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Vocabulary teaching and learning Incidental vs. Explicit learning of

vocabulary Depth of Processing Hypothesis (DOPH) (Taxonomies of) Vocabulary learning

strategies (Memory strategies, e.g. the Keyword

technique, using mental images) Guessing word meaning from the context Selecting, recording and revising vocabulary

Relevant research studies

DiscussionDiscussion

1.1. What is meant by “incidental” and What is meant by “incidental” and “explicit” vocabulary learning?“explicit” vocabulary learning?

2.2. What do you think are the advantages What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches?and disadvantages of these approaches?

3.3. What kind of words do you think should What kind of words do you think should be learnt explicitly? be learnt explicitly?

4.4.   Given the limitations of both Given the limitations of both approaches, what do you think is the approaches, what do you think is the best approach to adopt in vocabulary best approach to adopt in vocabulary teaching and learning?teaching and learning?

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Incidental learning of vocabulary Natural exposure to language (through

listening or reading) Upside: useful for revisiting / consolidating

words learnt before; improve “depth” of vocab knowledge; develop intuition for collocation

Downside: massive amount of input required; intention to remember the language is usually absent

To be accompanied by vocabulary-focussed exercises / quizzes / glosses

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Can incidental learning of vocabulary (alone) lead to gains in vocabulary size (quantity) and vocabulary knowledge (quality)??? A few pre-requisites

L2 vocabulary size (95% coverage of texts)

Knowledge about how to guess word meaning from context

Reading / Listening material must be rich in contextual clues

Some instruction is needed

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Vocabulary size and text coverage

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Pre-requisite for incidental learning of vocabulary Before learners can begin learning a language

through reading texts intended for adult native speakers, they need a threshold size of 3000-5000 word families.

Target Cumulative target

KS1 (Pri 3) 1000 1000 KS2 (Pri 6) 1000 2000 KS3 (Sec 3) 1500 3500 KS4 (Sec 6) 1500 5000

Words that students should learn Words that students should learn explicitlyexplicitly

First 2,000 words 80% of text coverage

First 2,000 words + AWL 90% of text coverage

First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab 95% of text coverage of a text that a student

would typically read First 2,000 words + AWL + Technical vocab

+ most frequently used prefixes, roots and suffixes

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Most frequently used Most frequently used prefixesprefixes

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Graded readers Promises

Fun; pleasurable Increase exposure to language; increase

comprehension Exercises help practice new vocabulary and

grammar Graded: according to number of

headwords (from most needed by students); word frequencies; length

Resource package: exercises and keys; ideas on how the readers can be used

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Explicit (Deliberate) learning of vocabulary Attention directly focused on

learning of vocabulary

Upside: greatest chance for acquisition

Downside: time consuming; laborious

A balanced approach to A balanced approach to vocabulary teaching vocabulary teaching

(Nation, 2008)*(Nation, 2008)* Each component should take up a Each component should take up a quarter of the curriculum:quarter of the curriculum:

*Chapter One, Nation, I.S. P. (2008). *Chapter One, Nation, I.S. P. (2008). Teaching Teaching vocabulary: Strategies and techniquesvocabulary: Strategies and techniques. Boston: Heinle . Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning.Cengage Learning.

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Depth of Processing Hypothesis (DOPH)Deeper analysis of stimulus More persistent memory trace Better recall

Shallow and Deep language learning activities:

Can you think of some examples of vocab learning strategies that would involve shallow processing and strategies that would involve deeper processing?

Shallow vs Deep Shallow vs Deep ProcessingProcessing

Considered to be shallow:Considered to be shallow: Rote memorisation of word listsRote memorisation of word lists Verbal / written repeititionVerbal / written repeitition

Considered to be deeper:Considered to be deeper: Contextual guessingContextual guessing Association / GroupingAssociation / Grouping Using newly learnt words in speaking / Using newly learnt words in speaking /

writing (activation of newly learnt words)writing (activation of newly learnt words)

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Vocabulary Learning Strategies

Important for independent learning of low-frequency words

It is important to use a range of strategies The quality of strategy use counts for more

than the quantity of strategies used It is important to choose strategies flexibly

and appropriately according to context Strategies can be taught and weaker

learners can benefit from strategy training

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Taxonomy of VLS by Schmitt (1997) Taxonomy of Language Learning Strategies (LLS) by O’Malley &

Chamot, 1990: cognitive, metacognitive, socio-affective Oxford’s (1990) LLS taxonomy – direct (memory, cognitive,

compensation) and indirect (metacognitive, affective, social) Nation (1990) – discovery vs consolidation strategies Schmitt’s (1997) VLS taxonomy: (1) Discovery: discovering the meaning of unknown words

Determination strategies (finding meaning without recourse to others) Social strategies (consulting or working with others to discover meaning)

(2) Consolidation: remembering words once their meaning has been discovered Social strategies Memory strategies (mnemonics) Cognitive strategies (similar to memory, but without the use of

mnemonics) Metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring, evaluation of learning)

