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Urban PatternsDefining “Urban”Models of Urban StructureSocial Area AnalysisUrban Patterns in Europe & Latin AmericaUrban Problems

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Defining Cities

We can define cities in two different ways: Based on the social character of cities – the ways in which life in cities differs from life in rural places.

Based on physical or legal criteria.

Terms: “City” vs. Town There is no universally agreed on difference between

a “city” and a “town.” In some countries cities have to meet certain criteria

(e.g. have a cathedral, have a population of over 50,000, etc.)

In others “cities” are legal entities, while “towns” aren’t.

In the US, definitions vary from state to state. For example:

In California “town” and “city” are synonymous. The only legal distinction are between “incorporated” towns and “unincorporated” towns.

In New York a “town” is a division of a county (and provides some services apart from the county), while a “city” is an incorporated entity.

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4Defining Urban Settlements:Social Definitions

In the 1930s sociologist Louis Wirth discussed how city life differs from life in non-urban places: SIZE & SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS: Cities are

bigger than non-urban places – which means that in cities, you spend much of your time with strangers. Your relations with people you work with are mostly legal or contractual, not personal.

DENSITY & SPECIALIZATION: People in cities tend to specialize – otherwise competition for jobs and money becomes overwhelming.

HETEROGENEITY & FREEDOM: People in cities are far more diverse – behaviors or customs that would be socially unacceptable in a rural area are tolerated in cities.

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“An urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit.”

Legal definitions vary from country to country: US – 2,500 persons South Africa – 500 persons India – 5,000 persons with an adult

population predominantly in non-agricultural work.

Defining Cities:Legal Definitions

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URBANIZED AREA: “The central city and the

surrounding built-up suburbs … where population density exceeds 1,000 persons per square mile.”

The physical city – the visible city.

METROPOLITAN AREA: The “zone of influence” of a city;

the functional city.

Defining Urban Settlements:Physical Definitions

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Since 1949 the Census Bureau has used a method for measuring and comparing the functional areas of cities — the Metropolitan Statistical Area.

The exact definition of an MSA has varied over time.

Today an MSA is defined as A central city with a

population of at least 50,000.

The county within which the city is located.

Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city’s county.

Defining Urban Settlements:Metropolitan Statistical Areas

For more information see: http://www.census.gov/population/www/metroareas/metroarea.html

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“MSA” — An Example

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“CMSA” — Beyond the MSA

Overlapping MSAs are combined into Consolidated MSAs.

An MSA within a CMSA that has more than one million people is a Primary MSA.

Terms: Core Based Statistical Area

“A metro area contains a core urban area of 50,000 or more population, and a micro area contains an urban core of at least 10,000 (but less than 50,000) population.

“Each metro or micro area consists of one or more counties and includes the counties containing the core urban area, as well as any adjacent counties that have a high degree of social and economic integration (as measured by commuting to work) with the urban core.”

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For more information see: http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/aboutmetro.html;Map source: http://www.census.gov/geo/www/maps/msa_maps2009/us_wall_1209.html

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Clarifying:CBSA – MSA vs. mSA

Since 2000 the Census Bureau has used the “Core Based Statistical Area” or CBSA classification scheme.

Under the CBSA standard there are two kinds of MSA:

METROPOLITAN statistical areas

MICROPOLITAN statistical areas.

A CBSA consists of one or more counties with a central city with a population of at least 10,000:

If the population is more than 50,000, it’s metropolitan.

If it’s between 10,000 and 50,000 it’s micropolitan.

There are at least 369 metropolitan, 576 micropolitan areas, and 125 “Combined Statistical Areas” in the US today.

For more information see: http://www.census.gov/population/www/estimates/aboutmetro.html

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US Metropolitan & Micropolitan Areas

Source: http://www.census.gov/geo/www/maps/msa_maps2009/msa2009_previews_html/cbsa_us_wall_1209.html

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The Central Business District

The central business district (CBD or downtown) is usually the best known and most distinctive area of a city.

