1 | p a g e · 2014. 11. 27. · kajiado stratum is located in the southern part of kajiado county,...
TRANSCRIPT
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Kibwezi-Kiboko Observatory Baseline Progress Report
June, 2011
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Table of contents
Acronyms and abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 3
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... 4
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 6 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.2 ROSELT/OSS Kenyan Chapter ............................................................................................ 7
1.3 Description of the observatory .............................................................................................. 7
KAJIADO STRATUM ................................................................................................................. 9 2.1 Biophysical characteristics.................................................................................................. 10
2.2 Land –use patterns .............................................................................................................. 24
KIBWEZI STRATUM ................................................................................................................29 3.1 Location .............................................................................................................................. 29
3.2 Topography and Natural Water Resources ......................................................................... 29
3.3 Climate ................................................................................................................................ 29
3.4 Agro-Ecological Zones ....................................................................................................... 31
3.5 Soils..................................................................................................................................... 32
3.6 Vegetation ........................................................................................................................... 34
CHANGES AND TRENDS WITHIN THE OBSERVATORY .......................................................39 4.1 The historical timelines within the observatory .................................................................. 39
4.2 Changes in various resources within the observatory ......................................................... 40
4.3 Timelines for the Mavindini Community in Makueni Stratum .......................................... 41
4.4 Timelines for the Masimba Community in Kajiado stratum .............................................. 49
4.6 Challenges of the observatory ............................................................................................. 63
References ...............................................................................................................................68
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Acronyms and abbreviations
AMREF Africa Medical and Research Foundation
AWF Africa Wildlife Foundation
CCF Christian Children Fund
DNSE National Device of Environmental Monitoring
ECZ Eco-climatic Zone
DOSE Dispositif d‘Observatoire Surveillance Environmental
GIS Global Information Systems
GoK Government of Kenya
ITCZ Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute
MOU Memorandum of Understanding
NAP National Action Programme
NARC National Alliance Rainbow Coalition
OSS L‘Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
ROSELT Réseau d‘Observatoires de Surveillance Ecologique à Long Terme
SEUCO South Eastern University College
TOR Terms of Reference
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Acknowledgements
The implementing partners; l‘Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS) and South Eastern
University College (SEUCO) wish to acknowledge the members of both Organizations for their
invaluable service in carrying out this baseline survey. Special thanks to the Principal (SEUCO)
for his support in the whole process of undertaking the survey. We would also like to thank the
local communities in the Kiboko-Kibwezi Observatory and various government departments for
participating in this exercise and for dedicating their time to providing their invaluable responses
and general support in conducting this study. SEUCO as the host institution would like to
acknowledge the important contribution of OSS in Tunisia for financially supporting this baseline
study.
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Executive Summary
L‘Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS) in collaboration with South Eastern University
College (SEUCO) is undertaking a baseline study of the Kiboko-Kibwezi Observatory to improve
on knowledge and understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the processes of land
degradation, climate change and conservation of biodiversity. This study is part of the
implementation of DNSE Kenya. DNSE is comprised of observatories of environmental
monitoring, representative of major agro-ecological systems of each country which allows for
regular assessment of the driving forces and pressures that act on natural resources.
The main objective of this work was to achieve the fullest possible map of the Kiboko-Kibwezi
Observatory on agro-ecological, socio-economic and climatic patterns, using all past studies
and existing data, to allow, by diachronic analysis the evolution of ecosystems and human
populations and their strategies for the use of natural resources. This analysis will help confirm
the relevance of data collected and indicators calculated for regular monitoring and supervision
of natural resources and populations in the future.
Some of the deliverables achieved this far is a multidimensional summary describing the
observatory, its main characteristics, the hall marks of history as well as data and quantitative
information from the earliest available date. Some of the activities undertaken to achieve this
included collecting data on climate, fauna (livestock-cattle, goats, sheep and poultry), flora
(vegetation types and their changes over time), other resources (minerals, wildlife and solar
energy) and their uses and socio-economic activities.
During the next phase we will propose a format for inserting these elements into a database,
which forms the basis for organizing data collection for DNSE. This database will allow the
structuring of ecological and socio-economic data. Moreover, we will also construct a Global
Information System (GIS) integrating all the available maps notably: soil, morphological,
occupation of land / soil, population distribution, roads, water points.
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INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The Réseau d’Observatoires de Surveillance Ecologique à Long Terme (ROSELT) is a
programme set up by L‘Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS) in three sub-regions namely
North Africa, West Africa and East Africa to reinforce environmental monitoring for sustainable
natural resource management. It is composed of a number of observatories that operate in a
network within the circum-Saharan Africa, which is the OSS zone of action. The ROSELT/OSS
is the first original tool on environmental monitoring network in Africa initiated with the objectives
to:
1. Organize scientific monitoring of the environment through characterization of causes and
effects of land degradation for a better understanding of the mechanisms that lead to
desertification.
2. Provide reliable data on land degradation in arid and semi-arid areas and pertinent bio-
geographical and socio-economic indicators of desertification, as well as to assess the state of
the environment within the OSS zone of action.
The programme was first launched in Rabat, Morocco, in April 1994. However, the conceptual,
organizational and operational framework of ROSELT came into operation in August 1995. The
second phase of the ROSELT programme was launched in Bamako, Mali, in July 2000.
However, there was a delay in East Africa in the operationalisation of the programme until May
2003. The ROSELT network was designed to:
Provide reliable, harmonised data bases for the preparation of "states of the
environment" at different levels;
Better understand ill functioning of the ecological systems and the mechanics of
desertification;
Assess the impact of developmental actions and actions to combat desertification;
Identify methods and techniques for environmental rehabilitation and rational
management of natural resources;
Provide reliable information on the scope of desertification and its ecological, agro-
ecological and socio-economic consequences.
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1.2 ROSELT/OSS Kenyan Chapter
Kenya proposed two observatories, namely Kiboko-Kibwezi Observatory (representing the
Southern Rangelands) and Marsabit-Mt Kulal Observatory (representing the Northern
Rangelands) but only the former was labelled. The main reason for its labelling was associated
with the fact that dynamics operating within the labelled observatory are intimately linked to the
stochastic fluctuation of hydrological inputs driving the ecosystem. The Kiboko-Kibwezi
ROSELT/OSS Observatory in Kenya is the first labelled observatory in Eastern Africa integrated
in the general programme of ROSELT/OSS. It aims at contributing to the implementation of a
national device of environmental monitoring in the framework of NAP/ CCD in Kenya. The
general objective is to provide useful data to contribute to the monitoring and evaluation of the
NAP/CCD implementation impacts. The observatory has on-going monitoring programmes on
ecological and socio-economic dynamics and their interfaces.
1.3 Description of the observatory
1.3 .1 Location
The Kiboko-Kibwezi Observatory is located 200 km southeast of Nairobi. It is comprises two
sites: the Kiboko site covers over 29,178 hectares with an altitude ranging between 900 m and
1,000 m above sea level; and Kibwezi site covers 4,178 hectares with an altitude of between
700 m and 780 m (Figure 1). The observatory falls into two counties, namely Kajiado and
Makueni. The part of the observatory that falls in the southern part of Kajiado has four
monitoring sites, namely Amboseli, Mbirikani Group Ranch, Meruishi Group Ranch and Chyulu,
forming the Kajiado Stratum. On the other hand, the part of the observatory falling under
Makueni County has five monitoring sites, namely Kiboko Research Station, New Settlements,
Kibwezi University Farm, Tsavo West National Park and Makindu, also referred to as Kibwezi
Stratum. The observatory is illustrated in Figure 1.
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Figure 1: Location of the Kiboko-Kibwezi Observatory1 in Kenya
1An observatory is an area labelled with a specific set of criteria and standard used as a scientific field laboratory to monitor the trend of environmental dynamics including ecological, climate, and socio-economic drivers.
The Observatoire du Sahara et du Sahel (OSS) has 15 observatories located in 22 African
countries that fall in circum-Sahara, OSS zone of action (Figure 2).
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Prepared by: D. Amwata & G. Ojwang, 2011
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Figure 2: OSS Observatories in Africa
KAJIADO STRATUM
Kajiado Stratum is located in the southern part of Kajiado County, Rift Valley Province. The
county is bordered by the Republic of Tanzania to the South-west, Taita Taveta County to the
South-east, Makueni and Machakos Counties to the East, Nairobi City County to the North-east,
Kiambu and Nakuru Counties to the North and Narok County to the West. The County covers
an area of 21,105 km2 divided among five administrative divisions: Central, Ngong, Mashuru,
Loitokitok and Magadi.
The general topography of the county is characterised by plains and occasional volcanic hills
and valleys. The land rises in altitude from about 500m around L. Magadi to about 2,500m in the
Ngong Hills area. Topographically, the county is divided into four different areas: Rift Valley,
Kapiti, Central Broken Ground and Amboseli Plains.
The Athi Kapiti Plains consist mostly of open rolling land and include the Ngong Hills (2, 460 m),
a catchment area for Athi River which is fed by permanent Mbagathi and Kiserian tributaries.
Central Broken Ground comprises a 20 km stretch along the north-eastern border stretching
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across the county to the south-west. There are permanent water courses draining this area.
The Amboseli Plains are characterised by gentle savannah with poorly drained black cotton
soils.
The largest part of Kajiado is semi-arid. The annual rainfall pattern is influenced by the altitude,
thus Loitokitok with the highest elevation has an annual rainfall of about 1, 250mm, whereas the
low altitude areas such as L. Magadi and Amboseli have an annual rainfall of 500mm. The short
rains fall between October and December while the long rains fall between March and May.
Heavy rains cover the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, the Ngong Hills, Chyulu Hills and the
Nguruman Escarpment. Temperatures vary with altitude. The higher altitudes are cooler while
the low altitude areas such as L. Magadi have high temperatures.
