom Zarah

    Atom Utama

    Rajah 2.2: Susunan atom bagi larutan pepejal gantian secara rawak

    Rajah 2.3: Susunan atom bagi larutan pepejal gantian secara teratur

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    2.6 Solidification (Pemejalan Bahan)

    Apabila sesuatu logam dipanaskan dengan sekata, ia akan mencapai kepada satu takat

    suhu dimana ia akan mula melebur. Sekiranya pemanasan pada suhu yang sekata ini

    diteruskan, keseluruhan logam akan lebur. Suhu tetap peleburan ini dipanggil sebagai

    titik lebur. Semasa penyejukkan keadaan yang sebaliknya berlaku. Tenaga kinetik bagi

    atom-atom atau molekul bagi cecair tersebut berkurangan dan kelikatan logam semakin

    bertambah. Di dalam keadaan cecair, atom-atom logam berada dalam keadaan rawak.

    Tetapi apabila pembekuan berlaku, atomnya akan tersusun dengan teratur mengikut

    geometri tertentu. Semua bahan pepejal terbentuk dalam keadaan amorfous (tidak

    berhablur) atau crystalline (berhablur/kristal).

    2.7 Formation of Metal Core in solidification (Pembentukan Teras Dalam Pemejalan Logam)

    Pembekuan pancalogam dimulai dengan pembentukan awal rangka dendrit (dendritic

    skeletons) seperti Rajah di bawah.

    Rajah 2.5 : Susunan rangka dendrit

    Pertumbuhan hablur-hablur dendrit ini akan berterusan dan membesar apabila suhu

    pembekuan menurun. Pembesaran akan berlaku di setiap paksi-paksinya dan akhirnya

    akan bercantum. Pembekuan dendrit ini juga dikenali sebagai teras (coring) di mana

    hablurnya terdiri daripada atom-atom logam lain sebagai bendasing.

    Atom Zarah

    Atom Utama

    Rajah 2.4: Susunan atom bagi larutan pepejal celahan

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    2.8 Phase Balance Diagram Of Binary Alloy System (Rajah Keseimbangan Fasa

    Bagi Sistem Aloi Perduaan)

    Untuk memahami kandungan bahan dan struktur fasa. Ini bermakna satu bahagian

    homogen (komponen) bahan yang boleh diasingkan secara fizikal dan mempunyai

    kandungan kimia serta struktur yang teratur.

    2.8.1 Phase (Fasa)

    Merujuk kepada suatu bentuk struktur atau kawasan yang mempunyai sifat berlainan

    jenis akibat dari perubahan atau memiliki sifat semulajadi yang berbeza. Ia dipisahkan

    oleh garis-garis lengkung pendinginan atau sempadan fasa

    2.8.2 Phase Balance Diagram (Rajah Keseimbangan Fasa)

    Gambarajah fasa ialah peta sesuatu system dan ia menunjukkan fasa yang sepatutnya

    wujud di bawah keadaan keseimbangan untuk sebarang gabungan rencaman dan suhu

    tertentu. Gambarajah fasa digunakan secara meluas dan amat penting terutama untuk

    memahami system logam dan aloi.

    2.8.3 Composition (Komposisi)

    Komposisi ialah peratus kandungan bahan-bahan tertentu yang sengaja atau tidak sengaja

    dimasukkan ke dalam sesuatu bahan. Dengan kehadiran peratus komposisi bahan ini

    boleh menyebabkan perubahan dalam fasa, sifat dan bentuk struktur mikro bahan.

    2.8.4 Liquidus (Cecair)

    Liquidus merujuk kepada garisan lintang yang memisahkan antara fasa cecair bahan

    dengan fasa separa cecair bahan. Semasa proses pemejalan berlaku, zarah bahan yang

    berada pada suhu lebur akan mula memejal apabila suhu diturunkan. Titik permulaan

    proses pemejalan berlaku apabila melepasi garisan lintang liquidus.

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    2.9 The process of solidification for pure metal and alloy according to the cooling

    curve (Proses pemejalan Logam tulen dan aloi merujuk kepada Graf lengkung

    Pendinginan)

    1) Metal Cooling curve diagram (Graf lengkung pendinginan Logam Tulin)

    Apabila logam disejukkan ke suhu beku, ia mengalami kesukaran untuk

    membentuk hablur/nukleus.

    Keadaan ini berlaku di antara 0.1 hingga 10C (Kawasan B hingga C)

    Apabila nukleus mula terhasil, suhu akan meningkat ke titik suhu beku (Thermal arrest) yang sebenar (D) dan suhu tidak dibebaskan lagi.

