10 lecture presentation
TRANSCRIPT
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PowerPoint Lectures forBiology: Concepts & Connections, Sixth EditionCampbell, Reece, Taylor, Simon, and Dickey
Chapter 10Chapter 10 Molecular Biology of the Gene
Lecture by Mary C. Colavito
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Viruses are invaders that sabotage our cells
– Viruses have genetic material surrounded by a protein coat and, in some cases, a membranous envelope
– Viral proteins bind to receptors on a host’s target cell
– Viral nucleic acid enters the cell
– It may remain dormant by integrating into a host chromosome
– When activated, viral DNA triggers viral duplication, using the host’s molecules and organelles
– The host cell is destroyed, and newly replicated viruses are released to continue the infection
Introduction: Sabotage Inside Our Cells
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THE STRUCTURE OF THE GENETIC MATERIAL
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10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material
Frederick Griffith discovered that a “transforming factor” could be transferred into a bacterial cell
– Disease-causing bacteria were killed by heat
– Harmless bacteria were incubated with heat-killed bacteria
– Some harmless cells were converted to disease-causing bacteria, a process called transformation
– The disease-causing characteristic was inherited by descendants of the transformed cells
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10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase used bacteriophages to show that DNA is the genetic material
– Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacterial cells
– Phages were labeled with radioactive sulfur to detect proteins or radioactive phosphorus to detect DNA
– Bacteria were infected with either type of labeled phage to determine which substance was injected into cells and which remained outside
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10.1 Experiments showed that DNA is the genetic material
– The sulfur-labeled protein stayed with the phages outside the bacterial cell, while the phosphorus-labeled DNA was detected inside cells
– Cells with phosphorus-labeled DNA produced new bacteriophages with radioactivity in DNA but not in protein
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Animation: Hershey-Chase Experiment
Animation: Phage T2 Reproductive Cycle
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Head
Tail fiber
DNA
Tail
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Head
Tail fiber
DNA
Tail
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Batch 1Radioactiveprotein
Bacterium
Radioactiveprotein
DNA
Phage
Pellet
RadioactiveDNA
Batch 2RadioactiveDNA
Emptyprotein shell
PhageDNA
Centrifuge
Radioactivityin liquid
Measure theradioactivity inthe pellet andthe liquid.
4Centrifuge the mixtureso bacteria form apellet at the bottom ofthe test tube.
3Agitate in a blender toseparate phagesoutside the bacteriafrom the cells andtheir contents.
2Mix radioactivelylabeled phages withbacteria. The phagesinfect the bacterial cells.
1
Pellet
CentrifugeRadioactivityin pellet
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Batch 1Radioactiveprotein
Bacterium
Radioactiveprotein
DNA
Phage
RadioactiveDNA
Batch 2RadioactiveDNA
Agitate in a blender toseparate phagesoutside the bacteriafrom the cells andtheir contents.
2Mix radioactivelylabeled phages withbacteria. The phagesinfect the bacterial cells.
1
Empty protein shell
Phage DNA
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Pellet
Emptyprotein shell
PhageDNA
Centrifuge
Radioactivityin liquid
Measure theradioactivity inthe pellet andthe liquid.
Centrifuge the mixtureso bacteria form apellet at the bottom ofthe test tube.
Pellet
CentrifugeRadioactivityin pellet
43
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Phage attachesto bacterial cell.
Phage injects DNA. Phage DNA directs hostcell to make more phageDNA and protein parts.New phages assemble.
Cell lyses andreleases new phages.