Water is a scarce resource in most of the Observatory (Kajiado and Kibwezi stratum), where
there are only two perennial water courses. The Embakassi River supplies Athi River Township
and is used for small-scale irrigation. Central Kajiado is drained by the seasonal Kiboko River
which is made up of the Olkejuado and Selenkei tributaries. The Selenkei provides water for
both human and livestock consumption throughout the year. These rivers retain water in the
sand during the dry seasons. There are few perennial springs in the Loitokitok area. The
Rombo tributary has economic importance as it is used for irrigation. Noolturesh water project
supplies communities along the pipeline to Machakos. This important water source does not
serve the pastoralists. The county water supply comes from 153 boreholes. The rural majority
draw their water from rivers, sand rivers, dams, wells, springs and stagnant pools. They walk
very long distances (7-20km) to draw water.
2.1 Biophysical characteristics
2.1.1 Soils
There are seven types of soils in the observatory which vary according to parent material, relief,
vegetation, climate and animal activity. They are poorly developed, shallow and the profile does
not exceed one metre. The rate of soil formation is 0.001cm per annum which is lower than the
erosion rates which vary from 0.3-1.2 cm per annum from degraded areas. The soil structure is
blocky, sub-angular and is characterised by thin, brittle structures which are 2cm in size.
However, a greater part of the stratum is characterised by stones, gravels and hardpan. The soil
texture varies from clay soils in Athi River to the sandy soils of North Namanga while soil
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consistency varies from very friable to friable. The soils are slightly saline with a pH range of
6.3-8.6, are reasonably fertile and the infiltration rates vary from moderate to rapid. The
moisture capacity is low in sandy soils and relatively high in loamy soils (Nderitu, 1999).
Figure 3: Map showing the soil types in Kibwezi-Kiboko Observatory
The soil types include:
1. Eutric Cambisols with Lithosols, Eutric Regosols and rocky outcrops. It is a
combination of somewhat excessively drained, shallow to moderately deep, reddish brown,
friable, rocky and stony, sandy and clay loam.
2. Chromic Luvisols with rhodic Ferralsols and Luvic/Ferralic Arenosol. They are well
drained moderately deep soils, dark reddish brown to dark brown, loose sandy loam to friable
sandy clay loam.
3. Orthic Luvisols with Luvic Arenosols. They are well drained very deep, dark reddish
brown to dark brown, loose sandy loam to friable firm sand clay.
4. Ando-Chromic Cambisols. They are well drained moderately deep, dark reddish brown
friable to firm and slightly smeary boulder and stony, clay loam to clay, in places calcareous.
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5. Vertisols and Solonchaks. These are imperfectly drained, deep dark brown to olive
grey, firm to very firm clay soils of varying calcareousness, salinity, in many places cracking.
6. Chromic Luvisols and Dystric Cambisols. These are well drained, shallow to deep
reddish brown to brown, friable to firm, sandy clay loam to clay.
7. Chromic Vertisols. These are imperfectly drained, deep very dark greyish brown, very
firm cracking clay.
2.1.2 Climate
The climatic conditions of Kajiado stratum are influenced by altitude and physical features (i.e.
lakes, swamps, escarpments, hills and mountains). The stratum has a bimodal rainfall pattern
that is influenced by altitude. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 300 to 800 mm1. However,
heavy rains occur around Ngong Hills, Chyulu Hills and Nguruman Escarpment receiving 1,250
mm of rainfall per annum; and Magadi receiving less than 500 mm of rainfall per annum.
Analysis of the rainfall for the two wet seasons indicates that most areas receive 50 per cent of
the annual rainfall during the March-May period and 30 percent during the October-December
period (Republic of Kenya, 2009).
The distribution of rainfall between the two seasons changes gradually from east to west across
the stratum. More rain falls in the eastern part during the "short rains" than during the "long
rains", whereas in the western part, the majority of rain falls during the "long rains". Heavy rains
occur around Ngong Hills, Chyulu Hills, Nguruman Escarpment, Mt. Suswa and Loitokitok on
the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro where rainfall goes up to 1,250mm per annum. The Athi Kapiti
Plains, Amboseli Plains and areas of Rift Valley, north and south of L. Magadi, receive an
average rainfall of 500mm but the mean annual rainfall is 765mm. Rainfall intensity is closely
related to aridity with 80% of the total rainfall occurring at night at an intensity of less than 25
mm per hour. This intensity maximises infiltration and minimises surface run-off and
evaporation. Temperature varies with altitude but is generally high, ranging from 34˚C around
Magadi to a mean minimum of 12˚C on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Ngong Hills. Potential
evaporation is between 2,400-2,600mm around L. Magadi and 1,600-1,800mm around Ngong
and Loitokitok. The available water index is higher in areas around Ngong and Loitokitok but
lower around L. Magadi and L. Natron.
1 http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/ILRI/x5552E/x5552e04.htm. Chapter 2: Introduction to the Kenyan rangelands and
Kajiado district. Downloaded on 23/10/2011
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The observatory meteorological sub-stations for collecting the rainfall data are Makindu, DWA,
Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) and Kibwezi, as illustrated in Figures 4, 5 and 6.
Figure 4: Annual rainfall amounts in Makindu Station from 1957-2010
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Figure 5: Rainfall trends by season for the Makindu station
Figure 6: Annual rainfall trends in DWA station from 1959-2007
The climate scenario in the observatory indicates that the bulk of the area (with annual rainfall of
700-850mm) is suitable for ranching. Very small strips near Ngong, Sultan Hamud, Namanga
and Chyulu Hills and a larger one on the foothills of Mt Kilimanjaro, however, have potential for
rainfed agriculture.
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2.1.3 Agro-ecological zones
Kajiado Stratum has five agro-ecological zones, namely zones II and III (8%) around the Ngong
Hills, zone IV (34%), zone V (55%) and zone VI (3%) (Figure 7).
Figure 7: The different agro-ecological zones in the observatory
2.1.4 Drainage
The drainage pattern in the observatory is controlled by pre-volcanic high ground and high lands
along the edge of the Rift Valley. Most of these areas are well drained although impeded
drainage exists in some parts of the observatory because of the clay nature of the soil. Drainage
pattern is characterised by seasonal streams that combine to form large rivers that flow in major
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basins. The major drainage basins are Lakes Amboseli, Magadi and Natron. The Minor
drainage basins are Lake Kwenia and Kedong Valley. These water bodies are shallow, closed
and contain little amount of water. Lakes Amboseli and Natron get most of their water from
River Namanga and Ewaso Ngiro (South) respectively while the rest get their water from
springs, seasonal rivers and surface runoff.
2.1.5 Vegetation
The main vegetation type in the observatory is determined by altitude, soil type and rainfall
received in the different parts of the observatory. However, anthropogenic and animal causes
have modified the status significantly. Overgrazing, charcoal burning, extraction of firewood,
forest fires and quarrying activities are some of the leading causes of this trend. Ground cover in
the stratum varies according to seasons while the canopy cover ranges from 1per cent on the
densely populated areas to 30 per cent on the steep slopes. For grazers, there is need to move
over large areas in order to have enough grass for the animals while sub-division of land
continues to restrict grazing capacity considerably. Browsers have more potential in the
northern part of the stratum. The presence of invader species to vegetation has been noticed in
some parts of the observatory. The invader species include Ipomoea kituensis and Prosopis.
These species not only colonise the vegetation but also reduce the grazing potential available to
livestock and wildlife. The vegetation in the observatory comprises wooded grassland, open
grassland, wooded bushland, bushed grassland and forest.
As a consequence of the wide range of altitude (from 2000 ft to a little over 7000 ft) and the
influence that this has on climate, the area embraces very diverse vegetation – from dry
Acacia/Commiphora bushland characteristic of the drier sectors of the East Africa Eco-climatic
Zone (ECZ) V to extensive mist forest with canopies 50m high near the summits of the Chyulu
(ECZ II). On a broader scale, therefore, climate is seen to have the dominant influence in
determining vegetation distribution.
At a more local level, man‘s influence is paramount, in particular where charcoaling or
settlement is leading to widespread bush clearance. Elsewhere, grazing pressure and seasonal
burning are influential.
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Edaphic influences are also strong, especially as regards the development of particular types of
woodland and thicket on lava flows, or grassland where soil drainage is impeded. The
vegetation species in the different agro-ecological zones are illustrated below.
a) Zone II (Sub-humid)
This consists of the vegetation on the higher lying areas of the Chyulu. It consists of grassland
and closed forest. Burning tends to create the grasslands. The species include Allophylus
abyssinicus, Carissa edulis, Cassia didymobotrya, Catha edulis, Croton macrostachyus,
Dombeya burgessiae, Erythrina abyssincia and Olea africana. Tree vegetation on the higher
altitude lava flows is often restricted to Cussonia holstii, Erythrina and Orea. The forest proper
includes Albizia gummifera, Calodendrum capense, Ficus species, Ilex mitis, Myria salicifolia,
Olea hochstetteri, Podocarpus gracilior, Prunus Africana, Schefflera abyssinica and S.
polysciada.
b) Zone III (Semi-humid)
This consists of wooded and bushed grasslands on sloping ashes and cinders. The more
common trees and bushes include Combretum molle, Croton scheffleri, Dodonaea viscose,
Dombeya rotundifolia, Euclea divinorum, lnnea elata, Maytenus senegalensis, Ozoroa
reticulata, Pavetta teitana, Rhus vulgaris and Trema orientalis confined to heights above 4000
feet. Others are Acacia hockii, Cussonia holstii and Erythrina abyssinica. Characteristic
associates include Artemesia afra and Rumex genera. The grasses are Themeda triandra on
dumper sites and Eragrostis superba to the west of the Chyulu hills.
c) Zones V and VI (Semi-arid and Arid Areas)
These cover all the lower-lying drier parts of the area including all the lands between the Athi
River and the Nairobi/Mombasa road. They also extend around both the northern and southern
foot slopes of the Chyulu hills. The characteristic bushes and thickets of zones V and VI are
dominated by Acacia tortilis and A. mellifera. Combretum, Commiphora, Cordia, Grewia, Boscia
coriacea, Bauhiania taitensis, Cadaba spp., Cassia abbreviata, Delonix elata, Melia volkensii,
Sterculia rhynchocarpa and Adonsonia digitata (boabab) also dominate. The dominant grass
on the basement is almost invariably Chloris roxburghiana.
