11

Women in the MilitaryWomen in the Military IntroductionIntroduction Women Commanders of Non-Han originWomen Commanders of Non-Han origin

– Princess Pingyang of the TangPrincess Pingyang of the Tang– Empress Dowager Yingtian of the LiaoEmpress Dowager Yingtian of the Liao– Empress Dowager Chengtian of the LiaoEmpress Dowager Chengtian of the Liao

Women Commanders of Han origin Women Commanders of Han origin – Hua MulanHua Mulan– Liang HongyuLiang Hongyu– Qin LingyuQin Lingyu

Female Leaders as DefendersFemale Leaders as Defenders Women Leaders of Peasant UprisingsWomen Leaders of Peasant Uprisings Women Fighters in the Late QingWomen Fighters in the Late Qing

– The Taiping RebellionThe Taiping Rebellion– The Boxer RebellionThe Boxer Rebellion– The the 1911 RevolutionThe the 1911 Revolution

Recent History of female participation Recent History of female participation – The Anti-Japanese WarThe Anti-Japanese War– The Red ArmyThe Red Army– The People’s Liberation Army (PLA)The People’s Liberation Army (PLA)– The Chinese Nationalist (Taiwan) ArmyThe Chinese Nationalist (Taiwan) Army

IntroductionIntroduction The non-Han women living north and northwest of The non-Han women living north and northwest of

China were:China were:– Nomadic – that is, they had to move around Nomadic – that is, they had to move around

seasonally with their families and animals to seasonally with their families and animals to survive. survive.

– Lived in very harsh environments and led a very Lived in very harsh environments and led a very difficult life; to survive, the nomads had to difficult life; to survive, the nomads had to constantly battle, not only against nature, but constantly battle, not only against nature, but against each other and to constantly invade and against each other and to constantly invade and loot/rob China.loot/rob China.

– Had to participate in the offensive and defensive Had to participate in the offensive and defensive battles against other tribal groups.battles against other tribal groups.

22

Introduction (2)Introduction (2)

War is usually seen as the area of men and women’s War is usually seen as the area of men and women’s participation has often not been mentioned unless their participation has often not been mentioned unless their participation is of an exceptional nature.participation is of an exceptional nature.

We have learned about the famous female general, Fu Hao We have learned about the famous female general, Fu Hao 妇妇好好 , in the Shang dynasty (, in the Shang dynasty (ca. 1600 B.C.E. - ca. 1046 B.C.E.)ca. 1600 B.C.E. - ca. 1046 B.C.E.)..

Non-Han women, especially of royal families led armies and Non-Han women, especially of royal families led armies and there were many female commanders of non-Han origin.there were many female commanders of non-Han origin.

They led armies of either all women warriors or of mixed They led armies of either all women warriors or of mixed male and female soldiers.male and female soldiers.

They were outstanding for their military leadership and They were outstanding for their military leadership and political visions and are equals to reigning queens in other political visions and are equals to reigning queens in other cultures.cultures.

They led both all women armies or mixed armies of men and They led both all women armies or mixed armies of men and women.women.

44

Women Commanders of non-Han origin:Women Commanders of non-Han origin:Princess PinyangPrincess Pinyang

Princess Pingyang Princess Pingyang 平阳公主 平阳公主 (ca.600-623), was the daughter (ca.600-623), was the daughter of the founding emperor of the Tang dynastyof the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty (618-907). (618-907).

She organized a She organized a “Woman’s Army” and led them to “Woman’s Army” and led them to help her help her father father overthrow the Sui overthrow the Sui 隋 隋 (582-628) (582-628) and and establish the establish the Tang.Tang.– She formed her army among the peasants in her area She formed her army among the peasants in her area

whom she had won over by opening up the food stores whom she had won over by opening up the food stores during the drought.during the drought.

– After her victories, her army would distribute food to the After her victories, her army would distribute food to the people in the captured territories and they saw her people in the captured territories and they saw her armies as liberators rather than as conquerors.armies as liberators rather than as conquerors.

– When her army grew to 70,000 troops, the Sui took her When her army grew to 70,000 troops, the Sui took her seriously and attacked her but the Sui troops were seriously and attacked her but the Sui troops were defeated. defeated.