Characteristics of the CBD: Compact area. High land costs. Intensive land use.

Historically, services tend to cluster in the CBD.

Skyline, Charlotte NC

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The CBD: Charlotte, NC

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Services in the CBD Consumer services:

High threshold services (people have to travel a relatively long distance)

High range services (expensive or unusual services)

Downtown worker services Business services:

Producer services (financial, legal, and other services cluster in the CBD for greater efficiency)

Public services (government)

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Activities Excluded from the CBD

Manufacturing Though important at one time, land

costs and improved transportation have meant that manufacturing – except in rare cases – has moved out of the CBD.

Residential High land costs mean that few people

actually can live in the CBD. Rents are simply unaffordable.

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Models of Internal City Structure

Starting in the 20th Century, social scientists began to try to create models — simplified representations of reality — to understand how cities function.

There are three popular models of North American city structure that are widely used and discussed.

Each has problems; none accurately describes how any particular city actually works — but the models are still useful because they give us insights into how cities grow and function.

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Three Models Concentric

Zone Model Oldest (1923) Postulates a

series of concentric rings of decreasing land value surrounding the Central Business District (CBD)

Sector Model Pre World War II (1939) Incorporates linear and

transport corridors Continued emphasis on

CBD Multiple Nuclei

Model Post World War II

(1945) Multiple “centers of

attraction” Less emphasis on a

single CBD

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Concentric Zone Model

The “Inner City”

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Sector Model

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Multiple Nuclei Model

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Social Area Analysis None of the three models is perfect –

they are simplified, not “real.” However, the test of a model is

whether or not it’s useful – can we use the three models – individually or in combination – to make predictions about cities?

Maybe – some patterns (family size, income, ethnicity) can be predicted using the models.

Social Area Analysis: Using the Models?

Urban areas of the US are divided by the Census Bureau into census tracts – compact areas with about 5,000 residents each.

Using census tract-level data, social and economic characteristics can be mapped, and patterns seen – maybe!

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Models Outside North America

None of the three models developed for North America are very useful in other parts of the world: Europe

In Europe the wealthy tend to live in or near the center of town.

The poor tend to be concentrated in “slum suburbs.” Less Developed Countries

As in Europe, there tend to be “slum suburbs” and a wealthy center.

Most cities in LDCs have also been affected by colonialism

Latin American cities often have a distinctive “elite spine.”

Most cities in LDCs have extensive squatter settlements in and around them.

Europe’s CBDs More people choose to live in the

CBD in Europe than in the US. Shopping, restaurants and

entertainment cluster in and near the CBD. Pedestrian (and bicycle) friendly environments are common.

European CBDs tend to be less dominated by large businesses, and usually have large areas that have been preserved, and there are fewer high-rise buildings.

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Source: http://philip.greenspun.com/images/200101-d30-paris/rue-cler-fruit-market.half.jpg

Urban Models in Europe? According to your

book, this map shows an “elite” sector extending out from the CBD.

According to your book you can see “concentric zones” of residential poverty here (it is true that European cities often have “elite centers” and “slum suburbs.”)

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27Europe: Professional Centers, Slum (or at least poor) Suburbs

Wealthy Europeans tend to live in (or near) city centers.

Many also own suburban or rural houses – and weekend traffic is frequently terrible as they go to and from the country.

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Precolonial vs. Postcolonial Cities: Fez, Morocco

Most major cities in the LDCs have gone through three periods: pre-European colonial, colonial, and post-colonial development.

Fez, in Morocco, is unique in that the French built the “New Town” next to the “Old Town.”

The differences between the two include: Street layout and size. Public squares and open spaces. Density.

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A Colonial City:Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Unlike Fez, in Ho Chi Minh City, the French completely destroyed the original city and replaced it.

Note the similar street layout in Fez’s “New Town.”