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Locally, in wetter areas of zone V on well-drained Ferralsols there are extensive Commiphora
woodlands and thicket with Acacias, Balanites aegyptiaca, Combretum aculeatum, Dalbergia
melanoxylon, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia bicolor, Lannea triphylla and Maerua kirkii. West of
the Chyulu hills on the heavier soils, more open bushland tend to occur, with Acacia tortilis, A
nilotica, A. mellifera and A. drepanolobium with the grasses Chrysopogon plumulosus, Digitaria
macroblephara and Sporobolus fimbriatus forming wet season grazing. Examples of vegetation
types in Kajiado stratum are illustrated in Tables 2 and 3.
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Table 2: The main vegetation type in Kajiado stratum
Common Name Botanical Name Local Name Occurrence Micro-climate Remarks
Commiphora Comiphora Africana Isilalei Abundant Widely spread Not utilised by livestock
- Grewia similis Eiri Common Sparsely spread Occasional browsed by shoats
- Hibiscus aponeurus - Rare Rocky areas Not utilised by livestock
- Glydsine waghtii - Rare Isolated range sites Nutritious legumes
- Ipomea spp Rare Watering points and
abandoned homesteads
Not utilised by livestock
Wait-a-bit Acacia mellifera Eiti Common Widely spread Utilised by goats
Wandering jew Carmelina bengalensis Ngaiteteyiai Common Not specific Succulent, utilised by shoats
Sodom‘s apple Solanum incanum Ntulele Common In overgrazed places Toxic and not utilised by
livestock
- Asparagus Africana Emperepapa Very rare Not specific Medicinal value
Milk weed Gormocarpus
physiocarpus
Entiakuleiti Rare Water collecting areas
with volcanic soils
Very toxic to livestock
Castor oil Ricinus communis Odule Common River banks and ponds Unpalatable, source of castor
oil
- Acacia hockii Olkiloriti Rare Bushed grassland Not much browsable
- Ecalega fruticosa Oiri Rare Acacia and commiphora
bushland
Unpalatable and not utilised
by livestock
- Cida ovata Enkorno okike Rare Widely spread Not utilised
Salvadora pusca Eremit Common Salty soils of
overgrazed areas
Utilised mostly by wildlife
Lions claw Leonitis nepetiofolia Orbibiyai Rare Along water routes Not utilised by livestock
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- Tribunes terrestris Orkusese Common Overgrazed areas Utilised by goats
-- Grewia villosa Maukulai Rare In isolated spots Not palatable
- Aspillia mozambicensis Oloyiapasei Common Sporadically spread Not utilised by livestock
- Caparis tomentosa Olaturdial Rare Not specific Not utilised by livestock
Cordial sinensis Eseki Common Bushed grassland on
saline soils
Fruits edible to humans and
Not utilised by livestock
Umbrella tree Acacia tortilis Oltepesi Very
common
Widely spread Browsable at short heights
- Acacia nubica Deben Common Water routes and
overgrazed areas
Not favoured by livestock
- Grewia bicolor Esiteti Rare Not specific Browsed by goats
- Hermenia alhensis Empurukwaiekop Rare Not specific Not utilised by livestock
Devils whip Acaranthus aspera Olerubat Common Under shaded areas Not utilised by livestock
- Balanites aegyptica Lornguswa Common Widely spread Not utilised by livestock
Whistling thorn Acacia drepanolobium Eluai Common Mostly on black cotton
soils
Browsable
Solanum nigram - Rare In fertile spots Utilised as vegetable by
humans
Not utilised by livestock
Senseveria abyssinica - Rare Not specific Not utilised by livestock
Acacia brevispica Orkigirri Common In fertile watery soils Browsed by goats
Croton dicoghamus - Rare Bushed and also open
grassland
Not browsable
Ipomea kituiensis Oltiameletet Very
common
In overgrazed areas Indicator of serious downward
trend
21 | P a g e
Cordia ovalis Eseki Rare Not specific Bush not utilised by livestock
Lantana trifolia Ormaigirgirrian Common Widely spread Browsable
Wild sisal Sensevieria enrenbergii Oldapai Rare In colonies under a tree Not utilised by livestock
Omapacumkikiii Common Widely used Not utilised by livestock
Aloe secundifolia Osurko Rare Open areas with little
other vegetation
Not utilised by livestock
Dead sea fruit Calotropis proeela Orpaleki Rare Stream beds and along
sandy water routes
Not utilised by livestock
Datura stramonium Odule Rare In colonies especially
deserted homesteads
Toxic to livestock
Table 3: Common grass species in Kajiado stratum
Common name Botanical name Local name Occurrence Micro-climate Remarks
Bamboo grass Pennisetum
mezianum
Oloigoro oing‘ok Abundant Widely distributed Resistant to grazing and not
very palatable as dry hay
Sweet pitted Bothriochloa
insculpta
Olperesi Common Found in zones with
black cotton soils
Perennial and good pasture
Drop grass Sporobolus
marginatus
Enkapuru Abundant Palatable perennial
Setaria verticillata Enterepenyi Rare Upland open grassland More of a weed not so
palatable
Foxtail grass Cenchrus ciliaris Orperesi
ologoing‘ok
Found widely in open
grassland
Palatable perennial
22 | P a g e
Abundant
Finger grass Digitaria spp Orperesi Rare In areas with black
cotton soils
Valuable for grazing
Love grass Eragrostis
tenufolia
Enkapuru Common widespread Palatable annual. Utilised by
livestock in earlier stages
Blue guinea grass Panicum
coloratum
Olperesi Common Areas with heavy soils
and swamps
Ugrazable palatable perennial
Nut grass Cyperus spp Oseyai Common Confined in water bed
areas or swamps
Grazable
African horsetail grass Chloris
roxburghiana
Olkeramatian Abundant Common in dry
bushland and grassland
Grazable tufted perenial
Star grass Cynodon dactdon Emarua Abundant Common around
homesteads
Valuable for grazing
Black seed Chloris virgata Orperesi Common Open graasland Palatable annual
Finger grass Digitaria
machrostachyus
Orperesi Rare Areas with black cotton
soils
Valuable for grazing
- Chloris radiatus Olperesi Rare In open grassland Palatable annual
Drop seed Sporobolus
pelusides
Abundant Widely spread Resistant to grazing, not
palatable as standing hay
Love grass Eragrostis cilliaris Enkapuru Abundant Bushed grassland Annual utilised during early
stages
Needle grass Aristida keniensis Olkirian Abundant widespread Annual
Wolly finger Digitaria
millianjiana
Olperesi Rare Areas with black cotton
soils
Tufted perennial
- Sporobolus
radiensis
Oloigor Oing‘ok Rare Dry grasslands Not as palatable annual
23 | P a g e
Guinea grass Panicum
maximum
Oltoronkei Rare In fertile wet places Good grazing perennial
Rhodes grass Chloris gayana Olperesi Common Wooded grassland Palatable perennial
Hood grass Hyperennia hirta - Abundant In upland areas Medium grazing value, tufted
perennial
Red oat grass Themeda triandra Orkojitonyokie Common Dominant over large
areas
Good grazing value, tufted
perennial
Love grass Eragrostis
cilliannensis
Enkapuru Common Widely spread Annual, utilised during early
stages
Needle grass Aristida adoensis Olkirian Common Overgrazed areas Indicator of range condition
Crow‘s foot Dactylotenium
aegyptium
Enkamba Common Only along riverine
valleys
Not so palatable
Sweet pitted grass Bothriochloa
radicana
Orperesi Common More common in areas
with clay soils
Good for grazing
24 | P a g e
2.2 Land –use patterns
The Kajiado Stratum has five types of land-use systems, namely livestock production or
transhumance, crop farming, wildlife conservation and management and forestry. Each of these
land-use types are described below.
2.2.1 Livestock production
The vast majority of the population depends on livestock for their livelihoods. The total production
in the livestock sector is determined by the livestock population and pastoral dietary needs (GoK,
1994). There are two dominant production units - individual and group ranches -practised in the
traditional extensive patterns. Other emergent production units are as a result of sub-division of
group ranches currently on-going. The adjudicated land parcels range from 10 to 60 ha per
household while the sizes of the group ranches range from 3,000 ha to 150,000 ha; and the
individual ranches are averagely 800 ha (Amwata, 2004).
Even though, there is limited data available on livestock population specific to the stratum,
existing literature shows that Kajiado District has the second highest population of cattle in the
country after Narok. The long term trend of cattle in Kajiado depicts a drop in cattle numbers
since late 1990s (Figure 8). The population crash corresponds to periods of drought as recorded
in 1983 - 84, 1992 - 94 and 2000.
25 | P a g e
Figure 8: Trends in cattle numbers (in ‘000’) from early 1980s to 2010s
Source: District Livestock Office, Kajiado
Similarly, the long term trends of sheep and goat population shows no discernable changes
(Figure 9). Population crash corresponds to periods of drought recorded in 1983-84, 1992 - 94
and 2000; but with a decline from 1993 to 1995.
Early 1980s Late 1980s Early 1990s Late 1990s Early 2000s Late 2000s Early 2010s Late 2010s
Cattle numbers in Kajiado District (in 000s) from early 1980s-late 2010s
Cattle numbers (000s) from 1980-2010
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Early 1980s
Late 1980s Early 1990s
Late 1990s Early 2000s
Late 2000s Early 2010s
Late 2010s
Sheep and goat numbers (in 000s) from 1980-2010
Sheep and goat numbers (000s) from 1980-2010
26 | P a g e
Figure 9: Trends in sheep and goat population in (in ‘000’) Kajiado District from 1980s –
2010s
Source: District Livestock Office, Kajiado
The relationship between cattle numbers and pasture availability is illustrated in Figure 10. This
figure notes that the number of animals has been increasing steadily over the years while both
land owned per household and number of animals owned per household have been on the
decline. Taking into account the fact that the productive and carrying capacity of land is crucial to
support crops, animals, grazing and trees; only a small fraction of the total area is under
production, thus a clear indication that land as a resource base is already overburdened.
The increasing population is attributed to immigration from high potential areas, causing an
expansion of cropping systems into these fragile environments. The resulting sub-division of land
does not take into account the productive capacity and economic size of land. For example,
areas that are too shallow and rocky to support dry land production are a constraint to the
adoption of dry land agricultural technologies intended to improve production.