– She was made a marshal with the same entitlements as She was made a marshal with the same entitlements as her brothers; but the hard struggles of war had worn her her brothers; but the hard struggles of war had worn her out and she died at the age of 23.out and she died at the age of 23.

55

Women Commanders of non-Han origin:Women Commanders of non-Han origin:The Empress dowager Yingtian of the LiaoThe Empress dowager Yingtian of the Liao

Empress Dowager Yingtian (d.953) helped her husband Empress Dowager Yingtian (d.953) helped her husband ambush and murder the other chiefs so that he could found ambush and murder the other chiefs so that he could found the Liao the Liao 辽 辽 (907-1125) dynasty.(907-1125) dynasty.

She commanded 200,000 horsemen, organized campaigns She commanded 200,000 horsemen, organized campaigns against rival tribes, and maintained order when her against rival tribes, and maintained order when her husband was on campaigns.husband was on campaigns.

When he died, more than 300 were buried with him, but When he died, more than 300 were buried with him, but she said that her children needed her and instead, cut off she said that her children needed her and instead, cut off her right hand and placed it in his coffin. her right hand and placed it in his coffin.

She had disapproved of her husband’s choice of heir who She had disapproved of her husband’s choice of heir who sensed the danger and went to his mother to formally sensed the danger and went to his mother to formally withdraw his claim so that her preferred heir, the second withdraw his claim so that her preferred heir, the second son, could ascend the throne as Liao Taizong (r.926-947).son, could ascend the throne as Liao Taizong (r.926-947).

She governed as regent while the succession was being She governed as regent while the succession was being decided and had great influence during the reign of her decided and had great influence during the reign of her son.son.

66

Women Commanders of non-Han origin:Women Commanders of non-Han origin:The Empress dowager Yingtian of the Liao The Empress dowager Yingtian of the Liao

(2)(2) After the death of the second emperor, the eldest son After the death of the second emperor, the eldest son

of the former heir (her eldest son) declared himself of the former heir (her eldest son) declared himself emperor (Shizong: r.947-951) before his father’s emperor (Shizong: r.947-951) before his father’s coffin.coffin.

His grandmother wanted the throne for her third son His grandmother wanted the throne for her third son and so opposed him – this was a conflict between the and so opposed him – this was a conflict between the Chinese style of succession and the Qidan style. Chinese style of succession and the Qidan style.

She sent her youngest son with an army to block her She sent her youngest son with an army to block her grandson’s return to the capital but the son’s army grandson’s return to the capital but the son’s army was defeated.was defeated.

The old lady then led her own army against her The old lady then led her own army against her grandson but was also defeated.grandson but was also defeated.

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Women Commanders of non-Han Women Commanders of non-Han origin:origin:

The Empress dowager Chengtian of The Empress dowager Chengtian of the Liaothe Liao ED Chnegtian was the wife of the fifth emperor, Jingzong, ED Chnegtian was the wife of the fifth emperor, Jingzong,

who died in 982 leaving the throne to his 11 year-old son, who died in 982 leaving the throne to his 11 year-old son, Shenzong (r.982-1031).Shenzong (r.982-1031).

ED Chengtian became regent at the age of 37 and ED Chengtian became regent at the age of 37 and remained in control until her death in 1009 (969-1009). remained in control until her death in 1009 (969-1009).

She underwent the ritual of “rebirth” (confirms the new She underwent the ritual of “rebirth” (confirms the new emperor’s right to rule in the eyes of the Qidan emperor’s right to rule in the eyes of the Qidan aristocracy) – a practice reserved for emperors – three aristocracy) – a practice reserved for emperors – three times — twice in 984 and again in 986. times — twice in 984 and again in 986.

The new emperor, Shenzong, was completely dominated The new emperor, Shenzong, was completely dominated by his mother, who continued to browbeat him and by his mother, who continued to browbeat him and sometimes strike him in public even when he was a grown sometimes strike him in public even when he was a grown man.man.

The Empress Dowager was always willing to listen to The Empress Dowager was always willing to listen to advice and so won the loyalty of Liao officials – Qidan and advice and so won the loyalty of Liao officials – Qidan and Han. Han.