Spanish Colonial Cities Spanish colonial cities were built

to a standard plan under “The Laws of the Indies”: “… the town … must … be in an

elevated and healthy location; [have] means of fortification; [have] fertile soil and … plenty of land for farming … [have] fresh water, a native population, ease of transport, access and exit …

“[Colonists] shall try as far as possible to have the buildings all of one type for the sake of the beauty of the town…”

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31The Latin America City Model

This model was originally developed here at San Diego State University! Yay!

Note that it combines elements of the Sector and Concentric Zone models.

Note the zone of squatter settlements and the elite spine.

32Urban Problems: Fragmentation -Too Many Governments?

In many parts of the US, there has been an explosion in local governmental bodies – neighborhood councils, elementary school districts, high school districts, community college districts, fire districts, irrigation districts, flood-control districts, sewage districts, parks and recreation districts, sheriff districts, library district, mosquito abatement district, etc.

Many cities are now surrounded by independent suburbs – communities that are not legally part of the central city.

Many communities overlap dozens – sometimes hundreds – of these different districts and bodies.

This overlapping makes it hard for cities in the US to deal with their problems.

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Chicago: Historical Annexation

Chicago grew rapidly in the 19th and early 20th centuries through annexation.

Today, Chicago (and most other cities) are surrounded by independent cities – who generally do not want to become part of large cities.

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Annexation Today

Jefferson City, Missourihttp://www.jeffcitymo.org/jeffcityweb.nsf/DeptLinksView/CityAnnexation

Austin, Texashttp://www.ci.austin.tx.us/annexation/

San Diego: Independent Suburbs

San Diego county has a total of 18 cities within its borders:

1. Carlsbad2. Chula Vista3. Coronado4. Del Mar5. El Cajon6. Encinitas7. Escondido8. Imperial Beach9. La Mesa10. Lemon Grove11. National City12. Oceanside13. Poway14. San Diego15. San Marcos16. Santee17. Solana Beach18. Vista

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Source: http://www.211sandiego.org/Cities-Reporting

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Local Government Fragmentation: Solutions?

Metropolitan Governments An association of local governments – council of

governments – designed to coordinate activities in an urban area.

Usually not designed to replace other bodies – generally assists with planning – often involved with smart growth initiatives.

Usually not elected (Example: SANDAG). Federations

A separate regional government – above local cities – that can make planning decisions and even impose decisions about land use.

Usually elected (Example: Portland OR). Consolidations

In some areas cities have legally consolidated – combined governmental bodies together.

Usually elected (Example: Miami-Dade County FL).

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Problems of “Inner Cities” Instead of squatter settlements

and slum suburbs, in North America areas of poverty are often concentrated in the inner city – the area surrounding the CBD.

North American inner cities suffer from physical, social and economic problems.

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Inner City Challenges: Social Problems

Most people who live in inner cities are there because they can’t afford to go anywhere else – they are poor! “The Underclass” Inadequate job skills The culture of poverty

Single parent families Crime & drugs Ethnic and racial segregation Inadequate housing Homelessness

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Inner City Challenges: Economic Problems

Poor people and poor housing mean that inner cities have enormous needs – and no money to pay for them.

Cities have two choices when it comes to paying for services they can’t afford:

Reduce services (disastrous in areas that are already hurting).

Raise taxes (disastrous in areas that already find it hard to bring people and businesses to the area).

Other solutions have been tried: Annexation (taking over land outside the city, thereby

expanding the tax base – this once was feasible, but in most areas it isn’t any longer).

State and Federal contributions (loans and grants).

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Inner City Challenges: Physical Problems

The major physical problem of the inner cities is the poor condition of the housing.

DETERIORATION “Filtering” – large, old single-family homes become multi-family

apartments – without upgrading the facilities. Eventually, as the facilities become worse and worse, they are abandoned.

Redlining & Blockbusting – illegal processes designed to concentrate ethnicities in ghettos – where services are few and it is impossible to get loans to improve property.