Figure 10: Trends in livestock ownership and pasture availability in Kajiado District
Source: District Livestock Office, Kajiado
Similarly, beef production increased from 4,925 metric tons in 1989 to 13,607 in 1992, giving an
increase of 270 percent. This increase was attributed to good weather conditions that led to a
rapid build up of stocks by 14.6 percent from 704,111 in 1989 to 807,141 in 1992. During the
same period, sheep numbers rose from 670,122 in 1989 to 967,099 in 1992, thus the likely
0 2 4 6 8
10 12
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 2008 years
ha/head animals/head
ke
27 | P a g e
explanation for this trend is that it is a part of a longer term fluctuating trend in stock numbers that
may build up in good years, but crash in subsequent poor rainfall years.
2.2.2 Crop production
It has generally been observed that while people in Kajiado are basically pastoralists with
relatively little cultivation, the tradition is fast changing in response to various physical, economic
and cultural pressures. Reduction of grazing land due to land privatisation coupled with
degradation and growth in population are increasingly making the pastoral way of life bleak; they
are currently unable to adequately provide for their subsistence needs from pastoral production
alone, hence diversify to petty trade and farming among other activities.
Owing to the increased needs for alternative activities to ensure food security and greater
requirements for cash income, an increasing number of pastoralists are aspiring to incorporate
cultivation in the traditional livestock economy. They are now diversifying their traditional pastoral
livestock production system by giving cultivation more attention than ever before. Despite all
these efforts, it is apparent that these natural systems may not withstand these adjustments in
the longer term due to their fragility.
The major food crops grown in the district are maize and beans. These are the most important
crops in agricultural enterprises. In 1988, there were 7,846 farmers cultivating 13,823 ha of
maize. The area under cultivation of this crop increased sharply to 29,845 ha in 1989. These
crops are grown mainly for subsistence and occasionally sold to meet basic household needs.
Although the district is suitable for drought-resistant crops such as sorghum, millet, green grams,
cowpeas, and root crops (sweet potatoes and cassava), the cultivated area under these crops is
still relatively small—approximately 100 ha between 1989 and 1992. The horticultural crops are
also grown in various irrigation schemes along the river valleys in Loitokitok, Magadi and Ngong
Divisions. These crops include onions and Asian vegetables that are targeted for local and export
markets.
2.2.3 Wildlife and Tourism
Wildlife conservation is an important land use in the district and forms a major tourist attraction.
Wildlife is found within Amboseli National Reserve and Chyulu Game Reserves, which are about
28 | P a g e
592 km2 and 442 km2 respectively. The ecology of the district favours livestock and game co-
habitation and sparse human settlement, but immense human population increase may disrupt
this ecological balance and intensify land and resource use conflicts such as competition
between wildlife and livestock for water and pasture, and quite often the destruction of property
and even loss of life. Even though wildlife management is a source of tourist attraction, the local
communities have not gained much from the tourism revenue. These reserves are managed by
the local council that is only interested in individual accumulation of wealth. The local
communities have only benefited from occasional payment of school fees for their children in
secondary school and sometimes from sale of their handicrafts such as ushanga (necklaces) and
bangili (bracelets)
2.2.4 Forestry
Forests are protected areas that serve as water catchments while conserving fauna and flora. In
the study area, there is limited commercial exploitation of forests except for local supply of
firewood; implying that they are purposefully for environmental management. The current
concern is to expand the area allocated for forestry and gazetted it as a forest reserve. The four
areas that have been identified for future protection through gazettement include Chyulu Hills,
Sultan Hamud Hills, Enkoria and Maparasha (GoK, 1994).
The greater part of the area is Government land subject to various forms of unofficial and semi-
official settlement. The gross tenure status implies that it is too late for Government to stem the
tide of spontaneous settlement. Indeed the Ngwata Settlement Scheme areas have already been
taken over by unplanned settlement. Elsewhere, some informal settlements have been
established and it is just not possible to displace these settlers both for political reasons and
because displacement would merely transfer the problem elsewhere. Instead, existing farms will
probably be legalised as they are. Legalisation will probably also apply to Ngai Ndethya National
Reserve, located between Kambu and Mtito Andei rivers and proclaimed in 1976 for the purpose
of forming a buffer between the Tsavo West National Park and encroaching cultivation, but now
both extensively settled and cultivated.
The pattern of population growth through immigration into the East Chyulu area has been nothing
short of dramatic in the past two decades. It seems that this will continue until the area is filled
up. Even now, the waves of settlement are breaking against the boundaries of Tsavo Park. With
the increasing urgency of population pressure to the north, there is acceleration in the change of
29 | P a g e
land ownership from estate to communal lands to private holdings, whether as long-term leases,
as group ranches or in private title. There is a tendency for these holdings to split into smaller
land parcels. Parallel to this trend, is an associated move from pastoralism into cultivation, a
move that may feed on itself as the areas of highest grazing potential are selected first for
sedentary cultivation.
KIBWEZI STRATUM
3.1 Location
Kibwezi is located at the southern tip of Makueni County, Eastern Province, which is low lying
grassland receiving little rainfall but has an enormous potential for ranching. It lies between the
latitudes 2º 6′S and 3ºS, and longitude 37º 36′E and 38º 30′E respectively. Kibwezi borders Taita-
Taveta County to the South, Kajiado County to the West and Kitui County to the East and has a
total area of 3400 Km² (47% of Makueni County). Kibwezi town is the headquarters of Kibwezi
division, one of 15 administrative divisions in the former Makueni district. The area was not
inhabited until the 1930s due to its low agricultural potential and heavy infestation by tsetse flies.
3.2 Topography and Natural Water Resources
The altitude of Kibwezi varies from 600mm to 1,100mm. The land rises slightly below 600m
above sea level in the greater Tsavo area at the southern end of Kibwezi to about 1,100m in the
northern part. Water is a scarce resource in the area. Athi River is the major perennial river in the
district and provides water for both human and livestock consumption throughout the year. Its
tributaries- Kambu, Kibwezi, Kiboko and Mtito Andei rivers, drain the area and are commonly
used for small scale irrigation of crops mainly maize and vegetables mainly for subsistence use.
Low lying, gently eastward sloping plains towards Athi River, broken by occasional hills and
seasonal and perennial rivers also characterise Kibwezi. Mzima springs, located in Tsavo West
National Park is an important source of water in the area and is the main source of water for
Mombasa County, the second largest city after Nairobi.
3.3 Climate
The climate is typical semi-arid and the area is representative of many other zones with similar
ecological conditions throughout Kenya, characterised by low and unreliable supply of soil
30 | P a g e
moisture for plant growth. The climate is influenced by the seasonal shifts and intensity of the low
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) (Biamah, 2005). The average annual rainfall,
evaporation and temperatures are 600mm, 2000mm and 23°C respectively. The rainfall is
characterised by small total amounts, strong seasonal and bimodal distribution (Nyangito et al.
2008) with long rains from March to May and short rains from November to December. The short
rains are more reliable in time than long rains and are therefore more important. Gichuki (2000)
showed that 60 per cent of the annual rainfall in Kibwezi is received during the short rains, with
the long and dry season rains contributing 37% and 3% of the annual rainfall, respectively.
Generally, there is a concentration of rainfall at the beginning of the long or short rains. Rainfall
intensities are usually very high. There is a lot of variability in rainfall amounts both in time and
space and its reliability is low.
Figure 11: Annual rainfall trend for Kibwezi Stratum (1973-2010)
Climatic variations and differences in temperatures can be attributed to the change in altitude.
For example, the north, which is hilly, is usually cool while the low-lying areas towards the south
are usually extremely hot. However, Kibwezi generally experiences high temperatures during the
daytime and low temperatures at night. During the dry periods (between May and October) the
lower parts of the district experience high temperatures while the northern parts especially at the
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
31 | P a g e
hilltops experience low temperatures. This is due to the forests and windy conditions that exist in
these areas.
Box 1: Drought early warning indicators used in Kibwezi Stratum
Recurrent and prolonged droughts have continued to cripple agricultural production in Kibwezi,
greatly affecting thousands of families who rely on farming and livestock production. Drought in
Kibwezi has not only resulted to lack of food and water, but also disrupted the education and lives
of young people. As in rural communities elsewhere in Kenya and Africa, when such disaster and
hardship hit, the women, children and the elderly are the most vulnerable. Water is the most
limiting aspect of life in Kibwezi and recent years have seen increases in crop failures, reduced
livestock productivity and increased livestock and human diseases.
The following are some of the drought early warning indicators used in Kibwezi include; abundant
fruits on Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Mango (Mangifera indica) and Acacia trees, few flowers on
the Baobab, prolonged rains in the coastal region, patchy clouds accompanied by thunder and
lightning prior to the onset of rainfall, drought year cycle, grouping of stars before the rains, with
more stars in the group on the sunset side than in the group on the sunrise side, windy and cold
September (prior to the short rains) and two consecutive good harvests in the long season.
Such community drought early warning indicators empower communities and individuals
threatened by hazards to act in sufficient time and in an appropriate manner so as to reduce the
possibility of personal injury, loss of life, damage to property, environment and source of
livelihood. Drought early warning systems indicators also help reduce economic losses by
allowing people to better their assets and livelihood.
3.4 Agro-Ecological Zones
Kibwezi lies in agro-climatic and ecological zone V of Kenya characterised by low unreliable
rainfall, marginal agricultural lands, dispersed populations and poor soils (Musimba et al. 2004).
Table 3: Agro-climatic zones of Kenya, excluding areas above 3000m altitude
Zone R/Eo*
(%)
Classification R*
(mm)
Eo*
(mm)
32 | P a g e
I > 80 Humid 1100-2700 1200-2000
II 65-80 Sub-humid 1000-1600 1300-2100
III 50-65 Semi-humid 800-1400 1450-2200
IV 40-50 S.humid - S.arid 600-1100 1500-2200
V 25-40 Semi-arid 450-900 1650-2300
VI 15-25 Arid 300-560 1900-2400
VII < 15 Very arid 150-350 2100-2500
Notes: * R – Average rainfall; Eo- Average annual evaporation
Source: Biamah (2005)
The natural vegetation in agro-climatic zone V is a short grass savannah with small leaved thorny
bushes.