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Women Commanders of non-Han origin:Women Commanders of non-Han origin:The Empress dowager Chengtian of the Liao The Empress dowager Chengtian of the Liao

(2)(2) She was an excellent military commander and had She was an excellent military commander and had

her own army of 10,000 cavalry; she was over 60 her own army of 10,000 cavalry; she was over 60 (1005) when she commanded victorious armies in the (1005) when she commanded victorious armies in the field against the Song dynasty.field against the Song dynasty.

She oversaw the peace negotiations with the Song She oversaw the peace negotiations with the Song (960–1279)(960–1279) which brought in 100 years of peace to which brought in 100 years of peace to both the Liao and the Song – the Treaty of Shanyuan. both the Liao and the Song – the Treaty of Shanyuan.

The The Liao-shiLiao-shi (History of the Liao) sums up her (History of the Liao) sums up her achievements by saying, “Shenzong may be achievements by saying, “Shenzong may be considered the most successful of the Liao emperors, considered the most successful of the Liao emperors, most of his successes must be attributed to his most of his successes must be attributed to his mother’s instruction.” mother’s instruction.”

99

Military women of Han OriginMilitary women of Han Origin There were many unknown women in the armies and in There were many unknown women in the armies and in

rebellions in the 3,000 years of Chinese history.rebellions in the 3,000 years of Chinese history. Some were commanders with long military careers and Some were commanders with long military careers and

political skills; others lacked military training or political skills; others lacked military training or experience before their participation.experience before their participation.– Most professional military personnel were from military Most professional military personnel were from military

families who grew up learning the skills of war.families who grew up learning the skills of war.– Non-professionals were ordinary citizens who had to Non-professionals were ordinary citizens who had to

defend their home or city; some had official titles, defend their home or city; some had official titles, others did not.others did not.

Many women participated to end the Qin Many women participated to end the Qin 秦 秦 dynasty.dynasty.– In more recent history, women fought as defenders In more recent history, women fought as defenders

against the Japanese (1930s).against the Japanese (1930s).– They also fought against each other during the Chinese They also fought against each other during the Chinese

civil war – between the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) civil war – between the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and the Kuomintang (KMT)/Guamingdong (GMT)and the Kuomintang (KMT)/Guamingdong (GMT)

1010

Military women of Han Origin (2)Military women of Han Origin (2) Women’s participation could be divided into three kinds:Women’s participation could be divided into three kinds:

– Women commanders or service personnel Women commanders or service personnel of official of official armies – most served for years and participated in armies – most served for years and participated in military operations frequently.military operations frequently.

– DefendersDefenders – women who were only involved in one – women who were only involved in one battle although it might have lasted for many years.battle although it might have lasted for many years.

– Rebel leaders and followersRebel leaders and followers – women of peasant or – women of peasant or ethnic uprisings – participating in more than one ethnic uprisings – participating in more than one battle.battle.

There were also women of lower social status camp There were also women of lower social status camp followers – they were frequently wives, fiancées, sisters followers – they were frequently wives, fiancées, sisters of soldiers or prostitutes. of soldiers or prostitutes.

Some women cooked, served as camp guards, nurses Some women cooked, served as camp guards, nurses and were responsible for equipment repair.and were responsible for equipment repair.

1111

Women Commanders of Han origin: Women Commanders of Han origin: Hua MulanHua Mulan

The most famous female warrior in recorded history is Wei The most famous female warrior in recorded history is Wei Huahu Huahu 魏花魏花弧弧 , known to us as Hua Mulan, known to us as Hua Mulan 花木兰花木兰 ..

Many did not believe that she was a real person until her Many did not believe that she was a real person until her name and actions were found recorded in a book compiled at name and actions were found recorded in a book compiled at the end of the Jin the end of the Jin 晋晋 dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.).dynasty (206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.).

There are still different versions about when she lived.There are still different versions about when she lived.– One version said that she was a heroine during the Han One version said that she was a heroine during the Han

dynasty and her tomb has been found behind the Wei dynasty and her tomb has been found behind the Wei 魏 魏 village in Bozhou village in Bozhou 亳州亳州 ; the local ; the local history of history of Wan county Wan county 完完县县 , where she was stationed, has recorded her actions , where she was stationed, has recorded her actions and local scholars have written many articles to and local scholars have written many articles to commemorate her.commemorate her.