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10.2 DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides
The monomer unit of DNA and RNA is the nucleotide, containing
– Nitrogenous base
– 5-carbon sugar
– Phosphate group
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DNA and RNA are polymers called polynucleotides
– A sugar-phosphate backbone is formed by covalent bonding between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next nucleotide
– Nitrogenous bases extend from the sugar-phosphate backbone
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Animation: DNA and RNA Structure
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Sugar-phosphate backbone
DNA nucleotide
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous baseSugar
DNA polynucleotide
DNA nucleotide
Sugar(deoxyribose)
Thymine (T)
Nitrogenous base(A, G, C, or T)
Phosphategroup
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Sugar(deoxyribose)
Thymine (T)
Nitrogenous base(A, G, C, or T)
Phosphategroup
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Pyrimidines
Guanine (G)Adenine (A)Cytosine (C)Thymine (T)
Purines
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Sugar(ribose)
Uracil (U)
Nitrogenous base(A, G, C, or U)
Phosphategroup
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Ribose
Cytosine
Uracil
Phosphate
Guanine
Adenine
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10.3 DNA is a double-stranded helix
James D. Watson and Francis Crick deduced the secondary structure of DNA, with X-ray crystallography data from Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins
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DNA is composed of two polynucleotide chains joined together by hydrogen bonding between bases, twisted into a helical shape
– The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside
– The nitrogenous bases are perpendicular to the backbone in the interior
– Specific pairs of bases give the helix a uniform shape
– A pairs with T, forming two hydrogen bonds
– G pairs with C, forming three hydrogen bondsCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: DNA Double Helix
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Twist
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Hydrogen bond
Basepair
Partial chemical structure Computer modelRibbon model
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Basepair
Ribbon model
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Hydrogen bond
Partial chemical structure
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Computer model
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DNA REPLICATION
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10.4 DNA replication depends on specific base pairing
DNA replication follows a semiconservative model
– The two DNA strands separate
– Each strand is used as a pattern to produce a complementary strand, using specific base pairing
– Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand
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Animation: DNA Replication Overview
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Parentalmoleculeof DNA
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Parentalmoleculeof DNA
Nucleotides
Both parentalstrands serveas templates
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Parentalmoleculeof DNA
Nucleotides
Both parentalstrands serveas templates
Two identicaldaughter
molecules of DNA
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DNA replication begins at the origins of replication
– DNA unwinds at the origin to produce a “bubble”
– Replication proceeds in both directions from the origin
– Replication ends when products from the bubbles merge with each other
DNA replication occurs in the 5’ 3’ direction
– Replication is continuous on the 3’ 5’ template
– Replication is discontinuous on the 5’ 3’ template, forming short segments
10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
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Animation: Leading Strand
10.5 DNA replication proceeds in two directions at many sites simultaneously
Proteins involved in DNA replication
– DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to a growing chain
– DNA ligase joins small fragments into a continuous chain
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Animation: Lagging Strand
Animation: DNA Replication Review
Animation: Origins of Replication
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Origin of replication Parental strand
Daughter strand
Bubble
Two daughter DNA molecules
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3 end 5 end
3 end5 end
3
5
2
4
13
5
2
41
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
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Parental DNA
35
DNA polymerasemolecule
DNA ligase
35
Overall direction of replication
Daughter strandsynthesizedcontinuously
35
35
Daughter strandsynthesizedin pieces
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THE FLOW OF GENETIC INFORMATION FROM DNA
TO RNA TO PROTEIN
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10.6 The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for phenotypic traits
A gene is a sequence of DNA that directs the synthesis of a specific protein
– DNA is transcribed into RNA
– RNA is translated into protein
The presence and action of proteins determine the phenotype of an organism
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10.6 The DNA genotype is expressed as proteins, which provide the molecular basis for phenotypic traits
Demonstrating the connections between genes and proteins
– The one gene–one enzyme hypothesis was based on studies of inherited metabolic diseases
– The one gene–one protein hypothesis expands the relationship to proteins other than enzymes
– The one gene–one polypeptide hypothesis recognizes that some proteins are composed of multiple polypeptides
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Cytoplasm
Nucleus
DNA
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Cytoplasm
Nucleus
DNA
Transcription
RNA
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Cytoplasm
Nucleus
DNA
Transcription
RNA
Translation
Protein
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10.7 Genetic information written in codons is translated into amino acid sequences
The sequence of nucleotides in DNA provides a code for constructing a protein
– Protein construction requires a conversion of a nucleotide sequence to an amino acid sequence
– Transcription rewrites the DNA code into RNA, using the same nucleotide “language”
– Each “word” is a codon, consisting of three nucleotides
– Translation involves switching from the nucleotide “language” to amino acid “language”