3.5 Soils
The soils are mainly Ferralsols, Cambisols and Luvisols. Most of these soils are compact and
have strong surface sealing properties, which causes much run-off during heavy rains. Just like
other soils in drylands, the soils contain low organic matter with a carbon content of between 0.1-
0.5 percent. Such soils are generally very vulnerable to degradation through physical erosion and
to chemical and biological degradation (El Beltagy, 2002). The soils are of volcanic origin,
shallow to very shallow, extremely stony to rocky and highly permeable. The flood plains and
bottom lands in the area have soils which range from calcareous and non-saline to extremely
calcareous and saline. Pockets of black cotton soils rich in clay content can also be found
scattered in the district (Musimba et al. 2004). The Ferral-Chromic Luvisols are well drained,
moderately deep, dark reddish brown with well-developed A-horizons. The A-horizons have a
characteristic dark reddish brown colour and sandy clay loam to sandy clay texture.
Table 4: Soil types and characteristics
33 | P a g e
Soil type Characteristics
Ferralsols Ferralsols are deep, intensely weathered soils, with a ―ferralic‖ sub-surface
horizon, reddish (hematite) or yellowish (goethite) in colour with a deep internal
drainage, quartz is the main primary material, clayey, poorly equipped to supply
crops with moisture during periods of drought, surface sealing and compaction
become serious limitations if taken into cultivation, chemically poor soils, low in
nitrogen (N), potassium (K), secondary nutrients (calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg)
and sulphur (S)) intense termite activity (their nests, tunnels and ventilation shafts
increase permeability of the soil.
Cambisols They are mostly found in young deposition areas and also erosion areas e.g.
erosion plains where they form after genetically mature soils such as Luvisols
have eroded away, yellowish brown to reddish in colour, has an ABC-horizon
sequence with an ochric, mollic or umbric A-horizon over a cambic B-horizon that
has normally a yellowish-brown colour but may also be an intense red, soil texture
is loamy to clayey, good structural stability, high porosity, good water holding
capacity and good internal drainage, make good agricultural land and are
intensively used.
Luvisols Typically a brown to dark brown surface horizon over a (greyish) brown to strong
brown or red argic sub-surface horizon, moderately weathered soils, tend to
become richer in swelling and shrinking clays towards the dry end of their climatic
zone, have granular or crumb surface soils that are porous and well aerated, well
drained, surface soils are slightly acidic in reaction and the sub-surface soils tend
to have a neutral reaction, fertile and suitable for a wide range of agricultural uses
Vertisols They are churning heavy clay soils with a high proportion of swelling clays, form
deep wide cracks from the surface downward when they dry out, supports a
savannah, natural grassland and/or woodland climax vegetation, very hard in the
dry season and very sticky in the wet season, tillage is difficult except for a short
period at the transition between the wet and dry seasons, productive is properly
managed, reddish hue or stronger chroma colour (relatively well drained) or black
(poorly drained), high cation exchange capacity (CEC) and high base saturation
(BS) percentage, agricultural use ranges from very extensive (grazing, collection
34 | P a g e
of firewood, charcoal burning), crop production and large scale irrigated agriculture
(cotton and sorghum), tillage is hindered by stickiness when the soil is wet and
hardness when the soil is dry.
3.6 Vegetation
The distribution of the vegetation in the area is controlled by a number of complex interrelated
factors such as climate, geological formation, soil type and the presence or absence of ground
water (Mganga et al. 2010). The natural vegetation is woodland and savannah, with several tree
species, mainly Acacia sp (A) such as Acacia tortilis (Forsk) Hayne and Acacia mellifera (Vahl)
Benth, Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl, Adansonia digitata Linn and Tamarindus indica L.
Shrubs include Grewia sp (Nyangito et al. 2009). Perennial grasses such as Cenchrus ciliaris,
Enteropogon macrostachyus, Chloris roxburghiana and Eragrostis superba are commonly found
in the area (Mganga et al. 2010).
Table 5: Multipurpose tree species and their uses
Tree species Local Name Uses
Leuceana leucocephala LuKenya Fodder, fuel wood, green manure
Senna siamea Makengeka Fuel wood, shade, windbreak, anaesthetic, construction
(poles), green manure
Azadirachta indica Mwarubaini Medicinal value, shade, ornamental, windbreak, fuel
wood, poles, bee forage
Terminalia mentally Umbrella Ornamental, shade, fuel wood
Tamarindus indica Kithumula Fruits, medicinal, fuel wood, shade, fodder
Carica papaya Paipai Fruits, medicinal
Mangifera indica Mwembe Fruits, shade, carving
Mellia volkensi Mukau Timber, windbreak, shade, livestock feed, building poles
Grevillea robusta Mukima Timber, wind break, reforestation programmes
Croton megalocarpus Muthulu Wind break, shade, timber, fuel wood
Table 6: Common plant species used to treat common human diseases
Plant Species Local Name Diseases and ailments
Grewia bicolor Ilawa Treatment of chest pains and colds
Grewia villosa Mulawa/Kivu Stomach ache, eye-ache, spleen problems
Grewia similis Mutuva Cure for sores
35 | P a g e
Cassia kasneri Mwela ndathe Malaria treatment
Hoslundia opposita Musovi Coughs, cold, fever, stomach ache, aphrodisiac
Acacia mellifera Muthia Stomach trouble in humans, pneumonia, malaria
Acacia nilotica Kisemei Sore throats, coughs, pneumonia
Maerua kirkii Ivovotwe Stomach disorders in human
Ormocarpum kirkii Muema nzou Malaria treatment
Commelina africana Kikotwe Fever, relieve eye irritant latex drops, ear-ache
Boscia coriacea Kisivu Stomach ache and gonorrhoea
Boscia augustifolia Isivu Malaria treatment
Justica flava Mutaa Emetic, eye lotion, stomach ache, cough,
diarrhoea
Capparis tomentosa Kitandamboo Asthma, chest pains, cough and abdominal pains
Aloe secundiflora Kiluma Lack of appetite, malaria treatment, headaches,
anti-emetic
Adenium obesum Mwantha Lice infestation and fish poison
Tridax procumbens Mumela Malaria and stomach ache
Combretum exalatum Mukokola Rheumatism
Entada abyssinica Mwaitha Rheumatic pains in humans
Acacia drepanalobium Kiunga, Muuga Sore throat, gastrointestinal tract, clean-up womb
after birth
Albizia anthelmintica Muowa Fever, gonorrhoea, sexual stimulant for women,
back ache, malaria, toothbrush
Acacia Xanthophloea Musewa,
Kimwea
Indigestion, coughs and sore throat
Azadirachta indica Mwarubaini Leaves as insect repellent, malaria, skin disease,
bacterial and fungal infection, diabetes, mild
hypertension
Carissa edulis Mukawa Dysentery, malaria, indigestion, chest pains,
stomach problems, sexually transmitted infections
and gynecological conditions
Commiphora africana Kitungu Tooth ache and bleeding gums, resins disinfecting
wounds, typhoid, fever, swollen testicles, leprosy
Solanum incanum - Stomach aches, bleeding wounds, tooth ache,
indigestion, fever, ringworms
Table 7: Common plant species used to treat livestock diseases
36 | P a g e
Plant Species Local Name Diseases and ailments
Pappea capensis Muva Indigestion in goats
Grewia villosa Mulawa/Kivu Foot and mouth disease, retained after birth
Ciccus rotundifolia Itulu Foot and mouth disease, poultice, purgative,
diarrhoea
Acacia nilotica Kisemei Abortion
Ochna inermis Mutandi Calving problems in cattle
Commiphora shimperi Lulu/Yeulu Medicinal
Acacia mellifera Muthia Eye problems and diarrhoea
Aloe secundiflora Kiluma Lumpy skin disease, Salmonellosis
Albizia anthelmintica Muowa Internal parasites –nematodes
Maerua edulis - Internal parasites – nematodes
Commiphora africana Kitungu Bark infusion is given to livestock with foot and mouth
disease
Grewia bicolor Ilawa Removal of retained placenta in cattle
Solanum incanum - Fruits juice treating wounds and cold in sheep and
the eyes to cure conjunctivitis
Table 8: Common grass species
Plant Species Local Name Uses
Cenchrus ciliaris African foxtail grass Livestock feed, rehabilitation, sale of seed for income,
soil conservation
Eragrostis superba Maasai love grass Livestock feed, rehabilitation, sale of seed for income,
soil conservation
Enteropogon
macrostachyus
Bush rye grass Livestock feed, rehabilitation, sale of seed for income,
soil conservation
Chloris roxburghiana Horsetail grass Thatching, livestock feed, rehabilitation, sale of seed
for income, soil conservation
Panicum coloratum Blue Guinea grass Livestock feed, used for making sweeping brooms
Cynodon dactylon Star grass Livestock feed, soil conservation
Themeda triandra Red Oat grass Grazing value
Panicum maximum Guinea grass Livestock feed, used for making sweeping brooms
Dactyloctenium aegyptium Crows foot grass Not palatable for grazing, nutrient cycling
Pennisetum mezianum Bamboo grass Resistant to grazing and not very palatable as dry hay
Aristida adoensis Needle grass Indicator of range condition
37 | P a g e
Some of the common plant species in Kibwezi Stratum
Adansonia digitata Grewia bicolor Commiphora africana
Cenchrus ciliaris Eragrostis superba Enteropogon macrostachyus
Box 2: Trends in vegetation cover change in Kibwezi Stratum (1973-2008)
There has been a general increase in area under cultivation in Kibwezi. This can be attributed to
the general increase in the human population in the area. Increased human populations in the
semi-arid environments relative to what the land can support leads to attempts to grow too many
crops. This has led to the conversion of grazing lands (grasslands) to farmlands, thus reducing
the area available for the free grazing animals. This increases grazing pressure, which
consequently leads to a reduction of the area under grass cover. This gives the woody vegetation
(woodland) a competitive advantage over the grasses. The area under grass cover has been
declining at a faster rate than the invasion of woody species. Woody species take longer to
38 | P a g e
colonise an area. Figure 12 shows a steady decline in the area under grass cover and a general
upward trend in area under woodland and cultivated land.
Figure 12: Trends in grassland cover, woodland cover and cultivated land area (1973-2008)
3.7 Economic activities, human and livestock populations
The Kamba agropastroalists are the main ethnic inhabitants in Kibwezi (Nyangito et al. 2009).