– Another version said she served the Sui dynasty (589-618 Another version said she served the Sui dynasty (589-618 CE);CE);

– A third record puts her at the beginning of the Tang A third record puts her at the beginning of the Tang dynasty (618);dynasty (618);

– A fourth version placed her during the reign of Emperor A fourth version placed her during the reign of Emperor Xiaowen (467-499) of the Northern Wei dynasty.Xiaowen (467-499) of the Northern Wei dynasty.

1212

Women Commanders of Han origin: Women Commanders of Han origin: Hua Mulan (2)Hua Mulan (2)

All accounts agree that she All accounts agree that she was born into a sergeant’s family, was born into a sergeant’s family, received her military training from her father who had retired received her military training from her father who had retired from the army.from the army.

When he was recalled he was too old and her brother was too When he was recalled he was too old and her brother was too young so she disguised herself as a man, bought a horse and young so she disguised herself as a man, bought a horse and saddle and went in her father’s place.saddle and went in her father’s place.

She served for 12 years, was promoted and rewarded several She served for 12 years, was promoted and rewarded several times after many victories; the court wanted to promote her to times after many victories; the court wanted to promote her to the position of general but she asked for a camel to return the position of general but she asked for a camel to return home.home.

There are two versions to the end of her story – when the court There are two versions to the end of her story – when the court found out that she was a woman the emperor ordered her into found out that she was a woman the emperor ordered her into the palace to serve as an imperial concubine and she committed the palace to serve as an imperial concubine and she committed suicide; the other version is that she married a general.suicide; the other version is that she married a general.– A temple was built in Wan village and every year on her A temple was built in Wan village and every year on her

birthday there is a ceremony to remember her.birthday there is a ceremony to remember her.

1313

Women Commanders of Han origin: Women Commanders of Han origin: Liang HongyuLiang Hongyu

Liang Hongyu Liang Hongyu 梁红玉 梁红玉 (ca.1100-1135), lived during (ca.1100-1135), lived during the period between the Northern and Southern Song.the period between the Northern and Southern Song.

Her father was a military commander guarding the Her father was a military commander guarding the borders against the nomadsborders against the nomads and and taught her tactical taught her tactical planning and the use of weapons.planning and the use of weapons.

In 1121, she married a low ranking military officer In 1121, she married a low ranking military officer who later became one of China’s most outstanding who later became one of China’s most outstanding generals. generals.

They lived in military camps with their two sons and They lived in military camps with their two sons and she was able to learn more about the arts of war.she was able to learn more about the arts of war.

She fought all over northern and central china during She fought all over northern and central china during the Jin (Gold) the Jin (Gold) 金 金 invasions and when the Song was invasions and when the Song was defeated.defeated.

1414

Women Commanders of Han origin: Women Commanders of Han origin: Qin LiangyuQin Liangyu

Qin Liangyu Qin Liangyu 秦良玉 秦良玉 (1547-1648) was a general who (1547-1648) was a general who fought against the Manchu invaders at the end of the fought against the Manchu invaders at the end of the Ming dynasty. Ming dynasty.

She was born in Sichuan; her father was a local official She was born in Sichuan; her father was a local official who excelled in both classical Chinese and military who excelled in both classical Chinese and military strategy. strategy.

He educated his children at home and encouraged He educated his children at home and encouraged them to serve in civil and military positions.them to serve in civil and military positions.

She was very intelligent and was her father’s favorite She was very intelligent and was her father’s favorite and was treated equally as the sons; she was married to and was treated equally as the sons; she was married to a military commander who was from a general’s family.a military commander who was from a general’s family.

When her husband died, she was ordered to take his When her husband died, she was ordered to take his former military office and was made military former military office and was made military commander. commander.

She fought past the age of 70. She fought past the age of 70.

1515

Women Warriors as DefendersWomen Warriors as Defenders

Defenders are not professional soldiers but they are Defenders are not professional soldiers but they are forced to defend their cities or homes against bandits or forced to defend their cities or homes against bandits or invaders.invaders.– The most famous woman defender was Xun Guan The most famous woman defender was Xun Guan 旬灌 旬灌

who lived in the Jin who lived in the Jin 晋 晋 Dynasty (265-420) in Henan.Dynasty (265-420) in Henan.– She was the descendant of a famous general in Wei of She was the descendant of a famous general in Wei of

the Three Kingdoms and had begun military training at the Three Kingdoms and had begun military training at a very young age.a very young age.