    Apabila pembentukan hablur tamat (E) suhu akan terbebas semula. 2) Alloy Cooling Curve diagram (Graf lengkung pendinginan Aloi)

    Apabila penyejukan berlaku, haba dibebaskan hingga ke suhu beku dan unit-unit sel mula terbentuk.

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    Apabila sampai pada titik beku (Thermal arrest), haba tidak lagi dibebaskan kerana digunakan untuk pembentukan hablur-hablur hingga selesai.

    Selepas itu haba kembali dibebaskan (Equilibrium Freezing Temperature)

    2.9 The phase balance diagram, which comprises of a few cooling curves for solid solution (Gambarajah Keseimbangan Fasa, terhasil dari gabungan graf lengkung pendinginan Larutan Pepejal)

    Sistem pancalogam atau aloi ini lebih mudah dipelajari dengan merujuk kepada gambarajah keseimbangan fasa atau gambarajah juzuk aloi tersebut. Rajah keseimbangan ini berdasarkan kepada suhu dan peratusan kandungan aloi yang boleh membantu memahami dan meramalkan apakah perubahan struktur aloi yang berlaku sewaktu pemanasan dan penyejukkan untuk pembekuan. Rajah ini juga penting sebagai panduan bagi proses rawatan haba dan memperbaiki sifat-sifat kimia bahan tersebut. Di dalam kebanyakkan aloi perduaan (binary alloy) iaitu campuran diantara dua jenis logam, juzuk-juzuknya boleh larut antara satu sama lain dalam keadaan cecair.

    Berikut adalah graf lengkung pendinginan sebenar bagi aloi @ pancalogam:- Keadaan sebenar ini menunjukkan nisbah yang wujud di antara titik mula pemejalan (Liquidus point) dan titik tamat pemejalan (Solidus point) yang disebut Freezing Range.

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    Sekiranya lengkung ini diplotkan sebanyak 6 graf, hasilnya dapat dilihat seperti di bawah :-

    The construction of phase balance diagram (Mekanisma pewujudan rajah keseimbangan fasa)

    Contoh penafsiran graf keseimbangan fasa:

    1455

    1083

    t2 t1

    t3

    p

    q r

    m n

    Larutan pepejal

    Su

    hu

    (o C

    )

    100% Cu X% Ni 100

    % % Ni

    t1 suhu pemejalan bermula

    t3 suhu pemejalan berakhir

    t2 cecair yang kerencaman m

    berada dalam keadaan

    keseimbangan dengan

    larutan pepejal kerencaman.

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    Rajah di atas menunjukkan suatu aloi yang mengandungi X % nikel akan memejal seperti

    berikut :

    i. Pada suhu t1, kerencaman cecair 1 akan berada dalam keadaan keseimbangan dengan larutan pepejal kerencaman yang sepadan kepada titik p pada garisan

    solidus (garisan pepejalan). Oleh itu hablur larutan pepejal pertama membentuk

    terdiri dari kerencaman p.

    ii. Apabila suhu turun maka kerencaman larutan pepejal berkecenderung untuk berubah dengan cara resapan mengikut garisan pepejalan kepada titik q.

    iii. Pada suhu t2, cecair yang kerencaman m berada dalam keadaan keseimbangan dengan larutan pepejal kerencaman.

    Proses pemejalan aloi ini akan selesai pada suhu t3 apabila titisan terakhir cecair

    kerencaman n, memejal, membaiki kerencaman hablur larutan pepejal kepada r.

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    EXERCISE

    1. Atom consist of nucleus and .................. A. Electron B. Proton C. Neutron D. Atomic number

    2. Nukleus consist of............... and proton. A. Neutron B. Atomic number C. Electron D. Proton

    3. Atomic Number is a the total of ...............in an atom. A. Proton B. Neutron C. Atomic number D. Electron

    4. Atomic Mass Number is the total of the quantity of proton plus the quantity of........... A. Elektron B. Proton C. Neutron D. Nombor atom

    5. Atomic number of Ferum is 26, so the oleh itu Atomic Mass Number of Ferum is ..........

    A. 26 B. 52 C. 78 D. 104

    6. Atomic number of Magnesium ialah 12, so the number of orbital is ........... A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

    7. The total number of electron at orbital no-3 not more than ........... A. 6 B. 12 C. 18 D. 24

    8. Atomic number of Aluminium is 13, so the quantity of elektron at the last orbital is .............

    A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4

    9. One of the type of atomic bond is ............... A. mass B. Proton C. Elektron D. Metal

    10. Solid solution consists of the substitutional type and................... A. reverse B. return C. Interstitial D. Middleness