– Each amino acid is specified by a codon– 64 codons are possible – Some amino acids have more than one possible codon
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Polypeptide
Translation
Transcription
Gene 1
DNA molecule
DNA strand
Codon
Amino acid
Gene 2
Gene 3
RNA
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Polypeptide
Translation
Transcription
DNA strand
Codon
Amino acid
RNA
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10.8 The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life
Characteristics of the genetic code
– Triplet: Three nucleotides specify one amino acid
– 61 codons correspond to amino acids
– AUG codes for methionine and signals the start of transcription
– 3 “stop” codons signal the end of translation
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10.8 The genetic code is the Rosetta stone of life
– Redundant: More than one codon for some amino acids
– Unambiguous: Any codon for one amino acid does not code for any other amino acid
– Does not contain spacers or punctuation: Codons are adjacent to each other with no gaps in between
– Nearly universal
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Fir
st
ba
se
Th
ird
ba
se
Second base
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Strand to be transcribed
DNA
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Strand to be transcribed
DNA
Startcodon
RNA
Transcription
Stopcodon
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Strand to be transcribed
DNA
Startcodon
RNA
Transcription
Stopcodon
Polypeptide
Translation
Met Lys Phe
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10.9 Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA
Overview of transcription
– The two DNA strands separate
– One strand is used as a pattern to produce an RNA chain, using specific base pairing
– For A in DNA, U is placed in RNA
– RNA polymerase catalyzes the reaction
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10.9 Transcription produces genetic messages in the form of RNA
Stages of transcription
– Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to a promoter, where the helix unwinds and transcription starts
– Elongation: RNA nucleotides are added to the chain
– Termination: RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence and detaches from the template
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Animation: Transcription
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RNApolymerase
Newly made RNA
Direction oftranscription Template
strand of DNA
RNA nucleotides
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TerminatorDNA
DNA of gene
RNA polymerase
Initiation
PromoterDNA
1
Elongation2
Area shownin Figure 10.9A
Termination3
GrowingRNA
RNApolymerase
CompletedRNA
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10.10 Eukaryotic RNA is processed before leaving the nucleus
Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains codons for protein sequences
Eukaryotic mRNA has interrupting sequences called introns, separating the coding regions called exons
Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes processing before leaving the nucleus
– Cap added to 5’ end: single guanine nucleotide
– Tail added to 3’ end: Poly-A tail of 50–250 adenines
– RNA splicing: removal of introns and joining of exons to produce a continuous coding sequence
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RNAtranscriptwith capand tail
Exons spliced together
Introns removed
TranscriptionAddition of cap and tail
Tail
DNA
mRNA
Cap
Exon Exon ExonIntron Intron
Coding sequenceNucleus
Cytoplasm
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10.11 Transfer RNA molecules serve as interpreters during translation
Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules match an amino acid to its corresponding mRNA codon
– tRNA structure allows it to convert one language to the other
– An amino acid attachment site allows each tRNA to carry a specific amino acid
– An anticodon allows the tRNA to bind to a specific mRNA codon, complementary in sequence
– A pairs with U, G pairs with C
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Anticodon
Amino acid attachment site
RNA polynucleotide chain
Hydrogen bond
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10.12 Ribosomes build polypeptides
Translation occurs on the surface of the ribosome
– Ribosomes have two subunits: small and large
– Each subunit is composed of ribosomal RNAs and proteins
– Ribosomal subunits come together during translation
– Ribosomes have binding sites for mRNA and tRNAs
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tRNAmolecules
Growingpolypeptide
Largesubunit
Smallsubunit
mRNA
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tRNA-binding sites
Largesubunit
Smallsubunit
mRNAbinding site
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mRNA
Next amino acidto be added topolypeptide
Growingpolypeptide
Codons
tRNA
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10.13 An initiation codon marks the start of an mRNA message
Initiation brings together the components needed to begin RNA synthesis
Initiation occurs in two steps
1.mRNA binds to a small ribosomal subunit, and the first tRNA binds to mRNA at the start codon
– The start codon reads AUG and codes for methionine
– The first tRNA has the anticodon UAC
2.A large ribosomal subunit joins the small subunit, allowing the ribosome to function
– The first tRNA occupies the P site, which will hold the growing peptide chain
– The A site is available to receive the next tRNA
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Start of genetic message
End
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Small ribosomalsubunit
Startcodon
P site
mRNA
A site
Large ribosomalsubunit
Initiator tRNA
Met Met
21
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10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation
Elongation is the addition of amino acids to the polypeptide chain
Each cycle of elongation has three steps
1. Codon recognition: next tRNA binds to the mRNA at the A site
2. Peptide bond formation: joining of the new amino acid to the chain
– Amino acids on the tRNA at the P site are attached by a covalent bond to the amino acid on the tRNA at the A site
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3.Translocation: tRNA is released from the P site and the ribosome moves tRNA from the A site into the P site
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10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation
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Elongation continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon
Applying Your KnowledgeHow many cycles of elongation are required to produce a protein with 100 amino acids?