Figure 13 shows the trends of livestock and human populations in Kibwezi (1973-2007).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
19
73
19
75
19
77
19
79
19
81
19
83
19
85
19
87
19
89
19
91
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
Are
a C
ove
r (P
erc
en
t, %
)
Year
Grassland Woodland Cultivated land
39 | P a g e
Figure 13: Trends in livestock and human populations (1973-2007)
Their mainstream economic activity is cultivating cereals and pulses and raising livestock. The
production system is largely geared to subsistence production (Nyangito et al. 2008). The main
livestock types raised are cattle, sheep and goats. The number of animals per household varies a
lot, but the overall means are: cattle 5; sheep and goats (shoats) 8. The main sheep breeds kept
are the Red Maasai and Black Persian Head, while the common goat breed are the Small East
African and Galla (Mganga et al. 2010). The main cattle breed is the Small East African Zebu.
The Sahiwal and Boran exotic breeds and their crosses are kept but to a lesser extent. Rabbit
production, poultry production and bee-keeping are also undertaken (Musimba et al. 2004).
Figure 3 shows the trends of livestock and human populations in Kibwezi (1973-2007).
CHANGES AND TRENDS WITHIN THE OBSERVATORY
4.1 The historical timelines within the observatory
The participants named the important resources and human activities in the observatory as land,
pasture, livestock, water and wildlife, of which together with other socio-economic activities such
as education have changed significantly with time. Pasture and water facilities are believed to
have declined considerable due to increased deforestation and settlement, which have led to
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
19
73
19
75
19
77
19
79
19
81
19
83
19
85
19
87
19
89
19
91
19
93
19
95
19
97
19
99
20
01
20
03
20
05
20
07
Po
pu
lati
on
Year
Livestock population Human population
40 | P a g e
exposure of the catchments. Human population has continued to increase leading to demand for
more land for agriculture to feed the rapidly growing population and settlement. In contrast, the
education levels among the Maasai is still low, though there has been an improvement from the
1980s; and with the introduction of free primary education by the National Alliance Rainbow
Coalition (NARC) government in 2003, the level of education has increased drastically.
Livestock numbers have changed drastically for both communities in the observatory. For the
Maasai, from 1950s to 1980s, they had continuously increased their herds, but with the
integration of the Maasai to the modern economy, they have sold their animals and invested in
other income generating activities. Moreover, the frequent droughts, e.g. of 1984, 2000 and 2005,
have led to considerable loss of livestock, demoralising the Maasai from restocking. Others have
resorted to farming, petty trade and casual jobs to improve on the household total income. This
coupled with individualisation of land, more and more of the dry season areas have been
converted to agricultural lands.
4.2 Changes in various resources within the observatory
The changes is various resources was obtained through focus group discussions, where all the
participants were asked specific questions relating to specific resource. For each resource, a
base year of choice was proposed by participants, upon which comparisons were made on the
status of each resource for consecutive years. The local participants view on changes in some of
the important resources and land use activities in the observatory from 1950 to present as
follows:
Figure 14: Changes in Agriculture Figure 15: Changes in Pasture
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
rati
o o
f sco
res
Agriculture
0 0,5
1 1,5
2 2,5
3 3,5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
rati
o o
f sco
res
year
Pasture and water
41 | P a g e
and Water Resources
Figure 16: Changes in Livestock Numbers Figure 17: Changes in Human Population
Figure 18: Changes in community education levels
4.3 Timelines for the Mavindini Community in Makueni Stratum
The earliest settlement in Mashuru was observed in Erankau sub-location and goes back to the
year 1900. For Kathonzweni and Kibwezi, settlement dates back to 1948 while in Mavindini sub-
location it dates to 1936. In both the communities rainfall failures, droughts and famines are
prominent. Examples of time lines for Mavindini and Masimba communities are illustrated in
Table 9 and 10.
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
1,2
1,4
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
rati
o o
f sco
res
Livestock numbers
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
rati
o o
f s
co
res
year
Human population
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005
rati
o o
f s
co
res
year
community education levels
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Table 9: Timelines for Mavindini community, Kibwezi Stratum
Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
1836 Famine named Yua ya ngovo Lending and borrowing from neighbours
1850 Famine named Yua ya kiasa Long famine (lasted for long time).
1861 Famine named Yua ya mutulungo Mixture of Baobab flour and flour provided by colonialists as major
source of food
1870 Famine named Yua ya ngetele Fruit berries (as major source of food).
1880 Famine named Yua ya ndata Star (people believed that the famine was caused by a fallen star)
1890 Famine named Yua ya muvunga Rice (as major source of food).
1910 Famine named Yua ya maalakwe Beans (as source of food)
1916 Famine named Yua ya ndung’u Small pox (epidemic).
1920 Famine named Yua ya imili ya isuku Cholera (outbreak of mental derangement).
1929/30 Famine named Yua ya kakuti/ngalukangye Staying helplessly (waiting for famine relief).
1934 Famine named Yua ya mavindi Bones (selling animal bones for cash to buy food)
1948 Six people came to the area from Kisau (Makueni) They brought their wives the following year together with their
cultivation practises
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Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
1950 Yua ya makonge Selling of sisal for cash to buy food.
1950-52 30 more people came with livestock
Livestock were then attacked by tsetse fly and died
Emergency period
The number of livestock owned by the households declined
considerably, households increased the consumption of non-livestock
products
1956 D.O. from Mbooni Mr. Kanyenza came to the area and
introduced the digging of terraces and planting grass
1957 Outbreak of army worms – crop were destroyed Reduced crop production and increased dependence on the kins and
casual labour
1960 Heavy floods People starved and died due to scarcity of food
1961 Yua ya ndege Aeroplanes dropped famine relief food due to severe floods.
1958 Famine Yua ya ndege
1959-61 Heavy rainfall
People were threatened to go back to Kisau but were defended by
Mr. K. Ndili
Food prices hiked and people starved
1959-1963 lack of interest for keeping sheep and goats kept their
number low
1963 Independence Ceremonies and bon fires were lit to celebrate the independence
1964 First school Mavindini Primary and market started
Increased number of sheep and goats
Number of children going to school increased reducing herding labour
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Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
Reduced number of cattle due to drought Reduced sheep and goat prices
1966 First catholic church opened The communities were unwilling to let their children go to the
missionary schools. Those who went to school were considered stubborn
1962-68 General increase in human population due to enough
food
Increased trade with other neighbouring communities for non-
agricultural products
1968 Heavy rains and good harvest
Mavindini dispensary started
The food prices were low, since not many households bought food
1968-89 Registration in opening of Erankau group ranch
register
Influx of immigrants from the neighbouring high potential areas
1970-75 Clearing natural vegetation for fencing and building
material
Households started building their own homesteads rather than living
together in clans
1971-72 Moderate rains Households had adequate food supply
1972-77 Long drought leading to Longosa famine
1974-1976 Drought and east coast fever outbreak Reduced cattle numbers
1975/76 Yua ya longosa (Akamba/masai drought). Longosa a Maasai word related to weak/livestock near bones status.
It was characterized by massive death of cattle due to persisted feed
shortage.
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Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
1977 Good rains Good harvest was realized and food was in abundant supply
1978 Heavy rains
Normal reproduction and early marriages
Production of a lot of cow peas
1978-99 Charcoal burning and opening up of land for
cultivation
More bush land were opened for cultivation to increase food supply
1979 First agricultural officer was posted
1980 Yua ya nikw’a ngwete
A health centre to serve the three southern divisions
(Kibwezi, Makintu and Mtito) began operating under
AMREF
People starved because they had money but there was no food to
buy
Improved health care and reduced prevalence on malnutrition cases
1980-82 Drought and Ndukabikwatiie famine Loss of livestock and increased deforestation to grow more crops
1983-1986 Opening up of eleven outreach posts for a community-
based
Project using mobile teams.
Increased timely dissemination of information to rural households
Increased immunization, antenatal and postnatal care, growth
monitoring and promotion, health and nutrition education and the training
of community health workers and traditional birth attendants (TBA).
1983-1985 Drought and Nikua ngwete famine Loss of livestock and government food aid maize and beans
1984 Yua ya nyeki (the drought of searching for forage)
Openning up AMREF rehabilitation centres
Forage (searching for livestock forage)
provision of supplementary feeding for severely
Undernourished children (<- 3 Z-scores)
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Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
Reduced number of cattle due to drought
1986-87 Heavy rains leading to high cotton yield
December 1989 The introduction of user fees for inpatient and curative
outpatient care at its hospitals and health centres
Attendance at government fee-charging health facilities for both
outpatient and inpatient care was lower during the period when full fees
were charged
1987-1990 Improved management of (dipping and deworming)
Introduction of dorper breed
Outpatient registration fees were removed, but other
fees were retained.
More numbers of sheep than goats
Outpatient attendances rose again when the registration fees were
lifted
1990 World Vision came in
Moderate rain
Assistant chief appointed
Mavindini – sub location was created
Sales of land and changing lifestyle
Influx of immigrants
Economic hardships and paying of school fees
1991-92 Drought and famine
1991 Good rains and
First multiparty elections
Adequate food supply for the households and no limited
movement with livestock
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Year Event Impacts on household livelihoods
1994 Mavindini polytechnic started
Mathangathi rock catchment‘s started by World
Vision
Drought and east coast fever outbreak
-Reduced number of livestock
1996 Mavindini Dispensary elevated to health centre Easy access medical facilities, thus reduced mortalities
1997 Elections
El-Niño rains
Decrease in sheep and goat population due to
blue tongue and foot rot respectively
Increased prices of sheep and goats
2003 Introduction of free primary education by the
NARC government
Reduced labour for both farms and livestock as many children
went to school , thus increasing the cost of labour
2004 Outbreak of afflatoxin poisoning due to
contamination of locally grown maize due to storage of
maize under damp conditions
Government provided replacement I the affected areas
Loss of more than 100 lives
Source: Personal communication with local elders; http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5030e/y5030e12.htm
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4.4 Timelines for the Masimba Community in Kajiado stratum
Timeline data provided the historical background of the Masimba community (Table 9).