Schmitt (1997)Schmitt (1997) 600 Japanese EFL college learners (junior high 600 Japanese EFL college learners (junior high

school / high school / university / adult ss)school / high school / university / adult ss) preferred using preferred using the bilingual dictionary to discover the bilingual dictionary to discover

meaning of wordsmeaning of words Preferred verbal and written repetition (mechanical Preferred verbal and written repetition (mechanical

rehearsals) to remember the meaningsrehearsals) to remember the meanings As the Japanese learners matured, they tended to As the Japanese learners matured, they tended to

move away from shallow, mechanical repetition move away from shallow, mechanical repetition such as word lists and flash cards to deeper mental such as word lists and flash cards to deeper mental processing such as word association strategiesprocessing such as word association strategies

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Nation’s (2001) Nation’s (2001) TaxonomyTaxonomyGeneral class of

strategiesTypes of strategies

Planning: choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it

Choosing words to focus on

Choosing aspects of word knowledge to focus on

Choosing appropriate strategies to use and when to switch to another strategy

Planning repetition (increasingly spaced repetition)Sources: finding information about the words

Analysing word parts

Using the context

Consulting a reference source in L1 and L2 (e.g. dictionaries, glosses, concordancers)

Comparing similarities and differences in L1 and L2 words (e.g. cognate words)

Processes: establishing knowledge

Noticing (seeing a word as an item to be learnt, e.g. keeping a notebook, using word cards, written and verbal repetition)

Retrieving (recall of previously learnt/met items, e.g. meeting a word in a new context, covering parts of a word recorded in a notebook)

Generating (generation of word knowledge, e.g. using a word in new contexts across the 4 skills, speaking, reading, writing or listening) 17

VLS research on Chinese learners

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VLS research on Chinese learners

Gu and Johnson (1996) -- China VLS and learning outcomes (vocab size and lg prof)

Gu (2002) -- China VLS and vocab size, lg prof, gender, academic major

Gu (2003) -- China VLS of two successful EFL learners (selected from 11 learners who

carried out “think-aloud” during a reading task, and were interviewed afterwards; the notes they took during the reading task were studied)

Wei (2007) -- China VLS and gender, major, lg prof (self-reported), problems in vocab

learning Liao (2004) -- Taiwan

VLS and major Fan (2003) -- HK

Use of VLS (questionnaire – frequency of use & perceived usefulness)

Wu (2008) -- HK LLS in vocational colleges

Some conclusions based on Some conclusions based on these studiesthese studies

Positive correlation between strategy use and Positive correlation between strategy use and language proficiency / learning outcomeslanguage proficiency / learning outcomes

Successful learners use a wider range of Successful learners use a wider range of strategies, use deeper processing strategies, strategies, use deeper processing strategies, and use strategies more skillfully / flexiblyand use strategies more skillfully / flexibly

Importance of self-initiation, selective Importance of self-initiation, selective attention, guessing word meaning, activation of attention, guessing word meaning, activation of newly learned wordsnewly learned words

ManagementManagement, , activation of newly learnt /known activation of newly learnt /known wordswords, , associationassociation, and , and social social strategiesstrategies seem seem under-used by Asian learnersunder-used by Asian learners

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The positive effect of VLS trainingThe positive effect of VLS trainingStrategies that were reported to be used Strategies that were reported to be used significantly more frequently at the end significantly more frequently at the end

of the courseof the course

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Analyze the word parts that make up the word *

Analyze any available pictures or gestures

Use (dental/medical) word lists*

Use flash cards

Create or use a visual image about the word in my mind*

Group words using a mind map*

*Strategies introduced in the English (EAP) course for Dentistry students

Source: Loong Y & Chan S W L, A Study of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Adopted by Dentistry Students in Hong Kong In Learning Specialized Dental Vocabulary, September 2012, Asian ESP Journal

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Guessing strategies

Find the part of speech Identify familiar parts Examine immediate context Examine wider context Guess the meaning Check the guess

Answers Arduous – difficult / tiring Affability – friendliness Saunter – walk slowly Boisterous – noisy / energetic Squander – spend in a wasteful way Weave – make cloth Remuneration – payment Dusk – early evening Toil – work very hard

Selecting vocabulary to Selecting vocabulary to focus onfocus on

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Recording vocabulary Take note of newly learnt words Semantic relations between newly

learnt words and their antonyms or synonyms

Newly learnt words and their collocations

Verb forms (irregular verbs) Nouns (countable/ uncountable) POS Drawing

Revising vocabularyRevising vocabulary Plan for “spaced repetition”Plan for “spaced repetition” Follow a particular topic reported in the media over a few Follow a particular topic reported in the media over a few

days, e.g. reading about the development of an issue on the days, e.g. reading about the development of an issue on the Internet or in newspapers over a few days so that you keep Internet or in newspapers over a few days so that you keep meeting the same words or synonyms of these wordsmeeting the same words or synonyms of these words

Use quizzes to test yourself regularlyUse quizzes to test yourself regularly Revise the words recorded in your vocabulary notebook or Revise the words recorded in your vocabulary notebook or

cards regularly (e.g. cover up the word or definition and test cards regularly (e.g. cover up the word or definition and test yourself)yourself)

Try to use the words you learnt before, e.g. by writing Try to use the words you learnt before, e.g. by writing sentences or paragraphs using these wordssentences or paragraphs using these words

Ask a friend to test you / practice using words you learnt Ask a friend to test you / practice using words you learnt before with a friendbefore with a friend

Others??Others??

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