Termination – The completed polypeptide is released
– The ribosomal subunits separate
– mRNA is released and can be translated again
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10.14 Elongation adds amino acids to the polypeptide chain until a stop codon terminates translation
Animation: Translation
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Polypeptide
A site
1 Codon recognitionCodons
Aminoacid
Anticodon
P site
mRNA
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Polypeptide
A site
1 Codon recognitionCodons
Aminoacid
Anticodon
P site
mRNA
2 Peptide bondformation
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Polypeptide
A site
1 Codon recognitionCodons
Aminoacid
Anticodon
P site
mRNA
2 Peptide bondformation
3 Translocation
Newpeptidebond
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Polypeptide
A site
1 Codon recognitionCodons
Aminoacid
Anticodon
P site
mRNA
2 Peptide bondformation
3 Translocation
Newpeptidebond
Stopcodon
mRNAmovement
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10.15 Review: The flow of genetic information in the cell is DNA RNA protein
Does translation represent:
– DNA RNA or RNA protein?
Where does the information for producing a protein originate:
– DNA or RNA?
Which one has a linear sequence of codons:
– rRNA, mRNA, or tRNA?
Which one directly influences the phenotype:
– DNA, RNA, or protein?
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Each amino acidattaches to its propertRNA with the help ofa specific enzyme and ATP.
mRNA is transcribedfrom a DNA template.
2
1
RNA polymerase
Amino acid
DNA Transcription
mRNA
tRNAATP
Translation
Enzyme
3
The mRNA, the firsttRNA, and the ribo-somal sub-units come together.
InitiatortRNA
Largeribosomalsubunit
Anticodon
Initiation ofpolypeptide synthesis
Smallribosomalsubunit
mRNA
Start Codon
New peptidebond formingGrowing
polypeptide
4
A succession of tRNAsadd their amino acids to the polypeptide chain as the mRNA is moved through the ribosome, one codon at a time.
Elongation
Codons
mRNA
Polypeptide
5
The ribosome recognizes a stop codon. The poly-peptide is terminatedand released.
Termination
Stop codon
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mRNA is transcribedfrom a DNA template.
RNA polymerase
Each amino acidattaches to its propertRNA with the help of aspecific enzyme and ATP.
Amino acid
DNA Transcription
mRNA
tRNAATP
Translation
Enzyme
The mRNA, the firsttRNA, and the ribosomalsub-units come together.
InitiatortRNA
Largeribosomalsubunit
Anticodon
Initiation ofpolypeptide synthesis
Smallribosomalsubunit
mRNA
Start Codon
1
2
3
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New peptidebond formingGrowing
polypeptide
4
A succession of tRNAsadd their amino acidsto the polypeptide chainas the mRNA is movedthrough the ribosome,one codon at a time.
Elongation
Codons
mRNA
Polypeptide
5
The ribosome recognizes a stop codon. The polypeptide is terminated and released.