Generally, there were five (5) aspects whose events tended to recur 22 times between 1942
and 1997. These were droughts, infrastructural development, land tenure, political events and
locust invasion in that order of frequency. Infrastructural development comprised water, schools,
health facilities and roads. These accounted for more than 50 percent of the events that could
be recalled. Droughts alone accounted for almost 41 percent of the events, confirming the
frequency of this problem as it besets rangelands and the pastoral communities. Although the
third most frequent category of events (land tenure) had only three (3) out of the 22 events
recalled, it was a major issue in this participatory rural appraisal (PRA). Subdivision of the group
ranches has continued to occupy the daily lives of the Masimba community for over the ten (10)
years. The Olkarikar group ranch was subdivided and households now have definite boundaries
of land owned. However, Kiboko is yet to be subdivided and has been on hold due to vested
interest among members. The obstacle was about membership where the younger generation
has disputed the original register and they demand their names to be included before
subdivision is affected.
Trend lines were drawn for human population, livestock (cattle and small ruminants separately)
population, and forage standing crop (forage) and trees. It was noted that human and small
stock populations have continued to increase steadily while cattle (the mainstay of the Masimba
economy), trees and forage have declined drastically. Loss of forage has been due to frequent
drought resulting in increased competition between sheep and wildlife. Trees have been cut for
charcoal burning by a neighbouring community (the local community does not cut trees
traditionally). In some areas it has become difficult to get fencing thorn branches due to
deforestation; charcoal burners target the same tree species that are ideal for fencing. During
this exercise some of the local participants started to ask questions on ‗what direction we were
heading‘ on observing the sharp decline in forage, trees and cattle while human population
increased; thus subsequent degradation.
The most important factors were rainfall occurrence, livestock diseases, wildlife menace and
livestock breeding success. Generally, the Masimba community did not seem to be too busy,
given that there were several months with only one or two activities, for example, in March, May,
August and September. Labour demand was highest, however, during August and September
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due to shortage of water. Labour availability is highest during the wet months that,
coincidentally, also had enough food and forage.
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Table 10: Timelines for Masimba sub-location community in Kajiado Stratum
Time Event and impacts
1906 Great famine Reduced livestock numbers due to deaths among the Maasai
1907 Cattle disaster caused by liver flukes (Olomotori). Many Maasai died when fat and healthy also known as drought soup and young
children were fed on dead livestock soup
1920 Great famine known as "Olameyo Lolmaat‖,' immigrants from Kiambu and Muranga started coming into the area as settlers through
marriages or employment as herdsmen. These immigrants introduced arable agriculture.
1926 Pastures were overgrazed resulting in sudden drought The Masai leader Laibon made fire and burnt grass to get rid of the locusts
1930 Conflicts started between arable farmers and pastoralists over water, especially in areas around Mount Kilimanjaro.
1937 Cattle disaster known as oloduo
All cattle died except one animal that people smeared its dung on their cattle boma believing that it will bring them more livestock.
People starved and survived on wild fruits.
Intertribal and clan fights between Kikuyu and their neighbours The Masai defeated the Kikuyu and abducted them as slaves to Masai
land The Masai abducted the kikuyu. Those who were accepted by certain Maasai clans were welcomed and enslaved
1940 Outbreak of malaria (olaarile tiagoenong)
Maasai died of the malaria. People developed stroke, got paralyzed and died. The inkalikali age group were morans
1940-1950 Accelerated agriculture realised, sparking off increased economic activities. Some commercial activities started and the construction of at
least four shops was realised in central Kajiado.
1943 -
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1942-43 Severe drought (Olomeyu Lodloyk) (bone sales) and tea famine (olemayu leshal)
Maasai starved and lost weight
Livestock numbers reduced and Masai drunk strong tea as there was no any other source of food
1945 The end of Second World War
1946 Locust invasion (Olariloomati) (Spraying by Aircraft)
1948 &
1949
Solar eclipse
Temporary darkness, occurred during circumscion of the ilkamaniki age group and livestock brought home early
1954 The first Mau-Mau leader in Narok District, Mr. Ole Kisiu is killed by the colonialists
Maasai protested and most of the elders arrested and taken to detention camps
1953 Severe drought; followed by floods
1957 Relocation and expansion of Nairobi – Mombasa Road
Railway water connected to Simba
1960 Heavy rainfall resulting into famine in the district, Olojogani
Drought in Merueshi Group Ranch
The business of buying and selling land started in earnest. Also there was increased demarcation of land and establishment of group
ranches.
1960- 1970 Livestock and crop farming became more and more of land use features than before, being encouraged by adequate rainfall realized in
the same period. Towards the end of 1960, a livestock auction yard was opened and organized livestock marketing started.
1961 Severe drought, Airdrop of relief food (Enkamerika)
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1961- 1962 Long and heavy rains causing floods, Olarlonkitutu
Cattle fattened resulting in a disease called bloat due lush pasture.
Cattle were tethered at home for medication by piercing the lower abdomen to release the excess gas.
The rainwater formed gullies called Olari Longariak. This period of long rains was also named Olari Lekubububo
1963 Circumcision of the Iseuri (Iltiyogo) age group
Kikuyu raided the Masai cattle
The Maasai ear notched their livestock as a sign of identification
Many animals died and food was dropped by helicopters
1965 Nairobi-Mombasa Road tarmacked
1970-1980 The development in the area was accelerated by the increased water supply through the construction of a pipeline from Kiserian to
Magadi.
1971 Masimba Primary School started: Compulsory education was reinstated and Masai felt that pastoralism was threatened as herding labour
reduced and resisted their children form attending schools
Oltinga Bore hole sunk
First dip constructed (Kiboko Dip) followed by 2 more
1973 Solar eclipse at around 2.00 pm for about 30 minutes
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Elephants and other wildlife came out of the bushes early while livestock returned home
1975 Severe drought; many animals died. Livestock moved to Kaputiei
1975-76 Drought; livestock moved to Kitengela
Cattle and wildlife died in large numbers especially the large herbivores buffaloes and elephants
Maasai given food aid inform of yellow maize
1977 Kaputei location divided into several locations under chief Ole Moshira Olelepa Papu
1978 Simba health centre started by Government
1979 Ilkelunyeti Dispensary started by government
1984 A major drought and East Coast Fever (ECF) (Oldikana) outbreak; leading to great losses in livestock. This accelerated changes in land
use from pastoralism to irrigated agriculture, mainly for growing maize and vegetables.
Maasai given food aid inform of yellow maize and cooking fat
1990 Nkusso Nursery school started by Catholic Diocese, Machakos, with Kajiado County Council
Maasai women started small scale hawking of agricultural produce such as beans and potatoes to supplement household income to meet
the basic needs.
1991 Oldonyo Lengai nursery school started
Olkarkar Group Ranch sub-divided
1992 Multi- party elections in the country, the ruling party, KANU winning the elections
Clashes between the Maasai and kikuyu in Noonsupukia
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1993 Merueshi Group Ranch sub-divided
Start of individual dam construction
1994-96 Drought, livestock taken up to Nairobi
1996 Nkusso Nursery school became a primary school
1997 Oldonyo Lengai Nursery became a primary school
1998 El nino rains and many gullies formed
Livestock suffered from bloat
Bumper harvest in maize was realized
Wheat farms were destroyed
2000 Famine and the Maasai given food aid inform of yellow maize, cooking fat and beans
2002 First coalition government
Maasai community participated actively
2003 NARC Government
2005 Livestock and wildlife died in large numbers
Maasai moved with their cattle to Gilgil and Nakuru areas to graze their livestock
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Table 10: Seasonal calendar for Masimba sub-location, Kajiado Stratum
Month January February Mar April May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall Short dry season Long rains (Ingukwa)
(unreliable)
Long dry season Short rains (Oltumuret)
(reliable)
Planting Maize and
Beans
Maize and beans
Weeding
Wildlife
menace
Livestock
diseases
Anthrax
Worms
Foot &
Mouth
Malignant
Catarrhal
Fever
Drenching
Households Mild to
moderate
water
search
Severe water
search
Distilling
water and
dams
Circu
mcisi
on
Human
disease
Malaria
Livestock
grazing
Migration to dry season
grazing areas
Migration
to wet
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season
grazing
areas
Livestock
breeding
Mating in Sheep
and goats
Lambi
ng &
Kiddin
g
Harvesting Maize
Beans
Beans Maize
beans
Maize Maize
,
Bean
s
Highest
Labour
demand
Highest
labour
availability
Food
situation
Adequate Mild
shortage
Extreme shortage Adequate Mild shortage Adeq
uate
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Table 11: Seasonal calendar for Thange Sub-location, Makueni Stratum
Activity Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall Short dry season Long rain season Long dry season Short rainy season
Land preparation
Building
Digging wells
First weeding
Second weeding
Harvesting
Land preparation &
Dry planting
Second season
Weeding
Second season
harvesting
Making bricks
Terracing
Grazing
Hiving
Visiting
Church activities
Labour in schools
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Welfare
Association
Marketing activities
Social groups
‗Merry go round‘
Fund raising
Food situation Adequate Mild Extreme shortage Adequate Mild shortage Adequate
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4.5 Land use and cover changes within the observatory (Kajiado and Kibwezi
strata)
Table 11: Land cover types and the respective areas occupied in the Observatory
Land cover types Area (acres)
Year 2000
Area (acres)
Year 2010
Closed herbaceous vegetation on permanently
flooded land
2,182.51 (0.82) * 2118.1
Closed shrubs 8,284.05 (3.12) 7481.6
Closed to open trees and shrubs on temporarily
flooded land
5,580.03 (2.10) 5242.3
Closed to open woody vegetation (thicket) 32,076.57(12.09) 31918.4
Closed trees 1,189.20(0.45) 1072.7
Forest plantation - undifferentiated 68.33(0.03) 174.5
Irrigated herbaceous crop 1,326.70 (0.50) 3499.7
Isolated (in natural vegetation or other) rain fed
herbaceous crop (field density 10-20% polygon area)
19,573.78 (7.38) 26524.65
Natural water bodies 92.34(0.03) 84.27
Open low shrubs (65-40% crown cover) 53,800.44 (20.29) 72521.28
Open shrubs (45-40% crown cover) 11,789.54 (4.45) 21092.92
Open to closed herbaceous vegetation on temporarily
flooded
10,737.32 (4.05) 12,317.23
Open trees (65-40% crown cover) 11,534.34(4.35) 16,017.78
Rain fed herbaceous crop 52,540.16 (19.81) 59, 989.22
Scattered (in natural vegetation or other) rain fed
herbaceous crop (field density 20-40% of polygon
area)
13,314.56 (5.02) 21,120.90
Shrub savannah 3,512.37 (1.32) 3445.21
Sparse shrubs 2,405.52 (0.91) 5094.43
Trees and shrubs savannah 30,971.31 (11.68) 29,588.29
Urban and associated areas, rural settlements 59.69 (0.02) 226.67
Very open trees (40-15% crown cover) 4,170.82 (1.57) 5668.65
Total Area in Acres: 265,209.58 (100.0) 265209.58
Note: * Figures in parenthesis (brackets) represent percentages
Table 11 represents the changes in land use and cover between a ten years period
(2000-2010). The scarcity of water in the observatory could be attributed to the
decline in area under natural bodies. There has been a sharp increase in settlements
and this could be associated with the increase in human population and migration.