URBAN RENEWAL In theory, a process of replacing deteriorated housing with

public housing. Although public housing has been successful in some places, in

others it has been a brutal nightmare. Gentrification – rather than tear down deteriorated housing, in

some places it has been renovated – but the poor who once lived in the neighborhood can’t afford new renovated housing, and are forced to move.

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Public Housing

The Robert Taylor Homes in Chicago, completed in 1962, was the largest single public housing project in the world – 28 sixteen story buildings and nearly 30,000 people.

Because of a combination of factors – poor planning, lack of opportunity, crime, etc. – all of the 28 buildings have been demolished and the area is being redeveloped.

Sources: http://www.robsherman.com/information/report/2004/CHA.htm; http://www.route99.org/fundraising.html; http://www.illinoisleader.com/spotlight/spotlightview.asp?c=4404;http://www.lpb.org/programs/forest/chicago.html

Public Housing:Pruitt-Igoe

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http://www.pruitt-igoe.com/

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Gentrification Gentrification is a kind of

renovation – buildings that have decayed, been abandoned, or are being repurposed (from industrial to residential) are turned into desirable homes.

Gentrification can be beneficial – and controversial, if lower-income people are forced to leave their neighborhood because it’s become too expensive for them.

Adapted from: http://media.www.lewisflyer.com/media/storage/paper638/news/2005/04/25/News/Gentrification.Stirs.Issues-935125.shtml

Gentrification:Brooklyn

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http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16827855

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The Growth of Suburbs The suburban population of the US has

grown enormously in the past 50 years – much faster than the overall population growth rate. About 50% of all Americans now live in suburbs – and their popularity is extremely high (90% of people polled say they prefer suburbs to inner cities).

At the same time, the percentage of people living in central cities has declined. About 30% of all Americans now live in central cities.

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The Peripheral Model

Around the central city is the suburban residential and business area, circled by a beltway.

Around the beltway are business nodes – edge cities (and of course – malls!)

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Problems of Suburbs Sprawl: “… the

progressive spread of development over the landscape.”

Problems caused by sprawl include:

Costs of extending services;

Loss of agricultural land;

Dependence on the automobile (and a lack of public transportation).

Segregation Physical segregation

from work Social segregation

By age By family structure By race By income By social class

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Zoning Since the 19th Century

(and especially since New York’s ordinances of 1916) cities, counties and States in the US have used zoning to limit and control land use and development.

Zoning controversies: Sprawl Segregation Property rights

issuesSource: http://www.greatergreenville.com/development/zoning_districts.htm

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Suburbanization of Businesses

Many businesses have moved out of the CBD into the suburbs.

Reasons for moving to peripheral locations include land costs and accessibility.

Types of businesses that have moved to the suburbs: Manufacturing (industrial parks,

factories that need large amounts of land)

Business services (in locations with easy access)

Retailing The major malls of Columbus

OH

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The Mall of America• The Mall of America, in

Bloomington MN– 4.2 million square feet – More than 520 stores– 20 sit-down restaurants– 30 fast food restaurants– 36 specialty food stores– 8 nightclubs– 14 movie screens– 11,000 employees– 12,550 parking spaces– Attractions include Nickelodeon

Universe®, Underwater Adventures® Aquarium, LEGO® Imagination Center, Dinosaur Walk Museum, A.C.E.S. Flight Simulation, NASCAR Silicon Motor Speedway, and The Chapel of Love

– Though it’s big, this is only the 23rd largest mall in the world today.

Sources (4-1-2005): http://www.mallofamerica.com/about_the_mall/mallfacts.aspx; http://www.bloomingtonmn.org/mallofamerica_facts.asp

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The West Edmonton Mall

• The West Edmonton Mall in Alberta Canada is the largest in North America, and the 12th largest mall on earth (the largest is the New South China Mall, at 9.6 million sq. feet).