Termination
Stop codon
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10.16 Mutations can change the meaning of genes
A mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
– Base substitutions: replacement of one nucleotide with another
– Effect depends on whether there is an amino acid change that alters the function of the protein
– Deletions or insertions
– Alter the reading frame of the mRNA, so that nucleotides are grouped into different codons
– Lead to significant changes in amino acid sequence downstream of mutation
– Cause a nonfunctional polypeptide to be produced
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10.16 Mutations can change the meaning of genes
Mutations can be
– Spontaneous: due to errors in DNA replication or recombination
– Induced by mutagens
– High-energy radiation
– Chemicals
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Normal hemoglobin DNA Mutant hemoglobin DNA
Sickle-cell hemoglobinNormal hemoglobin
mRNAmRNA
ValGlu
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Normal gene
Protein
Base substitution
Base deletion Missing
mRNA
Met Lys Phe Ser Ala
Met Lys Phe Gly Ala
Met Lys Leu Ala His
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MICROBIAL GENETICS
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10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome
Viruses have two types of reproductive cycles
– Lytic cycle
– Viral particles are produced using host cell components
– The host cell lyses, and viruses are released
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10.17 Viral DNA may become part of the host chromosome
Viruses have two types of reproductive cycles
– Lysogenic cycle
– Viral DNA is inserted into the host chromosome by recombination
– Viral DNA is duplicated along with the host chromosome during each cell division
– The inserted phage DNA is called a prophage
– Most prophage genes are inactive
– Environmental signals can cause a switch to the lytic cycle
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Animation: Phage T4 Lytic Cycle
Animation: Phage Lambda Lysogenic and Lytic Cycles
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Bacterialchromosome
Phage injects DNA
Phage
Phage DNA
Attachesto cell
2
1
3
Phage DNAcircularizes
Lytic cycle
4
New phage DNA andproteins are synthesized
Phages assemble
Cell lyses,releasing phages
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Bacterialchromosome
Phage injects DNA
Phage
Phage DNA
Attachesto cell
2
1
3
Phage DNAcircularizes
Lytic cycle
4
New phage DNA andproteins are synthesized
Phages assemble
Cell lyses,releasing phages
65
7
Phage DNA inserts into the bacterialchromosome by recombination
Lysogenic bacterium reproducesnormally, replicating theprophage at each cell division
Prophage
Lysogenic cycle
Many celldivisions
OR
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Bacterialchromosome
Phage injects DNA
Phage
Phage DNA
Attachesto cell
Phage DNAcircularizes
Lytic cycle
New phage DNA andproteins are synthesized
Phages assemble
Cell lyses,releasing phages
1
2
3
4
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Bacterialchromosome
Phage injects DNA
Phage DNAcircularizes
Phage DNA inserts into the bacterialchromosome by recombination
Lysogenic bacterium reproducesnormally, replicating theprophage at each cell division
Prophage
Lysogenic cycle
Many celldivisions
5
7
6
2
Phage
Phage DNA
Attachesto cell
1
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10.18 CONNECTION: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants
Both DNA viruses and RNA viruses cause disease in animals
Reproductive cycle of an RNA virus – Entry
– Glycoprotein spikes contact host cell receptors
– Viral envelope fuses with host plasma membrane
– Uncoating of viral particle to release the RNA genome
– mRNA synthesis using a viral enzyme
– Protein synthesis
– RNA synthesis of new viral genome
– Assembly of viral particlesCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
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10.18 CONNECTION: Many viruses cause disease in animals and plants
Some animal viruses reproduce in the cell nucleus
Most plant viruses are RNA viruses
– They breach the outer protective layer of the plant
– They spread from cell to cell through plasmodesmata
– Infection can spread to other plants by animals, humans, or farming practices
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Animation: Simplified Viral Reproductive Cycle
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Plasma membraneof host cell
VIRUS
Entry
Uncoating
Viral RNA(genome)
Viral RNA(genome)
2
1
3
Membranousenvelope
Protein coatGlycoprotein spike
RNA synthesisby viral enzyme
Template
RNA synthesis(other strand)
Proteinsynthesis
mRNA
4 5
6
New viralgenome
Newviral proteins
Assembly
7
Exit
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Plasma membraneof host cell
VIRUS
Entry
Viral RNA(genome)
Viral RNA(genome)
2
Membranousenvelope
Protein coatGlycoprotein spike
Uncoating
RNA synthesisby viral enzyme
3
1
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Template
RNA synthesis(other strand)
Proteinsynthesis
New viralgenome
mRNA
Newviral proteins
Assembly
Exit
4 5
6
7
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10.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Emerging viruses threaten human health
How do emerging viruses cause human diseases?