Changes in vegetation types can be attributed to the changes in climatic patterns in
the observatory and the diversification of livelihood as a coping strategy to climate
variability and change.
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4.6 Challenges of the observatory
The challenges of the observatory may be classified on resource based analysis.
The resources within the observatory include minerals, wildlife, water and livestock.
4.6.1 Minerals
The most notable mineral in the observatory is soda ash which is mined at L. Magadi.
L. Natron reportedly also has considerable soda ash deposits but these have not
been commercially exploited. Sand and quarry stones are also common in the
observatory. The key challenges in the sustainable management of the
Observatory‘s mineral wealth include:
Benefits to local communities: perceptions that local communities especially
around Magadi Soda have not fully benefited from revenues generated from the soda
ash business are common. The Magadi Soda Company, however, supports local
communities and provides social amenities like water and health services. The
company also provides alternative livelihood options for the local pastoralists through
employment.
Degrading effects of artisanal mining: artisanal mining is unregulated,
haphazard and degrading to the environment. To provide a sustainable livelihood
option, strategic interventions must focus on building the capacity of the artisans to
access the market and environmental restoration.
4.6.2 Wildlife
The Observatory is surrounded by Tsavo West and East National Park, Amboseli
National Park that are very rich in wildlife. Despite the potentials of these parks, there
are constraints to the sustainable management of wildlife. These include:
Human-Wildlife Conflict: as population pressure rises in the observatory,
access to grazing resources and water for livestock among the pastoralists is
increasingly becoming an issue. Pastoralists do not have rights to pasture in the
conservation areas – yet wild animal often animals often move out of the
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conservation areas killing and injuring livestock and human beings. In the farmed
lands, crop destruction is common.
Lack of visible benefits from wildlife and tourism: local communities complain
that they have not benefited much from the wildlife. Local communities must be
provided with clear incentives for conserving wildlife.
Eco-tourism projects: eco-tourism projects involving the community can
provide sustainable livelihood options for the observatory. Local capacity and
infrastructural hurdles must however be addressed.
4.6.3 Livestock
Pastoralism is still the major economic activity and supports the major livelihood
system in the observatory. This production mode is, however, on the decline as a
considerable number of people adopt an agro-pastoral lifestyle. The growing
commercialisation of the pastoral economy has encouraged livestock production for
the market rather than pure subsistence. The major livestock types are cattle and
shoats – though the donkey is increasingly becoming popular as a means of
transport. Some of the constrains to sustainable livestock management were;
Vulnerability to climatic shocks: the observatory is prone to climatic shocks
and in particular droughts. Droughts affect the livelihood sustainability of the people
through livestock deaths and crops failure. Further droughts have the effect of
exacerbating range degradation. Careful management of herd numbers and access
to emergency markets is important;
Declining pasture quality and quantity (pasture degradation): a combination of
human and herd population increase has led to declining range quality. Humans are
encroaching on land traditionally used for livestock for farming while increasing herd
numbers are stressing available grazing resources through overuse. Weakening
traditional management structures have also contributed to a great extent to the
quality of the range. A third force affecting the quality of the pasture is the invasion of
Ipomoea kituensis. It crowds out palatable species and fully colonises the pasture
where it grows. It is also a colonising weed that prevents palatable species to grow;
Diseases and pests: the observatory has limited access to veterinary services
– both private and government in part due to poor physical infrastructure which
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makes communication difficult. The private sector providers of these services are
only getting on the ground after the liberalisation of extension services. Where the
services are available, they are too expensive to the farmers and there is need for
alternatives such as building the capacity of Community Based Animal Health
Workers (CBAHWs) to fill the gap.
Limited access to markets: constraints imposed by poor infrastructure mean
that the observatory access to livestock markets in other parts of Kenya as well as
the export market is limited. Poor infrastructure also means that the observatory is
largely a primary producer of livestock with little, if any, value addition.
Conflict over access and use of available grazing resources Changing land
use patterns have imposed limitations to accessing previously commonly held
grazing resources in the observatory– leading to frequent friction especially during
the dry season between sedentary communities and pastoralists.
Opportunities and potential impact
Increasing commercialisation of pastoral production: livestock production in
the observatory in increasingly being done with the markets in mind – rather than for
subsistence. This commercial orientation enables people to build alternative
livelihood options especially in trade.
Value addition: as the dominant socio-economic activity in the observatory,
livestock production has vast potential to provide sustainable livelihood opportunities
primarily through value addition and focus on exports. Value addition is dependent on
the resolution of the above strategic challenges. Partnerships with community based
organisations (CBOs), Non-governmental organisations (NGO)s and the private
sector are critical to building local capacity to identify and leverage value addition
opportunities as well as building the required infrastructure to support growth of
alternative livelihood options such as meat processing, leather tanning, handicrafts
making using by-products such as hooves and horns. The livestock sector also has
the capacity to provide veterinary-related incomes and trading opportunities in animal
health products primarily for CBAHWs.
Diversification into dairy farming: upgrading of traditional breeds could enable
the local population to diversify into dairy farming and provide a sustainable livelihood
option for them. Diversification into dairy farming could increase livelihood security for
the people.
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4.6.4 Water
The observatory faces an acute water shortage due to low and unreliable rainfall,
limited permanent water resources and pollution of water sources. On average,
women travel between 10 and 15 kilometres to access water and are not included
when water management decisions are made. The key strategic challenge in the
sustainable management of water in the observatory includes:
Access to safe water for domestic use and livestock: the Observatory is prone
to periodic droughts and access to safe water for domestic and livestock
consumption continues to be an issue. Better management of existing water works
can go a long way in resolving this issue.
Poor management of existing waterworks: silted dams and pans as well as
boreholes that are closed down due to disrepair are a key problem in the district.
Communities need to be empowered to manage existing water works responsibly.
Pollution of rivers, dams and pans: animal and human waste pollution is
common in the district. Communities need to be empowered to control contamination
of their water sources by their animals and people.
Opportunities and potential impact
There exists opportunities that can be leveraged from the water resource to provide
sustainable livelihood options to the people of the observatory.
Irrigated agriculture: most of the irrigation schemes in Kajiado are
concentrated in Loitokitok and Magadi. Indeed, Loitokitok hosts the third largest
irrigation scheme in the country after Mwea and Bura (when the latter was fully
operational). About 1,290 hectares in the division are under irrigated agriculture.
Main crops grown are onions, tomatoes and Asian vegetables. Access to the market
is however constrained by poor infrastructure. Strategic interventions have to focus
on building social capital that would enable the farmers market their produce
profitably.
Rain-fed agriculture: rain-fed agriculture in the district is practised on the
slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Chyulu Hills, Namanga, Ngong Hills, Nguruman
Escarpment and the along the flood plains of Ewaso Ngiro River. Group ranches are
being subdivided and more and more land is coming under crop production. Main
crops are maize and beans. This has discouraged large scale investment in crop
production as more and more farmers become tenants on sub-divided land. In Ngong
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Division, the parcels are small with farmers practicing mixed farming. Rain-fed
agriculture has the potential to reduce the insecurity associated with livestock
monoculture.
4.6.5 Emerging livestock
Snakes, chameleons, tortoises, butterflies, ostriches and other emerging livestock
have potential to provide alternative income sources for households. Social capital to
enable local to take advantage of the growing market in these livestock must be
nurtured at the local level.
4.6.6 Wind and solar energy
The district enjoys long periods of sunshine and windy conditions that are suitable for
solar and wind energy generation. The key challenge with regard to wind and solar
energy is the availability of appropriate technology to harvest these resources.
Current technologies tend to be expensive.
Opportunities and potential impact
Over-harvesting of trees: primarily for wood fuel and charcoal is a key cause
of degradation in the observatory. Provision of clean sources of alternative energy
will slow down the cutting of trees. Also important is cut down on the time spent
especially by women and the girl child in fetching firewood for domestic purposes.
Commercial agro-forestry: the observatory can take advantage of the fast
maturing trees to move into commercial agro-forestry. Suitable species for the region
such as the fast maturing Eucalyptus (Blue Gum) can provide another source of
income for the people. Local capacity must however be built to take advantage of this
district potential.
Filming: the observatory has some of the most scenic places in the region
and these are suitable for filming. The challenge would be how to market these
natural resources for the benefit of the local community.
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Table 12: List of some community based and non-governmental organisations within the
observatory
Name Activities
Duputo e-maa Land issues and education
SARDEP Agriculture, livestock, water, education,
natural resource management issues
CDTF Infrastructure, livestock, water, roads
AMREF Health, water and sanitation
Loitokitok Mission Hospital Dairy and Galla goats, beekeeping and
camels
MRTC Offer certificate courses in agriculture and
livestock; livestock upgrading (Boran, Dorper
and Dairying).
Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF) Water and wildlife
Christian Children Fund (CCF) Agriculture and livestock
World Vision Livestock and agriculture
ITDG Range livestock management and
improvement
Nature Conservation Centre (MSG)
PADEP Community education and awareness
Maendeleo ya wanawake Mobilizing women to articulate development
issues
Women Lobby Group Promoting girl child education
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