– Her father had also been a general and had the title of Her father had also been a general and had the title of the Grand Defender of a city which was surrounded by the Grand Defender of a city which was surrounded by a rebellious troop.a rebellious troop.

– All his sons were scholars with no military skills.All his sons were scholars with no military skills.– The daughter, Xun Guan, at the age of 13 led several The daughter, Xun Guan, at the age of 13 led several

dozens of warrior at midnight and broke out of the dozens of warrior at midnight and broke out of the encirclement of the rebels.encirclement of the rebels.

1616

Women Leaders of Peasants’ UprisingsWomen Leaders of Peasants’ Uprisings

The first known woman leader of a peasant uprising was The first known woman leader of a peasant uprising was Lü Mu Lü Mu 吕母吕母 ; who lived during the late Western Han (206-; who lived during the late Western Han (206-24BCE) in Shandong.24BCE) in Shandong.

Her family was very rich and her son had been an official Her family was very rich and her son had been an official in charge of local public security .in charge of local public security .

She had no military training but led an uprising against She had no military training but led an uprising against the county governor to avenge the wrongful execution of the county governor to avenge the wrongful execution of her son for a minor offense. her son for a minor offense.

She spent 4 years selling all her family’s property, raised She spent 4 years selling all her family’s property, raised an army of hundreds of young people and called herself an army of hundreds of young people and called herself the general.the general.

She treated her army well and they did not loot so more She treated her army well and they did not loot so more peasants joined her and the army grew to 10,000 persons.peasants joined her and the army grew to 10,000 persons.

She attacked, captured the governor, and killed him and She attacked, captured the governor, and killed him and offered his head in sacrifice to her son. offered his head in sacrifice to her son.

A year later (18 C.E.), a larger peasant uprising called the A year later (18 C.E.), a larger peasant uprising called the “red eyebrows “red eyebrows 赤眉”赤眉” arose and her army worked with arose and her army worked with them and she is sometimes given the credit as having them and she is sometimes given the credit as having caused the rebellions that destroyed the Han empire in the caused the rebellions that destroyed the Han empire in the year 24.year 24.

1717

Women Leaders of Peasants’ Uprisings Women Leaders of Peasants’ Uprisings (2)(2)

Chen Shuozhen Chen Shuozhen 陈硕贞 陈硕贞 was the first and only Chinese was the first and only Chinese woman who declared herself Emperor after launching a woman who declared herself Emperor after launching a peasant rebellion.peasant rebellion.– She lived during the early Tang Dynasty and was an She lived during the early Tang Dynasty and was an

ordinary farmer with no military training.ordinary farmer with no military training.– She and her brother-in-law, Zhang Shuyin She and her brother-in-law, Zhang Shuyin 张叔胤张叔胤 , said , said

that she had ascended into heaven and had become that she had ascended into heaven and had become immortal and had returned to correct wrongs in the immortal and had returned to correct wrongs in the society.society.

– She called herself Wen Jia Emperor She called herself Wen Jia Emperor 文佳皇帝 文佳皇帝 and and organized her own court.organized her own court.

– She had an army of 40,000-50,000 persons and occupied She had an army of 40,000-50,000 persons and occupied many areas in western Zhejiang and southern Anhui many areas in western Zhejiang and southern Anhui provinces.provinces.

– Eventually, she and her brother-in-law were captured and Eventually, she and her brother-in-law were captured and executed.executed.

1818

Women Fighters in the Late Qing: Women Fighters in the Late Qing: The Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion 太平天国 太平天国

When the rebellion started against the Qing dynasty (1851) When the rebellion started against the Qing dynasty (1851) entire family members, old and young, men and women entire family members, old and young, men and women participated in the uprising.participated in the uprising.