• Mall facts:– 5.3 million sq. feet– Over 800 stores– 26 movie theaters– 110 restaurants– IMAX 3-D theater

– Over 23,500 employees – Over 20,000 parking spaces– “Galaxyland,” world’s

largest indoor amusement park

– “Ice Palace” hockey rink (“Second Home of the Edmonton Oilers”)

– “Dolphin Lagoon,” home of the world’s largest indoor wave pool

– A life-sized replica of Columbus’ “Santa Maria”

– “Professor Wem’s” 18-hole miniature golf course

– The 24-hour Palace Casino, with 30 table games, 650 slots and bingo.

– The 354 room “Fantasyland Hotel,” featuring 118 “theme rooms” (Hollywood, Igloo, African Safari, etc.)

Source (4-1-2005): http://www.westedmontonmall.com/home/default.asp

52Sprawl: Suburban Development in the US & UK

New housing in the U.K. is likely to be in planned new towns, while in the U.S. growth occurs in discontinuous developments.

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An Alternative to Sprawl: “Smart Growth”

In some parts of the US, steps have been taken to restrict sprawl.

Examples: Maryland Oregon

Smart growth has critics. Since smart growth limits construction, they claim it causes congestion, higher density, higher housing prices, restricts property rights, etc.

Sources: http://www.mdp.state.md.us/pfamap.htm;http://www.northwestwatch.org/press/recent_portsprawl.asp

Smart Growth: Examples

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Source: http://science.nasa.gov/media/medialibrary/2002/10/04/11oct_sprawl_resources/anim_3.gif;http://www.sandag.org/index.asp?projectid=296&fuseaction=projects.detail

Suburban Sprawl:Baltimore 1792-

1992

San Diego Region Smart Growth Concept Map

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UrbanTransportation

Most people in the US travel by motor vehicle (car or truck).

This is usually a matter of personal preference.

It’s also a matter of policy – government subsidizes motor vehicle use and road construction.

In 2001 92% of households had at least one car – and nearly a quarter had three or more.

In 2009 there were more than 254,000,000 cars, trucks and other vehicles registered in the US.

Adapted from: http://www.bts.gov/publications/pocket_guide_to_transportation/2004/html/figure_10.html;http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_01_11.html/;

http://www.forbes.com/2007/06/11/traffic-highways-interstates-biz-logistics_cx_rm_0611traffic.html?partner=autos_newsletter

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Public Transportation in the US

According to the Federal Transit Administration’s “National Transit Summaries and Trends,” there are 5 dominant modes of public transportation in the US: bus, heavy rail, light rail, commuter rail, demand response, and vanpool.

On an average weekday in 2010, US transit systems carried over 35 million riders.

Source: http://www.ntdprogram.com/NTD/NTST/2003/HTMLFiles/2003%20National%20Transit%20Summaries%20and%20Trends.htm; http://www.publictransportation.org/news/facts/Pages/default.aspx

Problems of Public Transit

Most public transit systems have a major problem:

INCREASING FARES: The fare seldom (if ever)

covers all the costs of the service.

The solution is to get more passengers – but that’s not easy.

As fares go up, fewer people use public transit systems.

This means – fares need to go up. And so it goes…

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Sources: http://www.cbs8.com/story/20136422/day-pass-for-mts-buses-rise-2; http://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/MTS-Will-No-Longer-Issue-5-Paper-Day-Passes-179581631.html; http://fox5sandiego.com/2012/11/19/mts-bus-passes-could-cost-more/

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Public Transportation in Europe

In many parts of the world, heavy and light rail systems are tightly integrated.

This makes it easier and more convenient to use public transportation.

In most cities in the US transportation systems are not integrated – which makes it much harder to use them.

Brussels, Belgium

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Cities of the Future

Architects, urban planners, science fiction writers, and the insane have pondered what the urban world of the future is going to look like.

The best guesses are – probably nothing like these!

Victory City

General Motor’s “Futurama,” 1939

"Visionary City," 1908

Sources: http://www.geocities.com/ny1939wf/GMbuilding.html; http://www.yesterdaystomorrows.org/commimage.html ;http://www.victorycities.com/tour/index.html