– Mutation
– RNA viruses mutate rapidly
– Contact between species
– Viruses from other animals spread to humans
– Spread from isolated populations
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10.19 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Emerging viruses threaten human health
Examples of emerging viruses
– HIV
– Ebola virus
– West Nile virus
– RNA coronavirus causing severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)
– Avian flu virus
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10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template
AIDS is caused by HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
HIV is a retrovirus, containing
– Two copies of its RNA genome
– Reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that produces DNA from an RNA template
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HIV duplication
– Reverse transcriptase uses RNA to produce one DNA strand
– Reverse transcriptase produces the complementary DNA strand
– Viral DNA enters the nucleus and integrates into the chromosome, becoming a provirus
– Provirus DNA is used to produce mRNA
– mRNA is translated to produce viral proteins
– Viral particles are assembled and leave the host cell
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10.20 The AIDS virus makes DNA on an RNA template
Animation: HIV Reproductive Cycle
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Reversetranscriptase
RNA(two identicalstrands)
Proteincoat
GlycoproteinEnvelope
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Double-strandedDNA
ViralRNAandproteins
DNAstrand
Viral RNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
ChromosomalDNA
ProvirusDNA
RNA
2
1
5
3
4
6
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10.21 Viroids and prions are formidable pathogens in plants and animals
Some infectious agents are made only of RNA or protein
– Viroids: circular RNA molecules that infect plants
– Replicate within host cells without producing proteins
– Interfere with plant growth
– Prions: infectious proteins that cause brain diseases in animals
– Misfolded forms of normal brain proteins
– Convert normal protein to misfolded form
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10.22 Bacteria can transfer DNA in three ways
Three mechanisms allow transfer of bacterial DNA
– Transformation is the uptake of DNA from the surrounding environment
– Transduction is gene transfer through bacteriophages
– Conjugation is the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterial cell through a cytoplasmic bridge
Recombination of the transferred DNA with the host bacterial chromosome leads to new combinations of genesCopyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.
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DNA enterscell
Bacterial chromosome(DNA)
Fragment ofDNA fromanotherbacterial cell
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Phage
Fragment ofDNA fromanotherbacterial cell(former phagehost)
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Mating bridge
Sex pili
Donor cell(“male”)
Recipient cell(“female”)
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Donated DNA
Recipient cell’schromosome
Crossovers
Recombinantchromosome
Degraded DNA
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10.23 Bacterial plasmids can serve as carriers for gene transfer
Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules that are separate from the bacterial chromosome
– F factor is involved in conjugation
– When integrated into the chromosome, transfers bacterial genes from donor to recipient
– When separate, transfers F-factor plasmid
– R plasmids transfer genes for antibiotic resistance by conjugation
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Male (donor)cell
Origin of Freplication
Bacterialchromosome
F factor startsreplication andtransfer of chromosome
F factor(integrated)
Recipientcell
Only part of thechromosometransfers
Recombination can occur
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Male (donor)cell
Bacterialchromosome
F factor startsreplication and transfer
F factor (plasmid)
Plasmid completestransfer andcircularizes
Cell now male
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Plasmids
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Sugar-phosphatebackbone
Deoxy-ribose Ribose
Nucleotide
Sugar
Phosphategroup
DNA
Nitrogenousbase
Nitrogenous base
PolynucleotideDNA
RNA
Sugar
CGAT
CGAU
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Codons
Growing polypeptide
Amino acid
tRNA
Anticodon
Largeribosomalsubunit
mRNA
Smallribosomalsubunit
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comesin three
kinds calledRNA
(d)
(e)
(f)
is performed byorganelles called
use amino-acid-bearingmolecules called
(h)
molecules arecomponents of
one or more polymersmade from
monomers called
is performed byenzyme called
is a polymermade from
monomers calledDNA (a)
(b) (c)
Protein
(g)
(i)
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1. Compare and contrast the structures of DNA and RNA
2. Describe how DNA replicates
3. Explain how a protein is produced
4. Distinguish between the functions of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in translation
5. Determine DNA, RNA, and protein sequences when given any complementary sequence
You should now be able to
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6. Distinguish between exons and introns and describe the steps in RNA processing that lead to a mature mRNA
7. Explain the relationship between DNA genotype and the action of proteins in influencing phenotype
8. Distinguish between the effects of base substitution and insertion or deletion mutations
You should now be able to
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9. Distinguish between lytic and lysogenic viral reproductive cycles and describe how RNA viruses are duplicated within a host cell
10. Explain how an emerging virus can become a threat to human health
11. Identify three methods of transfer for bacterial genes
12. Distinguish between viroids and prions
13. Describe the effects of transferring plasmids from donor to recipient cells
You should now be able to
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