In the beginning, between 2-3,000 women took part out of a In the beginning, between 2-3,000 women took part out of a total of 20,000 persons but by the time they arrived at the total of 20,000 persons but by the time they arrived at the capital, there were 500,000 women – 40 women armies. capital, there were 500,000 women – 40 women armies. – Women participated directly in battles; some wore men’s Women participated directly in battles; some wore men’s

clothing, some painted their foreheads red or wrapped their clothing, some painted their foreheads red or wrapped their heads with red cloths.heads with red cloths.

– At the beginning women were always put at the front; many At the beginning women were always put at the front; many Qing soldiers were so puzzled by the appearance of these Qing soldiers were so puzzled by the appearance of these colorful women that they giggled and stopped fighting.colorful women that they giggled and stopped fighting.

1919

Women Fighters in the Late Qing: Women Fighters in the Late Qing: The The Boxer RebellionBoxer Rebellion 义和团 义和团

The female leaders who fought in the Boxer Movement The female leaders who fought in the Boxer Movement showed strong leadership in organizing and commanding showed strong leadership in organizing and commanding armies; many relied on religion to mobilize their armies; many relied on religion to mobilize their followers.followers.– Most had military training and knowledge but came Most had military training and knowledge but came

from poor peasant families.from poor peasant families.– The most active was the young women’s group, aged The most active was the young women’s group, aged

between 12 and 18 – some were as young as 8 or 9.between 12 and 18 – some were as young as 8 or 9.– They trained with swords.They trained with swords.– They joined in burning foreign buildings and killing They joined in burning foreign buildings and killing

foreigners in Tianjin.foreigners in Tianjin. A prominent leader, A prominent leader, 林黑儿林黑儿 , had learned martial arts as a , had learned martial arts as a

child and was an entertainer; she was eventually captured child and was an entertainer; she was eventually captured and executed.and executed.

2020

Women Fighters in the Late Qing: Women Fighters in the Late Qing: 1911 Revolution1911 Revolution

Women participated in the 1911 revolution – against Women participated in the 1911 revolution – against the Qing dynasty – for a short time and in limited the Qing dynasty – for a short time and in limited scale.scale.– Many were young and educated.Many were young and educated.– When the revolution was won, men were given key When the revolution was won, men were given key

positions but women were not given any important positions but women were not given any important responsibilities.responsibilities.

– The women were disappointed and frustrated.The women were disappointed and frustrated. Around 1926, the were women cadets in the Around 1926, the were women cadets in the

Huangpu Military Academy Huangpu Military Academy 黃埔軍校黃埔軍校 ((1924 to 1927) 1924 to 1927) that was headed by Chiang Kai-shek.that was headed by Chiang Kai-shek.

2121

Recent History of female participation:Recent History of female participation: Anti-Japanese War Anti-Japanese War

During the Anti-Japanese war, women were guerrilla During the Anti-Japanese war, women were guerrilla fighters, arsonists, assassins, bomb makers, leaders fighters, arsonists, assassins, bomb makers, leaders in uprisings, and defenders.in uprisings, and defenders.– Their age range was from 9-60.Their age range was from 9-60.– They participated in direct combat, They participated in direct combat,

reconnaissance, logistic and medical support.reconnaissance, logistic and medical support.– Some women were put in gender segregated units Some women were put in gender segregated units

and were assigned to combat support such as and were assigned to combat support such as nursing, cooking, and uniform manufacture. nursing, cooking, and uniform manufacture.

Male commanders tried to keep women out of regular Male commanders tried to keep women out of regular combat units except when the troops were loosing combat units except when the troops were loosing then the women would be assigned to cover the main then the women would be assigned to cover the main army’s escape.army’s escape.

Women suffered the heaviest casualties in this war Women suffered the heaviest casualties in this war compared to other wars.compared to other wars.

2222

Recent History of female participation:Recent History of female participation:TThe Red Armyhe Red Army

In the early years of the communist movement (1927-35) In the early years of the communist movement (1927-35) there were many women serving in combat and non-combat there were many women serving in combat and non-combat roles.roles.

At least 20,000 women took part in military operations in At least 20,000 women took part in military operations in 12 bases.12 bases.

It is estimated that 2,600 women participated on the Long It is estimated that 2,600 women participated on the Long MarchMarch 长征长征 ::– Some were revolutionaries and were escaping capture.Some were revolutionaries and were escaping capture.– Some were wives, sisters, daughters, or nieces of Some were wives, sisters, daughters, or nieces of

Communists.Communists.– Some were teen-agers escaping their abusive “in-law” Some were teen-agers escaping their abusive “in-law”

families into which they had been sold.families into which they had been sold.– Some were avoiding arranged marriages.Some were avoiding arranged marriages.– Some were running away from starvation.Some were running away from starvation.

There were another 8,000 who worked at jobs such as There were another 8,000 who worked at jobs such as carriers, tailors, and laundry workers.carriers, tailors, and laundry workers.

2323

Recent History of female participation:Recent History of female participation:The The People’s Liberation Army (PLA)People’s Liberation Army (PLA)

Today, most do not have to serve in the military although Today, most do not have to serve in the military although all young men and women, 18 and over, are supposed to all young men and women, 18 and over, are supposed to serve.serve.

Women who serve spend about the amount of time in the Women who serve spend about the amount of time in the service as men:service as men:– an average of 2 years for the army, an average of 2 years for the army, – 4 for the navy and 4 for the navy and – 3 for the air force.3 for the air force.

Career women serve longer than the enlisted – they Career women serve longer than the enlisted – they served up to 30 years.served up to 30 years.

In 1994 there were 240,000 women serving in the PLA, In 1994 there were 240,000 women serving in the PLA, 8% of the military personnel.8% of the military personnel.

More women serve in the army and in the headquarters.More women serve in the army and in the headquarters.

2424

Recent History of female Recent History of female participation:participation:

The People’s Liberation Army (2)The People’s Liberation Army (2) Most women serve in traditional female roles such as Most women serve in traditional female roles such as

medical workers, administrative personnel, medical workers, administrative personnel, communications specialists, logistic support staff, political communications specialists, logistic support staff, political and propaganda workers, scientific researchers and and propaganda workers, scientific researchers and technicians.technicians.

Enlisted women serve as switchboard operators, typists, Enlisted women serve as switchboard operators, typists, map makers or data entry personnel.map makers or data entry personnel.

Most career soldiers work as nurses; in 1990, 70.6% of Most career soldiers work as nurses; in 1990, 70.6% of career soldiers were nurses.career soldiers were nurses.

By the end of 1992, there were 290 female pilots; none By the end of 1992, there were 290 female pilots; none had been assigned to combat although some were test had been assigned to combat although some were test pilots.pilots.

2525

Recent History of female participation:Recent History of female participation:The The Chinese Nationalist (Taiwan) ArmyChinese Nationalist (Taiwan) Army

Women had participated in the Anti-Japanese War.Women had participated in the Anti-Japanese War. Almost all modern women went through military Almost all modern women went through military

training and have professional skills.training and have professional skills. They played supportive roles in the armed forces.They played supportive roles in the armed forces. Some participated in combat.Some participated in combat. About 1,500 serve in the military, most are career About 1,500 serve in the military, most are career

personnel.personnel.

Late Imperial China and the Women’s Late Imperial China and the Women’s MovementMovement

Readings:Readings:– Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in China, Schocken Croll, Elisabeth, Feminism and Socialism in China, Schocken

Books, New York, 1980, Ch. 2 & 3.Books, New York, 1980, Ch. 2 & 3.– Fangqin Du and Susan Mann, “Competing Claims on Womanly Fangqin Du and Susan Mann, “Competing Claims on Womanly

Virtue in Late Imperial China” in Women in Confucian Cultures Virtue in Late Imperial China” in Women in Confucian Cultures in Pre-modern China, Korea and Japan.in Pre-modern China, Korea and Japan.

– Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers, ed., Women and Chinese Maria Jaschok and Suzanne Miers, ed., Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape.Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape.

– Leutner, Mechthild and Spakowski, eds., “Leutner, Mechthild and Spakowski, eds., “Women’s Campaign Women’s Campaign for Suffrage in China: An Overviewfor Suffrage in China: An Overview” in ” in Women in China, the Women in China, the Republican PeriodRepublican Period, 2005., 2005.

– Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change of Women's Li, Yuhui Li, ‘Women's Movement and Change of Women's Status in China”, in Journal of International Women’s Studies, Status in China”, in Journal of International Women’s Studies, April 03, 2001. April 03, 2001.

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